Fuels and Combustion ig LHV = HEV — nig Hg (43) where my is the mass of water vapour formed given by mg = M+ 9H+ rw 4) where Mand H are the mass fractions of moisture and hydrogen in the coal, 74 is the specific humidity of atmospheric air and 1, is the actual amount of air supplied per kg of coal. For energy balance and efficiency calculations of steam generators, HHV of fuel is considered in the USA, whereas LHV is the standard used in European practice If the ultimate analysis is known, the HHV of anthracite and bituminous coals can be determined approximately by using Dulong and Petit formula as given below: uty =3585C + 144.45 (H-2) +9388, in Mi/kg. (45) where C, H, O and $ are mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur in coal. Assuming the latent heat of vaporization fg, at the partial pressure of water vapour in the combustion products as 2.395 MJ/kg, the lower heating value of coal from Eq. (4.3) is given by LHV=HHV-2.395 m,, in MJikg (46) For lower-rank fuels, Eq. (4.5) usually underestimates the HHV. Ash softening temperature The ash softening temperature is the temperature at which the ash softens and becomes plastic. This is somewhat below the melting point of ash. The design of the steam generator greatly depends on the ash softening temperature (a.s.t.) of the coal. If the furnace temperature is higher than the a.s.t,, all the ash will melt and would come out of the furnace bottom continuously as molten slag. For a furnace that would discharge ash in the solid form, a high ash softening temperature would be required. A stoker furnace must use coal with a high a.s.t., otherwise clinkers would be formed. Clinkers. which are large masses of fused ash, cause troubles in discharge and also make combustion inefficient. Spontaneous combustion Combustion (oxidation) of coal can take place rapidly as in a furnace or slowly on a stockpile. If it takes place slowly, there is a degradation or loss of energy content and hence in the value of fuel. The factors which influence spontaneous combustion and which can lead to a big fire, are the following, (a) Rank of coal, low rank coals are more susceptible because of their higher porosity. (b) Amount of surface arca exposed to air. (c) Ambient temperature, with high solar insolation aiding it. (d) Oxygen content of coal. (e) Free moisture in coal (8) Configuration of the coal stockpile: steep conical piles with coarse coal at the edges and fines near the top are more susceptible because they