ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY By C.V. Durell, 4. 18, 2. net Key, 66. net ‘or the mathematical specialist this is fen invalunble introduction to abstact geometry.’ -Mathematizal Gazette eee darian aie For full details of the many standard mathematical texthooks by Mr. Durell please write ta: G, BELL & SONS LTD ‘York House, Portugal Street, London _ ELEMENTARY _ COORDINATE _ GEOMETRY By C. V. DURELL, M.A. LONDON, G. BELL AND SONS LTD 196049 Ate {999 covemwout © 1000 wy wit, aND cons, ax York House, Portugal Street London, W.62 SIA.) DUR Ste 28326740] ‘Printed in Great Britain by Rishard Coy and Compan Bungay, Sule ma PREFACE book provides a course of coordinate goometey which mosts the Srements of the General Certifnte of Baedtion snd examinations ar standacd, Tt is divided into two parts: |Past I, Advanced Level; Part Il, Scholarship Level. art Lis available separately. character of an introduction to analytical goomotry which ets modem conditions has heen diseussed in great detail in the orbissued in 1953 by the Mathematical Association on the Teaching Geometry in Schools. Pull uso bas boon made of its recom sions; for example, the ellipse is introduced as the orthogonal tion of a circlo, transforming the locus 2—a cos, y=asin 0 9 Torus #—a cos 6, y=) ain 6 by shortening the ordinates in the instead of by the focus-directrix definition, thus linking up diameters and tangents of the ellipse with those of the in fact the historical order of development. fon may be ealled to the following features: sion, it must be recognised that the pupil cannot handle ‘weapon successfully until he has acqmired some facility in the mental processes, on which the use of coordinato. methods ‘Accordingly inthe early chapters there are numerous ls designed to enable the pupil to write dawn readily equations io and distance ions algebraically, and conversely to intorpzet algebralo relations -zeomotrical language. Tho quick-revision papers are intended to ve the same purpose; also the summary of formulas and equations ld bo used for sevsion a well as for referencs __ (4) Measurement of lengths of steps by directed numbers receives lod discussion, By this means, formulas of a general nature in which a figure is situated with reference to the coordinate 28, Tt is then reasonable for a pil to recall a formula by using: a ‘in which the axes aro taken in the simplest position,“ PREFACE (Gi) Among the variety of methods and ideas to which the interest and value of the subject is due, the uso of parameters on socount of its novelty calls for spectal emphasis. This is illustrated extensively Ihy properties of the parabola and reotangular hyperbola, and moze ellotively than by tho geometry of the cielo, For this reason, unless prevented by examination requirments, the systematic treatment of tho eiale in Chaptor 5 may well be postponed till after th discussion of the loci = af, y=2at and z= ct, y=ojt in Chapters 7 and 8, (iy) Some incidental revision of algebraie proocases may be necessary, ssuch as calculations by equal ratios, properties of symmotrio fanetions of roots of equations and use of undotermined ooelfcients in factorization For most pupils, however, the algebra courss at this stage haa not included the use of determinants; consequently there is much to he said for delaying their introduction until the pupil realises that theis tise saves him trouble and lightens the burden on his memory, as for ‘exnmple in the discussion of the general equstion of the socond degree, (+) Examples are given which compare geometrical and algebraic forms of proof; pupils should be encouraged to use whichever ia the simpler in any particular problom or when appropriate combine the ‘pwo lines of approach in a single solution, (vi) The distinction betwoen scholarship level and advanced level is indicated mainly by an inorense in dificulty of applications, ‘This should not involve the elaborate algebraic manipulation of the old-fashioned analytical conies but calls for the introduction of more genetal and more powerfull methods, and these form the instructive subject matter of Part I as indicated by the details set out in the Table of Contents, ‘The author acknowledges with thanks permission to include questions ext in the examinations for the General Certificate of Education by the following bodies: Cambridge Looal Examinstions Syndicate, Senate of the University of London, Joint Matriculation Board of the Norther, Universities, Delegates of the Oxford Looal Examinations, and the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examinations Board; such questions ‘axe marized respectively ©, 1, N, O, OC in the toxt. o.¥.D, July 1959 CONTENTS ‘Peurave PART T (Chapters 1-11) Wonaos, Ansunviarions, Buasimszany Fouxueas ann aqvarioxs AT Basssio~ oF 4 Locos i » Oe nnn ci, | mints as ce ae rae vatars ae ee ia a Thits, p. 8; length of step, p. 8; displacement in plane, p. 10; ae et meee oe Sea cee a oe ee Bie ateen ecg bipudeieert! ee ea eee Pe eG iacanemna! es a pce caf ents a ee fo ea BES mid-point and itege 475 peitve nd negative ration p48, ontte of mam, weighted averages, p. 48 cnttond of Feige p80; Mestace! Gromer, p62 magn Yviii CONTENTS 5 Cnn : ere ualion of ciclo, p58 point- cl p. 58, goncal equation sf second degra, p94; tnia for esta, p. Bh equasion of teagant and matron, p. 8) condita for taageney, pr hora of conte, p50; cotton tangents. 80" cho wah von mid-point 00; angle of inerseaton of carver p62 rchogonal vile, p. €2, ontnce of isle. 3 inva yin hs rove opin ty natin ain onal cil, p66: imiting points, p. 085 proparioe ot tana cle p70; adil coat, 7 6 Pananmenrc Nonanion 2 ahs Inierecting lines and curves, p. 74; tongoney and equal 00s, P. 74; pnrameicic equations, p. 7 plotting points, p73 enbie curve, p. 78 reota of quadratic, cubie, quartic ‘equations, p. 80; | equation af chord, p. 80; Sy LhSy—0, L-+KL'=0, p. 83; lines from origin to commen points of fine and curve, p, 84; cireymeirele of triangle with given sides, p. 83) ees. Pes ucaia e en at fan ee Aas cae, Pra ane eee tae err G ee Ce ee eee Secu ee nd? a ane ee eee a eet, eee (08 ON. p.88, focus, 8 Ter Recraxcoran Hyvmmnora . i a=, ymolt, aymch p. 110; form of curve, p 110; seympiotes, centre, dismneter, p. 111; vertios, tanaveroo fend eonjusnte axes, p. 113; intorpretations of 2y—e, p11 sinyt=af, p. 118; conjugate byperbolas, p. 113; "gonctal equation, pp. 114, 115; change of origin, p. 115; chord, tangent, p. 117; " tangent-rule, p. 118; normal, p. 118, Parametric equations for a?—y—a, pp. 119, 196; “wae of equal ratios, p. 119; asymptote and tangent, p. 126; elon cf contset, p. 122; pole, poles, p. 198; incite, outside of ‘eurve, p. 128; conjuguto diameters, p. 124; chord with given 1mid-point, pp. 124, 126; lengths of conjugate diameters, p. 125s ‘tangents parallel to dinmetar, p. 125; proportion of fsymptotes, p. 127; crthocentre of inseribed triangle, p. 128; coneyelio points, p. 129, 8 os 88 a0 9: Tae Buurse CONTENTS ‘Osthogonal projection, p. 152; parallels, equal ratios, areas, P. 183} auxiliary cielo, p. 184; major, minor axos, vertices, diamoter, eeventrie angle, p. 188; tafgent, p. 130: Conjugate diameters, p. 136; area of ellipee, p. 137; proofs by projection, p. 187; Mandatd and general equation, p. 1305 hange of crigin, p. 140; parametric equations, p. 141; tan 40-1 in (ae0a 0, dsin 8}, p. 141; chord, tangent, p. 142: tangeney conditions, pp. 143, 148; " normal, p. 143; chord, tangent with eccentrie angles, p. 14; pole, polsr, p. 147; ‘eonjugste points, p. 147; inside of ellipse, p. 148; chord with given mid-point, p. 150; conjugate diameters, pp. 150, 151; ‘Ure of eocontric angla:, p. 151; propertios of eonjuguts limeters, p= 152; miscellaneous examples, p- 165 “Foous sp Drsxersrx z ea SP-ne.PM, p. 166; focus, dinecteis, eocentsieity, p. 167: focal distances, focal chord, latua rectum, p. 187; standard notation, p. 1585 general equation, p. 158; pole of focal chord, p. 100; snglat at foous, p. 160; Viseotors of ZSPS', p. 161; ¥, ¥” Ke on auxiliary oirvle, SY.S'Y'—b,p. 161; SP : SY-OU +b; SP.S'P ~OD%,p.102: director circle, p, 164; r1+e.0050)—1, p. 104 confocal syater, poles of a given Tine, p. 165: (p, *) equation, p. 165 [Tam Hyrzenona. Cae Ses art tha Gcthogonal projeation, p. 168; ellipse and hyperbola, p. 165 formn of eurve, p. 108; trunsvorse axis, vortioos, p. 160: PH PK constant, p. 100; ‘seymptotea, p. 170; eo, Yaai(er1), p, 110; SP—0.PM, p. Vil; foous, irectris, oscontrisity, p. 171; tan a=bia, cmseo 2, p. 171; euziliary circle, p. IT; | SP~S'P=2a, fooal chords, Tabi, p. 17% general equation, p. 172; parametric ‘equations, chord, tangent, p. 174) graduation of turve, p. 175; | asymptote as limit of tangent, p. 170; got coutml, tangoncy, polo and polar, p. 177; chord with Kiven mid-point, conjugate diameters, conjugate bypor- bbolas, p. 180, 7, 18% (23008, b tan 0}, a tan O,b 008). 181; propertias of asymptotea, pp. 182-184; foon! properties ‘5 for ellipse, p. 188; auxiliary circle, p. 186; direotor ciscle, p. 187; confocals, p. 187; standard notation, p. 188 Quick Ruvistox Parens, QR. 1-28 . : i QR. 1-8, (Ch. 1-9) QR. 9-10, (Ch, 1-5); QR. 17-2, (Ch. 8); QR, 23-28, (Ch. 1-11) ‘Taer Pareus. Papers 1-22 Fiaeedlte ante Papers 1-8, (Ch. 1-8}; Papers 9-16, (Ch, 1-8); Papers 17-22, (Oh. 1-11) 133 156 190 198x CONTENTS PART IL (Chaptors 12-17) 12 Panes oy Linas. toni oN 8k Determinant notation, p. 200; ooneirrence, p. 209; properties of determinants, pp. 210, 211; ‘use of determinants, equation of line, collinearity, ares, elimination, p. 212) at +2hay by =0, p. 216; harmonic division, ab'+ba 248, p, 217; angle-bisootor, p. 218) aa they toy? +2ge+2fy 4o=0, p. 220; lines joining ‘origin to intersections of line and carve, p. 222 18 Guyana: Procmsns , e Section of a cone, p. 225; foul, eccentricity of section, p- 226; parabolic section, p. 227; general equatinn, p. 298; ab alt, ‘change of origin, contre, p. 228; A, p, 230; rotation of exon D. 230; ad2h8, 120, p. 290; equations and lengths of axes, p. 231; 4 =0, sxymaptotes, p, 282, ab—m, p. 234 air of lines, p, 295; invariants, ah, ah, p. 295; ratior ‘equation for m2* 4/21, p, 238; tongenta from a point, p. 298 tangent st a point, p. 239; extension of definition of polar, p. 239; conjugato points, lines, p. 240; director Siete, p. 240; ZSPP=ZS'PI", p. 210; Apollonius’ hyperbola, p. 241; r-quadmtic for det + Bhay byt 1. p. 243, conjugate dismoters, p. 248; Newton's theorem, p. 243 14 Coosprxaras i fl Oblique axes, p. 246; transformation, obliqne to seetengular, p. 240; equation of line, p. 247; — ratio thoorom, p. 247; central conic, p. 247; angle between lines, perpendicular, p. 248; distance, (rs, Yx) (tm alr pe 248% sizele, p. 248; | obange of origin, p, 24 tle, p. 2515, pet-+qy!=1, p. 252; Newton's theorem, p. 25% oy I, p- 258; polar coordinates, p. 255: line, cinsle, p. 258, Url te cos 8, p. 257; Interseotions of eurves in polars, p. 2 Tocus and envelope, p. 2505, 6 cos I=), p. 20 inversion, pp. 262-9 Tine and eitele, p. 263 comxal circles, p. 263; | snglo of intersection of enves, 264 lengths of lines, p. 264; Ptolemy's theorem, p. 263, 16 Tux Gmommat Kovarios « a CAN Katio-cquation for S=0, p. 260; abbreviations Samp. 2 4, % 1, Sy, D207; SS=S*, p. 267; tangent, polar, conjugate points, p. 207; nguadnutio, p. 268; chord With given mid-point, conjugute diameters, p. 208; principal axes, p. 209; anyrnptoten, p. 269; Si,8—Sy8y, p. 2005 properties of eofuctors of 2, pp. 271, 272 Deadly... 42% nna... =0,'p, 27% pole, conjugate lines, p. 278; director civele, direoisix of parabola, p. 21%; chord, tangent, 1. 298, 200 6 208 CONTENTS ‘eqations for foci, p. 274; BOF? ma, etey p. 274) ‘runtion of directrices, p.275; duality, p.277; homogeneous point and line coordinates, p. 27% Be0, p. 278; Pos and line at infty. 298; | point equation from Tne-equation, p. 278; conie-envelope, point-envelope, p. 281; envelopes, p 282; envelope of Hino by uso of (i) caleulus, {i aymumsteic functions, pp. 288, 285 Sysmmns or Cones nic ael Veh ra "Abineviations, L, L', Ly, 8, 8, eto. p- 287s ‘SHES’ theorem, p. 287; SHELL, =0, Ph, +1L,0,=0, 8 +ED3=0, ete, p. 288; 'S-HEIL—0, ete. threo point contact, p. 280; circle of ourvature, evolute, p. 200; | 8-+4T"=0, four point contact, P. 200; oman chords of eirelo and conic, p. 208: ‘eccentric angles of coneyclio points, p. 208; principal axis OF S=0, p. 294; rectangular hyperbolon through four points, p-204; Apollonius’ hyperbola, p. 205 ELD), aye €12. p. 297; degenerate conicwonvelope, p. 207; B/E thoorom, p. 297; ¥ baja =0, 204 bh, ~0, p. 208 Bay Diy Dy ott, P29; D222, p. 208; director vieles of S2EE/—0, p. 299; centrerlocus of conies through four points, p- 301; Pascal, Brianction, pp. 301, 303; | concurrent normals, p. 904; eccentric angles of fect, p. 304 | Miscextaxzous Cunvas f Collinesr pointe an s curve, p. $07; point of infexion, p. 208; fensp, p. $08; cusp, node, double point, pp. 810, 311; equation, ‘of tangent by sso of caleulus, p. $125 multiple point, p. 313; proportion of chard and tangent, p. 810 2T 07 oe ee ee ae | QR. 29-34, (Ch. 1-13); QR. 35-40, (Ch. 1-15); QE, A146, (Ca. 17) Gses Pare. Papers 13-90. ws Papecs 3-98, (Ch. 1-18}, Papers 29-36 (Ci. 1-17) Norarion, Annanvearions, Fonscsas axp Favasions (Ca. 12-17) 302 spe (Part Land Past 11). a7 re a eS A SO Oi ecendPMENTARY FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS Notation and Abbreviations. In the following list of formulas, Ret a osu) desea s emelnnies Py PoP Te oes nei ene a ag eo Beit eh cies by parent equim mt tarss oro ace) ths Pes cnc > acer (a omg the saved ms GPP ct. Silay br vail 1. Distance: P,P, = v{(r,—2,)*+(ve—vi)"} pe from (2, y) to (x +rcos6*, y+rsin 0°) is of directed ‘it drétion making & ith ZR pair pM pis ast tn mye Forms of Bquation ofa Line! ets cuigse tem one pa fe fete: pdeetty aechg Pee = epee p25 “(iid) Gradicnt m, intercept eon Oy: y=mz+o. B25 i oP, Eat, mr, 2B adh, na {y) Intorospta a, b on Ox, Oy: z/a+y/b—1. B26 By perp tee foray 2m Pp cach pmo. pas Gh peer ania reren) faaial' oa tas ete cheat ey ida pencicnlar imi cenateortedeet yp 28-31 ir of Lines through Origin: 29° thoyy!=0, 98>. p. Al : Tapbeo, Be ts coacaast @hcar erg ear te te tan 6? = (2 V(h4—abjy(a-+6). ea he ines con bo writen, ine 0, 9 moO, See Sree ccrs eal Ero anle¢*beewern thn hina, tan Lom) emg pe th of Perpendicular from (ry) to lin (econ ay, sin ap). p88 length = lary +by, 46)) Vat +b. poaT sifadye mw) tsa) +20—Val). p89 Ratlo, (i) Mid-point of PyPs is (Him, +aaldion ty,)} PAT (8) FPG, ») divides P,—> P, in ratio myimy, m,+m,£0, meta, mM pa— xiv ELEMENTARY FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS AL. Porms of Equation of a Circle: (i) Centro af origin, radius r: 2? +y2—r8, (i) Gentro at (5, 2}, radius re APA (yb), lee Dig a OH le ie iv) a8-+y* £298 +3fy-te=0, g* ft —e20, contre (—g. “f), rads igh j#—0), ‘ lw) Pointcirele, contre (—2, As fa-tu+y +0. (03) General equation, ax +2hzy + by!-+ 2g fy +0=0, represents a circle iPa—bfO and h=0, g/t aes>0, 12. (i) Square of length of tangent to xt-iy9 4299-4 2fy = from a point Ti, y°) outside elscle eqaals by hae! + 8h 0. (i) Power af point (x, 2’) equals 2 y*42¢2' +2)y' be 43, Tangency. (}) The tangent to 2*4+y*-+2p¢ +Yfy $em0 at (2p gi) ond the chord of contact of tangents from (ty, yy) 8 any-tays-tole-tay) bly +) +e=0. (il) y=me sry (1b!) touches 2 yt = (ii) Circles, eontres C,, Cy, radii #3, ry toueh one another if 0,0, +7, (extra! contact) oeifC,0,—r,~7, intemal A PEALE bond, atiyty2y'e by 4emO ae orthogonal citties Bgy"4ayrnece™ 15. Coaxal Circles, Lot Smal byt oye + 8fyy toy and Sey 2p tha +0, 8) S,—84=0 is tho radical axis of 5,0, $j=0. ) S,-+hi,—0, b+ —1, iso cirelo coaxal with 8-0, &,=0, (il) TEL=te-+my nis the mdical axis of 8,=0, 5,0, any circle conxal with 8,0, 8,0 can bo denoted by. SitRL—0 oF Sy+kE=0, (iv) Circles of w coaxal systam ean bo denoted by ehiyl +2ye temo ‘whens ¢ bus the tame value for cach circle of the aystom. 0. 16. Concurrent Lines, Let E: “Any line chrowh the point ‘oan be denoted by L-PEE'=0, 17, Lines through Origin, Ef key} ov ao" thay." L2p2 4B) 40-=0 at P, 0, fhe th 0,00 argv ‘OY the Karten aioe (aet-+Bhay bby?) + (22 +2fy)ile + my) +olla-+my)*=0, “po kay tr and Limp'e iy ‘intetsection of La and 1/0 respect toa +-y8 29a fy +e. 81, 59 p.6d p8t ELEMENTARY FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS — xv Roots of an Equation. p80 PUG) Tet te are the roots of af? 42t-+e—0, 1:44) ifea: bie, fi) I ty fy fy aro the roots of ab +bit La +d=0, Tidy: Bhiaihimat bie: —d Te taste fae ty ate the Tooke of att 4b cP di. TiEh Bhte Big Gtitste et bit dee pola. r=att, y=2at or y? dar. 88 Ghord ty, & 2H blaly rah ps8 g, Tangency. (i) Tangent at tis 2h 406)*—0. p98 {GH Tho tangent to y2—dar at (oy y,) od the ohord of contact BY of the tangents from (2593) 8 YYi—2ae+e) Pp. 9%, 100, Yo rsr-tajm touches y= 4. Det jlameters. {i) The mid-point of @ chord which maken an Susie 8 with Or lien on the diameter y~ 22 cot 6" p. 103 Gi) y=2at bisects chords parallel to tangent at (ai?, Zak). p, 108 {ii} The chord whose mid-point is (evs ¥) i tara y,t Bary. p. 103 mals, (9) Nommal at fis hety=abt+2a%, p08 I) Thy to ty sve the foot of the norma from (Bs Bi,—0, Eelam (2a Men tthe p. 106 107 p10 peut gency. () The tangent at fis 2-i8y —2oh put i) The tangent to D> 0. po le7 40, (i) Eccentricity ¢, ¢> 1; =a%et—1, TDi). pp. 170, 172 ) Foci, (:ae, 0}; directrices, a= sale Tibjamtana, emsve x. poll fi) Focal Distances: SP = (cx ~a),8P= +1er-ba). pin 41. (i) yorses y=m'z are conjugate diameters if mn'=biJa. p. 180, (i) Pa eee 8, b can 0) on atfa*—y8/04 we] and Qe tan 0, see 0} ‘on conjuzsio lyperbola 2a*—ytb%m =I are ends of conjugate diameters pis 42, Parametric Equations. zja:yjb:1=(L42):2:(—1), p. 174 Chord ifs is (ala + Hala (ts b4a)y/0-+ (tate) = 0. pelts CHAPTER 1 EQUATION OF A LOCUS 1. A New Weapon, Many problems in geometry enn be solved ‘easly by using the methods of algebra snd trigonometry then by ee geometrical exgument, Sach methods are valuable, but i oven more efoctive hen the fini work: with graphs ia ex- ed and combined with the use of geomettieal properties previously Descartes disovered, more than 800 years ago, hove this tdone. The object of this book is to explain his method, often this powers to solve. Coordinates, ‘The method for describing the position of a [in a plane by means of coordinates is used in elementary algebra mnnovtion with Jocus-graphs. ne Iv Fic. gh & given point 0, called tho origin, are drayn two dioular lines 2/0, 4/Oy, called the x-axis and y-axis, and ace graduated so tht stops in the senacs O—> 2 and O—> y aro gaoured by positive numbers and steps in the reverse senses O—> a O-> yf are measured by negative numbers. With the data of JI, A is the point (-+5, +1) and B is the point (—4, 41); this ns that, starting from O, we can reach a by a step 5 units x-wards e sense 0 —> # and then a step 1 unit y-wards in the sense O— ean reach # by a step 4 units z-wards in the sense O—> a and stop 1 unit y-yards in tho senso O— y. Similarly, we can, © from 0 by a step 4 units 2-wards in the sense O—» a! and then 2 units y-wards in tho sense O— y/, and ao © is the point =4—2), Similarly, D is the point (+5, ~2). 12 EQUATION OF A Locus ns 1.3. The numerical examples in 1.2 aro included in the following general statement: Téa point P is reached from the origin 0 by a step J units awards and then a step & units y-wards, whare h and ke are directed (positive or negative) nunabers, ‘iu called the x-coordinate or abscissa of P, and iin called the y-coordinate or ordinate of P. ‘For convenience we often write ‘P(h, 2)’ to denote the point P whose coordinates are (h, £), and we say that: P is the point (A, E). ‘The x-coorinate is always named first. ‘Thos the position of @ point P in the plane is fixed previsely when ‘ts coordinates (h, &) referred to given rectangular Cartesian axes On, y'Oy are known, where h and h ave divected numbers, that is, ‘Positive or negative numbers or zero, aeucdrant | avnérant ci (he) sMlowsdrant | ehquadrt ia. Th Fig. 2, the point ¥ les on 2/0z andl 0 ita y-coordinate is zo; hence, with tho data of Big. 2, isthe point (f, 0). Siuilarly in Pig tho point flies on v/Oy and 20 its z-coondinate is zero; hence, with the data of Fig. 2, is the point (0, 2). Tn particular, the origin O is the point (0, 0) ‘The letters, y are often used in place of, to denote thez-coondinate and y-coordinate of any point P;-wa then speate of the point Plc, 9), ‘where # and y are themselves directed numbers, ‘The axes x'Oz, ¥/Oy divide the plane into four regions. The region in which a point P Ties when its abscissa and ordinate ave both ponitive is called the frat quadrant, ‘The reinaining regions, twming countereloctewise’ about 0, aro called in order the sovond, third and fourth quadrants as shovn in Fig, 2 Oral Work. 1, Show in a sketch on plain paper the points, (1, 0). BOO, 2), C{—2, 0}, Do, -1), E{-2, 8), P, —2), 61-3, —5). 2. Show in e diagram the signs of « und yf the point P(x, y) lies in the first, second), third, fourd quadrant respectively. LINRAR FUNCTION 3 2, he gram ear Funetion, I'y denotes the function Lr~2, the ean sane elation betweon ceponding Yue f= any can ety mating a table of value ia fable of values is constructed Tealoulating the value of y, sponding to any chosen value of 2, y= 12-2 * ‘able shows that the points 9, 5), 0. —2). 2,1), (4, 4) lie on he graph, and other such points ean be a8 before : > An point Pj, 7) whose ooordinates satisfy the equation Pelee ileal int of the graph. ‘racy, if P(x, y) is any point of the graph, its coordinates s mus the graph is the complete Tocus of @ point P(z, y) where a and y ssubject to the law, y= 142-2. For this reason, this equation is | the equation of the locus, Tho equation may also be written in the form Br dy—4-0 Q raph in Fig, 3 is often called the graph of y= l4x—2 or the graph of 32-29-40. Pi nr Glows om experione tnt ho grophf ony funtion of he first degree, a+b, where a, b are constants, is. Tino, and £0 a of a of the first degreo ia called Jincar. This important will be proved in Chaptor 8, but for the present it will be |. Henve 3x—2y~4=0 ia the oquation of the line-loous in |B, which cuts 20x, #/Oy at A, B. Ties on Or, its y-coordinate is zez0, and so A may be taken int (2, 0) ray Bala 0) ies on the line whom equation ie 82—29— 4-0; a1}; +. As the point (IB, 0). dy, B may be taken aa the point (0, 4), where 0-2)—4= 0; 3; +. Bis the point (0, —2). i e lengths, + 13, ~ 2, of OA, OB ave called the intercepts of the line ‘the axes Or, Oy. isfy 0,4 EQUATION OF A LOCUS ns 1.5. Quadratic Function. If y denotes the fanotion Y2*— 2-6), tthe graph which shows the relation between corresponding values of # and y can be drawn by making a table of values aa before, This gives a curve shaped ss in Fig. 4; it is tho loous of a point P(e, y) ‘where z and y vary subject to the law gaits). a) ‘For this reason, equation (1) is called the equation of the curve. ‘The equation may also be written in tho form Pret The point ox points ifany, where the curve meets 20x ean be written, in the forza (i, 0) sinoo tho y-coordinate is zero. Tut the point (B, 0) ios on the eurve whose equation in Sy=a*—2—~6 if, and only if, =A h-8 = (hee 2-3) ~2ork= +3, Hones ia Hig. 4, is the point (—2, 0) and B ia tho point (8, 0) Similarly, if the curve meets y'Oy at C, the coordinates of C ate of the forma (0, 8); hence as before the equation of the eurve 3y=2— 2-6 is satisfied by the values 20, y= k; 3k=0-8, thatis, bm—2, 4, 0 is the point (0, —2), Suppose in Fig, 4 that P is the point of the curve whose abscissa is equal to 2; ten the ordinato of P is obtained by eubstituting 2 for x jn the equation of the ourve; 2 By= 28-3. =: Pi the point (2, — 1), Suppose in Wig. 4 that P, is a point of the curve whose ondinate equal f0 2; then the abscissa of P, is obtained hy substituting 2 for y in ‘the equation of the curve; 4 Onat—2—6, thatis, 2t—z~12-0; 2 @+3)@-A)m0; 2 2=—Sora= +4, ‘Thus there are toro points on the curve whose ordinates are equal to 2, namely P,(4, 2) and Py(~3, 2), soo Fig. 4, i QUADRATIC FUNCTION 5 Notation, It is oflen more convenient to denote the fealar positions of a variable point P of a locus by Ps, ete. than by dilforent letters P,Q, R, fe. their es may then be denoted by (x, #3), (a Yah (tay ys) ete- ib ealled a suffix notation, customary to replace the phrase, the curve whose equation is Hit-2-6). by the abbrevistion, the curve y=H{2*—2—6). y. we spoak of the line, y=1}2—2, in place of the phrase, the whose equation is y=14r—2. ‘Phe Parabola. The curve whose equation is y— d(ct— 2-8) pecial case of the curve whose equation is yaxth bate, where face given constants; itis called s parabola. (i il parabolas have the same general shape but con occupy various relative to tho axes «Ox, Oy. For example, the curve 2-2-6) in Fig, 4 and the carve y=(z—~2)(z—7) in Fig. & p. 6, s both eoncave upwards, but the curve y= 10x—z¥ in Fig. 7, p. 0 is downwards, EXERCISH 1 (Class Discussion) 5 representa tho line PyABP,, £2; N,Py, NsP, aro tho oxdinites of HE ON,=8, ind XP. Hey, nay he point (8, vs indy ee eee mee ava His ihe iercepst 04, 08 cn ito pe Which of tho points, (00, 47), =12), (40, —28), (8, §) lie on the eh . ‘Find tha intercepts OA, OB mole by tho line on the axct Fon a sketch tho position of the line relative to 2'Oz, 9/Oy, IEP, ia the point (2, my), find ye TEP, isthe point (x, 4), find 2y It P; is the point (5, y), find yy the point (rm —8), indy. f tho points {—10, 12), (25, 40), (88, —10) le on the line6 EQUATION OF A Locus fs 3. Hig, 8 represents the line PyAP\EP, 22-51% Py P, ‘the points (24. 4), (aa Yale Wa Ys) . ined Ths, find (I P, i tho point (0, ye co point ( ¥ (3) Find the intorepts 04, 0B on tho axon, ea (ci) Which of tho points (—2, 2), (20, =) ls on At TF the poine (2, o} ew on AB, find the value ofe 4. Fig. 7 ropresents the parabola OP,Pyd, yz —2t; NP, NP, azo tho oxinates of Pay Bae (i) ON, =2, find NP Fro. 7 Fis. 8 (i) ION, Gnd NP, (ii) If 27.2, —=34, find OF. iv) Fina’ oa, (») Find tho conditions for the following points to lio on the M1, as (—1, 8), (e 20) 24), (6, 20. 5. Bg. 8 represents the parsbole CAP BP,, y= (2 —D}e~ are the points (21, ys), (2, va). et ae Otek tal ys a (i) Her=9, tnd ys é are ats, is) Find 04, 08, 068 (0) lad tho online sor thofilowingpoinetoliconthe |e parable (15.2), (0,5) (8) 2.28) @ 0. , Example 1. Stato the conditions for the line y=te-4e 10 pas Shrough Pj, 8) and Q¢—2, 8). Hance ind the equation ot ths line FO. The line y—Ea 6 pasos teough Pi, 3) i and only i, tho equation fatisted by 2m ¥, 3 that is se p saint tah ey Smilasy, the line y= pans trough Q(—2, 6) if and only veome ae ey) Fu. 8 Solve equations (1), (2) for 8, 22, the equation of PQ ‘that i, ‘The reader should illastrato the reault by s sketeb, EQUATION OF A LOCUS a EXERCISE 2 “Mtwstate the ecamplea in this exorcise by freehand sketches. | Write down the conditions that the line y=be-+o passes through fd) and Q12, —5). once find the equation of the line PQ. Write down the conditions (hat the parabola y=ax*tbate through the origin Q and the points 4(5, 0}, P{0, 3). anes find ation of tho parabola Nica down the conditions that tho line yfa-be passes through nO and the point Pd, 7). Heneo find tho equation of OP. [Virty down the eondtions tbat the ine Zt pawes trough fo) ai, =n). Honco tnd the equation of AB. Tx vatiablo point Pix, y) moves go that ite sbacines is always equal g Desorbe the locus of P. Describe also tke loeus whose equation ‘Ti equation of the locus of a wernble point Pleo) is y= ‘Disribo each locus 7, Din the condition that sho porsbola. 2—oy* pees through the 1B B). Hence find (ie equation ofthe parabola, g nastah elect vues of y and then ealeslate comesponding (9) The parabola whose equation ia yaaut jta-te pasies duough P-4, 0), Qi-2, —5}, RE, 9}, Find the values of 4, b, © anc ‘Af the second point P” at which the parsbals outs the J State the conditions thst tho point Pify, A) ties on (I) the line H8iy—5, Gi) the Ene 6x -}-$y—6. Honce fd the values of h and Feit 1) tho point of intersection ofthe two lines. Al, State the conditions that tho point (21, yi) Bes on (i) tho Tine BB y—2, (ii) the parabola y=2t—32—4, Hence find the coordinates fe Paints of intersection of the line and parabola. 2, Find the condition that the curve, whose equation is xt Ly*~ ot ei throngh the point (8, 4). Find in this ease the ecordinates of the be A, a’ where the curve meets 20x and of the points B, 2’ where Tneots yfOy. Prove that the careo also passes through the 1-3, 4), (—3, 4), (3, —4), and pasees through the four points 52). Show these twelve points on a sketch and state the namo of "Pind tin tormn of mi the point (2, (lias on the line whowe equation +24 deCHAPTER 2 LENGTH AND DISTANCE 24. Units, Tn geometrical statements, about lengths of lines, o unit of length is slways implied but usually is not stated explicitly Ibecause the choice of unit is unimportant; all that matters ia that the same unit is chosen for all nes, For example, In QABG, if AB AC, then 2ACE= 2.480, Here AB denotes the number of units of length Between A and B, AC denotes the number of units of length between and C, and these ‘vo numbers are given equal. ‘Tho theorem is true whatever unit is chosen, provided only that the aeme wait is used for graduating AC’ aa for graduating AB. Tn drawing graphs of fimotions in elementary algebra, it is often convenient to use different units for graduating Ox, x/Oy, but in lementary geometry, ifthe positions ofthe points of a figure are given in terme of coordinates, the units chosen jor the maxis and y-ais are always taken to be Ue eame. Tf it ip stated that a figure contains the given points Pity, a1), Paley ye) it is impliod that in considering ‘theit relative positions, for example the anglo which P,P, makes with 2/02, the units for Ox and y/Oy are the same. Again, tho statement that A, B are the points (c, 0), (0, ¢) impliee that 4 and B are ‘equidistant from tho origin 0: this would bo untrue if different unite syere used for graduating 2/r and y/Oy. 22. Length of a Step. Tr is only the use of positive and negative animbers and zero which makes it possible to state the position of any point of a plane in terms of Cartesian coordinates. If P, @ are any ints on 20s, the step from P to @ is said to have a posities length it P— @ ond 2’—» 2 have the same sense, seo Fig. 9, and to have a negative length if P —> Q and a —» 2 have reverso senses, soo Fig. 10. ing the distance between ‘two points. The distance of P from @ ia the samo as the distance of @ from P, but the step from P to @ is not the same es the step from @ to P; if, say, the first step is eastwards, then the second step is westwards 8 LENGTH OF A STEP 9 distance between P and @ is d units, dis @ siguless namber, ost aidor QP a, bat withthe data of Fig. 9, whoto ho To the step from P to @ is the same as the senso 2’ >, we write Jongth of step from P to @=(P—> Q)= +d Jength of step from Q to P=(Q—> P)=-2. only with the dats of Big, 10, where the senso of the step froma (Qin the revere ofthe vente rz, we write Jength of step from P to @=(P—> ength of step from @ to P=(Q—>P)= +d. for all postions of P, @ on 2'0x, (Gere gy 2s) 2510) P294@>M-0.....8 lai jy moana that if you step fom P to @ and then Mops @ ta P, the pout of eval coincides with the point of ieee. Pree Ay Pi, is tho point (ry, 0) on xr, 2 ix by definition a fox exhive ox Soro) number woh manures th length of pftom the origin Oto N,5 (O— Ma)= 2, Nbr 0), Nelty 0) are any tv polats on 2°Oz, (i =) 9 9105 NY soause i from ¥, to O anid then step from 0 to Ny, the Be athe even ahi poasiey tom Mito Hy (,—> 0)=— (0+ N,)- ~2, ond (0 Nam zp Ay Ma-atay. @ on for the length of tho step from Ny(cy, 0) t0 gly 0) is mental importance; the result may be stated as follows: 1. For all velative positions on 2/0 of O10, 0), Wyle. 0), Nala. 0, ‘of step from N, t0 Ny (N,—> Na)=%2%; p 1 3,(0, 24), BIO, vs) aro any two points on y/Oy, (0% M)—y, and (O—> Ba)mysi -@ (0 H,)+ (0 My=—s14 Ye alt may be stated as follows: Ror all relative positions on y'Oy of O(0, 0), M10, Ya)» My(0,a)> of step from M, to My=(M,—> M)=¥a- Yr10 LENGTH AND DISTANCE, Ba ‘The expression for the length of a step along the z-axis is important because it does not depend on how 4’, and ¥’, aro situated relative to each other and to O. ‘There are six possible eases, sine O may lie botweon Nand XV, or on NAV, producod or on NN, produced and XN, may be to the left-or right of JY, ee Fig. 11. Example 1. (Class Diseusvion) Verify the formula, (Ny —>N)=¥4— tn, where Nyy Ny are the pointe (24, 0), (ey, 0) im de pie eses ty Bp. spats ety ett, ° Ce Hats Cas ME Fra. 11 () NA Ob Nel+5, 0). Fig. 11 (i) shows that %, it 9 unite to the ght of Ny, 2, (yr Na) 43. Bm aChACED— +H 8 eV) aa—ay. (3) W480}, NaHL 0}. Fig. 11 (i) shows that X78 6 anit vo the right of Ny, 2 N,N) = 40. MT MAO 8 Oe Nate ay i) 0u(—8, 0). Ny{—1, 0). Fig. 11 ii) hows Hone Ay ix 2 units to osngiteey Wasa a i 7 [= —(~9)— 4% 2 (MM lon ay. ‘The reader should. now verify the formla for the data in Fig, 11 (iv}-(i) 23, Displacement in a Plane, It is convenient to use the abbroviations, a step z.waeds or an z-atep, for the pluaye, the length ‘of a step along a line parallel to the a-axis; its length is measured by ‘positive or negative number according as its senso is that of 2” —» x or of = —> 7 respoctively. A similar meaning is given to the abbreviations, a step yewards or a y-step. ‘Wo can move from any point Py(r,,y,) to any other point Plo ye) by taking a suitsble step P,—> 2 z-wurds and then a step R—> Py yvards, see Fig. 12, In general, no ambiguity is caused by omitting the brackets in the expression for the engi of a step, and in Suture we shall do 90, Let Ny, My and Np M, bo the fect of the perpendiculars from Pyand P, tox Oz, y'Oy, 200 Fig. 13; then PA, meets PaV., produced ifneoessary, ab the required point-R. By construction, P, if aud N,N, aro equal and parallel and are drawn in the same sense; A by221,p.9, Pi» Ra N, > ¥, Similarly by 2.2.2, R> Py=My—> Mt. y ‘The statement in 2.8.1, p. 11, follows from these results DISPLACEMENT IN A PLANE. u 4. It is possible to move from Py(X, Ys) 80 Posy Yd) bY yan xestep. XX, and then a y-step, YY Fie. 12 veteely, if wo start from Py(ry,y,) ond take an z-step of length tuy-step of leugth f, where h and may be positive or negative, ‘point of arrival P,(2y, y,), seo Fig, 18, is such that Bech and yoynk saemth ond ym th It may be stated ne follows: Hf, from a point of departure P,(x,, y;), an x-step of “Generality of Formulas. Although Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 are EXERCISE 3 the answers to the numerical examples by freehand eketches, (1); P,(0, 5). (0, —2), P10, 8). <2); Peo, =o). (21 Py, <4 “4, Pil0, 6) B, 6, PO, 4, PO, 81 P= 10, P@, 2}; Paid, =H) 12, Pi, -Bs Pu=6, 9) 8] Po —als Pale.2 LENGTH AND DISTANCE State the evordinates of the point of arsival, Nos. 16-21: 116) Start from (3, 7; take eatep +2 and y-stop-+4. 7. Start from (—4, 5); take z-step +4 and yostep—2. [18] Start from (—7, —5}; take estep — and y-etep +8, 19. Start from (2, ~3); take z-step—4 and y-step—2 20, Start from (a, by take zatep—p and y-step ~: BL. Start from (2), y.); tuko a-stop 7 00a 6 and y-atep rin 0, 25. The Distance P,P, between Pylry, y,) and Prlcy ya) is VA —m)*+ (Ya). ‘To move from P, to P,, take anestop P,—> Randay-step R—> Ps then Py» R—2,~z, and R—> Pra y,— yy, By Pythagoras’ theorem, P,P,'= P,R? + RP,!. Sinco P,—> R-2,—z, tho distance between Py and Ris z,~2, if ty> 2, and is 2, eyif'm <3; «in either cage, Py R= (2,—2,)% Similarly, RP, (y,—y,)# either if yy >y, or 8 Yast 1 PP (ey—2y)*+ Vaan) the distance between P,(2, y,) and P (ey i) is given by 5 PP Vlg) Vs)" Inparticular, the distanco of P(x, y) from the origin O (0,0) is given by OP= vixt+y4), ‘Tho distanoo-formula should be committed to memory, and the best way of doing so is either to visuslise Big, 14 or to skotoh tho right-angled ‘triangle PRP, and mark on it the lengths of the step snd y-step from P, to P, For simplicity, Fig. 14 iy drawn so that the coordinates of P, Py and the lengths of the steps from P, to P, are all positive, but the proof of the distance-formnla which has been given is completely general. Example 2, Find the diawnce baweon P,(—2, 1} and P,(8, —1). By the distanco.formula, P,Pe= y((3—(—3)8 +[(—7) —1I9} 2 Py Vtb84)-— (06-464) = 10010, Example 3. Find the relation Between 2, ond ys if Paley a4) Wes on the iret, contre the origin O, radius 3, ‘Ry the dstanceforemale, OP,t=24,%; but OP,—%; 2 mM yI=9, ‘The equation, 24-19, is called the equation of the circle, centeo O, raudius 8, because a point P, y) les on this evel i and only fey 0. EQUATION OF A CIRCLE 13. g, Bayation of Circe. Snn dl he es of ale Those Tones ond radius are given oan be fonued by using the ance-formul. mamole 4: Find te squat of ol, Sot, raves = BiG. ¥) lies on che given cial, Cy Aistanoe-formule, wearin 3 Se eS Hiy— 33, : jut ear, —0y, 80. oordinates of tay point P(x, y) on fon eitclo ure eoanected by tho oquation Xiiytidx—6y-3=0 (1) 1 iE the coosdinates (x,y) of a point P ory connecind by the fat (1) then working backwanb (2-+2)44(y—8}* =$% 3) in equal to P(o lcs on tho circle, contre C—2, 3), radius 4. squation (1) ia the equation of tho given circle. Fis. 15 ‘The Length of the Tangent from a Point to a Circle. mp rt TP tote circle, centre O(—2, 3) Mpragins es) aurea Pychazorss’ theorem, since ZOP\P=1 rt. 2, 000 F OPA. P{T!—OPY «, TP Em CT*—OP distance formula, OF! fx’ —(—2)}'+4y' —3}% TP Aa G 42) +1y -B 4, TP tae ty'*4he 6 —2, TP,= V(x tty* 44x’ —6y' 3} {ns significant resemblance betwaen the form of tho equation ‘rele in Example 4 and the form of the expression for the szware Tength of ihe tangent to this circle from an external point in 6 15, @ ejuation of the circle ia writton in the form sey de Gy-3=0, saware of the length of the tangent from (2, of) to this circle is Prey tae Oy 3, Impacien of the working shows tht tho resemblance i not4 LENGTH AND DISTANCE 28 28. The distance.formula ean be used to interpret the Joos of variable point Pix, y) which moves so that xt yts Dans 2ty+e-0 where g, f. ¢ are constants. Example 6. Interpret the lous whose equation is B84 yt B45 41—0. Divide by 250 as to make the eoofsionts of 2* and y* equal to 2, aie ietiy id= ‘This equation bocomos more easly sotalisibl if we complete the squares foratode and for vet Seni Be afb +i)! SBP and 9 hy tty +o Beatty on oe fa er paar that in Ted Poe te, AU irbe poh a aceon OP men Ber yaa. eee es OPH, 2 oad, once the focus ie itle, contre Cif fy nadine $26, Alocus-property involves a theorem and its converse. In most eases, the eonverse follows by reversing the argument of the original theorem as in Example 4, p. 13, Tn future, the converse property will be ‘assumed without special mention unless some restrictions are necessary. 2 written The general equation, 24 y+2ge-+3fy+e=0, oan be (eto) 9+ U4 fP-fr40-0, ‘that is, a+ y=Pao fae. ‘Hence as in Example 6, provided that g?--(?—c=0, the locus is a circle, centre G(=g, —f), radius y/(a* fe), 282. ITP is the tangent from a point T (a, /) tothe circle Beh pe 2fye then TP¥= x4 y2+2gx'-+2fy’-+e. By 2.8.1, the centre 0 of tho circle is (—g, —f) and the radius is VOHL—0; o) TR*= OT?~ CPtm fla + N+ ly +f} (Vote P— a), 2 MPhaal* +292 ghey 2h +f GH fo); DP im a8 2 Ip + Oy 40, EQUATION OF A CIRCLE 15 EXERCISE $ the distance between the given pair of points, Nos. 1-8: (0% (4. A 7. 3. (2 —Dh 10,2. i, =8h (1, 1). (5) (5, 7 (—7, 2). 6 (8, —Ne (—3, 2). Gish; (err cos,y-rrsin®. 8. (205 (He, ~2/9. we Chat tho points (—3, 2}, (4,3) (& 7) anv the va Malangle au nd the length of tho ase. P,Q, Rare the points (0, Oy (an bh 2) (0, —a), where Bak tk. Prove i) OQ-=20P*—2PGH, (i) OPGR ie a square Tarloblo point P is equidistant from A(—2, 3) and BU4,—5). equation of the loos of P and illustrate by a sketch, tho snplifed form tho equation of tho cirle, Nos. 12-21: of an (0,0); radius }. 13, Contes (0, 2); mains 2, ntre(—3, 45 radius 6. (151 Centro (2, ~5); radius 4. =2}); mnding 2. 17] Centro (—2, 4}; radios 1). © 4a, Oh; radius a, 19, Centro (—b, —b); radius b 2. fre {—1, 2) and passing through the origin bat the points (1, 81, (6, 7}, (=6, 1), (—% —1) Tie on a ‘comico (2, 4). Find ho radius and equation of the circle. re the locus whose equation ia piven, Noe 23-97: FL eg to WA. det idym25. 25. WEL AD Y pene (27) e437" (y-4P=2). [29] at4y2—6y +5=0. [Bt] at-+yt-+10e—2y—1 [88] 2byt tatty 42 (95) 22444298412 —4y—5, 87. at-tyt+2by=0 620). byt BP (y+, ay 102-240. Ey 306) 41 ive tut, ify? 4*—c<20, there is no point (2, y) whose coordinates (MY dhe equation, «?-+y* +272 -b2fy-+e—0. RTE 28 4442-4292, 42/446 is negative, prove that the point Tice insido tho cizelo whose equation is Bayt lpet Yu teeta) Hy L(G bf* 2) 0.16 LENGTH AND DISTANCE Ro 29. Directed Lines. A convention was made, see p. 9, that the Jength of a step along 202 or any lino parallel to it is positive if taken in the sense 2’ —> z and negative if taken in tho zovorse conse, We now proceed to make a sign convention for steps along any line w Fie. 16 Let any line, not parallel to 2/0x, meet 2/Oz at A and take points 6”, Con the line auch that the angle 0°, measured countersTockwise from. the direction 2/dx to the direction €'AC is between 0° snd 180°. ‘Wo now malke the following convention. 2.94. I P,Q aro eny points on tho line O°C, the slop from P to Q is said tohavea positive length if P—» Q and 0 —- C have the sameserve, soe Fig. 17 (i, il), and to have a negatice ngth if P—» @ and > 6 Ihave rovorso senses, soo Fig, 17 (i) (iv). Tf 6°00", tis is the same as the convention made on p. 9 for the lengths of steps along g/Oy. Fie. 17 1 the distance between the points P and @ isd units, dis osignless number; the statements PQ—d and QP-=d moan the same thing. Bat if the length of the step from P to @ along a directed line CAC iar units, hen ris a directed (positive or negative) number auch that r=-4dil Pp Q and 0 0 have the came sense and red if P+ Gand > C have rovorse senses, ‘Thus r is positive in Fig. 17 (i), (i) and is negative in Fig. 17 (i), (iv). STEPS ALONG A DIRECTED LINE u by P—> R and R—> @ the lengths of the z-step and y-step Pio Q, sco Fig. 17, Then the signless numbers which measure iMances PR and QR betwoon P, B and between Q, H can be jn terms of the distance PQ and 0°, using APQR. ponte, PR=PQeos0* and QR~PQsini; obtuse, PR—PQ cos (180° 6°) and @l2= PO sin (180°— 6") | 17 () and Fig. 17 Gi), where cos 9° is positive because 0° is acute, “of atop P—> R has the same sign as, -, P—> R—r ove 0; 7 ili) and Fig, 17 Gv), where cas” is negative beoause0” is obtuse, ‘of slep P—> Ris opposite insign tor, 2. P—» R=r cos 6°. P+ R=r cose" Ro @=rsin epformula, 2.3.2, p. 11, can therefore bo re-stated as follows. Pla, y) 18 a point om the directed tine O'C sikich makes am sith 2° Or, where 6° is between 0? and 180°, and if step P—> ais aon along the line, the point of arrival Q fa (bros 0% y+r sin 0°) proof just given of this important statement is completely: generals repformala enn therfore bo sod without considera tho us possible positions of P and @ relative to each other and to axes, The casiest way of rememboring the formula is to draw the ma simple position asin Fig, 18 2) Bs Pie, 19 ple, Str from PCL, —2) anti up of loge Mave Oa Find ia pie of ens ir, hand tara by & stepeformuls,, 2=1-4(—4) 008 69° =1—8 =2)4( 4) sin 60 2-2/8), we Fig. 19. the point (1