Chapter 17

Green Functions and Propagators

17.1 The Non-Relativistic Propagator

A simple example for a Green function is the Poisson equation for an electrostatic eld
with source (~r):

r2  = ,4 (~r) (17.1)

or the Helmholtz equation for a vector potential with a source term J~(~r; t):

22 A~ (~r; t) = , 4c J~ (~r; t) : (17.2)

They are of the form

^ (~r; t) = S (~r; t) (17.3)

where ^ is a linear operator, usually a dierential operator in space and time operating
on a eld function (~r; t), and S (~r; t) is a homogeneous term which serves as a source
function. The eld and source functions may, in general, be a scalar, vector or higher
rank tensor.
The solution of (17.1) is well known
117
 Z
(~r) = d3r0 j ~r ,1 ~r 0 j (~r 0) (17.4)

and an example of a Green function, i.e., is a solution of the form

Z
(~r) = d3r0 G(~r;~r 0) S (~r 0) : (17.5)

In this case the operator ^ is given by

^ = , 41 r2 (17.6)

and the Green function is

G(~r;~r 0 ) = (~r ,1 ~r 0 ) (17.7)

and the source term is given by S (~r) = (~r). In this case the eld is time-independent.
In a similar fashion, if the source eld depends on ~r and t, the solution to

^ (x) = S (x) (17.8)

where x := (t;~r)  (x0 ; ~x) is formally written as

Z
(x) = d4x0 G(x; x0) S (x0) : (17.9)

If we adopt a point source 4 (x , x00 ) for the source function S , the solution becomes the
Green function
Z
(x) = d4x0 G(x; x0 ) 4(x , x00) = G(x; x00 ) (17.10)

and (17.8) becomes

118
 ^ G(x; x00 ) = 4(x , x00 ) ; (17.11)

which serves as dening equation for G(x; x0), as one can easily see that given (17.11) the
form (17.9) is a solution for (17.8)

Z Z
^ (x) = ^ d4x0 G(x; x0) S (x0) = d4x0 ^ G(x; x0 ) S (x0) (17.12)
Z
= d4x0 4(x , x0 ) S (x0 ) = S (x) :

Notice that G(x; x0 ) is not uniquely dened by (17.11) { one needs boundary conditions.
Thus, there are several Green functions for a given operator. Moreover, the solution can
be further generalized by the addition of any solution of the homogeneous equation

^ 0 = 0 : (17.13)

Now a more general form of the solution is

Z
(x) = 0(x) + d4x0 G(x; x0 ) S (x0) : (17.14)

Consider the case where ^ generates some kind of wave equation. For classical electro-
magnetic waves, one could have, e.g.,

^ = 4c 22 : (17.15)

Then the rst term 0(x) of (17.14) is a free wave solution, and the second term is a wave
emanating from the source S or in this case J (x). The Green function can then be said
to take the piece of the source occupying the volume d4x0 at the space-time point x0 and
propagate its eect to the point x, then the sum of all these contributions superimpose
to give the net contribution at x. The Green function is then regarded as a propagator
which should have the additional property that it should allow waves to travel forward in
time but not backwards, i.e.,

G+(x; x0 ) = 0 for x0 < x : (17.16)

119
The label (+) indicates that it is a retarded Green function. The condition (17.16) is then
a boundary condition of the kind which we may impose on the Green function.
In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, one commonly deals with homogeneous wave equa-
tions, in which the 'source' term is not so readily distinguished from the rest of the
equation. Consider
!
@ , H^
ih @t = V (~r; t) (17.17)
0

where H^ 0 is the free Hamiltonian (either for the Schrodinger equation or the Dirac equa-
tion) and V (~r; t) is a perturbing potential. A Green's function for the free Hamiltonian
would satisfy
" #
@ , H^ G+ (x; x0 ) = 4 (x , x0 )
ih @t (17.18)
0

and one could write (17.17) in the form of a 'solution'

Z
(x) = 0 (x) + d4x G+ (x; x0) V (x0 ) (x0 ) ; (17.19)

which is a solution in form of an integral equation. If the equation (17.19) is iterated, one
obtains the Neumann series

Z
(x) = 0 (x) + d4x G+ (x; x0) V (x0 ) 0(x0 ) (17.20)
Z
+ d4x00 d4x0 G+ (x; x0 ) V (x0 ) G+ (x0 ; x00 ) V (x00 ) (x00 ) +

For a scattering problem, the interpretation is simple; 0 is the 'incoming' wave, which is
then redirected by V at the point x, and propagated by G+ to x, where we are attempting
to reconstruct the wave function. The third term represents those waves which have been
redirected twice, etc.
In a quantum mechanical system, the key to the time development is the Hamiltonian.
In fact, the propagator in time should give the wave function at time t in terms of that
at time t0 :
120
 j t i = e, hi H^ (t,t0 ) j t0 i :
 (17.21)

In order to see the connection to the Green function, consider the coordinate space rep-
resentation of (17.21):
Z
h~r j t i = d3r h~r j e, hi H^ (t,t0 ) j ~r 0 i h~r 0 j t0 i ; (17.22)

and the Green function is given by

G(~r; t; ~r 0 t0) = , hi h~r j e, hi H^ (t,t0 ) j ~r 0i : (17.23)

To establish the result (17.23), let uj (~r) be an orthonormal set of eigenfunctions of H^ ,

i.e., H^ uj (~r) = Ej uj (~r), and expand in terms of the uj

X
(~r; t) = aj (t) uj (~r) (17.24)
j
Z
aj (t) = d3 r0 uj (~r 0) (~r 0 ; t)

so that !
@ , E a (t) = 0 :
ih @t (17.25)
j j

This is a rst-order equation in t with the Green function

!
@ , E (t) G+ (t; t0) = (t , t0 )
ih @t (17.26)
j j

G+j (t; t0) = , hi e, hi Ej (t,t0 ) (t , t0)

where (t , t0) is the Heaviside function. Thus,

a(t) = ih G+ (t , t0) a(t0) for t > t0 : (17.27)

121
The expression

G+(~r; t; ~r 0; t0) = , hi

X Ej (t,t0 )
e, hi (t , t0 ) uj (~r) uj (~r) (17.28)
j

now behaves like a Green function because

Z Z X
d3r0 G+ (~r; t; ~r 0; t0) (~r 0; t0) = d3r0 G+ (t , t0) j (~r) uj (~r 0) (~r 0; t0) : (17.29)
j

Applying (17.25) and using the orthonormality properties of uj (~r) gives

Z X
ih d3r0 G+ (~r; t; ~r 0 ; t0) = ih uj (~r) G+j (t , t0 ) aj (t) (17.30)
j
X
= uj (~r) aj (t) = (~r; t) :
j

In addition,
" # !
@
ih @t , H^ G+ (~r; t; ~r 0 ; t0) =
X @ , E G+ (t , t0 ) u (~r) u(~r(17.31)
ih @t 0
j j j j )
j
X
= (t , t0 ) uj (~r) uj (~r 0)
j
= (t , t0 ) 3 (~r , ~r 0 ) = 4(x , x0 ) :

Now we need to expand on the idea introduced in (17.21). However, the integrals involved
there are four-dimensional, whereas the propagator is only in the space dimension. Sup-
pose we had a perturbation V , which is switches on a very short time
t1 at time t1 at
which the wave function has evolved to 0 (~r1; t1). During
t1 a new piece of the wave
function is created via

@
t = , i (H + V (~r ; t )) (~r ; t )
t : (17.32)

@t 1 h 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

Here H0 0
t is the change of the incident wave function over the period
t, the term
V
t represents a new piece of the wave function contributed by the perturbation.
Calling this
gives
122

(~r1t1 ) = , hi V (~r1 t1) 0 (~r1t1 )
t1 : (17.33)

After the short perturbation, the new piece of the wave propagates along with the original
wave freely to point 2 according to the free propagator G0

Z
1 (~r2 t2 ) = ih d3r1 G+0 (~r2 t2; ~r1 t1) [ 0 (~r1 t1) +
(~r1t1 )] (17.34)
Z
= 0 (~r2 t2 ) + d3r1 G+0 (~r2t2 ; ~r1t1 ) V (~r1t1 ) 0(~r1 t1)
t1 :

There is a second perturbation for
t2 , which creates yet another piece of the wave
function

(~r2t2 ) = , hi V (~r2t2 ) 1 (~r2t2 )
t2 ; (17.35)

where 1 (~r2 t2 ) is given by (17.35). Following along gives

Z
(~r t) = 0 (~r t) + d3x1
t1 G+0 (x; x1 ) V (x0 ) 0 (x1 ) (17.36)
Z
+ d3x2
t2 G+0 (x; x2 ) V (x2 ) 0 (x2 )
Z
= d3x1
t1 d3x2
t2 G+0 (x; x1 ) V (x1) G+0 (x1 x2 ) V (x2) 0 (x2 ) :

We can imagine this being repeated indenitely. Since the perturbation is acting all the
time, the nite intervals
t must be replaced by an integral over time. The time ordering
(rst
t1 , then
t2 ) is preserved by using the retarded Green function G+. The result
can either be expressed in terms of a wave function
Z
(x) = 0 (x) + d4x G+0 (x; x1 ) V (x1 ) 0(x1 ) +


(17.37)

which is the iterated form of (17.21), or it can be expressed as Green function for the
entire equation (full Green function)

123
 Z
G+(x; x0) = G+0(x; x0 ) + d4x1 G+0(x; x1 ) V (x1 ) G+0 (x1; x0 ) (17.38)
Z
+ d 4 x1 d 4 x 2 G+0(x; x0 ) V (x1 ) G+0 (x1 ; x2) V (x2 ) G+0 (x2 ; x0) +

Eq. (17.39) is again an integral equation for the Green function (second Hilbert identity)
and can be interpreted as a multiple scattering series.
Scattering means a process of change from an initial state i at times t ! ,1 to a nal
state f at t ! 1. In general, the wave functions i; f are time dependent, so we may
consider the asymptotic forms

(~r; t) ,! t!1 i;f (~r

0 ; t0 ) : (17.39)

Starting from i, the forward propagating solution will be

Z
+ (~r; t) = ih d3r0 G+(r; t; r0t0 ) i (~r 0 t0) (17.40)
t!,1

where G+ is the full Green function. The scattering matrix S is then the overlap between
the state i and the state f :

Z
Sfi = tlim
!1
d2r f (~r; t)
+ (~r; t) (17.41)
Z
= ih d3r d3r0 00
f (~r; t) G+ (~r; t; ~r 0; t0 ) i (~r 0t0 ) :
t!1;t0 !,1

Inserting (17.39) for the full Green function gives

Z  Z
Sfi = ih d3r d3r0 
f (~r t) G+0(x; x0 ) + d4x1 G(x; x1 ) V (x1 ) G+0(17.42)
(x1 ; x)
t!1;t0 !,1 
Z
+ d4 x 1 d4x +
2 G0 (x; x1 ) V (x1 ) G+0(x1; x2 ) V (x2 ) G+0(x2 x0 ) +


i (~r
0 ; t0 ) :

This equation for Sfi contains 3- and 4-dimensional integrations. Using the propagator
property (17.31) gives
124
 Z
 (~r d3r0 G+0 (~rn; tn; ~r 0 ; t0) i (~r 0; t0 )
i n ; tn ) = ih
 (17.43)
Z
 d3r  (~r; t) G+0 (~r; t; ~r1; t1) :
f (r1 ; t1 ) = ih f

Here the second equation propagates f backward in time. Inserting (17.44) into (17.43)
leads to
Sfi = fi + hi d4x1 f V (x1 ) i (x1)
Z
(17.44)
+ hi d4x1 d4x2 f (x1 ) V (x1 ) G+0(x1 ; x2) V (x2 ) i(x2 )
Z

+ hi d4x1 d4x2 d4x3 f (x1 ) V (x1 ) G+0(x1 ; x2) V (x2 ) G+0(x2; x3 ) V (x3 ) i (x3 )
Z

=

which describes the multiple scattering form of the S matrix.

17.2 Formal Denition and Green Function for a Free

Particle
The goal is to nd the dening dierential equation for G and solve it explicitly for G0
the free Green function. We start from
Z
(~x 0; t0 ) = i d3 x G(~x 0 ; t0; ~x t) (~x t) (17.45)

which holds for t0 > t. To write this is a way valid for all times t, we write
Z
(t0 , t) (x0) = i d3x G (~x 0; x) (x) (17.46)

where (t0 , t) is the Heaviside function dened by

(
(t0 , t) = 1 for t0 > t : (17.47)
0 for t0 < t
125
The integral representation of the Heaviside function is given by

( ) = lim ,1 Z ,1 d! ei! : (17.48)

!0 2i 1 ! + i
The integration is carried out via integrating in the complex !-plane. For  > 0 the path
can be closed in a half circle with innite radius below the real axis. Here the integrand
vanishes exponentially, and with Cauchy's Theorem the value of the integral is 1.
For  < 0 the path is closed in the upper half plane, and the integral vanishes since the
pole at ,i is now outside the closed integration path. Since ( ) at  = 0 makes a jump
of size 1, the derivative of the -function is given as

d( ) = ( ) = 1 Z 1
d! ei! : (17.49)
d 2 ,1

Let us return to the Green function G(x; x0 ), which is actually a function of x , x0 here,
since the equation is invariant under translations in space and time. Writing the free
Green function as Fourier transform

G0(x , x0 ) =
Z
d3k d! ei~k
(~r,~r 0 ) e,i!(t,t0 ) G (~k; !) : (17.50)
0
(2)4

Applying ih @
@t , H0 (with H0 being the non-relativistic free Hamiltonian) gives

" #
@ , h 2 r2 G (x; x0) =
ih @t
Z
d3 k d! ei~k
(~r,~r 0 ) e,i!(t,t0 ) (17.51)
0
2m (2)4
h
 2 k2 !
6= h ! , 2m G0(~k; !) :

The rst part under the integral is a representation of the -function, thus setting

2 2 !,1
G0(~k; !)  h ! , h2mk (17.52)

will ensure
126
 !
@ , h 2 r2 G (~r , ~r 0 ; t , t0 ) = (~r , ~r 0 ) (t , t0)
ih @t (17.53)
0
2m

which is the required equation for G0. Consider

G0(~r , ~r 0 ; t , t0 ) =
Z
d3k d! ei~k
(~r,~r 0) e,i!(t,t0 ) 1 (17.54)
(2) 4 h ! , h22mk2
and notice that there is a pole in the integration path. We remove the pole by shifting it
into the complex plane

G0 (~r , ~r 0; t , t0 )
Z
d3k ei~k
(~r,~r 0 ) Z
d! e,i!(t,t0 )
= (2)3 (d) h ! + i , h22mk2 : (17.55)

Substitution
= ! , h 2 k2 ,
2m we get for the second integral

Z
d
e,i
(t,t0 ) e,ihk2=2m (t,t0 ) = , i  (t , t0 ) e,ih 2km2 (t,t0 ) : (17.56)
2h
+ ih h

The presence of the Heaviside function identies (17.55) as the retarded function G+0. The
remaining integral in (17.55) gives

" #3
Z
d3k ei~k
(~r,~r 0) e,ih k2 0
2m (t,t ) = i2h m
2 im
e 2h (t,t0) (~r,~r
0 )2
(17.57)
(2)3 (t , t0 )

so that one obtains

" #3
= , hi i2h m
im 0 )2
(t , t0 ) e 2h(t,t0) (~r,~r
2
G+0(x , x0 ) (t , t0) : (17.58)

Comparing (17.58) with (17.52) it is obvious that the Green function has a much simpler
form in momentum space than in coordinate space.
In (17.2) the Helmholtz equation for a vector potential with source term J~ (~r; t)
127
 22 A~ (~r); t = 4c J~ (~r; t) (17.59)

was given as an example of a system with sources (charges, currents) and a Green function
to propagate this eect across space. The operator 4c 22 has a Green function D(x , x0 )
which satises

c 22 D (x , x0 ) = 4 (x , x0 ) : (17.60)
4
Introducing the Fourier transform D(k) by

D (x , x0 ) =
Z
d4k D (k) eik
(x,x0) (17.61)
(2)4
and inserting it into (17.60) gives

c 22 D (x , x0 ) = Z
d4k , c k2 D (k) e,ik
(x,x0 ) : (17.62)
4 (2)4 4

Here all vectors x; k are meant to be 4-vectors, and 22 e,ix
(x,x0) = ,k2 e,ik
(x,x0 ).
This would give the integral representation of 4 (x , x0 ) if (, 4c ) k2 D (k) = 1. More
precisely, let

DF (k) = , 4c k21i : (17.63)

The i is again introduced to avoid the pole in the integration (17.62). Inserting this
expression for D (k) into (17.61) gives

DF (x , x0 ) = , 4c
Z
d3k ei~k
(~r0~r 0) Z 1 d! e,!(t,t0 ) : (17.64)
(2)3 ,1 2c !2
c2 , ~k 2 + i

Here k2 = !c22 , ~k2 was used. The !-integral has two poles in the complex plane, at
! = ck , i and ! = ,ck + i.
128
For t > t0 the contour of integration has to be closed in the lower half plane to have
convergence in the !-integration. This encloses the right-hand pole and gives

DF (x , x0 ) = 4ci d3k eI~k
(~r,~r 0) 1 e,kc(t,t0 ) :

Z

(2)3 2k (17.65)

For t < t0, the contour must be closed in the upper half plane, so that the left-hand pole
is in the integration path, leading to

= , 4i d3k ei~k
(~r,~r 0) 1 ekc(t,t0 ) :

Z
DF (x , x0 ) c (2)3 ,2k (17.66)

It may seem to violate causality to have a non-zero contribution for t < t0; however, the
wave in (17.66) has a negative frequency. (A wave of the form ei~k
~r + !t travels in the
opposite direction to ~k.)
Thus, the solution DF (x , x0 ) contains both, wave traveling forward and backward
in time. If the source represented by J n is another charged particle, the two dierent
solutions can be represented by the following diagrams:

x1 x2 x1 x2
x2 x1

Figure 17.1 Diagrams corresponding to t1 > t2 and t1 < t2 , which can

be represented by a single Feynman diagram when the propagator DF is used.

If the full propagator DF is used, one may never know whether the radiation went from
left to right or vice versa, since both diagrams are included over all possible t1; t2 . DF is
often called the Feynman propagator.
The corresponding contribution to the S -matrix for these diagrams assuming non-identical
particles with wave functions (x); (x) would be
129
 Sj = hi
Z
d4x1 d4x2 
f (x1 ) J^ i (x1 ) DF (x1 , x2 ) f (x2 ) J^  + i(x2 ) : (17.67)

17.3 Green Function for the Dirac Equation

Starting from the Dirac equation in the form

(  p , mc)  = 0 (17.68)
we introduce a Green function S (x , x0 ) which satises

(  p , mc) S (x , x0 ) = 4 (x , x0 ) : (17.69)
The Dirac equation including an electromagnetic potential A is given by

(  (p , e A ) , mc) = 0 (17.70)

and the integral form of (17.70) is given by
Z
(x) = 0 (x) + d4x0 S (x , x0)  e A (x0 ) : (17.71)

Of course, is a four-component spinor, thus S must be a 4  4 matrix. Otherwise,

(17.71) is formally identical with (17.19), and the arguments which lead ultimately to the
S -matrix are not changed. Introducing the Fourier transform leads to

S (x , x0) =
Z
d4k e,ik
(x,x0) S (k) : (17.72)
(2)4
Applying this operator in (17.69) leads to

( p , mc) S (x , x0) =

Z
d4k e,ik
(x,x0) ( h k , mc) S (k) : (17.73)

(2)4
130
If we let

( h k , mc) S (k) = 1 ; (17.74)

then the left-hand side of (17.73) because the integral representation of the four-dimensional
-function. It should be noted that (17.74) is a matrix equation, so that the expression
for S (k) is a matrix inverse

S (k) = ( h km , mc),1 : (17.75)

Because of

( h k , mc) ( h k + mc) = h 2k2 , m2 c2 (17.76)

the inverse is easily obtained as

( h k , mc),1 = h2 k2 mu + 2 mc


: (17.77)
h k , m c2
The numerator contains the -matrices; however, the denominator is purely a number.
In analogy to (17.63), we dene

S F (k ) =  h k + mc (17.78)
h 2k2 , m2 c2 + i
and
S F (x , x0 ) =
Z
d4k e,ik(x,x0) S F (k) : (17.79)
(2)4

Again, the factor i displaced the poles o the real axis so that the integral is well dened.
Again, the expression is dierent for the cases x0 > x00 and x0 < x00 . Consider the k0
integration in (17.79)

k0 e,ik0(x0 ,x00) ei~k
(~r,~r 0) h ( 0k0 , ~
~k) + mc : (17.80)

h 2k02 , (h2~k 2 + m2 c2) + i
131
This integration has two poles in the complex k0 plane at

s
k0 =  ~k 2 + m 2c  r ~ 2i 2 2
2 2
(17.81)
h 2 k +h2m c
=  Ek  i :
h c
For x0 , x00 > 0 we must close the contour in the lower half plane, i.e., we pick the
residue at Ehck , i. For x0 , x00 < 0, we close in the upper plane and get the residue
at Ehck + i. In the rst case (x0 , x00 > 0), the residue is

1 e, i 0
h Ek (t,t )
1 (hc 0 E , h ~
~k + mc) ei~k
(~r,~r 0) (17.82)
k
(2)4 2Ek

and thus the expression for S F

SF = i
Z
d3k 1 (hc 0 E , h ~
~k + mc) ei~k
(~r,~r 0) e, hi Ek (t,t0 ) : (17.83)
k
(2)3 2Ek

Similarly, for t0 < t, we get

SF = i
Z
d3 1 (,h c 0 E , h ~
~k + mc) ei~k
(~r,~r 0) e hi Ek (t,t0 ) : (17.84)
k
(2) ,2Ek
3

Eq. (17.83) is comparable to (17.31), which states

Z
(~r; t) = ih d3r0 G+ (~r; t; ~r 0 t0) (~r 0 t0) (17.85)

and G+ propagates forward in time. G+ can also be written as (see (17.28) with t > t0):

G+(~r; t; ~r 0 t0) = , hi

X Ej (t,t0 )
j (~r) j (~r 0) e, hi : (17.86)
j

132
Both (17.28) and (17.83) propagate forward in time, since t > t0 and the time dependent
factors can be collected as

e, hi Ek (t,t0 )
e, hi Ek t0 =


e, hi Ek t :
   (17.87)

The second form of S F , (17.84), propagates negative energy states: E = ,Ek backwards
in time, since t < t0. This can be physically interpreted as an anti-particle propagating
forward in time. Thus, the propagator SF contains both, particles and anti-particles,
propagating forward in time.

133