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Buckling PDF
Buckling PDF
3.1 Introduction
The codes of practice tackle the stability of steel structures by determining the effective
buckling length of the structural members. Therefore, the problem of stability is very
factors of safety. Consequently, the Steel Construction Institute (SCI) suggested the
previous approach for estimating the effective length factor presented BS 449: part 2:
(1969) should be modified by recommending three methods for evaluating this factor.
The first, termed extended simple design, also described in the previous chapter, starts
by evaluating the relative stiffness coefficients of the surrounding columns and beams of
the column under consideration. Then, using these stiffnesses, the effective length factor
can be estimated from charts based on the study carried out by Wood (1974a). The
second method, termed the amplified sway method, states that the bending moments due
third, a more accurate method, is to determine the elastic critical load factor fcr from
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 73
which the effective length ratios of individual members may be determined. The critical
load factor fcr is defined as the ratio by which each of the factored loads would have to
axial load in every compression member Pi at instability is known as well. Then, the
design chart procedure. Several methods, among them Hashemi (1993), Lokkas (1996),
MacLeod and Zalka (1996) and Lokkas and Croll (1998), were suggested for the
modification of the design procedure recommended by the British code of practice, but
this may lead to a design procedure which is not accepted by a practising engineer.
As well as the British code of practice, the American code of practice also suffers
from the difficulty of evaluating the effective buckling length accurately enough. This is
indicated in the studies by Duan and Chen (1988, 1989), Chen and Lui (1991), Kishi et
al. (1997), White and Clarke (1997) and Essa (1997) who proposed modifications to the
Virtually all methods of analysis that have been developed to improve the limit
strength of structures are based upon a geometrically linear model of the structural
response. In these methods, the stability concept, addressed in the following section, is
used. The available methods of calculating the elastic critical load factor are
The question of the stability of various forms of equilibrium of a compressed bar can be
Consider three cases of equilibrium of the ball shown in Figure 3.1. It can be concluded
that the ball on the concave spherical surface (a) is in a state of stable equilibrium, while
the ball on the horizontal plane (b) is in indifferent or neutral equilibrium. The ball on
The compressed bar shown in Figure 3.2 can be similarly considered. In the state
of stable equilibrium, if the column is given any small displacement by some external
influence, which is then removed, it will return back to the undeflected shape. Here, the
value of the applied load P is smaller than the value of the critical load Pcr. By
definition, the state of neutral equilibrium is the one at which the limit of elastic stability
is reached. In this state, if the column is given any small displacement by some external
influence, which is then removed, it will maintain that deflected shape. Otherwise, the
P P P
P P P
(a) Stable equilibrium (b) Neutral equilibrium (c) Unstable equilibrium
The majority of building structures have been designed by the elastic theory by simply
choosing allowable stress values for the materials and by imposing limiting ratios such
as serviceability requirements. All structures deflect under loading, but in general, the
effect of this upon the overall geometry can be ignored. In the case of high-rise building,
the lateral deflections may be such as to add a significant additional moment. This is
be written with respect to the deformed geometry; the analysis is referred to as second-
order analysis. On the other hand, when the lateral deflections can be ignored and the
equilibrium equations are written with respect to the undeformed geometry, the analysis
is referred to the first order analysis. The load deflection behaviours of a structure
analysed by first and second order elastic methods are illustrated in Figure 3.3. This is
discussed by many authors among them Galambos (1968), Allen and Bulson (1980) and
Chen et al. (1996). From this figure, it can be understood that the critical buckling load,
needed for the evaluation of the effective length of members, may be determined by the
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 76
use of either the eigenvalue analysis or the second order elastic analysis. Unlike a first
order analysis in which solutions can be obtained in a rather simple and direct manner, a
second order analysis often entails an iterative type procedure to obtain solutions. Thus,
the use of eigenvalue analysis to obtain the critical buckling load is the simplest way.
Load (Pi)
C (b) First order elastic analysis
(g) Second-order
plastic zone
Displacement ()
restricted or not against sidesway, let us consider the two structures in Figures 3.4 and
3.5. The framework, shown in Figure 3.4, is prevented from sidesway whereas in the
framework given in Figure 3.5 there is a possibility of sidesway. Both frameworks have
initially geometrically perfect members, which are subjected to a set of point loads Pi at
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 77
their joints. If the members remain elastic as loads are increased, there will be no
flexural deformation until a particular level of loading is achieved. This load is known
Pi
Pi
Pi
Pi
Pi
Pi
In this section the historical background of the stability problem and methods of stability
analysis is presented. Timoshenko and Gere (1963) gave the following description of
that the buckling load was inversely proportional to the square of the length
of the column, a result which was obtained by Euler 30 years later from
straight (perfect column), remains straight from the onset of loading and in
order to produce a small deflection of the column, the load should reach a
critical value, below this critical value the column would suffer no
Eulers theory. Almost 90 years later, Lamarle (1846) was the first to give a
perfect elasticity of the material and ideal conditions at the ends were
fulfilled. He clarified the fact that when an ideal strut bends, the most
stressed fibres in the strut may immediately pass the elastic limit of the
material. This condition determined the value of the slenderness ratio, below
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 79
ratio the strut fails, is due to direct compression rather than to instability.
From that time, the elastic stability problems of braced and unbraced structural
frameworks have been addressed by many researchers and a great wealth of literature
exists in this field. A considerable amount of the literature is directed towards stability
of plane frames within the plane of the frame. The elastic critical load can be evaluated
for any symmetrical single-bay multi-storey rigid frame using the relaxation method
with no-shear stability function as proposed by Smith and Merchant (1956). The
analysis was extended to take account of axial deformation. Bowles and Merchant
(1956) applied a more accurate method based on the same technique to the stability
analysis of a five-storey two-bay steel frame. The results obtained were in good
agreement with those previously obtained using a simpler version of the method.
multi-bay rigid plane frame, to an equivalent single bay frame so that it could be
analysed by the method proposed earlier. Timoshenko and Gere (1963) treated the
buckling behaviour and the buckling load of single-bay single-storey hinged base
rectangular frame as well as closed frames. Waters (1964a, 1964b) presented, in two
parts, direct approximate methods, involving no trial and error, for the elastic critical
approaches were considered: equal rotations and the substitute frame, according to
Bolton (1955), Bowles and Merchant (1956) and McMinn (1961). Goldberg (1968) was
the first one to tackle the problem of lateral buckling load of braced frames. He did not
consider the stability of the frame as a whole but he obtained the elastic critical load
effect of girder stiffness at the top and bottom of that column as well as the average
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 80
bracing stiffness of that storey. In the same year, Salem (1968) studied the problem of
intermediate floor levels and the column sections vary according to an arithmetic series.
frames, loaded with unequal and equal axial loads was carried out by Salem (1973),
considering the effect of axial deformation variation in columns. Wood (1974a, 1974b,
effective length and critical load factor charts. The method, which accounts for column
no-shear stability functions. The elastic critical load factor for a particular storey can be
estimated. The same procedure is followed for the rest of the stories and the lowest
critical load is the elastic critical load of the original frame. This technique was
recommended that a horizontal point load equal to 1% of the vertical load at that storey
should be added at each storey level, and a linear elastic stability analysis be performed.
Bolton (1976) proposed a single horizontal unit point load to be applied at the top of the
frame, and the deflection at each storey to be calculated using an elastic analysis. Then,
this deflection was multiplied by the total vertical applied load at that storey level,
which was finally divided by the height of the storey, to yield the storey critical load
factor. The lowest of all load factors corresponds to the critical load factor of the frame.
Al-Sarraf (1979) adopted a computing method for predicting the lowest elastic critical
load factor of sway and non-sway frames applying modified slope deflection equations
based on no-shear stability functions. Anderson (1980) derived formulae, from slope-
deflection equations which were used for yielding the storey sways based on sub-frames,
assuming the point of contraflexure at the mid span of the elements. Then, sway angles
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 81
were computed from the storey sway, and the expression for the critical load factor by
Horne (1975) was used. A direct calculation of elastic critical loads based upon the
Awadalla (1983). The computer aspect of this method was discussed and it was shown
that the efficiency of the numerical solution can be improved by considering each
column as a substructure. The results from this method consistently exceed those
produced by the solution obtained by using the stability functions. Carr (1985)
developed a computer program for the stability problem. The program also calculates
the critical load factor of individual struts of varying cross-section, by defining a node at
each change of cross-section. The effective length of each element is also computed
while the actual critical load of frame is estimated. An elastic stability analysis was
carried out by Simitses and Vlahinos (1986) for single-bay multi-storey frames with
support of some rotational stiffness. The computer code implementing the analysis was
applied to a two-storey single-bay in a parametric study, to investigate the effect of: (a)
increasing number of stories, (b) proportional load, (c) the length and stiffness of beam
variation, (d) the support rotational stiffness, and (e) the variation of the column
stiffness of the second floor. Goto and Chen (1987) proposed a second-order elastic
analysis that can be applied to any shape of structural frame. It takes into account the
effect of axial deformation of a structural element. Since the stiffness matrices used
were non-linear, iteration was necessary to arrive at the correct solution. Williams and
Sharp (1990) used a substitute frame technique to obtain the critical load of multi-storey
Duan and Chen (1988) started their study by proposing a simple modification of
the alignment charts in order to take into account the effect of the boundary conditions
at the far ends of columns above and below the column being investigated in braced
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 82
frames. As reported by these authors, these far end conditions have a significant effect
braced frames, Duan and Chen (1989) and Chen and Lui (1991) suggested another
columns in unbraced frames. Essa (1997) derived expressions for the elastic effective
length factors for columns in unbraced multi-storey frames. The model takes into
account the effects of boundary conditions at the far ends of the columns above and
below the column under consideration. He concluded that using the alignment charts to
estimate the effective length factor for columns may be either overly conservative, or
even unconservative, depending on the boundary conditions and the relative stiffness
The methodology is based upon the following steps. First, an elastic critical load
analysis is performed on an idealised model, this takes into account the stiffness
parameter is defined which accounts for the effects of both adopted geometric tolerances
and all the loading based imperfections. Third, the non-linear elastic response is used to
define the loads at which plastic failure is initiated. Lokkas (1996) extended the work
done by Hashemi to circumstances where more than one mode contributed to the non-
linear elastic behaviour and consequently elastic-plastic failure. In 1998, the author
between the sway and non-sway modes of rigid jointed frames. The experiments show
the importance of taking care of the sway and non-sway critical modes exhibiting
Many methods can be used to determine the elastic critical load of structural
The basic equations for analysis of beam-columns can be derived by considering the
beam in Figure 3.6. The beam is subjected to an axial load P. The expression for
curvature can be obtained from the following second order differential equation (3.1).
2 y
EI = M X . (3.1)
x2
The quantity EI represents the flexural rigidity of the beam in the plane of
bending, that is, in the X-Y plane, which is assumed to be a plane of symmetry. The
P
where = .
EI
P P
X
The constants A, B, C, D as well as the elastic critical load Pcr can be evaluated
Similarly, the elastic critical load can be obtained using the fourth order
differential equation
4 y 2 y
EI +P = 0. (3.3)
x 4 x2
The use of either the second order differential equation (3.1) or the fourth order
differential equation (3.3) is not a simple task when dealing with the problem of elastic
frameworks.
The energy method can also be used to obtain the elastic critical load of a structural
system assuming a small lateral deflection of a system such as that shown in Figure 3.7.
P P
P P
system. At the same time, the applied load will move through a small distance L and
does work equal to T. The system becomes stable in its undeflected form if
U > T (3.4)
and unstable if
U < T (3.5)
The critical load Pcr is obtained from equating the strain energy of the structural
system due to a virtual lateral deflection with the work done by the loading pattern on
U =T. (3.6)
The theoretical basis of the energy approach is described by Timoshenko and Gere
(1963). At loads lower than the elastic critical load, the gain of strain energy in the
elements is less than the potential energy of the loads. A condition of instability is
defined, as the stage when the change of the above two energies is zero, that is, the
stiffness of the structure is zero. Then the structure will not resist any random
obtain direct formulae for the elastic critical load depending on all the parameters of the
problem. The point of contraflexure was assumed to be at the centre of all elements of
the frame, so that an approximation to the deflected shape at neutral equilibrium could
be obtained. It has been observed from the previous discussion that it is too difficult to
use this method when dealing with the problem of elastic stability of a structural
framework. The reason for this difficulty is as the number of framework elements
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 86
increases, the complications in formulae of the strain energy and work done increase
too.
It has been stated by Galambos (1968) that the deformation effects in the equilibrium
equations of any structural framework have been included in the first order elastic
analysis (slope deflection method) to obtain the modified slope deflection method for
the second order elastic analysis. The modified slope method is based on two
assumptions, the first is a relatively small axial force in the beams whilst the second is
nearly identical forces in the columns. Accordingly, the geometrical changes due to
constructing the bending moments at each member end including the stability
constructing the joint and shear equilibrium conditions from which the equilibrium
eliminating the unknowns from the equilibrium equations and obtaining the
determinantal form of the critical load pattern and finally solving the determinantal
In order to explain the difficulty of using this method, Mahfouz (1993) studied the
framework shown in Figure 3.8 using two methods of analysis. One of them is the
modified slope deflection method where the framework is subjected to the loading
pattern given in Figure 3.8. It was also assumed that the distorted configuration of the
P P
MCB
MBC
P
B C
MBA MCD
A D
HA HD
MAB MDC
RA RD
Figure 3.8. Single-bay single-storey framework: loading pattern and deflected shape
are for MAB, MBA, MCD, MDC, MBC, MBC, RA, RD, HA and HD. These equations are then
substituted into the three basic equilibrium equations to obtain their new form. It can be
concluded that as the number of bays and stories increases, the number of preliminary
equations increases too. This technique therefore cannot be used when dealing with
addition to, the technique mainly depends on the trial and error method which makes it
This method is based on two main steps, see Salem (1968). The first step is the ready
prepared operations of rotations and the sway of axially compressed members which are
based on the decomposition of the general state of sway into the states of no-shear sway
and pure-shear sway. The second step is the pre-study of the possible buckling modes of
the given framework. Then the operations of sway and rotations for every member of
this framework are builtup separately corresponding to its distorted configuration. Since
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 88
at the critical load, there are no external moments or forces at the framework joints to
keep it in its distorted configuration, the sum of moments at each joint of that
framework should be equal to zero. This procedure will give many equations which are
equal to the number of the framework joints. In rectangular frameworks other than
symmetrical ones, another set of equations has to be obtained by equating the relative
these equations, a determinantal equation is obtained for the elastic critical load. This
determinantal equation has a number of solutions from which the least is called the first
buckling load. The solution of such determinantal form can only be done by the method
Figure 3.9 shows the basic simple operations of rotation and sway of an axially
compressed isolated member for both cases of fixed and pin-ended bases. The principle
through all these states. Furthermore, the principle of resolution of any state of an
isolated axially compressed member into any number of states of sway or rotation is also
applied under the same condition. The no-shear stability functions m, n and O were
introduced by Merchant (1955) to deal with the case of a member with fixed ends while
Salem (1968) treated the hinged end case by introducing the stability function n for the
no-shear sway for such members. Salem also decomposed the general state of sway into
two components, which are the states of pure-shear sway and no-shear sway. These two
states of sway are shown in Figure 3.10 for members with fixed and pin-ended bases.
indicated in Figures 3.9 and 3.10 are all functions of the ratio of the axial load to
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 89
structures. The program is based on the direct method. The program evaluates the value
of i of each column of the investigated framework at the critical buckling load, then
M = SK M = SK
P P
a) Rotation H H
K K L
H = S (1 + C ) H = S
L L
H H
M = CSK
P P
m HL
M= HL = S (1 + C ) K M= = SK
2 L n L
P P
b) Pure-shear sway
H
H
H H
m
M= HL
P 2 P
M= nK M= nK
P
c) No-shear sway P
m 1 L
= =
L 2 L n
M = -OK
P P
M 1 = nK 1
' " "
M1 = M1 + M1 ' HL
M 1 = m
2
P ' P " P
H H
1 1
H H
M 2 = OK
P P HL P "
M2 = M '2 + M "2 M 2 = m
'
1
2
' " HL 2 K
M1 =
'
M1 = M1 + M1 M1 =
"
n 1
n
P ' P " P
H H
1 1
H H
P P P
M 1 = nK1 -OK2
HL "
M1 = M1 + M1
' " '
M 1 = m
2
P '
P " P
H H
2 2
1 1
H H
HL
M 2 = nK2 -OK1
"
M2 = M2 + M2
' " '
P P M 2 = m P
2
State of sway = State of pure-shear sway + State of no-shear sway
Start
Input: Structural
geometry, etc
Increase
Yes
Stop
Figure 3.11. Flowchart for computer program based on the direct method
The finite element method can be applied to the evaluation of the elastic critical load for
structural frameworks (see Allen and Bulson, 1980). The finite element method is based
upon the use of local functions (i.e. these defined over sub-regions or finite elements of
the structural system). The other methods, such as the modified slope-deflection
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 93
method, are usually thought of as being based upon overall functions (i.e. those defined
over the entire region of the structural system). In the finite element method, each
member of the structure is subdivided into a series of fairly short elements. The
deformation over each element may be defined by a simple polynomial function. The
each node are known. As a result, the individual displacements of the entire structure
may be calculated and consequently the behaviour of the structure may be fully
described in terms of the displacements of the nodes. For equilibrium the increment in
total potential energy must be stationary with respect to these nodal displacements. This
leads to a set of linear homogeneous equations, where the dependent variables of these
equations are the nodal displacements , i.e. the following eigenvalue problem:
f [K CG ] { } = [K CE ] { } (3.7)
where f is the load factor, K CE is the global elastic stiffness matrix corresponding to
The first eigenvalue, i.e. the smallest value of f at which the structure becomes
Prezemieniecki (1968), Allen and Bulson (1980), Graves Smith (1983), Brebbia and
Ferrante (1986), Coates and Kong, (1988), Galambos (1988) and Bathe (1996). The
them vector iteration methods i.e inverse iteration, forward iteration and Rayleigh
quotient iteration, transformation methods such as Jacobi method and generalised Jacobi
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 94
method, and the subspace iteration method. Subroutines, written in FORTRAN 77, are
The developed program based on the direct method has been developed for the elastic
critical buckling analysis of 2-D frameworks, Section 3.5.4. In order to verify the
Gere (1963), Chajes (1974) and Renton (1967) are used. Here, various framework
The first example used is the fixed base framework ABCD shown in Figure 3.12a.
The framework is prevented from sidesway. It is subjected to two equal vertical loads P
at corners B and C.
When the vertical loads P reach their critical value Pcr , the distorted configuration
of the framework will be as shown in Figure 3.12b. The operations of rotations are built
Since at the critical load, there are no external moments set-up at corners B and C
M B = M BA + M BC = 0 ,
4K b
2K b
S1 +
1
2 = 0 , and (3.8)
K1 K1
M C = M CB + M CD = 0 ,
2K b
K2 4K b
1 S 2
+
2 = 0 . (3.9)
K1 K1 K1
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 95
Eliminating the unknowns ( 1 and 2 ) from (3.8) and (3.9), the elastic critical load
equation becomes:
4K b
2K b
S1 +
K1 K1
det
= 0. (3.10)
2K b
K2 4K b
S2 +
K1
K1 K1
P P P P
Ib Ib
B Ib C Ib
Kb = Kb =
L L
I1 I2 I1 I2
I1 K1= K2= I2 L I1 K1= K2= I2
L L L L
A D Rigid bracing
a) Loading pattern
P P 4 K b 1 2 K b 1
-2 K b 2 -4 K b 2
S1 K1 1
1 2 -S2K22
C1S1K11 - C2S2K22
Figure 3.12. Single storey single-bay fixed base framework prevented from sway
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 96
Following the same previous procedure, the elastic critical load equation (3.11) of
obtained:
4K b
2K b
m1
n1 +
K1 2
K1
2K b
K2 4K b m2
= 0 (3.11)
det n2 +
2
K1
K1 K1
m1 m2
m1 m2
K1
+
2 S1 (1 + C1 ) 2 S 2 (1 + C 2 ) K 2
2 2
where the third equation is obtained by equating the sidesways at joints B and C. In this
4K b
2K b
1
n1" +
K1
n1
K1
2K b
K2 4K b
1
=0.
n2
K1
K1 K1
1 1
1
1
K1
+
S 1" n1 S "2 n2 K 2
n1
n2
models have been analysed and the results obtained are compared with established
P P 4 K b 1 2 K b 1
Kb 2 K b 2 4 K b 2
2 n1 K 1 1 n2 K 2 2
1
m1 m2
+ HL - HL
2 2
K1 K2 L
-O1K11 -O2K22
m1 m2
H H + HL - HL
2 2
P P 4 K b 1 2 K b 1
2 K b 2 4 K b 2
1 2 n1 K1 1
"
n 2 K 2 2
"
Kb
1 1
+ HL - HL
n1 n2
K1 K2 L
H H
Table 3.1. Comparison of the theoretical and developed code in plane buckling loads.
I EI
Pcr = 25.2
L L2
I I = 2.554
Pcr
= = 2.55329
2 EI
L L2
P P
Chajes (1974) and Renton (1967)
EI
I Pcr = 7.34
L2
I I L = 0.7475
Pcr
= = 0.7437
2 EI
L L2
P P
Timoshenko and Gere (1963)
EI
I Pcr = 1.82
L2
I I L = 0.1843
Pcr
= = 0.1844
2 EI
L L2
I b= 2 EI
0
Pcr =
L 4L2 = 0.2499
I I
Pcr
= = 0.25
2 EI
L2
L
Theory and Methods for Evaluation of Elastic Critical Buckling Load 99
In this chapter, the stability concept of idealised framework model has been presented.
The methods of evaluating the elastic critical load as well as literature on the stability
analysis are also reviewed. Finally, verification of the developed program for the
In Section 3.5 it has been concluded that the methods of analysis based on trial
and error are difficult to use in the design optimization process. Consequently, the