Introduction To Programming Using FORTRAN 95: This Document and All The Examples May Be Found Online at

IntroductiontoProgramming
usingFORTRAN95

http://www.fortrantutorial.com/

Theseworksheetsaimtoprovideanintroductionto
programming.ThelanguagechosenforthisisFORTRAN95.This
isbecauseFORTRANisparticularlysuitableforscienceand
engineering;itisalsoverywidelyavailable.

Theskillsyouacquireworkingthroughthesenotescanbe
appliedtoanycomputinglanguage.Theconceptsyouwilllearn
aresharedincommonwitheveryothercomputinglanguage.

Thisdocumentandalltheexamplesmaybefoundonlineat:

http://www.fortrantutorial.com/
JanetANicholson2011
CopyrightJanetANicholson2011 1 fortrantutorial.com
1 THEBASICS..............................................................................................................................................3
1.1 AIMS............................................................................................................................................................3
1.2 INSTALLFTN95PERSONALEDITION....................................................................................................................3
1.3 YOURFIRSTPROGRAMMINGSESSION....................................................................................................................3
1.4 PLATOAPROGRAMMINGENVIRONMENT.............................................................................................................3
1.5 RUNNINGYOURFIRSTFORTRAN95PROGRAM....................................................................................................4
1.6 PROGRAMSTRUCTURE......................................................................................................................................6
1.7 MOREONINPUTANDOUTPUT...........................................................................................................................6
1.8 MOREDATATYPESINTEGERANDCHARACTER......................................................................................................8
1.9 SAVINGTHECONTENTSOFOUTPUTWINDOW......................................................................................................10
2 MAKINGDECISIONS...............................................................................................................................11
2.1 AIMS..........................................................................................................................................................11
2.2 ASSIGNMENT................................................................................................................................................11
2.3 ARITHMETIC.................................................................................................................................................11
2.4 INTRINSICFUNCTIONS.....................................................................................................................................12
2.5 MAKINGDECISIONS.......................................................................................................................................13
2.6 PROGRAMSTYLE...........................................................................................................................................14
2.7 MOREONDECISIONMAKING............................................................................................................................14
2.8 OTHERLOGICALOPERATORS.............................................................................................................................14
2.9 MULTIPLECONDITIONS...................................................................................................................................15
2.10 THESIMPLEIFSTATEMENT..........................................................................................................................15
2.11 IMPORTANTNOTETESTINGFORZERO..........................................................................................................16
3 LOOPS....................................................................................................................................................17
3.1 AIMS..........................................................................................................................................................17
3.2 MIXINGVARIABLETYPES..................................................................................................................................17
3.3 THEDOLOOP................................................................................................................................................18
3.4 NESTEDDOLOOPS........................................................................................................................................19
3.5 USINGLOOPSTODOSUMMATION.....................................................................................................................20
4 USINGFILESANDEXTENDINGPRECISION...............................................................................................22
4.1 AIMS..........................................................................................................................................................22
4.2 READINGFROMFILES......................................................................................................................................22
4.3 WRITINGTOFILES..........................................................................................................................................23
4.4 EXTENDINGTHEPRECISION...............................................................................................................................23
4.5 MAGNITUDELIMITATIONS...............................................................................................................................25
4.6 CONVERGENCEEXITINGLOOPSONACONDITION.................................................................................................25
5 ARRAYSANDFORMATTEDI/O...............................................................................................................27
5.1 AIMS..........................................................................................................................................................27
5.2 ARRAYS.......................................................................................................................................................27
5.3 ARRAYMAGIC...............................................................................................................................................29
5.4 MULTIDIMENSIONALARRAYS...........................................................................................................................30
5.5 FORMATTINGYOUROUTPUT.............................................................................................................................31
5.5.1 IntegerSpecification.......................................................................................................32
5.5.2 FloatingpointSpecification............................................................................................32
5.5.3 ExponentialSpecification................................................................................................32
5.5.4 CharacterSpecification...................................................................................................33
5.6 IMPLIEDDOLOOPTOWRITEARRAYS..................................................................................................................33
6 SUBROUTINESANDFUNCTIONS.............................................................................................................35
6.1 AIMS..........................................................................................................................................................35
6.2 REUSINGCODETHESUBROUTINE...................................................................................................................35
6.3 ARGUMENTSTOSUBROUTINES..........................................................................................................................36
6.4 USERDEFINEDFUNCTIONS..............................................................................................................................38
7 ADVANCEDTOPICS................................................................................................................................40
7.1 AIMS..........................................................................................................................................................40
7.2 ARRAYFUNCTIONS.........................................................................................................................................40
7.3 WRITINGREALPROGRAMSFLOWCHARTS.......................................................................................................42

1 TheBasics
1.1 Aims
Bytheendofthisworksheet,youwillbeableto:
CreateandrunaFORTRAN95program
Understandbasicprogramstructure
Starttodealwithprogrammingerrors
Starttounderstandreal,integerandcharactervariabletypes.
SaveacopyofyouroutputinWord.
1.2 InstallFTN95PersonalEdition
SearchforSilverfrostFTN5personaleditionorclickthislink
http://www.silverfrost.com/32/ftn95/ftn95_personal_edition.aspx.
Downloadandinstallthesoftwareacceptingallthedefaults.
1.3 Yourfirstprogrammingsession
LocateanddoubleclickthePlato icon
ClickFile,New
SelectFreeFormatFortranFile
ClickFile,SaveAs
Createadirectorycalledfortranprogramsandopenit
Typefirst.f95
1.4 Platoaprogrammingenvironment
Platoisa"programmingenvironment".WithinPlato,youcancreateandeditprogramsandgetthem
torun.Plato'seditorisspecialitunderstandsthesyntaxofvariousprogramminglanguages.Wetell
Platowhichlanguageweareusingwhenwecreateouremptyfileandsaveitwitha.f95(FORTRAN
95)extension.Providedyouhavegivenyourfiletheappropriateextension,Plato'seditorwillbeable
tocheckthesyntaxoftheprogram,highlightingthevariouskeywordsthatitknowsaboutusinga
colourcodetodistinguishbetweenthevariouselementsofthelanguage.
Alwaysensurethatyourprogramfileshavea.f95extension
1.5 RunningyourfirstFORTRAN95Program
Exercise1.1
Typeinthefollowingexactlyasshown:
!My first program

program first
print *,'This is my first program'
end program first

Clicktheblack,(theExecutebutton).
PlatowillgetFTN95tocheckyourprogramforerrors.Ifitfindsanyproblems,itwillgiveyou
thedetails.Ifyouhavetypedintheprogramexactlyasshownabove,anexecutablefilewill
begenerated(first.exe).Platowillthenautomaticallygettheprogramtostartexecuting.
Abannerwillappearforacoupleofsecondsandwillthendisappear(that"sthepricewe
havetopayforusingthefreesoftware)
Ablackconsolewindowwillappear.
PressReturntoclosethewindow.DonotclicktheXatthetoprightofthewindow.
PlatocangetupsetifyoudonotpressReturntoclosethewindow,trythis
Saveyourprogramfirst!
Runtheprogramagain(click)
ThistimeclicktheXatthetoprightofthewindowtocloseit.
Makeupyourownmindaboutwhichisthebetterwaytoclosethiswindowinfuture!
1.6 ProgramStructure
Examinethefollowingshortprogram:
program sum !a:nameofprogram
!an example of program structure !b:acomment
real :: answer,x,y !c:declarations
print *, 'Enter two numbers' !d:output
read *, x !e:input
read *, y !e:input
answer=x+y !f:arithmetic
print *, 'The total is ', answer !g:output
end program sum !h:endofprogram
Thereareanumberofgeneralpointshere:
Theprogramismadeupofanumberoflines.Eachlineiscalledastatement.
Eachstatementismadeupof
variablenamese.g.answer, x, y
operatorse.g.+,-etc
keywordse.g.read, print
Thestatementsareexecutedsequentially.
Let'sbreaktheprogramdown,linebyline:
a) Thenameoftheprogram.Keepitreasonablyshortandmeaningful.
b) Acommentexplainingthepurposeoftheprogram.Commentsareindicatedbyan
exclamationmark.Alltexttotherightofanexclamationmarkisignoredbythecompiler.
Programmersusecommentstohelpthemrememberhowaprogramworks.Useof
appropriatecommentsinprogramsaidsunderstandingandisgoodpractice.
c) Variablesanswer, x and y areusedtostorefloatingpointnumbersweindicate
thisbydeclaringthemasreal.
d) print *,outputstothescreentheasteriskmeansusethedefaultnumberofdecimal
placeswhenthenumberiswrittentothescreen.
e) Wereadinformationfromthekeyboardandstorethevaluesin xandy.
f) Dosomearithmeticandstoretheanswerinanswer.
g) Outputtheresulttothescreen
h) Concludetheprogram
1.7 MoreonInputandOutput
Exercise1.2
Openanewfileandcallitio.f95.
Typeinthefollowingprogram:
program io
real :: x,y,z
print *, 'enter the values x,y and z'
read *, x,y,z
print *, 'the values you typed are for z,y,x are: ',z,y,x
end program io
Executeitbypressing
YoucanenterthenumbersoneatatimeandpresstheEnterkeyeachtime.
Executetheprogramagain
Thistimetypeallthreenumbersononelineseparatedbycommas.
Lookattheprintstatement
print *, 'the values you typed are for z,y,x are: ',z,y,x
Inthisstatement,weareoutputtingfourseparatethings,aliteralstringofcharacters,
'the values you typed are for z,y,x are: '
andthevariablesz,y,andx.Wemayoutputseveralitemsatonetime,providedtheyareseparated
bycommas.
Exercise1.3
Thefollowingprogramhasanumberoferrors.
Createanewfilecalledbug.f95andthentypeinthefollowingprogramexactlyasshown.
Youcanalsodownloadthisfilefrom
http://fortrantutorial.com/fortrantutorialexampleprograms/index.php
program bug
this program is full of errors
real :: a,b,c
a = b + c
read *,c
print *,a
end program simple
Thecompilerwillreporttwoerrormessageswhenitattemptstocompile.Clickonthedetailsbutton.
Eacherrorgeneratesamessage.

Doubleclickingonthemessagewill
takeyoutothelineintheprogramwherethefaultoccurs.

Correctthetwoerrors.
ClickExecute
Thereisnowonefurthererror,Platowillprovideayellowwarningalert.Watchthescreen
carefully!Thewindowwillcloseandthentheprogramwillstarttoexecute.Somethingis
notcorrecthowevertheprogramwill"hang".Itisactuallywaitingforyoutoinputavalue,
becauseofthelineread*,c.Totheuseroftheprogram,thisisnotatallobviousthey
mayhavethoughtthattheprogramhascrashed!
Typeinanumberthenpressenter
Theprogramreturnsanstrangevalue.Thisisan"executiontime"error.
Weneedtofindoutwhatthewarningmessagewas.Clickthe"compile"button(totheright
ofthebinoculars).Thenclickthe"details"button.Platowilltellyouthatthevariablebhas
notbeengivenavalue.
Correcttheprogramtogivebavalue,andthenexecutetheprogramagain.
Thereisstillaproblem.Thistime,itisaproblemwiththeprogram'slogic.
NeedaHint? Theprogramstatementsareexecutedsequentially.
a=b+c
read *, c
print *, a
Thestatementa=b+cdoesn'tmakesense,asatthisstageoftheprogram,wehaven'tyetgivena
valuetoc.
Importantpointstonote
Therearetwotypesoferrorsassociatedwiththisprogram:compilererrorsandruntime
errors.
Theprogramisalsouserunfriendly.Theprogramwaitsforinputwithouttellingtheuser
whatisneeded.
Fixtheruntimeerrorby:
readinavalueforb
correcttheorderofthestatements
maketheprogrammoreuserfriendly,
thencompareyourprogramwiththeonecalledbugfixed.f95at
http://fortrantutorial.com/fortrantutorialexampleprograms/

1.8 MoreDatatypesintegerandcharacter
Sofar,wehaveonlyusedreal(floatingpointnumbers)inourprograms.Wecanalsospecifythat
numbersareintegerandcharacter.Programconvert,below,demonstratestheiruse.
Withinagivenrange,integersarealwaysrepresentedexactlywhereastheprecisionofrealnumbers
islimitedbythearchitectureofthemachine.Therealvariabletypegivesus6figuredecimal
precision.(Ifthisdoesn'tseemenoughdon'tworrywe'llcomebacklateronwhenweexaminehow
toincreasethenumberofdigitsofprecisioninSection4).
Charactervariablesholdstringsofcharacterslike
'A happy day was had by all'
'Yes'
'N'
'3 + 4 equals 7'
Whenthecharactervariableisdeclared,weshowthemaximumlengththatthestringcanoccupyby
followingthenamebya*thenitsmaximumlength.Theexamplebelowhasamaximumlengthof10
charactersallowedforaperson'snamethismightnotalwaysbeenough!Youhavetomakea
judgementhere.
program convert
!This example shows the use of integer and character variables.
implicit none
integer :: pounds,pence,total
character :: name*10
print *,'What is your name?'
read *,name
print *, 'Hi ',name,'! Enter number of pounds and pence'
read *, pounds,pence
total =100 * pounds + pence
print *,'the total money in pence is ',total
end program convert
NOTEtheinclusionoftheline
implicit none
Byincludingitinyourprogram,FORTRANwillcheckthatyouhaveproperlydeclaredallyourvariable
types.Inthebadolddaysofprogramming,declarationofvariableswasthoughttobeunnecessary
andtheoldFORTRANcompilersusedanimplicitconventionthatintegershavenamesstartingwith
thelettersintherangein,alltheothersbeingreal.FORTRANstillallowsyoutodothisifwedon't
includetheline,implicitnone.Timehasshownthatoneofthecommonestreasonsforerrorina
programistheincorrectuseofvariables.

Alwaysuseimplicitnoneatthestartofeveryprogram.

Exercise1.4
Withtheprogramconvertinsection1.5asaguide,writeaprogramtotestouteverythingyou've
learnedsofar.Youmightincludedifferenttypesofvariables,forexamplereal,integer,and
character.Includeinputandoutputusingreadandprint.Anexamplemightbeaprogramthatasks
peoplequestions,includingthingsliketheirageandnameandsoon.Itcould,forexample,printout
theiryearofbirthwithasuitablemessage.It'suptoyou,justuseyourimagination.

1.9 SavingthecontentsofOutputWindow
Runyourlastprogramagain.Whentheblackoutputwindowopensrightclickonthe
Platoiconinthetopleftcorner
Clickonedit
ClickSelectall
Clickcopy
OpenanewdocumentinWordorNotepadandclickpaste.
2 MakingDecisions
2.1 Aims
Doarithmetic
StarttouseFORTRANintrinsicfunctions
Begintounderstandprogramflowandlogic
Knowhowtotestforzeroimportant!
Learnmoreaboutgoodprogrammingstyle
2.2 Assignment
Whenwestartprogramming,thesimilaritybetweenmathematicalequationsandFORTRAN
statementscanbeconfusing.
ConsiderthefollowingFORTRANstatements:
x = 2 Storethevalue2inmemorylocationx
y = 3 Storethevalue3inmemorylocationy
z = x + y Addthevaluesstoredinmemorylocation
xandyandstoretheresultinmemorylocationz
Inmathematics,x=2meansthatthevariablexisequalto2.InFORTRANitmeansstorethevalue
2inthememorylocationthatwehavegiventhenamex.
Thesignificanceofthisismadeclearerbythefollowingequationinmathematics:
x+y=z
Inmathematics,thismeansthatthelefthandsideoftheequationisequaltotherighthandside.
InFORTRAN,thisexpressionismeaningless:thereisnomemorylocation"x+y"andsoitwouldleadto
acompilererror.

RuletherecanonlyeverbeONEvariablenameonthelefthandsideofanequalssign

Exercise2.1
Writeaprogramwhichreadsintwonumbersaandb.Gettheprogramtoswapthevaluesaroundso
thatthevaluethatwasinaisnowinb,andprintouttheresult.Hintyouneedtodeclareathird
variableforintermediatestorageofthedata.(Checkyourprogrambyexaminingprogramswap.f95at
http://fortrantutorial.com/fortrantutorialexampleprograms/
2.3 Arithmetic
Thearithmeticoperatorsare
+,- plusandminus
*,/ multiplyanddivide
** exponentiation(raisetothepower)
() brackets
TheorderofprecedenceinFORTRANisidenticaltothatofmathematics.
Unlikealgebra,theoperatormustalwaysbepresentxyisnotthesameasx*y
Whereoperationsareofequalprecedencetheyareevaluatedlefttoright
Consecutiveexponentiationsareevaluatedrighttoleft
Wecanoverridetheorderofevaluationbyuseofbrackets

Exercise2.2
Thefollowingprogramisanexampleoftheuseofarithmetic.
program calculate
implicit none
! a simple calculator
real :: x,y,z,answer
x=1.5
y=2.5
z=3.5
answer=x+y/z
print *,'result is ',answer
end program calculate
Exploretheuseofarithmeticoperatorsbymodifyingprogramcalculate.Useittocalculatethevalues:
x y
1.
xz
2. xyz
z
3. xy
2.4 IntrinsicFunctions
FORTRANisespeciallyusefulformathematicalcomputationbecauseofitsrichlibraryofinbuilt
functions(intrinsicfunctions).Weshallmentionafewbrieflyhere:
functionname typeofargument typeofresult Definition

sin(x) real real sine
cos(x) real real cosine
tan(x) real real tangent
atan(x) real real arctangent
abs(x) real/integer real/integer absolutevalue
sqrt(x) real real squareroot
exp(x) real real ex
log(x) real real log x
10
Trigonometricfunctionsarecalculatedinradians(1radian=180/Pidegrees).
Thereare,ofcourse,manymore,andthislistdoesn'tcoverallFORTRANvariabletypes.Thefollowing
exampleshowstheuseofsomeoftheinbuiltfunctions.
program trig
implicit none
real :: a,pi
print *,'Enter an angle between 0 and 90'
read *, a
pi=4.0*atan(1.0)
print *,'the sine of ',a,' is ',sin(a*pi/180)
end program trig
2.5 MakingDecisions
Sofar,ourprogramshaveworkedaslittlemorethanbasiccalculators.Thepowerofprogramming
comesinwhenwehavetomakedecisions.Copytheexampleprogram,test.f95,toyourownfile
space.Seeifyoucanunderstandwhatisgoingon.
program test
implicit none
!use of a simple menu
real :: x,y,answer
integer :: choice
!set up the menu the user may enter 1, 2 or 3
print *,'Choose an option'
print *,'1 Multiply'
print *,'2 Divide'
print *,'3 Add'
read *,choice
x=3.4
y=2.9
!the following line has 2 consecutive
!equals signs (no spaces in between)
if (choice = = 1) then
answer=x*y
print *,'result = ',answer
end if
answer=x/y
end if
answer=x+y
end if
end program test
Theboldedlinesintheaboveprogramarecalledifendifstatements.Theyworklikethis:

if(conditionistrue)then
executethisline
andthis
andsoonuntilwegetto
endif
ItfollowsthatiftheconditionisNOTtruethenthecode'jumps'tothenextstatementfollowingthe
'endif'.Thestatementsbetweentheifandtheendifaredeliberatelyindented,thismakesthe
programeasiertoread.
Weusetwoconsecutiveequalssigns(nospaceinthemiddle)totestforequality.Compare
if (choice == 3) then test
choice = 3 assignment
Exercise2.3
Examineprogramtestabove.Theline

isrepeatedseveraltimes.Isthisagoodidea?Canyoumodifytheprogramtomakeitmoreefficient?
2.6 ProgramStyle
Agoodprogram:
Usescommentsappropriatelytoexplainwhatishappening.
Usesindentationtomaketheprogrameasiertoread.
Usesmeaningfulvariablenames.
Usessensiblepromptstolettheuserknowwhatisgoingon.
Usesimplicit noneatthestartofeveryprogram.
Isefficient!
Ifyouwanttogetmaximummarksforyourassignmentskeeptheabovepointsfirmlyinmind.Itis
notenoughjusttogetaprogramtowork!
2.7 Moreondecisionmaking
Inourtest.f95above,therewasaproblemiftheuserenteredavaluethatwasn'tcateredforbythe
program.
Whathappensiftheuserdoesn'tenteroneofthevalues1,2or3?
Wearegoingtolookatanewstructure,calledif,else,endifthathandlesthissituation.Examinethe
followingcodesnippet:
if(choice==1)then
dosomething
elseif(choice==2)then
dosomethingelse
else
dothisifnothingelsesatisfiestheconditions
endif
2.8 Otherlogicaloperators
Sofar,allourtestshavebeenforequality.Thereareseveraltestswecanmake:
== equalto(thereisnospacebetweentheequalssigns)
/= notequalto
< lessthan
<= lessthanorequalto
> greaterthan
>= greaterthanorequalto

2.9 MultipleConditions
Supposeweneedtotestifxisgreaterthanyandyisgreaterthanz.Therearedifferentwaysofdoing
this:
if(x>y)then
if(y>z)then
dosomething
endif
endif
Thiscanalsobehandledbythefollowing:
noticethe.and.
if(x>y.and.y>z)then
dosomething
endif
Ifwewantedtocheckwhetheranumberwerelessthanagivenvalueorgreaterthanagivenvalue
wecouldwrite:
noticethe.or.
if(x<10.or.x>20)then
dosomething
endif
Exercise2.4
Writeaprogramthatreadsanumberfromthekeyboard.Gettheprogramtodecidewhether:
thevalueofthenumberisgreaterthan0butlessthan1
orisgreaterthan1butlessthan10
orisoutsideofboththeseranges
Printoutasuitablemessagetoinformtheuser.
2.10 Thesimpleifstatement
Thereisasimpler,onelineformoftheifstatement.Saywejustwantedtoprintoutasimple
messagesuchas
print *, 'enter a positive number'
read *, num Thissnippetalso
if (num <0) stop introducesauseful,
if (num < 10) print *, 'less than 10' simplestatement
if (num > 10) print *, 'greater than 10' stopitsimply
print *,'It is a positive number' stopstheprogram.
2.11 Importantnotetestingforzero
Supposethatyouwishtotestwhetherarealvariableiszero.Thetest
Makesureyou
if (x = = 0) then . understandthis!

isnotasatisfactorytest.Althoughintegernumbersareheldexactly
bythecomputer,realnumbersarenot.
Thewayaroundthisistotestiftheabsolutevalueofthevariableislessthansomesmallpredefined
value.Forexample:
if (abs(x) < .000001) then
print *,No zero values! Please enter another number
read *, x
end if
3 Loops
3.1 Aims
Understandmoreabouttheuseofrealandintegervariablesandhowtouseamixtureof
datatypesinexpressions
Understandhowtoreusecodebylooping
Knowhowtocontrolthenumberoftimesasectionofcodeisexecutedbyusingadoloop

3.2 Mixingvariabletypes
Exercise3.1
Copydivide.f95
program divide Makesureyouunderstandthis

thoroughly!
implicit none
integer :: x
real :: y
x = 1
y = x/3
print *, y
end program divide
Andrunit.Thisprogramproducesthefollowingoutput:
0.00000
Somethingoddishappening.Theproblemistheline:
y=x/3
FORTRANevaluatestherighthandsideoftheassignmentfirstusingintegerarithmetic,because
bothxand3areinteger.1dividedby3cannotbestoredasaninteger,andsothevalue0isreturned.
Theresult,0,isthenconvertedtoarealnumberandtheassignedtoy.
Replacethelineinprogramdivide
x = 1 by
x = 10
Youroutputshouldnowbe:
3.00000
Canyouseewhatishappening?FORTRANiskeepingtheintegerpartoftheanswerandthrowingthe
restaway.
Togetoverthisproblem,wehavetosignaltoFORTRANthatwewantittocalculatetherighthand
sideoftheexpressionusingrealarithmetic.Ifwewanttokeepxasintegerdatatype,wecouldre
writeourexpressionasfollows:
y=x/3.0
Thepresenceofarealnumberontherighthandsidecausestherighthandsideoftheexpressionto
beevaluatedusingfloatingpointarithmetic.
Actually,theproblemisevenmorecomplicated!Wherewehaveanexpressionlike
y=x*((2**i)/3)
wherexandyarerealandiisinteger,FORTRANcomputestheresultinstages:
Firstitcalculates(2**i)/3andevaluatesitasanintegernumber,thenmultipliestheresultbyxand
evaluatesitasreal.
Exercise3.2
Copycheck.f95toyourcomputer.
program check
!Integer and real arithmetic
implicit none
real :: x,y
integer i
x=2.0
i=2
y=x*((2**i)/3)
print *,y
y=x*((2.0**i)/3)
print *,y
end program check
andexamineitsoutput.Makesureyouunderstandwhythisishappening.
3.3 Thedoloop
Unlessweareabletoreexecutecode,wemightaswelluseacalculatorNowwestarttotake
advantageofthepowerofthecomputer.
Exercise3.3
Copyprogramloop.f95
program loop
implicit none
integer :: i
do i=0,20
print *,i
end do
end program loop
Runtheprogram.Itprintsoutthenumbersfrom0to20instepsof1.
Note:
iiscalledaloopcounter.Inthisexample,ithasastartvalueofzero.
Allthestatementswithinthedoandenddoareexecuted.Inthisexamplethereisjustthe
onestatement,ieprint.
Eachtimethestatementsareexecuted,theloopcounter,i,isincrementedby1.
Whenthevalueofiis20,theloopterminates,andtheprogramresumesaftertheenddo.
Changethedostatementinprogramloopasfollows:
do i = 50,70,2
Runtheprogram.Whathappens?
Thethirdargumentinthedostatement,istheincrementstep.Ifomitted,thevalueistakenas1.
Loopscanalsodecrement:trythis
do i = 5,-5,-2

Exercise3.4
Usingadolooptogenerateintegervaluesofxbetween10and10instepsof1,writeaprogram
thatconstructsatableofvaluesof
y=1.0/x

Whathappenedwhenxhadthevaluezero?Useanif,endiftotestfortheconditionthatgivesthe
incorrectvalue,andprintoutanappropriatemessage.Compareyourresultwithdivbyzero.f95.
Divisionbyzeroisoneofthecommonestreasonsforaprogramtofail.
3.4 NestedDoLoops
Wewanttoconstructatableofvaluesforzwhere
z=xy

forvaluesof xintherange1to2instepsof0.5and
yintherange1to2instepsof0.5
Workthroughthenextexercisewhichillustratesthis:
Exercise3.5
Copyprogramxytab.f95toyourfilespace.
programxytab
implicit none
!constructs a table of z=x/y for values of x from 1 to 2 and
!yfrom1to4instepsof.5
real :: x, y, z
print*,'xyz'
do x = 1,2
do y = 1,4,0.5
z = x/y
print *, x,y,z
end do
end do
end program xytab
Examineitsoutput.Noticetheuseofthefirstprinttogiveaheadingtothetable.
3.5 Usingloopstodosummation
Earlieron,wediscussedtheideaofassignments.
x=1.0
meansstorethevalue1.0inthememorylocationcalledx.
Ifwehadthefollowingcode:
x=1.0
x=x+1.0
print*,x
Canyouguesswhatvaluewouldbeprintedoutforx?
Theanswerwouldbe2.0.
Bearinginmindthedefinitionofanassignment,thestatement Reallyimportant!
x=x+1.0
meansadd1.0tothevaluecurrentlystoredinmemorylocationxandthenstoretheresultin
memorylocationx.

Exercise3.6
Copyfileincrement.f95toyourfilespaceandexamineitsoutput.
program increment
implicit none
integer :: i
real :: x
x=1.0
do i=1,10
x=x+1.0
print *, i,x
end do
end program increment
Notecarefullythatwehavesettheinitialvalueofxoutsideofthedoloop.Whyhavewe
donethis?Ifyouaren'tsurechangethecodetoputthelinex=1.0insidetheloopthen
examinetheoutput.
Itisimportanttounderstandthatifweuseconstructionssuchasx=x+1.0,thenitisvitalto
initialisextosomevalue.Ifwedon't,itispossiblethatthevaluemightbesettoanyrandom
number.Runtheprogram,makeanoteofthefinalvalueofxthenputanexclamationmark
infrontofthex=1.0statementandruntheprogramagain.
Exercise3.7
Editthelinex=x+1.0inprogramincrement.f95,andchangeittox=x*i.Reruntheprogramand
examinetheoutput.Whatissignificantmathematicallyaboutthesequenceofnumbersthathasbeen
generated?
4 UsingFilesandExtendingPrecision
4.1 Aims
Readfromandwritetofiles
Useextendedprecision
4.2 Readingfromfiles
Intherealworld,mostofthedataweuseforourprogramswillbekeptinfiles.Wejustneeda
modificationtothereadstatementthatwearealreadyfamiliarwithtodothis.
Thisprogramreads3numbersfromafilecalled'mydata.txt'intoanarray.UseWindowsNotepadto
createsuchafileforyourself,orcopythefilefrommydata.txtwhichisonthewebsite.
program readdata
implicit none
!reads data from a file called mydata.txt
real :: x,y,z
open(10,file='mydata.txt')
read(10,*) x,y,z
print *,x,y,z
end program readdata
Thenewmaterialherearethelines
open(10,file='mydata.txt')
read(10,*) x,y,z
Theopenstatementlinksthefilecalled'mydata.txt'withaninputdevicenumbered10(itdoesn't
havetobe10,itcouldbeanypositiveinteger).Toreadfromdevice10,wejustuseitasthefirst
argumentinthereadstatement.
Exercise4.1
UseNotepadtocreateafilecalledevenodd.txt.Inthefiletype10numbers,oneperline.Writea
programthatreadsdatafromevenodd.txtonelineatatime.Checkifeachnumberisevenoroddand
printoutasuitablemessage.Onewaytocheckifanumberisevenoroddistousethemodintrinsic
function,likethis
if (mod(num,2)>0) then
modreturnstheremainderofthefirstargumentdividedbythesecond.Ifthereturnvalueisgreater
thanzero,thenthenumbermustbeodd.Checkprogramevenodd.f95toseeifyouarecorrect.

4.3 Writingtofiles
Thisisasimilarideatoreadingfromfiles.Weneedanewstatement,though,insteadofprint,weuse
write.
program io2
!illustrates writing arrays to files
implicit none
real :: num
integer :: i
open(12,file='myoutput')
do i = 1,100
num = i/3.0
write(12,*) nums
end do
print *, 'finished'
end program io2
Exercise4.2
Writeaprogramwhichreadsinnumbersfromafileoneatatime.Ifthenumberispositive,itshould
storeitinafilecalled'positive.txt'andnegativenumbersinafilecalled'negative.txt'.
4.4 Extendingtheprecision
Sofar,wehaveusedtwotypesofvariables,realandinteger.Theproblemsofar,asyouwillhave
noticedonoutput,isthatweareextremelylimitedbythenumberofsignificantdigitsthatare
availableforcomputation.Clearly,whenwearedealingwithiterativeprocesses,thiswillleadrapidly
toerrors.Wecan,however,extendtheprecisionavailablefromthesingleprecisiondefault,which
givesus6figuredecimalprecisionto15figuresbyusinganewspecificationforrealnumbers.
program extended
implicit none
integer, parameter :: ikind=selected_real_kind(p=15)
real (kind=ikind) :: sum,x
integer :: i
sum=0.0
do i=1,100
x=i
sum = sum + 1.0/(x**6)
end do
print *, sum
end program extended
producesthefollowingoutput:
1.01734306196
Don'tbeputoffbytheoddlookingcode.Inpractice,thewayofsettingupthisextendedprecision,is
prettymuchthesameforeveryprogram.
Westatetheprecisionwewantbytheargumentp
inthiscase,15decimalplaces.ikindisanewdatatypeaparameter.FORTRANreturnsavalueto
theparameterikindthatwillbeadequatetoprovide15digitprecision.Thiscodewillworkonany
machineirrespectiveofthearchitecture.
Wedeclarethatthevariablesareusingextendedprecisionby
real (kind=ikind) :: sum,x
Validvaluesforpare6,15and18.Thedefaultvalueforpis6.Ifyouaskformoreprecisionthan18
digits,thecompilerwillcomplainwithanerrormessage.Trychangingthevaluesofpandseewhat
effectthishasontheoutput.
ThetroublewithPRINTisthattheprogrammerhasnocontroloverthenumberofdigitsoutput
irrespectiveoftheselectedprecision.
Lateronwe'llcomebacktothiswhenwelearnabouttheWRITEstatement,andoutput
formatting.
NoteUnlikevariables,parametersmaynotchangeoncetheyaredeclared.
Ifwewanttouseconstantsinaprogramthatusesextendedprecision,wehavetotellFORTRANthat
theyarealsoextendedprecisionexplicitly.Thisleadstotheratherstrangesyntaxyoucanseeinthe
followingprogram.
program extendedconstants
!demonstrates use of extended precision
implicit none
real (kind=ikind) :: val,x,y
val=10/3
print*,val !10/3 calculated as integer - wrong!
x=10.0
y=3.0
val=x/y !x/y assigned to extended precision - right!
print*,val
val=10.0_ikind/3 !extend precision constant - right!
print*,val
val=10.0/3.0 !real constants - wrong!
print*,val
val = .12345678901234567890 !real constants - wrong!
print *, val
val = .12345678901234567890_ikind !ext precision consts - right!
print *, val
end program extendedconstants
Youshouldrunthisprogramforyourselfandthinkcarefullyaboutitsimplications.Thisprogram
demonstrateshoweasyitistogetcalculationswrong.Illleavethistoyoutoexperimenttoensure
thatyoufullyunderstandtheimportanceofproperlydeclaringvariablesandtheuseofconstantsin
FORTRANprogramming.Asystematicapproachtoyourprogrammingwillreducetheriskoferrorsas
willrunningprogramswithtestdatathathaveknownsolutionssothatyoucanconfirmthatyour
programiserrorfree.
4.5 Magnitudelimitations
Wehavealreadyobservedthatthereisalimitationoftheaccuracywithwhichwecandocalculations
inFORTRAN(andindeed,any,computerlanguage).Therearealsolimitationsonthemagnitudeofa
number.Thevariousmagnitudeandprecisionlimitsaresummarizedinthefollowingtable:
Valueofp Decimalplaces Range

6 6(default) 1038
15 15 10307
18 18 104931
Exercise5.3
Toillustratetheselimitscopyfilemagnitude.f95andruntheprogram.Takeawhiletogetafeelfor
whatisgoingon.Tryinputtingvariousvaluesforthevariablemaxpower(eg400).Canyouconfirm
thatthetableaboveiscorrect?
Oneinterestingconstructis
print*,i,2.0_ikind**i

Here,wearetellingthecompilerthattherealconstant2.0isalsousingextendedprecision.Check
whathappensifyouselectextendedprecision(option3)andenteravalueofmaxpowerof400.See
whathappensifyourewritethelinetobe
print*,i,2.0**i

Runtheprogramagainandenterthesamevalues.Canyouexplainwhatisgoingon?
4.6 Convergenceexitingloopsonacondition
Intheprogramextended.f95,wefoundthesumof
x 10
1
x 1
6

x
Itisusefultodetermineatwhatpointsuchsumsconvergetoasteadyvalueotherwisewemay
makearbitraryassumptionsaboutthesummationrange.Clearly,apointwillbereached,withinthe
precisionrangethatcanbehandledonourcomputer,thattheterm
1
6

x
willbetoosmalltocontributetothesum.Atthispointweshouldexittheloopotherwisethe
programwilldomorecomputationthanisrequired.
Onewaytodothisistocomparethevalueofthevariablesumwithitspreviousvalue,andifthe
differencebetweenthetwoisverysmall,thenexittheloop.
programwhileloop
implicit none
real (kind=ikind) :: sum,previoussum,x,smallnumber,error
integer :: i
sum=0.0
previoussum=0.0
smallnumber = 10.0**(-15.0)
do i=1,1000
x=i
sum = sum + 1.0 /(x**6)
error=abs(sum-previoussum)
if (error<smallnumber) then
print *,'sum ',sum,' number of loops ',i
exit
end if
previoussum = sum
end do
end program whileloop
IMPORTANTNOTE
Intherealworld,wehavetomakechoicesabouttheamountofprecisionweneedtoworkto.Itis
pointlessaskingfor15digitsofprecisionif,forexample,wecanonlytakeameasurementto+or
1%accuracy!
Itisnotnecessarytoalwaysusealoopcounterinadoloop.Ifwedon'tactuallyspecifyacounter,
theprogramwillloopforever.ConstructslikethisareOK:
smallnumber = .0000001_ikind
do
print *, 'enter a positive number '
read *, number
if (number <= smallnumber) exit
end do
Thedisadvantageisthat,ifyougetthecodewrong,youruntheriskoftheprogramloopingforever
generallyit'ssafertousealoopcounter!


5 ArraysandFormattedI/O
5.1 Aims
Bytheendofthisworksheetyouwillbeableto:
Understandtheuseofarrays
Improvetheappearanceofyouroutput
5.2 Arrays
Letusimaginethatwewanttofindtheaverageof10numbers.One(crude)methodisshowninthe
nextprogram.
program av
real :: x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7,x8,x9,x10,average
read *, x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7,x8,x9,x10
average= (x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + x9 + x10)/10
print *, 'the average is ',average
print *, 'the numbers are:'
print *, x1
print *, x2
print *, x3
print *, x4
print *, x5
print *, x6
print *, x7
print *, x8
print *, x9
print *, x10
end program av
Thisapproachismessy,involvesalotoftypingandispronetoerror.Imagineifwehadtodealwith
thousandsofnumbers!
Thewayaroundthisistousearrays.Anarrayisalistthatwecanaccessthroughasubscript.To
indicatetoFORTRANthatweareusinganarray,wejustspecifyitssizewhenwedeclareit.
real, dimension(100) ::x
.
.
x(1) = 3
x(66) = 4
Thissnippetofcodeallocates100memorylocationstothearrayx.Toaccessanindividuallocation,
calledanarrayelement,weuseasubscripthereweareassigningthenumber4tothe66thelement
ofarrayxand3tothe1stelement.
Nowlet'sreturntoprogramavatthestartofthisworksheet,we'llrewriteitusinganarray.

program av2
implicit none
real ,dimension(10) :: x
real :: average,sum
integer :: i
print *, 'enter 10 numbers'
sum=0.0
do i=1,10
read *, x(i)
sum=sum+x(i)
end do
average=sum/10
print *, 'the numbers are'
print *,x
end program av2
Noticethatifwetype
print*, x
theprogramwillprintouttheentirecontentsofthearray.
Theadditionalbenefitofthisprogramisthatwithveryfewchanges,wecouldmakeitdealwithany
numberofitemsinourlist.Wecanimproveonthisstillfurtherbymakingusetheparameterdata
type:
program av3
!just change the value of the parameter to change the size of the
!array
implicit none
integer, parameter :: imax = 10
real,dimension(imax) :: x
real :: average,sum
integer :: i
print *, 'enter ,imax, numbers'
sum=0.0
do i=1,imax
read *, x(i)
sum=sum+x(i)
end do
average=sum/imax
print *, 'the numbers are'
print *,x
end program av3
Notethisisanexampleofgoodprogramming.Thecodeiseasilymaintainableallwehavetodoto
findanaverageofalistofnumbersofanysizeisjusttochangethesizeoftheparameterimax.We
canalsoallocatethesizeofthearrayatruntimebydynamicallyallocatingmemory.
Thefollowingprogramdemonstratestheuseofarrayswherewedonotknowthesizeofthearray.
program alloc
implicit none
integer, allocatable,dimension(:):: vector
!note syntax - dimension(:)
integer :: elements,i
print *,'enter the number of elements in the vector'
read *,elements
allocate(vector(elements))
!allocates the correct amount of memory
print *,' your vector is of size ',elements,'. Now enter each
element'
do i=1,elements
read *,vector(i)
end do
print *,'This is your vector'
do i=1,elements
print *,vector(i)
end do
deallocate(vector)
!tidies up the memory
end program alloc
Theprogramiscalledalloc.f95andcanbecopiedfromthewebpage.Noteinparticularthebolded
lines.Thenewwayofdeclaringthearrayvectortellsthecompilerthatitisallocatableiethesize
willbedeterminedatruntime.
WeshalllookatthisfurtherinSection7.

Exercise5.1
Writeaprogramthataskstheuserhowmanynumberstheywanttoenter,callthisvalueimax.
Allocateimaxelementstotwoarrays,aandb.Readinimaxnumberstoaanddothesametob.Print
outthearraysa,bandprintoutthesumofaandb.Compareyourattemptwithsumalloc.f95.
5.3 Arraymagic
Oneofthebenefitsofarraysisthatyoucaneasilydooperationsoneveryelementbyusingsimple
arithmeticoperators.
program ramagic
implicit none
real ,dimension(100) :: a,b,c,d
open(10,file='data.txt')
read(10,*) a
b=a*10
c=b-a
d=1
print *, 'a= ',a
print *, 'b= ',b
print *, 'c= ',c
print *, 'd= ',d
end program ramagic
Exercise5.2
Copyprogramramagic.f95andfiledata.txttoyourownfilespace.Runtheprogramandexaminethe
output.
Exercise5.3
Writeaprogramthatfillsa10elementarrayxwithvaluesbetween0and.9instepsof.1.Printthe
valuesofsin(x)andcos(x)usingthepropertiesofarraystosimplifyyourprogram.Compareyour
answerwithramagic2.f95.
5.4 Multidimensionalarrays
Thearrayswehavelookedatsofarhavebeenonedimensional,thatisasinglelistofnumbersthat
areaccessedusingasinglesubscript.Inconcept,1dimensionalarraysworkinasimilarwayto
vectors.Wecanalsousetwodimensionalarrayswhichconceptuallyareequivalenttomatrices.
So,forexample,
Integer,dimension(5,5)::a
setsupastoragespacewith25integerlocations.
Thenextprogramcreatesa2dimensionalarraywith2rowsand3columns.Itfillsalllocationsin
column1with1,columns2with2,column3with3andsoon.
program twodra
implicit none
integer,dimension(2,3) :: a
integer ::row,col,count
count = 0
!creates an array with 3 cols and 2 rows
!sets col 1 to 1, col2 to 2 and so on
do row=1,2
count=0
do col =1,3
count=count+1
a(row,col)=count
end do
end do
do row=1,2
do col =1,3
print *,a(row,col)
end do
end do
end program twodra
FORTRANactuallyallowstheuseofarraysofupto7dimensions,afeaturewhichisrarelyneeded.To
specifyaextendedprecision3dimensionalarraybwithsubscriptsrangingfrom1to10,1to20and1
to30wewouldwrite:
real (kind=ikind),dimension(10,20,30) :: b

Exercise5.4
Usinga4*4arraycreateanidentitymatrix,thatis,amatrixoftheform:
1000
0100
0010
0001
andoutputit.Wouldn'titbeniceifwecouldactuallyoutputthematrixelementsinrowsand
columns?Attheendofthissectionweshallseeexactlyhowtodothis.
5.5 Formattingyouroutput
Youmaynowbewonderingifthereisanywaytohavebettercontroloverwhatyouroutputlooks
like.Sofarwehavebeenusingthedefaultoutputoptionthat'swhatthe*'sareforinthewriteand
printstatements:
write(10,*) x,y,z
print *, 'program finished'

Exercise5.5
Copyformat.f95,andrunit
program format
implicit none
!demonstrates use of the format statement
real , dimension(4) :: x
integer, dimension(4) :: nums
integer :: i
real(kind=ikind),dimension(4) :: computed
!fill up the arrays with something
do i = 1,4
nums(i) = i * 10
computed(i) = cos(0.1*i)
x(i) = computed(i)
end do
print *,'nums - integer'
write(*,1) nums
1 format(2i10)
print *, 'x - real'
write(*,2) x
2 format(f6.2)
print *, 'computed - double precision'
write(*,3) computed
3 format(f20.7)
end program format
Youcanseethatthewriteandformatstatementscomeinpairs.
write(outputdevice,label)variable(s)
label format(specification)

Weareusinginthisexamplea*astheoutputdeviceinotherwords,thescreen.
Theformatstatementcanactuallygoanywhereintheprogram,butbyconventionweusuallyplace
themjustaftertheassociatedwriteoralltogetherattheendoftheprogram.It'sjustamatterof
taste.
Thetrickyparthereisthespecification.Therearedifferentspecificationsforinteger,real,and
charactervariables.
5.5.1 Integer Specification

Generalform:nim
Rightjustified
misthenumberofcharacterspacesreservedforprinting(includingthesignifthereisone)
Iftheactualwidthislessthanm,blanksareprinted
nisthenumberofintegerstooutputperline.Ifomitted,onenumberisoutputperline.
5.5.2 Floating point Specification

Generalform:nfm.d
Rightjustified
misthenumberofcharacterspacesreservedforprinting(includingthesignifthereisone),
andthedecimalpoint.
Iftheactualwidthislessthanm,blanksareprinted
nisthenumberofrealnumberstooutputperline.Ifomitted,onenumberisoutputper
line.
disthenumberofspacesreservedforthefractionalpartofthenumberfilledwith0'sif
fewerspacesareneeded.Ifthefractionalpartistoowideitisrounded.
Ifthetotalwidthforoutput(m)istoosmall,FORTRANwilljustoutput*'s.
Rule m>= widthoftheintegerpartplus

dplus
1(spacefordecimalpoint)plus
1(spaceforsignifnegative)
Essentially,makemniceandwideandyouwon'thaveanytrouble!
5.5.3 Exponential Specification

GeneralformnEm.d
Alternativespecificationforoutputtingreal
disthenumberofdecimalplaces
misthetotalwidthofthefieldincludingthesign(ifany),thecharacterEanditssign,the
decimalpointandthenumberofplacesofdecimals.Againmakemniceandwidetoensure
thefieldisproperlyprintedout.
nisthenumberofexponentialnumberstooutputperline.Ifomitted,onenumberisoutput
perline.

Example
real :: a,b
a = sqrt(5.0)
b = -sqrt(a)
write(*,10) a,b
10 format(2E14.5)
produces:
0.22361E+01 -0.14953E+01
5.5.4 Character Specification

GeneralformnAm
nisthenumberofstringstoprint
misthemaximumnumberofcharacterstooutput
Example:
program chars
implicit none
character ::a*10,b*10
a='hello'
b='goodbye'
write(*,10) a,b
10 format(2a10)
end program chars
Exercise5.6
Usingtheformatspecificationsinformat.f95asaguide,produceatableof
xex
where0 x 1 ,forvaluesofxinincrementsof0.1.Writeyouroutputtoafilecalledmyoutput.
Ensurethatyouroutputlinesupneatlyincolumns.Anexampleprogramisneatoutput.f95isavailable
onthewebsite.
5.6 ImpliedDoLooptowritearrays
Sofar,themethodwehaveusedforinputandoutputofarraysis:
integer :: col,row
real :: ra(10,10)
!using do loop
do row = 1,10
do col = 1,10
read *, ra(row,col)
write(*,*) ra(row,col)
end do
end do
Thetroublewiththismethodisthattherowsandcolumnsarenotpreservedonoutput.An
alternative,andneatermethodistouseanimplieddoloopinthewritestatement.
real :: ra(10,10)
integer :: row,col
!use implied do
do row = 1,10
do col = 1,10
read *, ra(row,col)
end do
end do
do row=1,10
write(*,10) (ra(row,col),col=1,10)
end do
10 format(10f5.1)
Exercise5.7
InExercise5.4youwroteaprogramtoproduceandidentitymatrix.Applywhatyouknowabout
formattingnowtomakeaneatlyformattedmatrixonscreen.Thereisanexampleidentity1.f95
availableonthewebsite.
6 SubroutinesandFunctions
6.1 Aims
Understandtheuseofsubroutinesandfunctionstomakeyourcodemoreefficientand
easiertoread.
6.2 Reusingcodethesubroutine
Examinethefollowingprogram
program output
implicit none
real,dimension(3) :: a,b,c
character :: answer*1
!initialise arrays
a = 1.5
b = 2.5
c = 3.5
write(*,1) 'a',a
print *, 'type y to continue or any other key to finish'
read *, answer
if (answer /= 'y') stop
write(*,1) 'b',b
read *, answer
write(*,1) 'c',c
read *, answer
write(*,1) 'a*b*c',a * b * c
1 format(a,3f8.3)
end program output
Theprogramsetsupsomearraysandthenoutputsthem.Atthreestagesintheprogram(bolded),it
askswhetheritshouldcontinue;itstopsiftheanswerisnot'y'.Noticethatthethreeboldedpartsof
thecodeareidentical.
Simpleenoughbutlookattheamountofcode!Mostofitisthesamewouldn'titbenicetoreuse
thecodeandcutdownonthetyping?Theansweristousesubroutines.
program output1
implicit none
real,dimension(3) :: a,b,c
!initialise arrays
a = 1.5
b = 2.5
c = 3.5
write(*,1) 'a',a
call prompt()
write(*,1) 'b',b
call prompt()
write(*,1) 'c',c
call prompt()
write(*,1) 'a*b*c',a * b * c
1 format(a,3f8.3)
end program output1
!++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
subroutine prompt()
!prompts for a keypress
implicit none
character answer*1
read *, answer
end subroutine prompt
Examinethecode,eachtimeweusetype
callprompt()
theprogramjumpstotheline
subroutineprompt()
thenexecuteseachlineofthecodeitfindsinthesubroutineuntilitreachestheline
endsubroutineprompt
andthenreturnstothemainprogramandcarriesonwhereitleftoff.
Theprogramismucheasiertounderstandnow.Allthecodeforpromptingisinoneplace.Ifweever
needtochangethecodewhichpromptstheusertocontinue,wewillonlyeverneedtochangeit
once.Thismakestheprogrammoremaintainable.
6.3 Argumentstosubroutines
Wehaveseenthatsubroutinesareveryusefulwhereweneedtoexecutethesamebitofcode
repeatedly.
Thesubroutinecanbethoughtofasaseparateprogramwhichwecancallonwheneverwewishto
doaspecifictask.Itisindependentofthemainprogramitknowsnothingaboutthevariablesused
inthemainprogram.Also,themainprogramknowsnothingaboutthevariablesusedinthe
subroutine.Thiscanbeusefulwecanwriteasubroutineusinganyvariablenameswewishandwe
knowthattheywillnotinterferewithanythingwehavealreadysetupinthemainprogram.

Thisimmediatelyposesaproblemwhatifwewantthesubroutinetodocalculationsforusthatwe
canuseinthemainprogram?Thefollowingprogramusesargumentstodojustthat.
Example:aprogramthatcalculatesthedifferenceinvolumebetween2spheres.
program vols
!Calculates difference in volume of 2 spheres
implicit none
real :: rad1,rad2,vol1,vol2
character :: response
do
print *, 'Please enter the two radii'
read *, rad1,rad2
call volume(rad1,vol1)
write(*,10) 'The difference in volumes is, ',abs(vol1-vol2)
10 format(a,2f10.3)
print *, 'Any more? - hit Y for yes, otherwise hit any key'
read *, response
if (response /= 'Y' .and. response /= 'y') stop
end do
end program vols
!________________________________________________
subroutine volume(rad,vol)
implicit none
real :: rad,vol,pi
!calculates the volume of a sphere
pi=4.0*atan(1.0)
vol=4./3.*pi*rad*rad*rad
!It's a little quicker in processing to do r*r*r than r**3!
end subroutine volume
Whentheprogramreachesthelines
Itjumpstotheline
subroutine volume(rad,vol)
Thevalues,rad1andvol1arepassedtothesubroutine.Thesubroutinecalculatesavalueforthe
volumeandwhentheline:
end subroutine volume
isreached,thevalueofthevolumeisreturnedtothemainprogram
Pointstonoticetheseareveryimportantpleasereadcarefully
Youmayhaveseveralsubroutinesinyourprogram.Ideally,asubroutineshoulddoaspecific
taskreflectedbyitsname.
Allthevariablesinsubroutines,apartfromtheonespassedasarguments,are'hidden'from
themainprogram.Thatmeansthatyoucanusethesamenamesinyoursubroutineasinthe
mainprogramandthevaluesstoredineachwillbeunaffectedunlessthevariableispassed
asanargumenttothesubroutine.
Itisveryeasytoforgettodeclarevariablesinsubroutines.Alwaysuseimplicitnoneinyour
subroutinestoguardagainstthis.
Allthevariablesinthesubroutinemustbedeclared.
Thepositioningofthearguments(inthiscase,radandvol)isimportant.Thesubroutinehas
noknowledgeofwhatthevariablesarecalledinthemainprogram.Itisvitalthatthe
argumentsagreebothinpositionandtype.So,ifanargumenttothesubroutineisrealin
themainprogram,itmustalsoberealinthesubroutine.
Ifanargumenttothesubroutineisanarray,itmustalsobedeclaredasanarrayinthe
subroutine.
Exercise6.1
Writeaprogramthatcalculatesthedifferenceinareabetweentwotriangles.Yourprogramshould
prompttheuserfortheinformationitneedstodothecalculation.Useasubroutinetocalculatethe
actualarea.Passinformationtothesubroutineusingarguments.
6.4 UserDefinedFunctions
WehavealreadymetFORTRANintrinsicfunctionslikeabs,cos,sqrt.Wecanalsodefineourown
functionstheyworkinasimilarwaytosubroutines.
Asanexample,let'swriteaprogram(func.f95)thatdoessometrigonometry.Asyouknow,thetrig
routinesinFORTRANuseradians,notdegreessoitwouldbenicetowriteafunctionthatdoesall
theconversionforus.
print *,'Enter a number'
read *, a
pi=4.0*atan(1.0)
print *,'the sine of ',a,' is ',sin(a*pi/180)
Inthissnippet,wearehavingtocodetheconversionfromdegreestoradiansdirectlyintothemain
partoftheprogram.That'sOKfora'oneoff',butwhatifweneededtodotheconversionseveral
times.Nowlookatthis:
program func
!demonstrates use of user defined functions
implicit none
real (kind=ikind):: deg,rads
print *, 'Enter an angle in degrees'
read *, deg
write(*,10) 'sin = ',sin(rads(deg))
write(*,10) 'tan = ',tan(rads(deg))
write(*,10) 'cos = ',cos(rads(deg))
10 format(a,f10.8)
end program func
!_____________________________________________
function rads(degrees)
implicit none
! returns radians
real (kind=ikind) :: pi,degrees,rads
pi=4.0_ikind*atan(1.0_ikind)
rads=(degrees*pi/180.0_ikind)
end function rads
Whatwehavedone,ineffect,istocreateourownfunctionrads,whichisusedinanidenticalwayto
theintrinsiconesyouhaveusedalreadylikesqrt,cos,andabs.
Whentheline

write(*,10) 'sin = ',sin(rads(deg))
isreached,theprogramjumpsto
function rads(degrees)
thevalue,degrees,ispassedtothefunction.Thefunctiondoessomecomputation,thenfinally
returnsthecalculatedvaluetothemainprogramwiththeline
Notecarefullythatitdoesn'treturnthevalueintheargumentlist(asdoesasubroutine)butactually
assignsthevaluetoitsownnamerads.
Thefunctionradsconvertsthevalueoftheargument,degrees,toradians.
Noticethatwemustdeclarethedatatypeofthefunctionbothinthemainprogram,andin
thefunctionitselfasifitwereavariable.
Functionsreturnonevalue.Thisvalue,whencalculated,isassignedtothenameofthe
functionasifitwereavariable

Exercise6.2
Writeaprogramthatincludesafunctioncalled
realfunctionaverage(n,list)
wherenisintegerandisthenumberofitemsinthelist,andlistisarealarray.
Writesuitablecodeforreadingthenumbersfromafile(orkeyboard),andoutputtheaverageofthe
numbers.
Exercise6.3
Writeaprogramthatallowsausertoenterthesizeofasquarematrix.Intheprogramwritea
subroutinetocomputeafinitedifferencematrix.Ensureyouroutputisneatlyformattedinrowsand
columns.
So,fora10by10matrix,weexpectoutputtolooklikethis
2100000000
1210000000
0121000000
0012100000
0001210000
0000121000
0000012100
0000001210
0000000121
0000000012
Checkyourattemptwithfinite.diffs.f95onthewebsite.
7 AdvancedTopics
7.1 Aims
Usearrayfunctions
Createlargerprogramsaidedby"FlowCharts"
7.2 ArrayFunctions
FORTRANprovidesanumberofintrinsicfunctionsthatareusefulforworkingwitharrays.Among
thesearesomewhicharespecificallyaimedatworkingwithmatricesandvectors.
MATMUL Matrix/vector Matrixmultiplicationoftwomatricesoramatrix

andavector.
DOT_PRODUCT Vector Scalar(dot)productoftwovectors
TRANSPOSE Matrix Transposeofamatrix
MAXVAL Anyarray Maximumvalueofanarray,orofalltheelements
alongaspecifieddimensionofanarray.
MINVAL Anyarray Minimumvalueofanarray,orofalltheelements
alongaspecifieddimensionofanarray.
SUM Anyarray Sumofalltheelementsofanarray,orofallthe
elementsalongaspecifieddimensionofanarray.
Programmatrixmul.f95,demonstratestheuseofthesefunctions.Additionally,itincludestwo
subroutinesthatarelikelytobeusefulwhenhandlingmatrix/arraymanipulations:fill_arraywhich
fillsthearrayelementsandoutputrawhichprintsthevaluesofthearrayelementstothescreen.This
programisalsoanexampleofdynamicmemoryallocation.
program matrixmul
!demonstrates use of matmul array function and dynamic
!allocation of array
real, allocatable, dimension(:,:) :: ra1,ra2,ra3
integer :: size
!initialize the arrays
print*, 'Shows array manipulation using SQUARE arrays.'
print*, 'Allocate the space for the array at run time.'
print*, 'Enter the size of your array'
read *, size
allocate(ra1(size,size),ra2(size,size),ra3(size,size))
print*, 'enter matrix elements for ra1 row by row'
call fill_array(size,ra1)
print*, 'enter matrix elements for ra2 row by row'
call fill_array(size,ra2)
!echo the arrays
print *,'ra1'
call outputra(size,ra1)
print *,'ra2'
!demonstrate the use of matmul and transpose intrinsic
!functions
ra3=matmul(ra1,ra2)
print *,'matmul of ra1 and ra2'
ra3=transpose(ra1)
print *,'transpose of ra1'
deallocate(ra1,ra2,ra3)
end program matrixmul
!---------------------------------------------------------
subroutine outputra(size,ra)
implicit none
!will output a real square array nicely
integer :: size,row,col
real,dimension(size,size) :: ra
character :: reply*1
do row =1,size
write(*,10) (ra(row,col),col=1,size)
10 format(100f10.2)
!as we don't know how many numbers are to be output, specify
!more than we need - the rest are ignored
end do
print*,'__________________________________________________'
print*,'Hit a key and press enter to continue'
read *,reply
end subroutine outputra
!---------------------------------------------------------
subroutine fill_array(size,ra)
implicit none
!fills the array by prompting from keyboard
integer :: row,col,size
real :: num
real, dimension(size,size) :: ra
do row=1,size
do col=1,size
print *, row,col
read *,num
ra(row,col)=num
end do
end do
end subroutine fill_array

Exercise7.1
Writeaprogramtoreadin2squarematrices(ofanysize).Confirmthatthematricesobeytherule
(AB)T=BTAT
whereATisthetransposeofmatrixA.
Exercise7.2
Writeaprogramthatwillreada3X3matrixfromadatafile.Intheprogram,includeasubroutine
thatwillgenerateanycofactorcofofthematrixmat.Callthesubroutinecofactorandusethese
arguments:
subroutine cofactor(i,j,mat,cof)
implicit none
real :: mat(3,3),minor(2,2),cof
integer :: elrow,elcol
! cof the cofactor of matrix mat for element i,j
.
.
Exercise7.3
UsetheprogramyoudevelopedExercise7.2tocalculatethedeterminantofa3X3matrix.
7.3 WritingREALprogramsFlowCharts
NowthatyouknowallthemainelementsofFORTRAN95,youareinapositiontoapplyyourskillsto
writingREALprograms.Unlikemostoftheexercisesintheseworksheets,REALprogramstendtobe
ratherlarge.Inlargeprograms,theunderlyinglogiccanoftenbedifficulttofollow.
Ithelps,therefore,bothinthedevisingofaprogramandlaterinitsmaintenance,tohaveaplanof
whatyouintendtheprogramtodo.Letstake,asanexample,aprogramthatworkslikeacalculator.
Theflowchartisshownonthenextpage.Thelogicoftheprogram,asawhole,isclear.Detailslike
whatwillhappeninthesubroutinesisglossedoveratthisstage.
Incommercialprogramming,flowchartsareusuallyformalized,withspecificshapesforboxesthatdo
differentthings.Thatneednotconcernushere.Essentially,weuseflowchartstoprovideamapof
theunderlyinglogicflowintheprogramwhatconnectswithwhat.

Start
Displaymenuofchoices
A,B,C,D
Userchooses A SubroutineSubtract
Subroutinemultiply

Subroutinepower
C
Subroutinetrig
Sorry,badinput
Haveyoufinished?

No
Yes

Stop
DebuggingTips
7.4 Symptomsandprobablecauses
Haveyougotroundingerrors?
Dontdofloatingpointcalculationsusingintegers.Makesureyourprecisionisconsistentand
adequate.Makesuretheprecisionoftherighthandsideofanequationmatchesthetypeof
variableyouareassigningto.
Areyourcalculationscompletelywrong?
Initialiseallyourvariablesdontforgetarrays!
Makesureyourarraysarebigenoughtoholdallthedata.
Checkthatargumentspassedtosubroutinesagreeexactlyinsize,typeandposition
Istheprogramslogicworkingthewayitshould?
7.5 Wiseprecautionsandtimesavingtips
Youmustnottestfloatingpointnumbersforequality.Example:
if (x == 1) then...
doesnotwork.
Shouldyoubeusingtheabsolutevalueofacalculation?Example:
if (abs(x-y)<.00001) then
Donthaveoverlyelaboratelogicaltests.Itsprobablybettertotestoneortwothingsata
timeratherthanthissortofthing
if (((x.AND.y).OR.z > 10).OR.(.NOT. xx < 0)) then
youmightthinkyouunderstooditwhenyouwroteit,butimaginetryingtofigureoutwhats
happeningiftheprogrambreaks!
Don'ttryandwriteacomplicatedprogramallatonce.Writeitapieceatatimeandcheck
thateachpieceisworkingcorrectlybeforedoingthenextbit.
Useimplicitnoneatthestartofallprogramsandsubroutines.
Ifyourprogramneedsdatatobeenteredbytheuser,youwillsavehoursoftimebytaking
thetroubletoreadinthedatafromafilewhiletheprogramisindevelopment.
Alwaysdoatestfordivisionbyzerowhendividing.
BENEAT!Goodprogrammingislikeplainspeakingtheresnomileageintricky,difficultto
readcode.
7.6 Howtofindthebugs
Useaprintstatementtoprintoutthevalueswithintheprogramtakealookatthiscode
x = x + 1
z = x * y
print *, debug statement 1 value of x,y,z, x,y,z
do ii =1,10
z = x * ii
if (ii == 5) then
print *, debug do loop value of z when ii = 5,z
end if
end do
if (z>2000) then
print *, debug statement z>2000 value of z ,z
stop
end if
Noticehowwecanprintoutvaluesofspecificvariables,stoppingtheprogramifnecessary.
Index
Arithmetic.....................................................11 exitingloops..................................................25
arithmeticoperators....................................11 ExponentialSpecification..............................32
Arrays...........................................................27 exponentiations............................................11
Assignment...................................................11 finitedifference............................................39
character........................................................8 floatingpointnumbers...................................8
CharacterSpecification.................................33 FloatingpointSpecification..........................32
Convergence.................................................25 FlowCharts.............................................40,42
DebuggingTips.............................................44 Formattingyouroutput................................31
DebuggingTips............................................44 function.........................................................39
dotproduct...................................................40 identity..........................................................31
dynamicmemoryallocation.........................40 ikind..............................................................26
dynamicallyallocatingmemory....................28 ImpliedDoLooptowritearrays...................33
errors..............................................................8 integer.............................................................8
Exercise1.1.....................................................4 IntegerSpecification.....................................32
Exercise1.2.....................................................6 intrinsicfunctions.............................11,12,40
Exercise1.3.....................................................7 logicaloperators...........................................14
Exercise1.4.....................................................9 loop...............................................................18
Exercise2.1...................................................11 loopcounter..................................................19
Exercise2.2...................................................12 Magnitude.....................................................25
Exercise2.3...................................................14 maintainable.................................................36
Exercise2.4...................................................15 matrix............................................................39
Exercise3.1...................................................17 Matrixmultiplication....................................40
Exercise3.2...................................................18 Mixingvariabletypes....................................17
Exercise3.3...................................................18 Multidimensionalarrays..............................30
Exercise3.4...................................................19 NestedDoLoops...........................................19
Exercise3.5...................................................20 operators........................................................6
Exercise3.6...................................................21 parameter.....................................................24
Exercise3.7...................................................21 Plato................................................................3
Exercise4.1...................................................22 precedence...................................................11
Exercise4.2...................................................23 precision....................................................8,23
Exercise5.1...................................................29 programmingstyle........................................11
Exercise5.2...................................................30 Readingfromfiles.........................................22
Exercise5.3.............................................25,30 simpleifstatement.......................................15
Exercise5.4...................................................31 statement........................................................6
Exercise5.5...................................................31 stop...............................................................15
Exercise5.6...................................................33 Style..............................................................14
Exercise5.7...................................................34 subroutine.....................................................35
Exercise6.1...................................................38 summation....................................................20
Exercise6.2...................................................39 Transposeofamatrix...................................40
Exercise6.3...................................................39 UserDefinedFunctions.................................38
Exercise7.1...................................................42 variable...........................................................6
Exercise7.2...................................................42 Writingtofiles..............................................23
Exercise7.3...................................................42

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IntroductiontoProgramming

!My first program

functionname typeofargument typeofresult Definition

print *,'result = ',answer

program divide Makesureyouunderstandthis

Valueofp Decimalplaces Range

end program alloc

5.5.1 Integer Specification

5.5.2 Floating point Specification

Rule m>= widthoftheintegerpartplus

5.5.3 Exponential Specification

5.5.4 Character Specification

MATMUL Matrix/vector Matrixmultiplicationoftwomatricesoramatrix

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