Ovid: Oxford Handbook of Occupational Health Page 1 of 12

Editors: Smedley, Julia; Dick, Finlay; Sadhra, Steven

Title: Oxford Handbook of Occupational Health, 1st Edition

Copyright 2007 Oxford University Press

> Table of Contents > Section 1 - Occupational Hazards > Chapter 4 - Mechanical and Ergonomics Hazards

Chapter 4
Mechanical and Ergonomics Hazards

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Ergonomics hazards: overview

Definitions
Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions
among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data,
and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.1

Industries
Ergonomics hazards to employees are ubiquitous, affecting almost every type of work. Ergonomics issues
can also affect service users, the general public, and the environment. They are most important in safety-
critical industries, e.g. transport and nuclear industries, and in the health services.

Specific ergonomics hazards

The most important of these are covered separately in this chapter. However, ergonomics hazards often
occur in combination with each other, and are commonly addressed together in designing risk controls.
The list below is not exhaustive, but includes the most important and common hazards.

Physical (examples)
Loading (lifting and handling)

Poor posture

Repetition, particularly at high speed

High forces

Individual differences, e.g. extremes of anthropometry

Poor equipment and workplace design

Psychological (examples)
Task overload/underload

Mental workload

Control over work

Social support

Individual differences (e.g. poor reaction times, mental ill health)

Poor design of information, displays, controls

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Poor system reliability

Human error

Organizational (examples)
Long working hours

Shift work

Short deadlines

Excessive workload

Poor staffing levels

Lack of worker involvement in system design

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Adverse effects of poor ergonomics design (including health
effects)
Accidents

Injuries

Musculoskeletal disease (back, neck, and upper limb pain)

Psychological morbidity (including stress)

Critical incidents (including environmental disasters)

Decreased efficiency, poor productivity

Failure of complex systems

Job dissatisfaction

Low staff morale

High job turnover

Ergonomics risk management

Specific aspects of risk assessment and control are covered under each ergonomics hazard (see pp. 158,
160, and 164, and also pp. 802 and 806).

Relevant legislation
There is no specific legislation on ergonomics hazards, but some statutory instruments contain direction on
ergonomics issues:

Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1999 (COMAH)

Railways (Safety Critical Work) Regulations 1994

The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 (as amended)

The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992

Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER)

The Working Time Regulations

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Further information

International Ergonomics Association

http://www.iea.cc/

Ergonomics society

http://www.ergonomics.org.uk/

European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Good Practice section: musculoskeletal disease

http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/msd/

Health and Safety Executive: human factors guidance

http://hse.gov.uk/humanfactors/index.htm

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Lifting and handling
Manual lifting or handling of loads constitutes one of the most common and important ergonomics hazards.

Definitions
The term manual handling comprises any non-mechanized (or incompletely mechanized) manipulation of a
load, including lifting, pushing, pulling, sliding, or carrying. Loads may be inanimate or living (people and
animals).

Specific industries
Manual handling is a ubiquitous exposure, which is common in a wide range of industries. However, of
particular note are:

construction

warehousing and logistics

heavy engineering

airport baggage handling

agriculture

health care (patient-handling)

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Risk assessment
See Table 4.1 opposite.

Risk controls
The following list is not exhaustive, but includes the most common examples of risk controls. Extensive
guidance on risk controls (including industry-specific guidance) is readily available (references under
further information and guidance below).

Divide load into smaller units, or scale loads up, and switch to bulk handling systems.

Ensure load is easy to grip and stable.

Arrange lifting environment free from obstacles and on level surface.

Address extremes of height, e.g. restrict transfers to levels below elbow and above knee height. Avoid
lifting from the floor.

Mechanical lifting aids appropriate to the task. There are many examples for different purposes. Most
common examples include:

hoists, cranes, and vehicles

powered and non-powered trucks and trolleys

scissor lifts or other height-adjustable surfaces

tracks, conveyors, chutes, and rollers

specialized equipment for live loads (patients), e.g. slide sheets.

Health effects
Low back pain

Neck/shoulder pain

Osteoarthritis of the hip

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Table 4.1 Manual handling risk assessment

Factor Risk Risk

Load:

Weight 15 kg or more <15 kg

Shape Awkward shape, large size, Small, easy to grip

poor grip

Stability Liable to shift or move Stable, predictable

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Others Sharp edges, heavier than

might be anticipated by the
handler

Centre of gravity of the load

is eccentric

Lever (distance from Load held away from body Load close to body, with
employee's centre of arms vertical and parallel
gravity) to trunk

Vertical distance Lifts above elbow height Transfer at trunk height

(height) Lifts below knee height

Posture Bent or twisted trunk Straight trunk

Constrained posture

Task Long carrying distances Short distance

(>4 m = moderate risk) Short duration

Frequent or repetitive lifting

Prolonged lifting

High effort (resistance)

Environment Limited space Level non-slip surface

Steep slopes Comfortable temperature

Slip or trip hazards

Poor visibility

Extremes of temperature

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Individual susceptibility Previous history of back pain

Pregnancy

Work Short deadlines Reasonable pace of work

organization Poor communication Good support

Lack of control Good control and

flexibility

Excessive demands Reasonable volume of work

Specific legislative requirements

The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 (as amended). These regulations give a framework
for the generic risk assessment, risk control, review cycle that is specifically relevant for hazards
associated with manual handling.

Further information and guidance

Are you making the best use of lifting and handling aids? HSE

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg398.pdf

General guidance on pushing and pulling risk assessment. HSE

http://www.hse.gov.uk/msd/pushpull/index.htm

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Posture
The main component of risk (of musculoskletal disorders) is non-neutral posture.

Definitions
Non-neutral means that the head, trunk, or limbs deviate from the normal anatomical (neutral) position.

Specific industries

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Adverse posture is widespread across many industries, affecting workers in office environments as well as
heavy manual occupations. Of particular note are:

call centre operators

display screen equipment users

assembly line workers

food preparation/food industry, meat handlers.

Potential health effects

Low back pain

Upper limb pain

neck-shoulder pain

elbow, forearm, and wrist pain

Risk assessment
Non-neutral posture is associated with an increased risk of health effects if it is:

persistentprolonged constrained or awkward position of the trunk or limbs due to restricted space
or poorly designed man-machine interface (e.g. sustained stooping)

repetitiverepeated adverse posture (e.g. bending up and down).

Extreme deviation from the anatomical position increases risk. Significant risks are associated with:

headflexed or extended, especially 20

trunkflexed or twisted, especially 20

upper limbsextreme flexion or abduction of the shoulders (work with arms above shoulder
height), elbows, or wrists; as a general rule, risk increases most with upper arm flexion 90,
elbows flexed 90, and wrists flexed or extended 15.

A number of risk assessment tools are available for assessing adverse posture (pp. 802, 806).

Risk control
Risk reduction is mainly by the application of good ergonomics principles to task and equipment design.
Extensive guidance on risk controls (including industry-specific guidance) is readily available (see further
information below). Common examples include:

appropriate seating that is adjustable to allow for anthropometric variations between operators

controls that are within reach to avoid over-reaching or stretching

attention to the height at which tasks are carried out in order to minimize bending or stooping P.161

task rotation, regular breaks, or variation in position in order to avoid prolonged constrained posture.

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Figure 4.1 Risk controls for poor posture

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Relevant legislation and guidance
The Display Screen Equipment (DSE) Regulations.
http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1992/Uksi_19922792_en_1.htm

The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992

Further information
Health and Safety Executive signposts to guidance on posture risk assessment and control.
http://www.hse.gov.uk/msd/hsemsd.htm#uld

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Repetitive work

Definition
Repetitive work includes activities that are physically repetitive, or cognitively repetitive or monotonous.
Physical and cognitive aspects of repetitiveness in work tasks often interact.

Specific industries/tasks
Packaging

Assembly lines

Textile/garment production (sewing machine operators, cutting room)

Poultry processing (plucking, evisceration)

Fruit pickers

Computer data entry operators

Health effects
Musculoskeletal disorders

neck-shoulder pain

elbow, wrist pain

low back pain

Risk assessment
See Table 4.2.

Risk controls
The following list is not exhaustive, but includes the most common examples of risk controls. Extensive
guidance on risk controls is readily available (references under further information and guidance below).

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Frequent rest breaks

Task rotation

Avoid forced pacing

Job enrichment and variety

Automation

Mechanization

Worker participation in job design and organization

Further information

HSE (2002). HSG (60). Upper Limb Disorders in the Workplace. ISBN 0717619788.

HSE (2003). L(26). Work with Display Screen Equipment: Health and Safety (Display Screen
Equipment) Regulations 1992 as amended by the Health and Safety (Miscellaneous Amendments)
Regulations 2002. ISBN 0717625826.

HSE (2003). HSG (90). The Law on VDUs: An Easy Guide. ISBN 0717626024.

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Table 4.2 Risk assessment for repetitive tasks

Risk factor Risk Risk

Cycle time Rapid Slow

Grip strength Tight grip Loose grip

Recovery time Short Long

Synergism with Awkward posture Supported neutral posture

posture

Psychosocial Lack of control over work Able to determine speed of work Able to
factors (e.g. forced pacing) intersperse repetitive tasks with other

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Excessive workload activities (both physical and cognitive)

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Mechanical hazards
In the operation of machines a person may be injured as a result of machine movement, being trapped
between the machinery and materials, or being struck by materials ejected from the machinery.

Identification of machinery hazards

It is useful to consider three factors.

The different phases of the machine's life

construction

installation

commissioning

operation

cleaning

maintenance

disposal

The circumstances giving rise to the injury

The hazards that can cause the injury.

Types of machinery hazards

For the different types and range of machines used, their hazards can be summarized as follows.

Traps

reciprocating traps due to vertical or horizontal motion of machines

shearing traps produced by a moving part transversing a fixed part, and in-running nips where limbs
are drawn in to a trap (e.g. where a moving belt or chain meets a roller or a tooth wheel)

Impact: machinery parts, which can cause injuries by their speed or movement if the person gets in the
way.

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Contact: this may cause burns, lacerations, or injuries due to sharp, abrasive, hot, cold, or electrically
live machine components

Entanglement: limbs, hair, or clothing may become entangled with unguarded moving parts

Ejection: machines may eject particles, metals, or actual parts of machines (e.g. grinding machines)

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