INTRODUCTION

Drawing
The graphical representation of any object or idea can be termed as drawing. A drawing can be prepared either
using free hand or using engineering instruments or using computer program.

Types of Drawing
1. Artistic Drawing
2. Engineering Drawing

Artistic Drawing
The drawing representing any object or idea which is sketched in free hand using imagination of artist and in
which proper scaling and dimensioning is not maintained is called an artistic drawing. Example: Painting,
Posters, arts etc.

Engineering Drawing
Engineering drawing can be defined as a graphical language used by engineers and other technical personnel
associated with the engineering profession which fully and clearly defines the requirements for engineered
items. It is a two dimensional representation of a three dimensional object.
In other words, The art of representing a real or imaginary object precisely using some graphics, symbols,
letters and numbers with the help of engineering drawing instruments is called engineering drawing.
The art of representing engineering objects such as buildings, roads, machines, circuits etc. on a paper is called
engineering drawing.
It is used by engineers and technologists. An engineering drawing provides all information about size, shape,
surface type, materials etc. of the object. Example: Building drawing for civil engineers, Machine drawing for
mechanical engineers, Circuit diagrams for electrical and electronics engineers, computer graphics for one and
all etc.

Table 1 Difference Between Artistic and Engineering Drawing

Artistic Drawing Engineering Drawing

Purpose of artistic drawing is to convey emotion or
artistic sensitivity in some way.
Can be understood by all.
Scale maintaining is not necessary
No special requirement of engineering instruments.
An artistic drawing may not be numerically specific
and informative.
Standard drawing code need not to be followed.
Purpose of engineering drawing is to convey
information about engineering object or idea.
Need some specific knowledge or training to
understand.
Scale maintaining is necessary
Engineering drawing instruments is used to make
the drawing precise.
An engineering drawing must be numerically
specific and informative.
Standard drawing code (like ISO, ANSI, JIS, BS
etc,) must be maintained.

1 Purpose of Engineering drawing

It is very difficult and complex to explain some certain engineering requirements in word. In such cases well
dimensioned and properly scaled graphics can make it easy to understand that for technical personnel.
Engineering drawing serves this purpose. Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled,
constructed, built, or subjected to any other types of conversion process must first be designed. To make the
outcome from the design understandable to any third party engineering drawing is the best way.
 4 Applications of Engineering Drawing
Engineering drawing is an essential part of almost all engineering projects. Some important uses of
engineering drawing are mentioned below:
1. It is used in ships for navigation.
2. For manufacturing of machines, automobiles etc.
3. For construction of buildings, roads, bridges, dams, electrical and telecommunication structures etc.
4. For manufacturing of electric appliances like TV, phone, computers etc.

5 Types of Engineering Drawing

Engineering drawing can be grouped into following 4 major categories:
1. Geometrical Drawing
a. Plane geometrical drawing
b. Solid geometrical drawing
2. Mechanical Engineering Drawing
3. Civil Engineering Drawing
4. Electrical & Electronics Engineering drawing etc.

5.1 Geometric Drawing

The art of representing geometric objects such as rectangles, squares, cubes, cones, cylinders, spheres etc. on a
paper is called geometric drawing. If the object has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth (as rectangles,
squares, triangles etc.), it is called Plane geometrical drawing and if it has 3 dimensions i.e. length, breadth and
thickness/depth (as cube, prism, sphere, cylinder etc.), it is called Solid geometrical drawing.

5.2 Mechanical Engineering Drawing

The art of representing mechanical engineering objects such as machines, machine parts etc. on a paper are
called mechanical engineering drawing or machine drawing. It is used by mechanical engineers to express
mechanical engineering works and projects for actual execution.

5.3 Civil Engineering Drawing

The art of representing civil engineering objects such as buildings, roads, bridges, dams etc. on a paper are
called civil engineering drawing. It is used by civil engineers to express civil engineering works and projects for
actual execution.

5.4 Electrical Engineering Drawing

The art of representing electrical engineering objects such as motors, generators, transformers, wiring
diagrams etc. on a paper are called electrical engineering drawing. It is used by electrical engineers to express
electrical engineering works and projects for actual execution.
The art of representing electronic circuits of TV, Phones, computers etc. on a paper are called electronic
engineering drawing or electronic drawing. It is used by electronic engineers to express electronic engineering
works and projects for actual execution.

6 Specific Purposes of Studying Civil Engineering Drawing

One needs to study civil engineering drawing for the following purposes:
1. To develop the ability to produce simple civil engineering drawing and sketches based on current practice.
2. To develop the skills to read and understand the drawings used in civil engineering projects.
3. To develop a working knowledge of the layout of buildings, bridges, highways etc. and other civil
engineering structures.
4. To develop skills in abstracting information from calculation sheets and schematic diagrams to produce
working drawings for masons, construction managers and field workers who execute civil engineering
projects.
7 Types of Civil Engineering drawing
Civil engineering drawing of a civil work project can be classified in two broad categories:
1. Architectural Drawing
a. Plan:
It shows the position of different objects and elements of the structure in a two dimensional
view. Only length and width of objects are shown here.
b. Elevation and Section:
It shows a view along the height of structure. Elevation can be presented in 2D or 3D. In 2D
elevation view either height and length or height and width is showed.
2. Structural Drawing
It shows the detail requirement of reinforcement and their arrangement in structure. It also shows the
specification and properties of construction materials like concrete, steel, timber etc.

9 Drawing Standards
An engineering drawing should be well specified and universally acceptable. Thats why there are some
specified rules for engineering drawing. These rules may vary slightly for different regions. There are some
drawing standards or drawing codes that accumulates the rules of engineering drawing for a certain region. Well-
known drawing codes and their application region is expressed below:

Table 1.2 Drawing Standards

Country/Region Code/Standard Full Meaning

Worldwide ISO International Organization for Standardization
USA ANSI American National Standards Institute
JAPAN JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
UK BS British Standards

In Bangladesh in most of the cases, it is usual practice to follow ISO code for engineering drawing. However,
in some instances ANSI and BS standards are also followed.

10 Drawing Instruments
The most common instruments used for engineering drawing are:
1. Drawing Board 4. Rubber/Eraser 7. Instrument box 10. Scales
2. Drawing paper 5. T- square 8. Protractor 11. Pins and clips
3. Pencil 6. Set-square 9. Compass 12. Adhesive tapes
13. French curves etc
Drawing Board
It is a board or platform rectangular in shape.
Size of drawing board need to be larger than that of drawing paper.
It is made of wood.
Top surface should be smooth.
Drawing Paper
Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. All engineering drawings are made on sheets of
paper of strictly defined sizes, which are set forth in the respective standards. The use of standard size saves
paper and ensures convenient storage of drawings.

Desirable properties a good drawing paper:

It should be smooth and uniform in thickness.
It should be thick, strong and tough.
Fibers of drawing paper should not be disintegrated when a good eraser is used on it.

Paper Types:
1. Detail Paper (used for pencil work).
2. White drawing paper (used for finished drawing)
3. Tracing paper (used for both pencil and ink work and useful for replicating a master copy)

Paper Size:

Table 2 ISO Paper Sizes (plus rounded inch values)

Format A series B series C series

Size mm mm in in mm mm in in mm mm in in

0 841 1189 33.1 46.8 1000 1414 39.4 55.7 917 1297 36.1 51.1
1 594 841 23.4 33.1 707 1000 27.8 39.4 648 917 25.5 36.1
2 420 594 16.5 23.4 500 707 19.7 27.8 458 648 18.0 25.5
3 297 420 11.7 16.5 353 500 13.9 19.7 324 458 12.8 18.0
4 210 297 8.27 11.7 250 353 9.84 13.9 229 324 9.02 12.8
5 148 210 5.83 8.27 176 250 6.93 9.84 162 229 6.38 9.02
6 105 148 4.13 5.83 125 176 4.92 6.93 114 162 4.49 6.38
7 74 105 2.91 4.13 88 125 3.46 4.92 81 114 3.19 4.49
8 52 74 2.05 2.91 62 88 2.44 3.46 57 81 2.24 3.19
9 37 52 1.46 2.05 44 62 1.73 2.44 40 57 1.57 2.24
10 26 37 1.02 1.46 31 44 1.22 1.73 28 40 1.10 1.57

Paper Layout:
The ISO standard (ISO 5457) require a 20mm border to the left hand edge (for filing) and a 10mm border
round the other three sides of the drawing sheet. However, the margin of paper can be increased according to
requirements and settings of printer/plotter.
 Landscape layout

Portrait layout

Fig. 3 Landscape and Portrait Layout of Drawing Paper

Pencil:
Pencils are used to draw different lines, shapes, symbols and to write texts in engineering drawing.
Based on the hardness of lead pencils are classified in three major grades as hard, medium and soft. They
are further sub-divided and numbered as mentioned in table below:
Table 1.4 Pencils of Different Grades
Grade Items arranged ordering harder to softer
Hard 9H> 8H> 7H>6H>5H>4H
Medium 3H>2H>H>F>HB>B
Soft 2B>3B>4B>5B>6B>7B

Selection of proper grade pencil or lead is important for quality drawing. One has to be careful in selecting
a lead because very hard lead might penetrate the drawing, on the other hand, soft lead may smear. Quality
and type of drawing paper is an important factor in selecting lead. One other importance consideration is
the importance of line to be drawn. Inferior lines (like border lines, guide lines, construction lines and any
other auxiliary lines needed to be erased later) are drawn using harder pencil. Comparatively softer grade
pencil is used for drawing superior items (like object line, texts, symbols etc.).
Common uses of different grade pencil are tabulated below:

Table 1.5 Pencil Usage Guideline for Different Line Types

Task Lead Task Lead Task Lead
Border Lines 3H, 2H Centerlines 2H,H Leaders 2H, H
Construction Lines 3H, 2H Phantom Lines 2H,H Hidden Lines 2H, H
Guide Lines 3H, 2H Long Break Lines 2H, H Cross Hatching Lines 2H,H
Lettering H, F, HB Visible Lines H, F, HB Extension Lines 2H, H
Dimension Lines 2H, H Cutting Plane Lines H, F, HB Short Break lines H, F, HB

For convenience we will use 2H and HB pencils for our assignments and class drawings.

T-square:
1. Used to draw horizontal straight line.
2. Used to guide the triangles when
drawing vertical and inclined lines.

Fig. .5 T-square

Set-square:
1. Used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 300, 450 and 600) in technical drawings.
2. Used to draw parallel and perpendicular lines quickly and conveniently.

Fig. .6 Set-square
Protractor:
It is used for laying out and measuring angle.

Fig. .7 Protractor
Scale (ruler):
A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering design. Scales with beveled
edges graduated in mm are usually used.

Diagonal Scale

Fig. .8 Scales

Compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted at the top. One
leg is equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is, provided with a socket
for detachable inserts.

Dividers:
Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces into equal parts. i.e. for
dividing curved and straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for transferring measurements.

Fig. .9 Compass and Divider Fig. .10 French Curves

French curve:
It is used to draw irregular curves that are not circle arcs. The shape varies according to the shape of
irregular curve.
 Drawing Assingment -1
SYMBOLS

Common Symbols used in Civil Engineering Drawing :

Typical Door Types

Typical Window Types

Drawing Assingment -2
Elements of building
 Drawing Assingment -3
Walls

PART 1

Brick and Stone masonary

Brick:

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MASONRY WORKS

1. HEADER:
It is a full brick or stone which is laid with its length perpendicular to the face of the wall.
2. STRETCHER:
It is a full brick or stone in which is laid its length parallel to the face of the wall.

3. BOND:
It is a term applied to the overlapping of bricks or stones in a wall in alternate courses, to bind the whole
wall together.
4. COURSE:
A horizontal layer of bricks or stones is termed as course.
5. HEADER COURSE:
It is a course of brickwork entirely composed of headers.
6. STRETCHER COURSE:
It is a course of brickwork in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers.
7. BED:
It is a term used to indicate the lower surface of bricks or stones in each course. It may also be termed as
surface of the bricks on which it rests.
8. FACE:
The surface of a wall exposed to weather is termed as face.
9. FACING:
The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.
10. BACK:
The inner surface of the wall which is not exposed to the weather is termed as back.
11. BACKING:
The material used in forming the back of the wall is known as backing.
12. HEARTING:
The portion of a wall between facing and backing is termed as hearting.
13. JOINT:
The junction of two or more bricks or stones is called joint.
14. RACKING BACK:
The process of stopping the unfinished end of a wall in stepped fashion.
15. BAT:
It is a portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut by some fraction of its length.
16. CLOSER:
It is a portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut.
17. KING CLOSER:
It is a brick which is cut in such a way that the width of one of its end is half that of a full brick.
18. QUEEN CLOSER:
It is a term applied to a brick which is half as wide as full brick. Queen closer is made by cutting a brick
lengthwise into two portions.
19. BEVELLED CLOSER:
It is similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick is bevelled for
maintaining half width at one end and full width at the other.
20. MITRED CLOSER:
It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for the full width.
21. PERPEND:
It is a vertical joint on the face of a wall directly over vertical joints in an alternate course.
22. FROG:
It is a depression on the top face of a brick. Frog provides a recess for the mortar which on setting forms a
key and prevents the displacement of the brick above.
23. PLINTH:
The horizontal projecting or flush course of stone or brick provided at the base of the wall above ground
level is known as plinth.
24. SILL:
It is a horizontal member of brick, stone, concrete or wood provided to give support for the vertical
members of a window.
25. JAMBS:
The vertical sides of a finished opening for door, window or fire place etc. are termed as jambs.
26. REVEALS:
Reveals are the exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door or window frame
has been fitted in position.
27. LINTEL:
A horizontal member of stone, brick, steel or RCC, used to support the masonry or load above an
opening.
28. ARCH:
A mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped blocks of stone or brick arranged in the form of a curve
supporting the masonry or load above an opening.
29. CORNICE:
It is a horizontal moulded projection provided near the top of a building or at the junction of a wall and
ceiling.
 30. PARAPET:
It is a term applied to a low wall built around a flat roof to act as a protective solid balustrade for the users
of the terrace.
31. WEATHERING:
Weathering is the term applied to the bevelled top surface of a stone.
32. GABLE:
It is a triangular shaped portion of masonry at the end of a sloped roof.
33. SPALLS:
Chips or small pieces of stone broken off a large block are termed as spalls.
34. COLUMNS:
It is an isolated vertical load bearing member whose width does not exceed four times its thickness.
35. PIER:
It is a vertical member of stone or brick masonry constructed to support an arch, beam or lintel etc.
36. BUTTRESS:
It is similar to pier built on the exterior of a wall properly bonded to it.
37. CORBEL:
It is the extension of one or more course of brick or stone from the face of a wall.
38. THRESHOLDS:
The arrangement of steps provided from ground level to reach plinth level on external doors and verandah
is termed as thresholds

Standard Brick:
In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS. With
mortar thickness, the dimension of the brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also
known as the nominal size of the modular brick. The size of frog should be 10*4*1 cm
Closers in Brick:

Bick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud mortar may
be used but for all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used.The various types of bonds
generally used in brick masonry are

1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond

1. STRETCHER BOND:A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the
brick of size 190 mm 90 mm 90 mm, 190 mm 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond
masonry all the bricks are arranged in stretcher courses as shown in Fig-1. However care should be
taken to break vertical joints. This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick thick
partition wall.

Fig-1 Stretcher Bond

2. HEADER BOND
A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it is 90 mm 90
mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header courses as shown in
Fig-2. This type of bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.

Fig-2 Header Bond

3. ENGLISH BOND
In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers. This is considered to be the strongest bond.
Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break continuity of vertical joints a
brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the beginning and end of a wall after first header.
This is called queen closer. (Refer Fig-3). Fig-3 shows typical one brick and one and half brick thick
wall with English bond.

Fig-3 English Bond

4. FLEMISH BOND
In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher [Fig-4]. Alternate courses
start with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts
with header. Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.Flemish bonds may be
further classified as

Double Flemish Bond

 Single Flemish Bond.

In case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e. each course consist of
alternate header and stretcher, whereas single flemish bond outer faces of walls have flemish look
whereas inner faces have look of English bond [Fig-4 (a), (b)].
Drawing Assingment -4
PARTITION WALLS
 Chapter 2
Pointing, Arches, Lintels and Floors

Arches:
An arch is a structure constructed in curved shape with wedge shaped units (either bricks or stones),
which are jointed together with mortar, and provided at openings to support the weight of the wall
above it along with other superimposed loads. Because of its shape the load coming from above will
distributed to supports (pier or abutment).

Components of an Arch:

1.Intrados
The inner curve of an arch is called as intrados.

2.Extrados
The outer curve of an arch is termed as extrados.

3.Soffit in an Arch:
The inner surface of an arch is called soffit. Soffit and intrados are used synonymously.

4.Voussoirs
The wedge-shaped units of masonry which are forming an arch is called as voussoirs.

5.Crown of an Arch:
The highest part are peak point of extrados is called crown.

6.Keystone
The wedge shaped unit which is fixed at the crown of the arch is called keystone.

7.Spandrel in an Arch:
If two arches are constructed side by side, then a curved triangular space is formed between the
extrados with the base as horizontal line through the crown. This space is called as spandrel.

8.Skew Back
This is an inclined surface or splayed surface on abutment, from which arch curve starts or ends.

9.Springing Points
The imaginary points which are responsible for the springing of curve of an arch are called as
springing points.

10.Springing Line
The imaginary line joining the springing points of either ends is called as springing line.

11.Springer in Arches
The first voussoir at springing level which is immediately adjacent to the skewback is called as
springer.
12.Haunch
The lower half of the arch between the crown and skewback is called haunch. Highlighted area in the
below fig is haunch.

13.Arcade
The row of arches in continuation is called arcade.

14.Ring
The circular course forming an arch is called as arch ring. An arch may be formed by one ring or
combinations of rings.

15.Impost
The projecting course is provided on the upper part of a pier or abutment to stress the springing line.
This course is called impost.

16.Bed Joints
The joints between the voussoirs are called bed joints. These bed joints are radiate from center of arch.
The red color lines in the below figure are bed joints.

17.Center of an Arch
The geometrical point based on which the arcs forming intrados of arch, extrados of arch and arch
rings are described is the center or striking point.

18.Span of an Arch
The clear horizontal distance between the supports or abutments or piers is termed as span of an arch.

19.Rise of an Arch:
The clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the springing line is called as
rise.

20.Depth or Height of an Arch

The perpendicular distance between the intrados of arch to the extrados of arch is called depth of an
arch or height of an arch.

21.Thickness of an Arch
This is the breadth of soffit which is measured perpendicular to the front and back faces of an arch.
Colored area in the below figure is the thickness of an arch.

22.Pier and Abutment of an Arch

The intermediate support of an arch is called as pier. The end support of an arch is called as abutment.
Lintels:
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. It takes
the load coming from the structure above it and gives support. It is also a type beam, the width of
which is equal to the width of wall, and the ends of which are built into the wall. These are very easy to
construct as compared to arches.
Types of Lintels used in Building Construction:
1.Timber Lintels
In olden days of construction, Timber lintels were mostly used. But now a days they are replaced by
several modern techniques, however in hilly areas these are using. The main disadvantages with timber
are more cost and less durable and vulnerable to fire.
If the length of opening is more, then lintel is provided by jointing multiple number of wooden pieces
with the help of steel bolts which was shown in fig (a). In case of wider walls, lintel is composed of
two wooden pieces kept at a distance with the help of packing pieces made of wood. Sometimes,
timber lintels are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, called as
flitched lintels.

2. Stone Lintels
These are the most common types of lintels especially where stone is abundantly available. The
thickness of these are most important factor of its design. These are also provided over the openings in
brick walls. Stone lintels are provided in the form of either one single piece or more than one piece.
The depth of this type is kept equal to 10 cm / meter of span, with a minimum value of 15 cm. They are
used up to spans of 2 meters. In the structure is subjected to vibratory loads, cracks are formed in the
stone lintel because of its weak tensile nature. Hence caution is needed.

3.Brick Lintels
When the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are acting, brick lintels are used. The depth of brick
lintel varies from 10 cm to 20 cm, depending up on the span. Bricks with frogs are more suitable than
normal bricks because frogs when filled with mortar gives more shear resistance of end joints. Such
lintel is known as joggled brick lintel.
4.Reinforced Brick Lintels
If loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m, then reinforced brick lintels are useful. The depth of
reinforced brick lintel should be equal to 10 cm or 15 cm or multiple of 10 cm. the bricks are so
arranged that 2 to 3 cm wide space is left length wise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of mild
steel bars as reinforcement. 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up the gaps. Vertical stirrups of 6 mm
diameter are provided in every 3rd vertical joint. Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom consists
8 to 10 mm diameter bars, which are cranked up at the ends.

5. Steel Lintels
If the superimposed loads are heavy and openings are large then we can go for steel lintels. These
lintels consist of channel sections or rolled steel joists. We can use one single section or in
combinations depending up on the requirement.
When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete or cladded with stone facing to keep
the width same as width of wall. When more than one units are placed side by side, they are kept in
position by tube separators.
 Drawing Assingment -6
Doors and Windows

Window 1.
 Drawing Assingment -7
Stairs, cross section of Dog legged stairs

Main Components of staircase:

Step The step is composed of the tread and riser.
Tread The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the same specifications
(thickness) as any other flooring. The tread depth is measured from the outer edge of the step to the
vertical riser between steps. The width is measured from one side to the other.
Riser The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be missing for an open stair
effect.
Stringer, Stringer board or sometimes just String
The structural member that supports the treads and risers. There are typically two stringers, one on
either side of the stairs; though the treads may be supported many other ways. The stringers are
sometimes notched so that the risers and treads fit into them.
Stringers on open-sided stairs are often open themselves so that the treads are visible from the side.
Such stringers are called cut stringers. Stringers on a closed side of the stairs are closed, with the
support for the treads routed into the stringer.
 Drawing Assingment -10
Footings

Foundtaion:

Foundation is an important part of the structure which transfers the load of the structure to the
foundation soil. The foundation distributes the load over a large area. So that pressure on the soil does
not exceed its allowable bearing capacity and restricts the settlement of the structure within the
permissible limits. Foundation increases the stability of the structure. The settlement of the structure
should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the tolerable limits. (footings)

Classification of Foundations:-
Foundations are mainly classified into two types:
1. Shallow Foundations
2. Deep foundations

1.Shallow foundation:
Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below the
ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the base soil. As mentioned
above we chose shallow foundations when the soil has adequate Soil bearing capacity. Footings in
Shallow foundations may be of Masonry, Plain concrete or reinforced concrete. The depth of shallow
foundations are generally less than its width.

Different types of Shallow foundations:

ISOLATED FOOTING:-
Footings which are provided under each column independently are called as Isolated footings. They are
usually square, rectangular or circular in section. Footing is laid on PCC. before laying PCC termite
control is done to restrict the termites to damage the footing. These footings are most economical when
compared with the other kind of footings. These kind of footings are provided where the soil bearing
capacity is generally high. Isolated footings comprise of a thick slab which may be flat or stepped or
sloped.

STEPPED FOOTING:-
As from the name its resembling that footings are stacked upon one another as steps. In these type of
footing three concrete cross sections are stacked upon each other. This type of footing is used generally
in residential buildings. These types of footings are constructed in olden days now they are outdated

COMBINED FOOTING:-
A footing which has more than one column is called as combined footing. This kind of footing is
adopted when there is a limited space. Due to lack of space we cannot cast individual footing,
Therefore footings are combined in one footing. They are classified into two types based on their shape

1. Rectangular combined footing.

2. Trapezoidal combined footing

RAFT OR MAT FOOTING:-

When the column loads are heavy or the safe bearing capacity of soil is very low, The required footing
area become very large. As mentioned this footing is in shallow foundation. So in order to spread the
load over large area with less depth then we have to increase the footing area. If we increase footing
area, the footings are overlapped each other instead of providing each footing on each column all
columns are placed in common footing. A raft or mat footing is a solid reinforced concrete slab
covering entire area beneath the structure and supporting all the columns. Such foundation due to its
own rigidity minimizes differential settlements.
Cross Section Isolated Footing