All information retreival data is recorded.

Similarity threshold
The similarity threshold is a lower limit for the similarity of two data records
that belong to the same cluster.
For example, if you set the similarity threshold to 0.25, data records with field
values that are 25% similar are likely to be assigned to the same cluster.
If you specify a similarity threshold of 1.0, you are insisting that, for customers
to appear in the same group, their characteristics must be identical.
You might have a large number of customer characteristic variables, or the
variables might take a wide range of values.
The right setting is somewhere in between, but where? You have to preserve a
balance between the number of clusters that is acceptable and the degree of
similarity.
There is another important factor that the Distribution-based Clustering algorithm
has to consider.
A situation might occur where you try to give the Distribution-based Clustering
algorithm a similarity threshold,and you do not limit the number of clusters that
it can produce.
In this case, it will keep trying to find the minimum number of clusters that
satisfy the similarity threshold, because this also maximizes the Condorcet value.
In a different situation, you might have limited the number of clusters with the
result that, after all the possible clusters are created, a record does not have a
similarity above the threshold with any of them.
In this case, the record will be assigned to the cluster with the best similarity,
even if the similarity threshold is not reached.

Distribution-based Clustering
Distribution-based Clustering provides fast and natural clustering of very large
databases.
It automatically determines the number of clusters to be generated.
Typically, demographic data consists of large amounts of categorical variables.
Therefore the mining function works best with data sets that consist of this type
of variables.
You can also use numerical variables.
The Distribution-based Clustering algorithm treats numerical variables almost like
categorical variables by categorizing their values into buckets.
Distribution-based Clustering is an iterative process over the input data.
Each input record is read in succession.
The similarity of each record with each of the currently existing clusters is
calculated.
Initially, no clusters exist.
If the biggest calculated similarity is above a given threshold, the record is
added to the relevant cluster.
This cluster's characteristics change accordingly.
If the calculated similarity is not above the threshold, or if there is no cluster,
a new cluster is created, containing the record alone.
You can specify the maximum number of clusters, as well as the similarity
threshold.
Distribution-based Clustering uses the statistical Condorcet criteria to manage the
calculation of the similarity between records and other records, between records
and clusters, and between clusters and other clusters.
The Condorcet criteria evaluates how homogeneous each discovered cluster is (in
that the records it contains are similar) and how heterogeneous the discovered
clusters are among each other.
The iterative process of discovering clusters stops after one or more passes over
the input data if there is no time remaining to do another pass or if the
improvement of the clusters according to the Condorcet criteria would not justify a
new pass.

Similarity scale
The similarity between two data records sums the similarities between each pair of
values of these records.
For a categorical field, the similarity is 0 if both values are different, and 1 if
they are equal.
For a numerical field, the similarity depends on the difference between the two
values compared with the similarity scale of the field.
If the two values are equal, the similarity is 1. If the two values are distant
from the similarity scale, the similarity is 0.5.
Other values of the similarity are calculated using a Gaussian curve passing
through these two reference points.
You can choose to specify a similarity scale or not.
You specify the similarity scale as an absolute number. The specification is
considered only for active numerical fields. If you do not specify a similarity
scale, the default value (half of the standard deviation) is used.

Similarity matrices
For each categorical field, you can define a similarity matrix that contains user-
defined similarities between two field values.
A similarity matrix is represented as a reference to a database table containing
three columns.
Two columns contain the field values to be compared, and the third column contains
the similarity (between 0 and 1) for these field values.
You can specify the similarity for each pair of possible values.
A pair of possible values can be used only once.
The similarity of the inverse pair is the same

Field weighting
Field weighting gives more or less weight to certain input fields during a
Clustering training run.
For example, to identify different types of shoppers, you might not want to give
too much weight to the strong correlation between the number of purchases and the
total purchase amount.
Therefore you assign a smaller weight to the fields Number of purchases and Total
purchase amount.
The following table shows the decreased field weights for the fields Number of
purchases and the Total purchase amount.

Value weighting
Value weighting deals with the fact that particular values in a field might be more
common than other values in that field.
The coincidence of rare values in a field adds more to the overall similarity than
the coincidence of frequent values.
For example, most people do not have a Gold credit card.
It is not very significant if two people do not have one, however, if they do, it
is significant.
Therefore, the coincidence of people not having a Gold credit card adds less to
their overall similarity than the coincidence of people having one.
You can use one of the following types of value weighting:

Probability weighting
Probability weighting assigns a weight to each value according to its probability
in the input data. Rare values carry a large weight, while common values carry a
small weight. This weight is used for both matching and non-matching records.
Probability weighting uses a factor of 1/p, where p is the probability of a value.
Logarithmic weighting
Logarithmic weighting assigns a weight to each value according to the logarithm of
its probability in the input data.
Rare values carry a large weight, while common values carry a small weight.
This weight is used for both matching and non-matching records.
Logarithmic weighting assigns a value of (-log(p)) to both the agreement
information content value and the disagreement information content value.
The number p is the probability of a value.
Each type of value weighting looks at a problem from a different angle.
Depending on the value distribution, using one type or the other might lead to very
different results.
For example, if a supermarket is located in a retirement community, a Senior
discount field has a high probability of having the value Yes.
You might use probabilistic value weighting to assign a weight to the values in the
Senior discount field that is equal to its probability in the input data.
Value weighting has the additional effect of emphasizing fields with many values
because their values are less frequent than those of fields with fewer possible
values.
By default, the mining function does not compensate for this additional effect.
You can select whether you want to compensate for the value weighting applied to
each field.
If you compensate for value weighting, the overall importance of the weighted field
is equal to that of an unweighted field.
This is so regardless of the number of possible values.
Compensated weighting affects only the relative importance of coincidences within
the set of possible values.

Maximum number of distribution-based clusters

You can control the number of clusters to be created during a Clustering training
run by specifying a value for the maximum number of clusters.
Limiting the number of clusters prevents the production of many small clusters,
and thus saves run time.
By default, the Distribution-based Clustering algorithm does not create an
unlimited number of clusters but sets itself a limit.
If the mining function cannot continue to create clusters because the cluster limit
is reached, this may prevent further improvement in the accuracy of the model.
Increasing the number of clusters improves the likelihood of finding market niches.

UNIFIED MODELING LANGUAGE

Introduction to OMG UML by Dr. Jon Siegel, OMG
Large enterprise applications-the ones that execute core business applications, and
keep a company going-must be more than just a bunch of code modules.
They must be structured in a way that enables scalability, security, and robust
execution under stressful conditions, and their structure - frequently referred to
as their architecture - must be defined clearly enough that maintenance programmers
can (quickly!).
find and fix a bug that shows up long after the original authors have moved on to
other projects.
That is, these programs must be designed to work perfectly in many areas, and
business functionality is not the only one (although it certainly is the essential
core).
Of course a well-designed architecture benefits any program, and not just the
largest ones as we've singled out here.
We mentioned large applications first because structure is a way of dealing with
complexity.
so the benefits of structure (and of modeling and design, as we'll demonstrate)
compound as application size grows large.
Another benefit of structure is that it enables code reuse: Design time is the
easiest time to structure an application as a collection of self-contained modules
or components.
Eventually, enterprises build up a library of models of components, each one
representing an implementation stored in a library of code modules.
When another application needs the same functionality, the designer can quickly
import its module from the library.
At coding time, the developer can just as quickly import the code module into the
application.

Modeling is the designing of software applications before coding.

Modeling is an Essential Part of large software projects, and helpful to medium and
even small projects as well.
A model plays the analogous role in software development that blueprints and other
plans (site maps, elevations, physical models) play in the building of a
skyscraper.
Using a model, those responsible for a software development project's success can
assure themselves that business functionality is complete and correct, end-user
needs are met, and program design supports requirements for scalability,
robustness, security, extendibility, and other characteristics, before
implementation in code renders changes difficult and expensive to make.
Surveys show that large software projects have a huge probability of failure - in
fact, it's more likely that a large software application will fail to meet all of
its requirements on time and on budget than that it will succeed.
If you're running one of these projects, you need to do all you can to increase the
odds for success, and modeling is the only way to visualize your design and check
it against requirements before your crew starts to code.

YOU CAN DO OTHER USEFUL THINGS WITH UML TOO

some tools analyze existing source code (or, some claim, object code!) and reverse-
engineer it into a set of UML diagrams.
Another example: Some tools on the market execute UML models, typically in one of
two ways: Some tools execute your model interpretively in a way that lets you
confirm that it really does what you want, but without the scalability and speed
that you'll need in your deployed application.
Other tools (typically designed to work only within a restricted application domain
such as telecommunications or finance) generate program language code from UML,
producing most of a bug-free, deployable application that runs quickly if the code
generator incorporates best-practice scalable patterns for, e.g., transactional
database operations or other common program tasks.
(OMG members are working on a specification for Executable UML now.)
Our final entry in this category: A number of tools on the market generate Test and
Verification Suites from UML models.

MODELS VS. METHODOLOGIES

The process of gathering and analyzing an application's requirements, and
incorporating them into a program design, is a complex one and the industry
currently supports many methodologies that define formal procedures specifying how
to go about it.
One characteristic of UML - in fact, the one that enables the widespread industry
support that the language enjoys - is that it is methodology-independent.
Regardless of the methodology that you use to perform your analysis and design, you
can use UML to express the results.
And, using XMI (XML Metadata Interchange, another OMG standard), you can transfer
your UML model from one tool into a repository, or into another tool for refinement
or the next step in your chosen development process.
These are the benefits of standardization!.

WHAT CAN YOU MODEL WITH UML?

UML 2.0 defines thirteen types of diagrams, divided into three categories: Six
diagram types represent static application structure; three represent general types
of behavior; and four represent different aspects of interactions:
Structure Diagrams: include the Class Diagram, Object Diagram, Component Diagram,
Composite Structure Diagram, Package Diagram, and Deployment Diagram.
Behavior Diagrams: include the Use Case Diagram (used by some methodologies during
requirements gathering); Activity Diagram, and State Machine Diagram.
Interaction Diagrams: all derived from the more general Behavior Diagram, include
the Sequence Diagram, Communication Diagram, Timing Diagram, and Interaction
Overview Diagram.
We don't intend this introductory web page to be a complete UML tutorial, so
we're not going to list any details of the different diagram types here.
To learn more, you can check out one of the many on-line tutorials, or buy a book.
(The last time we checked, typing "UML" into the search box for the major on-line
booksellers returned a list of more than 100 titles!) Or, if you're technical and
want the whole story, you can download the UML specification itself from the OMG
website.
It's free, of course, but it's also highly technical, terse, and very difficult for
beginners to understand.

I'M ABOUT TO START MY FIRST UML-BASED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT. WHAT DO I NEED TO DO?
Three things, probably (but not necessarily) in this order:
1)Select a methodology: A methodology formally defines the process that you use to
gather requirements, analyze them, and design an application that meets them in
every way.
There are many methodologies, each differing in some way or ways from the others.
There are many reasons why one methodology may be better than another for your
particular project: For example, some are better suited for large enterprise
applications while others are built to design small embedded or safety-critical
systems.
On another axis, some methods better support large numbers of architects and
designers working on the same project, while others work better when used by one
person or a small group
OMG, as a vendor-neutral organization, does not have an opinion about any
methodology.

2)Select a UML Development Tool: Because most (although not all) UML-based tools
implement a particular methodology, in some cases it might not be practical to pick
a tool and then try to use it with a methodology that it wasn't built for. (For
other tool/methodology combinations, this might not be an issue, or might be easy
to work around.)
But, some methodologies have been implemented on multiple tools so this is not
strictly a one-choice environment.
You may find a tool so well-suited to your application or organization that you're
willing to switch methodologies in order to use it. If that's the case, go ahead -
our advice to pick a methodology first is general, and may not apply to a specific
project. Another possibility: You may find a methodology that you like, which isn't
implemented in a tool that fits your project size, or your budget, so you have to
switch. If either of these cases happens to you, try to pick an alternative
methodology that doesn't differ too much from the one you preferred originally.
As with methodologies, OMG doesn't have an opinion or rating of UML-based modeling
tools, but we do have links to a number of lists here. These will help you get
started making your choice.
You may find a tool so well-suited to your application or organization that you're
willing to switch methodologies in order to use it.
If that's the case, go ahead - our advice to pick a methodology first is general,
and may not apply to a specific project.
Another possibility: You may find a methodology that you like, which isn't
implemented in a tool that fits your project size, or your budget, so you have to
switch.
If either of these cases happens to you, try to pick an alternative methodology
that doesn't differ too much from the one you preferred originally.
As with methodologies, OMG doesn't have an opinion or rating of UML-based modeling
tools, but we do have links to a number of lists here.
These will help you get started making your choice.

3)Get Training: You and your staff (unless you're lucky enough to hire UML-
experienced architects) will need training in UML.
It's best to get training that teaches how to use your chosen tool with your chosen
methodology, typically provided by either the tool supplier or methodologist.
If you decide not to go this route, check out OMG's training page for a course that
meets your needs. Once you've learned UML, you can become an OMG-certified UML
Professional-check here for details.
As with methodologies, OMG doesn't have an opinion or rating of UML-based modeling
tools, but we do have links to a number of lists here.
These will help you get started making your choice.

UML 2.0 - A MAJOR UPGRADE

The "Available" version of the UML 2.0 Superstructure specification (that is, the
version that has finished its first maintenance release and been built into vendor
products) has been completed, and is available to everyone for free download.
Three separate parts of UML 2.0 - the Infrastructure (that is, the meta-metamodel),
Object Constraint Language, and Diagram Interchange - are still undergoing their
first maintenance and will become Available Specifications when this completes.
There's a description of the current state of all four specifications, and links to
all of them, here.

WHAT'S NEW IN UML 2.0

We've already integrated the new features into this writeup, but here's a summary:
1)Nested Classifiers: This is an extremely powerful concept. In UML, almost every
model building block you work with (classes, objects, components, behaviors such as
activities and state machines, and more) is a classifier.
In UML 2.0, you can nest a set of classes inside the component that manages them,
or embed a behavior (such as a state machine) inside the class or component that
implements it.
This capability also lets you build up complex behaviors from simpler ones, the
capability that defines the Interaction Overview Diagram.
You can layer different levels of abstraction in multiple ways: For example, you
can build a model of your Enterprise, and zoom in to embedded site views, and then
to departmental views within the site, and then to applications within a
department.
Alternatively, you can nest computational models within a business process model.
OMG's Business Enterprise Integration Domain Task Force (BEI DTF) is currently
working on several interesting new standards in business process and business
rules.
2)Improved Behavioral Modeling: In UML 1.X, the different behavioral models were
independent, but in UML 2.0, they all derive from a fundamental definition of a
behavior (except for the Use Case, which is subtly different but still participates
in the new organization).
3)Improved relationship between Structural and Behavioral Models: As we pointed out
under Nested Classifiers, UML 2.0 lets you designate that a behavior represented by
(for example) a State Machine or Sequence Diagram is the behavior of a class or a
component.

List of UML Diaagrams:

Activity Diagram.
Class Diagram.
Communication Diagram.
Component Diagram.
Deployment Diagram.
Object Diagram.
Package Diagram.
Sequence Diagram.
state Diagram.
Use Case Diagram.

Different styles of writing reference.

1)Harvard style of referencing.
2)American Psychological Association style (APA) .
3)Vancouver style.
4)MLA citation style (modern language association).
5)The Chicago manual of style .
6)Royal society of chemistry style.

Harvard citation format:

Harvard is a style of referencing, primarily used by university students, to cite
information sources.
In-text citations are used when directly quoting or paraphrasing a source.
They are located in the body of the work and contain a fragment of the full
citation.
Parenthetical referencing also known as Harvard referencing,is a citation style in
which partial citationsfor example, "(Smith 2010, p. 1)"are enclosed within
parentheses and embedded in the text, either within or after a sentence.
They are accompanied by a full, alphabetized list of citations in an end section,
usually titled "references", "reference list", "works cited", or "end-text
citations".

There are two styles of parenthetical referencing:

Authordate: primarily used in the sciences and social sciences, and recommended by
the American Chemical Society and the American Psychological Association (APA);
Authortitle or authorpage: primarily used in the arts and the humanities, and
recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA).

AuthorDate:
In the authordate method (Harvard referencing), the in-text citation is placed in
parentheses after the sentence or part thereof that the citation supports.
The citation includes the author's name, year of publication, and page number(s)
when a specific part of the source is referred to (Smith 2008, p. 1) or (Smith
2008:1). A full citation is given in the references section: Smith, John (2008).
Name of Book. Name of Publisher.

How to cite[edit]
The structure of a citation under the authordate method is the author's surname,
year of publication, and page number or range, in parentheses, as illustrated in
the Smith example near the top of this article.

1)The page number or page range is omitted if the entire work is cited. The
author's surname is omitted if it appears in the text. Thus we may say: "Jones
(2001) revolutionized the field of trauma surgery."
2)Two authors are cited using "and" or "&": (Deane and Jones 1991) or (Deane &
Jones 1991). More than two authors are cited using "et al.": (Smith et al. 1992).
3)In some documentation systems (e.g., MLA style), an unknown date is cited as
having "no date of publication" by the abbreviation for "no date" (Deane, n.d.).[6]
4)In such documentation systems, works without pagination are referred to in the
References list as "not paginated" with the abbreviation for that phrase (n. pag.).
[6]
5)"No place of publication" and/or "no publisher" are both designated the same way
(n.p.) and placed in the appropriate spot in the bibliographical citation (Harvard
Referencing. N.p.).[6]
6)A reference to a republished work is cited with the original publication date
either in square brackets (Marx [1867] 1967, p. 90) or separated with a slash
(Marx, 1867/1967, p. 90).[7] The inclusion of the original publication year
qualifies the suggestion otherwise that the publication originally occurred in
1967.
7)If an author published several books in 2005, the year of the first publication
(in the alphabetic order of the references) is cited and referenced as 2005a, the
second as 2005b and so on.
8)A citation is placed wherever appropriate in or after the sentence. If it is at
the end of a sentence, it is placed before the period, but a citation for an entire
block quote immediately follows the period at the end of the block since the
citation is not an actual part of the quotation itself.
9)Complete citations are provided in alphabetical order in a section following the
text, usually designated as "Works cited" or "References." The difference between a
"works cited" or "references" list and a bibliography is that a bibliography may
include works not directly cited in the text.
10)All citations are in the same font as the main text.
11)Note that "[t]he 'Harvard System' is something of a misnomer, as there is no
official institutional connection. It's another name for the author/date citation
system, the custom of using author and date in parentheses, e.g. (Robbins 1987) to
refer readers to the full bibliographic citations in appended bibliographies. Some
Harvard faculty were among the first practitioners in the late 19th century, and
the name stuck, particularly in England and the Commonwealth countries."[8]
12)Also note that there is no official guide to Harvard citation style,[9]
consequently variations occur across various online Harvard citation and
referencing guides. For example, some universities instruct students to type a
book's publication date without parentheses in the reference list

Examples[edit]
An example of a journal reference:
Heilman, J. M. and West, A. G. (2015). Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying
Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language. Journal of Medical
Internet Research, 17(3), p.e62. doi:10.2196/jmir.4069.

Following is an explanation of the components, where the information in brackets is

for demonstration purposes and is not used in actual formatting:
[Heilman, J. M. and West, A. G]. (2015). [Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying
Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language]. [Journal of Medical
Internet Research], [17] [(3)], [p.e62]. [doi:10.2196/jmir.4069].

[Author(s)] first listed author's name inverted in the bibliography entry

[Year]
Article title
[Journal title] in italic type
[Volume]
[Issue]
[Page numbers] specific page number in a note; page range in a bibliography entry
[Digital object identifier]

Examples of book references are:

Smith, J. (2005a). Dutch Citing Practices. The Hague: Holland Research Foundation.
Smith, J. (2005b). Harvard Referencing. London: Jolly Good Publishing.

In giving the city of publication, an internationally well-known city (such as

London, The Hague, or New York) is given as the city alone. If the city is not
internationally well known, the country (or state and country if in the U.S.) is
given.
An example of a newspaper reference:
Bowcott, Owen (October 18, 2005). "Protests halt online auction to shoot stag", The
Guardian.

Advantages[edit]
1)The principal advantage of the authordate method is that a reader familiar with
a field is likely to recognize a citation without having to check in the references
section. This is most useful in fields whose works are commonly known by their date
of publication (for example, the sciences and social sciences in which one cites,
say, "the 2005 Johns Hopkins study of brain function"), or if the author cited is
notorious (for example, HIV denialist Peter Duesberg on the cause of AIDS).
2)The use of authordate systems helps the reader easily identify sources that may
be outdated.
3)If the same source is cited more than once, even a reader unfamiliar with the
author may remember the name. It quickly becomes obvious if the publication is
relying heavily on a single author or single publication. When many different pages
of the same work are cited, the reader does not need to flip back and forth to
footnotes or endnotes full of "ibid." citations to discover this fact.
4)With the authordate method, there is no renumbering hassle when the order of in-
text citations is changed, which can be a scourge of the numbered endnotes system
if house style or project style insists that citations never appear out of
numerical order. (Computerized reference-management software automates this aspect
of the numbered system [for example, Microsoft Word's endnote system, Wikipedia's
<ref> system, LaTeX/BibTeX, or various applications marketed to professionals].)
5)Parenthetical referencing works well in combination with substantive notes. When
the note system is used for source citations, two different systems of note marking
and placement are neededin Chicago Style, for instance, "the citation notes should
be numbered and appear as endnotes. The substantive notes, indicated by asterisks
and other symbols, appear as footnotes" ("Chicago Manual of Style" 2003, 16.63-64).
This approach can be cumbersome in any circumstances. When it is not possible to
use footnotes altogether probably because of the publisher's policy, it results in
two parallel series of endnotes, which can be confusing to readers. Using
parenthetical referencing for sources avoids such a problem.

Advantages[edit]
The principal advantage of the authordate method is that a reader familiar with a
field is likely to recognize a citation without having to check in the references
section. This is most useful in fields whose works are commonly known by their date
of publication (for example, the sciences and social sciences in which one cites,
say, "the 2005 Johns Hopkins study of brain function"), or if the author cited is
notorious (for example, HIV denialist Peter Duesberg on the cause of AIDS).
The use of authordate systems helps the reader easily identify sources that may be
outdated.
If the same source is cited more than once, even a reader unfamiliar with the
author may remember the name. It quickly becomes obvious if the publication is
relying heavily on a single author or single publication. When many different pages
of the same work are cited, the reader does not need to flip back and forth to
footnotes or endnotes full of "ibid." citations to discover this fact.
With the authordate method, there is no renumbering hassle when the order of in-
text citations is changed, which can be a scourge of the numbered endnotes system
if house style or project style insists that citations never appear out of
numerical order. (Computerized reference-management software automates this aspect
of the numbered system [for example, Microsoft Word's endnote system, Wikipedia's
<ref> system, LaTeX/BibTeX, or various applications marketed to professionals].)
Parenthetical referencing works well in combination with substantive notes. When
the note system is used for source citations, two different systems of note marking
and placement are neededin Chicago Style, for instance, "the citation notes should
be numbered and appear as endnotes. The substantive notes, indicated by asterisks
and other symbols, appear as footnotes" ("Chicago Manual of Style" 2003, 16.63-64).
This approach can be cumbersome in any circumstances. When it is not possible to
use footnotes altogether probably because of the publisher's policy, it results in
two parallel series of endnotes, which can be confusing to readers. Using
parenthetical referencing for sources avoids such a problem

Disadvantages[edit]
1)The principal disadvantage of parenthetical references is they take up space in
the main body of the text and are distracting to a reader, especially when many
works are cited in a single place (which often occurs when reviewing a large body
of previous work). Numbered footnotes or endnotes, by contrast, can be combined
into a range, e.g. "[2735]". However this disadvantage is offset by the fact that
parenthetical referencing may be economical for the overall document since, for
instance, "(Smith 2008: 34)" takes up a small amount of space in a paragraph,
whereas the same information would require a whole line in a footnote or endnote.
2)In many disciplines in the arts and humanities, date of publication is often not
the most important piece of information about a particular work. Thus, in author
date references such as "(Dickens 2003: 10)", the date is essentially redundant or
meaningless when read on the page, since works may go through numerous editions or
translations long after the original publication. Compare a reference in a science
discipline such as "The last survey indicated that four hundred were left in the
wild (Jones et al. 2003)", where the date is meaningful. The reader of certain
forms of arts and humanities scholarship may thus be better aided by the use of
authortitle referencing styles such as MLA: for example, "(Dickens Oliver, 10)",
where meaningful information is given on the page. Historical scholarship is an
exception, since, when citing a primary source, date of publication is meaningful,
though in most branches of history footnotes are preferred on other grounds.
Generally speaking, however, it is instructive that authordate systems such as
Harvard were devised by scientists, whereas authortitle systems such as MLA were
devised by humanities scholars.
3)Similarly, because works are frequently reprinted in many arts and humanities
disciplines, different authordate references might refer to the same work. For
example, "(Spivak 1985)", "(Spivak 1987)", and "(Spivak 1996)" might all refer to
the same essay and might be better rendered in authortitle style as "(Spivak
'Subaltern')". Such ambiguities may be resolved by adding an original date of
publication, for example, "(Spivak 1985/1996)", though this is cumbersome and
exacerbates the principal disadvantage of parenthetical referencing, namely its
distraction for the reader and unattractiveness on the page.
4)Rules can be complicated or unclear for non-academic references, particularly
those where the personal author is unknown, such as government-issued documents and
standards.
5)When removing a portion of text which has citations in it, the editor(s) must
also check the Reference sections to see if the sources cited in the removed text
is used elsewhere in the paper or book, and if not, to delete any reference not
actually cited in the text (although this issue can be eliminated by the use of
reference manager software).
6)The use of the authordate methods (but not authortitle) can be confusing when
used in monographs about particularly prolific authors. In-text citation and back-
of-the-book listings of works arranged by date of publication are conducive to
errors and confusion: for example, Harvey 1996a, Harvey 1996b, Harvey 1996c, Harvey
1996d, Harvey 1995a, Harvey 1995b, Harvey 1986a, Harvey 1986b, and so on.
7)The mixing of text with frequent parentheses and long strings of numbers is
typographically inelegant.
8)Most historical journals (apart from economic and social history) use footnotes
because of the need for maximum flexibility. Primary source references to archives,
etc., involve long and complex information, all of which may be immediately
relevant to a serious reader. An interesting example of this arose with the famous
work of the anthropologists John and Jean Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution
which treated historical events from anthropological perspective: although
parenthetical references were used for scholarly sources, the authors found it
necessary to use notes for the historical archive material they were also using.

Authortitle[edit]
In the authortitle or authorpage method, also referred to as MLA style, the in-
text citation is placed in parentheses after the sentence or part thereof that the
citation supports, and includes the author's name (a short title only is necessary
when there is more than one work by the same author) and a page number where
appropriate (Smith 1) or (Smith, Playing 1). (No "p." or "pp." prefaces the page
numbers and main words in titles appear in capital letters, following MLA style
guidelines.) A full citation is given in the references section.

Cite the following information:

1)author(s) name and initials
2)title of the article (between single quotation marks)
3)title of the journal (in italics)
4)available publication information (volume number, issue number)
5)accessed day month year (the date you last viewed the article)
6)URL or Internet address (between pointed brackets)

Vancouver style:

1)Author Surname followed by Initials.

2)Title of article followed by double quotation.
3)Title of journal (abbreviated).
4)Date of Publication followed by double quotation.
5)Volume Number.
6)Issue Number in bracket.
7)Page Number.
Example
Haas AN, Susin C, Albandar JM, et al. Azithromycin as a adjunctive treatment of
aggressive periodontitis: 12-months randomized clinical trial. N Engl J Med. 2008
Aug; 35(8):696-704.
Vancouver Style does not use the full journal name, only the commonly-used
abbreviation: New England Journal of Medicine is cited as N Engl J Med.

MLA citation style (modern language association)

1)Authors name.
2)Title of article.
3)Name of journal.
4)Volume number followed by decimal & issue no.
5)Year of publication.
6)Page numbers.
7)Medium of publication.

Example
Matarrita-Cascante, David. "Beyond Growth: Reaching Tourism-Led Development."
Annals of Tourism Research 37.4 (2010): 1141-63. Print

American Psychological Association style (APA):

Authors name followed by its initials.

Year of publication.
Article title followed by full stop.
Name of Journal in italic form
Volume followed by a comma
Page no.
Example
Alibali, M. W., Phillips, K. M., & Fischer, A. D. (2009). Learning new problem-
solving strategies leads to changes in problem representation. Cognitive
Development, 24, 89-101.

The Chicago manual of style :

1)Name of author.
2)Article title in double quotation mark.
3)Title of journal in italic.
4)Volume.
5)Year of publication.
6)Page no.
Example
Joshua I. Weinstein, The Market in Platos Classical Philology, 104 (2009): 440.

Royal society of chemistry style:

1)INITIALS. Authors surname.
2)Title of journal (abbreviated).
3)Year of publication.
4)Volume number.
5)Pages no.

Example:
H. Yano, K. Abe, M. Nogi, A. N. Nakagaito, J. Mater. Sci., 2010, 45, 133.

Extracting Information from Text

For any given question, it's likely that someone has written the answer down
somewhere. The amount of natural language text that is available in electronic form
is truly staggering, and is increasing every day.
However, the complexity of natural language can make it very difficult to access
the information in that text. The state of the art in NLP is still a long way from
being able to build general-purpose representations of meaning from unrestricted
text.
If we instead focus our efforts on a limited set of questions or "entity
relations," such as "where are different facilities located," or "who is employed
by what company," we can make significant progress.
The goal of this chapter is to answer the following questions:

1)How can we build a system that extracts structured data, such as tables, from
unstructured text?
2)What are some robust methods for identifying the entities and relationships
described in a text?
3)Which corpora are appropriate for this work, and how do we use them for training
and evaluating our models?

Along the way, we'll apply techniques from the last two chapters to the problems of
chunking and named-entity recognition.

Information Extraction
Information comes in many shapes and sizes. One important form is structured data,
where there is a regular and predictable organization of entities and
relationships.
For example, we might be interested in the relation between companies and
locations. Given a particular company, we would like to be able to identify the
locations where it does business; conversely, given a location, we would like to
discover which companies do business in that location.
If our data is in tabular form, such as the example in 1.1, then answering these
queries is straightforward.

Table 1.1
Locations data
OrgName LocationName
Omnicom New York
DDB Needham New York
Kaplan Thaler Group New York
BBDO South Atlanta
Georgia-Pacific Atlanta

If this location data was stored in Python as a list of tuples (entity, relation,
entity), then the question "Which organizations operate in Atlanta?" could be
translated as follows:
>>> locs = [('Omnicom', 'IN', 'New York'),
... ('DDB Needham', 'IN', 'New York'),
... ('Kaplan Thaler Group', 'IN', 'New York'),
... ('BBDO South', 'IN', 'Atlanta'),
... ('Georgia-Pacific', 'IN', 'Atlanta')]
>>> query = [e1 for (e1, rel, e2) in locs if e2=='Atlanta']
>>> print(query)
['BBDO South', 'Georgia-Pacific']
Things are more tricky if we try to get similar information out of text.
For example, consider the following snippet (from nltk.corpus.ieer, for fileid
NYT19980315.0085).

If you read through information extraction, you will glean the information required
to answer the example question. But how do we get a machine to understand enough
about information extraction to return the answers in 1.2? This is obviously a much
harder task. Unlike 1.1, information extraction contains no structure that links
organization names with location names.
One approach to this problem involves building a very general representation of
meaning.
In this chapter we take a different approach, deciding in advance that we will only
look for very specific kinds of information in text, such as the relation between
organizations and locations. Rather than trying to use text like information
extraction to answer the question directly, we first convert the unstructured data
of natural language sentences into the structured data of Information Extraction
Architecture.
Then we reap the benefits of powerful query tools such as SQL.
This method of getting meaning from text is called Information Extraction.

Information Extraction has many applications, including business intelligence,

resume harvesting, media analysis, sentiment detection, patent search, and email
scanning. A particularly important area of current research involves the attempt to
extract structured data out of electronically-available scientific literature,
especially in the domain of biology and medicine.

Information Extraction Architecture:

shows the architecture for a simple information extraction system. It begins by
processing a document using several of the procedures discussed in 3 and 5.: first,
the raw text of the document is split into sentences using a sentence segmenter,
and each sentence is further subdivided into words using a tokenizer.
Next, each sentence is tagged with part-of-speech tags, which will prove very
helpful in the next step, named entity detection.
In this step, we search for mentions of potentially interesting entities in each
sentence.
Finally, we use relation detection to search for likely relations between different
entities in the text.
To perform the first three tasks, we can define a simple function that simply
connects together NLTK's default sentence segmenter [1], word tokenizer [2], and
part-of-speech tagger [3]:
>>> def ie_preprocess(document):
... sentences = nltk.sent_tokenize(document) [1]
... sentences = [nltk.word_tokenize(sent) for sent in sentences] [2]
... sentences = [nltk.pos_tag(sent) for sent in sentences] [3]
Next, in named entity detection, we segment and label the entities that might
participate in interesting relations with one another. Typically, these will be
definite noun phrases such as the knights who say "ni", or proper names such as
Monty Python. In some tasks it is useful to also consider indefinite nouns or noun
chunks, such as every student or cats, and these do not necessarily refer to
entities in the same way as definite NPs and proper names.

Finally, in relation extraction, we search for specific patterns between pairs of

entities that occur near one another in the text, and use those patterns to build
tuples recording the relationships between the entities.

Chunking

The basic technique we will use for entity detection is chunking, which segments
and labels multi-token sequences as illustrated in Noun Phrase Chunking. The
smaller boxes show the word-level tokenization and part-of-speech tagging, while
the large boxes show higher-level chunking. Each of these larger boxes is called a
chunk. Like tokenization, which omits whitespace, chunking usually selects a subset
of the tokens.
Also like tokenization, the pieces produced by a chunker do not overlap in the
source text.
Noun Phrase Chunking:
We will begin by considering the task of noun phrase chunking, or NP-chunking,
where we search for chunks corresponding to individual noun phrases. For example,
here is some Wall Street Journal text with NP-chunks marked using brackets:
[ The/DT market/NN ] for/IN [ system-management/NN software/NN ] for/IN
[ Digital/NNP ] [ 's/POS hardware/NN ] is/VBZ fragmented/JJ enough/RB that/IN
[ a/DT giant/NN ] such/JJ as/IN [ Computer/NNP Associates/NNPS ] should/MD do/VB
well/RB there/RB]
As we can see, NP-chunks are often smaller pieces than complete noun phrases. For
example, the market for system-management software for Digital's hardware is a
single noun phrase (containing two nested noun phrases), but it is captured in NP-
chunks by the simpler chunk the market. One of the motivations for this difference
is that NP-chunks are defined so as not to contain other NP-chunks. Consequently,
any prepositional phrases or subordinate clauses that modify a nominal will not be
included in the corresponding NP-chunk, since they almost certainly contain further
noun phrases.

One of the most useful sources of information for NP-chunking is part-of-speech

tags. This is one of the motivations for performing part-of-speech tagging in our
information extraction system.
We demonstrate this approach using an example sentence that has been part-of-speech
tagged in Tag patterns. In order to create an NP-chunker, we will first define a
chunk grammar, consisting of rules that indicate how sentences should be chunked.
In this case, we will define a simple grammar with a single regular-expression rule
chunking.
This rule says that an NP chunk should be formed whenever the chunker finds an
optional determiner (DT) followed by any number of adjectives (JJ) and then a noun
(NN). Using this grammar, we create a chunk parser [3], and test it on our example
sentence [4]. The result is a tree, which we can either print [5], or display
graphically [6].
>>> sentence = [("the", "DT"), ("little", "JJ"), ("yellow", "JJ"), [1]
... ("dog", "NN"), ("barked", "VBD"), ("at", "IN"), ("the", "DT"), ("cat", "NN")]

>>> grammar = "NP: {<DT>?<JJ>*<NN>}" [2]

>>> cp = nltk.RegexpParser(grammar) [3]

>>> result = cp.parse(sentence) [4]
>>> print(result) [5]
(S
(NP the/DT little/JJ yellow/JJ dog/NN)
barked/VBD
at/IN
(NP the/DT cat/NN))
>>> result.draw() [6]

Tag Patterns:
The rules that make up a chunk grammar use tag patterns to describe sequences of
tagged words. A tag pattern is a sequence of part-of-speech tags delimited using
angle brackets, e.g. <DT>?<JJ>*<NN>. Tag patterns are similar to regular expression
patterns (3.4). Now, consider the following noun phrases from the Wall Street
Journal:
another/DT sharp/JJ dive/NN
trade/NN figures/NNS
any/DT new/JJ policy/NN measures/NNS
earlier/JJR stages/NNS
Panamanian/JJ dictator/NN Manuel/NNP Noriega/NNP
We can match these noun phrases using a slight refinement of the first tag pattern
above, i.e. <DT>?<JJ.*>*<NN.*>+. This will chunk any sequence of tokens beginning
with an optional determiner, followed by zero or more adjectives of any type
(including relative adjectives like earlier/JJR), followed by one or more nouns of
any type. However, it is easy to find many more complicated examples which this
rule will not cover:
his/PRP$ Mansion/NNP House/NNP speech/NN
the/DT price/NN cutting/VBG
3/CD %/NN to/TO 4/CD %/NN
more/JJR than/IN 10/CD %/NN
the/DT fastest/JJS developing/VBG trends/NNS
's/POS skill/NN

Chunking with Regular Expressions:

To find the chunk structure for a given sentence, the RegexpParser chunker begins
with a flat structure in which no tokens are chunked. The chunking rules are
applied in turn, successively updating the chunk structure. Once all of the rules
have been invoked, the resulting chunk structure is returned.
Chunking with Regular Expressions shows a simple chunk grammar consisting of two
rules. The first rule matches an optional determiner or possessive pronoun, zero or
more adjectives, then a noun. The second rule matches one or more proper nouns. We
also define an example sentence to be chunked [1], and run the chunker on this
input [2].
grammar = r"""
NP: {<DT|PP\$>?<JJ>*<NN>} # chunk determiner/possessive, adjectives and
noun
{<NNP>+} # chunk sequences of proper nouns
"""
cp = nltk.RegexpParser(grammar)
sentence = [("Rapunzel", "NNP"), ("let", "VBD"), ("down", "RP"), [1]
("her", "PP$"), ("long", "JJ"), ("golden", "JJ"), ("hair",
"NN")]

>>> print(cp.parse(sentence)) [2]

(S
(NP Rapunzel/NNP)
let/VBD
down/RP
(NP her/PP$ long/JJ golden/JJ hair/NN))
If a tag pattern matches at overlapping locations, the leftmost match takes
precedence. For example, if we apply a rule that matches two consecutive nouns to a
text containing three consecutive nouns, then only the first two nouns will be
chunked:
>>> nouns = [("money", "NN"), ("market", "NN"), ("fund", "NN")]
>>> grammar = "NP: {<NN><NN>} # Chunk two consecutive nouns"
>>> cp = nltk.RegexpParser(grammar)
>>> print(cp.parse(nouns))
(S (NP money/NN market/NN) fund/NN)
Once we have created the chunk for money market, we have removed the context that
would have permitted fund to be included in a chunk. This issue would have been
avoided with a more permissive chunk rule, e.g. NP: {<NN>+}.

Exploring Text Corpora:

In chunking we saw how we could interrogate a tagged corpus to extract phrases
matching a particular sequence of part-of-speech tags. We can do the same work more
easily with a chunker, as follows:
>>> cp = nltk.RegexpParser('CHUNK: {<V.*> <TO> <V.*>}')
>>> brown = nltk.corpus.brown
>>> for sent in brown.tagged_sents():
... tree = cp.parse(sent)
... for subtree in tree.subtrees():
... if subtree.label() == 'CHUNK': print(subtree)
...
(CHUNK combined/VBN to/TO achieve/VB)
(CHUNK continue/VB to/TO place/VB)
(CHUNK serve/VB to/TO protect/VB)
(CHUNK wanted/VBD to/TO wait/VB)
(CHUNK allowed/VBN to/TO place/VB)
(CHUNK expected/VBN to/TO become/VB)
...
(CHUNK seems/VBZ to/TO overtake/VB)
(CHUNK want/VB to/TO buy/VB)

Chinking:
Sometimes it is easier to define what we want to exclude from a chunk. We can
define a chink to be a sequence of tokens that is not included in a chunk. In the
following example, barked/VBD at/IN is a chink:
[ the/DT little/JJ yellow/JJ dog/NN ] barked/VBD at/IN [ the/DT cat/NN ]

Chinking is the process of removing a sequence of tokens from a chunk. If the

matching sequence of tokens spans an entire chunk, then the whole chunk is removed;
if the sequence of tokens appears in the middle of the chunk, these tokens are
removed, leaving two chunks where there was only one before.
If the sequence is at the periphery of the chunk, these tokens are removed, and a
smaller chunk remains. These three possibilities are illustrated in Noun Phrase
Chunking.

Three chinking rules applied to the same chunk

:::::: Entire chunk Middle of a chunk End of a
chunk
Input [a/DT little/JJ dog/NN] [a/DT little/JJ dog/NN] [a/DT little/JJ
dog/NN]
Operation Chink "DT JJ NN" Chink "JJ" Chink "NN"
Pattern }DT JJ NN{ }JJ{
}NN{
Output a/DT little/JJ dog/NN [a/DT] little/JJ [dog/NN] [a/DT
little/JJ] dog/NN

we put the entire sentence into a single chunk, then excise the chinks.

grammar = r"""
NP:
{<.*>+} # Chunk everything
}<VBD|IN>+{ # Chink sequences of VBD and IN
"""
sentence = [("the", "DT"), ("little", "JJ"), ("yellow", "JJ"),
("dog", "NN"), ("barked", "VBD"), ("at", "IN"), ("the", "DT"), ("cat",
"NN")]
cp = nltk.RegexpParser(grammar
>>> print(cp.parse(sentence))
(S
(NP the/DT little/JJ yellow/JJ dog/NN)
barked/VBD
at/IN
(NP the/DT cat/NN))

Summary:

>>>Information extraction systems search large bodies of unrestricted text for

specific types of entities and relations, and use them to populate well-organized
databases. These databases can then be used to find answers for specific questions.
>>>The typical architecture for an information extraction system begins by
segmenting, tokenizing, and part-of-speech tagging the text.
>>>The resulting data is then searched for specific types of entity. Finally, the
information extraction system looks at entities that are mentioned near one another
in the text, and tries to determine whether specific relationships hold between
those entities.
>>>Entity recognition is often performed using chunkers, which segment multi-token
sequences, and label them with the appropriate entity type.
>>>Common entity types include ORGANIZATION, PERSON, LOCATION, DATE, TIME, MONEY,
and GPE (geo-political entity).
>>>Chunkers can be constructed using rule-based systems, such as the RegexpParser
class provided by NLTK; or using machine learning techniques, such as the
ConsecutiveNPChunker presented in this chapter. In either case, part-of-speech tags
are often a very important feature when searching for chunks.
>>>Although chunkers are specialized to create relatively flat data structures,
where no two chunks are allowed to overlap, they can be cascaded together to build
nested structures.
>>>Relation extraction can be performed using either rule-based systems which
typically look for specific patterns in the text that connect entities and the
intervening words; or using machine-learning systems which typically attempt to
learn such patterns automatically from a training corpus.

References:
http://www.nltk.org/book
The popularity of chunking is due in great part to pioneering work by Abney e.g.,
(Church, Young, & Bloothooft, 1996). Abney's Cass chunker is described in
http://www.vinartus.net/spa/97a.pdf.
The word chink initially meant a sequence of stopwords, according to a 1975 paper
by Ross and Tukey (Church, Young, & Bloothooft, 1996).
The IOB format (or sometimes BIO Format) was developed for NP chunking by (Ramshaw
& Marcus, 1995), and was used for the shared NP bracketing task run by the
Conference on Natural Language Learning (CoNLL) in 1999. The same format was
adopted by CoNLL 2000 for annotating a section of Wall Street Journal text as part
of a shared task on NP chunking.

11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously:

How to Prepare a Manuscript for International Journals?

General structure of a research article
>>>title
>>>Abstract
>>>keywords
>>Make them easy for indexing and searching!(informative, attractive,
effective)
>>>Main text (IMRAD)
>>Introduction
>>Methods
>>Results
>>And
>>Discussions
>>Journal space is not unlimited.Make your article as concises as posible.
When you organize your manuscript, the first thing to consider is that the order of
sections will be very different than the order of items on you checklist.
An article begins with the Title, Abstract and Keywords.
The article text follows the IMRAD format(Introduction, Methods, Results, and
Discussion), which responds to the questions below:
>>Introduction: What did you/others do? Why did you do it?
>>Methods: How did you do it?
>>Results: What did you find?
>>And
>>Discussion: What does it all mean?

The main text is followed by the Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References and

Supporting Materials.
While this is the published structure, however, we often use a different order when
writing.

Steps to organizing your manuscript

1)Prepare the figures and tables.
2)Write the Methods.
3)Write up the Results.
4)Write the Discussion. Finalize the Results and Discussion before writing the
introduction. This is because, if the discussion is insufficient, how can you
objectively demonstrate the scientific significance of your work in the
introduction?
5)Write a clear Conclusion.
6)Write a compelling introduction.
7)Write the Abstract.
8)Compose a concise and descriptive Title.
9)elect Keywords for indexing.
10)Write the Acknowledgements.
11)Write up the References.
Next, I'll review each step in more detail. But before you set out to write a
paper, there are two important things you should do that will set the groundwork
for the entire process.
>>The topic to be studied should be the first issue to be solved. Define your
hypothesis and objectives (These will go in the Introduction.)
>>Review the literature related to the topic and select some papers (about 30) that
can be cited in your paper (These will be listed in the References.)
Finally, keep in mind that each publisher has its own style guidelines and
preferences, so always consult the publisher's Guide for Authors.

Step 1: Prepare the figures and tables

Remember that "a figure is worth a thousand words." Hence, illustrations, including
figures and tables, are the most efficient way to present your results. Your data
are the driving force of the paper, so your illustrations are critical!
How do you decide between presenting your data as tables or figures? Generally,
tables give the actual experimental results, while figures are often used for
comparisons of experimental results with those of previous works, or with
calculated/theoretical values.
Whatever your choice is, no illustrations should duplicate the information
described elsewhere in the manuscript.

Another important factor: figure and table legends must be self-explanatory

When presenting your tables and figures, appearances count! To this end:
>>Avoid crowded plots (Figure 3), using only three or four data sets per figure;
use well-selected scales.
>>Think about appropriate axis label size
>>Include clear symbols and data sets that are easy to distinguish.
>>Never include long boring tables (e.g., chemical compositions of emulsion systems
or lists of species and abundances). You can include them as supplementary
material.

If you are using photographs, each must have a scale marker, or scale bar, of
professional quality in one corner.
In photographs and figures, use color only when necessary when submitting to a
print publication. If different line styles can clarify the meaning, never use
colors or other thrilling effects or you will be charged with expensive fees.
Of course, this does not apply to online journals. For many journals, you can
submit duplicate figures: one in color for the online version of the journal and
pdfs, and another in black and white for the hardcopy journal.
Another common problem is the misuse of lines and histograms. Lines joining data
only can be used when presenting time series or consecutive samples data. However,
when there is no connection between samples or there is not a gradient, you must
use histograms.

Length of the manuscript:

Again, look at the journal's Guide for Authors, but an ideal length for a
manuscript is 25 to 40 pages, double spaced, including essential data only. Here
are some general guidelines:
>>>Title: Short and informative
>>>Abstract: 1 paragraph(<50 words)
>>>Introduction: 1.5-2 pages
>>>Methods: 2-3 pages
>>>Results: 6-8 pages
>>>Discussion: 4-6 pages
>>>Conclusion: 1 paragraph
>>>Figures: 6-8(one per page)
>>>tables: 1-3(one per page)
>>>References: 20-50 papers(2-4 pages)

References:
https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-paper-editors-
will-take-seriously

How to make figures for scientific papers?

To make engineering diagrams (with proper image scaling) by using Asymptote. The
learning curve is steep but image quality is very good. It also works with 3D and
animations.

What is the best software for making and editing scientific images for publication
quality figures?
>> Tecplot(3D and animation)
>> Little tip
>> GraphPad
>> Powerpoint
>> Grapher
>> Smartdraw
>> Photo/bitmap editing
>> Matlab
>> drawio

References:
Researchgate.net
https://www.publishingcampus.elsevier.com

How can you make a good presentation even more effective?

Top Tips for Effective Presentations

1.Show your Passion and Connect with your Audience

Its hard to be relaxed and be yourself when youre nervous.

But time and again, the great presenters say that the most important thing is to
connect with your audience, and the best way to do that is to let your passion for
the subject shine through.
Be honest with the audience about what is important to you and why it matters.
Be enthusiastic and honest, and the audience will respond.

2. Focus on your Audiences Needs

Your presentation needs to be built around what your audience is going to get out
of the presentation.
As you prepare the presentation, you always need to bear in mind what the
audience needs and wants to know, not what you can tell them.
While youre giving the presentation, you also need to remain focused on your
audiences response, and react to that.
You need to make it easy for your audience to understand and respond.

3. Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core Message

When planning your presentation, you should always keep in mind the question:
What is the key message (or three key points) for my audience to take away?
You should be able to communicate that key message very briefly.
Some experts recommend a 30-second elevator summary, others that you can write
it on the back of a business card, or say it in no more than 15 words.
Whichever rule you choose, the important thing is to keep your core message focused
and brief.
And if what you are planning to say doesnt contribute to that core message,
dont say it.

4. Smile and Make Eye Contact with your Audience

This sounds very easy, but a surprisingly large number of presenters fail to do
it.
If you smile and make eye contact, you are building rapport, which helps the
audience to connect with you and your subject. It also helps you to feel less
nervous, because you are talking to individuals, not to a great mass of unknown
people.
To help you with this, make sure that you dont turn down all the lights so that
only the slide screen is visible. Your audience needs to see you as well as your
slides.

5. Start Strongly
The beginning of your presentation is crucial. You need to grab your audiences
attention and hold it.
They will give you a few minutes grace in which to entertain them, before they
start to switch off if youre dull. So dont waste that on explaining who you are.
Start by entertaining them.
Try a story (see tip 7 below), or an attention-grabbing (but useful) image on a
slide.

6. Remember the 10-20-30 Rule for Slideshows

This is a tip from Guy Kawasaki of Apple. He suggests that slideshows should:
Contain no more than 10 slides;
Last no more than 20 minutes; and
Use a font size of no less than 30 point.
This last is particularly important as it stops you trying to put too much
information on any one slide. This whole approach avoids the dreaded Death by
PowerPoint.
As a general rule, slides should be the sideshow to you, the presenter. A good
set of slides should be no use without the presenter, and they should definitely
contain less, rather than more, information, expressed simply.
If you need to provide more information, create a bespoke handout and give it out
after your presentation.

7. Tell Stories
Human beings are programmed to respond to stories.
Stories help us to pay attention, and also to remember things. If you can use
stories in your presentation, your audience is more likely to engage and to
remember your points afterwards. It is a good idea to start with a story, but there
is a wider point too: you need your presentation to act like a story.
Think about what story you are trying to tell your audience, and create your
presentation to tell it.
>>Finding The Story Behind Your Presentation
>>>To effectively tell a story, focus on using at least one of the two most basic
storytelling mechanics in your presentation:
1.Focusing On Characters People have stories; things, data, and objects do
not. So ask yourself who is directly involved in your topic that you can use as
the focal point of your story.
2.A Changing Dynamic A story needs something to change along the way. So ask
yourself What is not as it should be? and answer with what you are going to do
about it (or what you did about it).

8. Use your Voice Effectively.

The spoken word is actually a pretty inefficient means of communication, because
it uses only one of your audiences five senses. Thats why presenters tend to use
visual aids, too. But you can help to make the spoken word better by using your
voice effectively.
Varying the speed at which you talk, and emphasising changes in pitch and tone
all help to make your voice more interesting and hold your audiences attention.

Effective Speaking:

Your voice can reveal as much about your personal history as your appearance.
The sound of a voice and the content of speech can provide clues to an
individual's emotional state and a dialect can indicate their geographic roots.
The voice is unique to the person to whom it belongs.

Aspects of Effective Speaking

Effective speaking has nothing to do with the outdated concept of 'elocution'
where everyone was encouraged to speak in the same 'correct' manner. Rather,
effective speaking concerns being able to speak in a public context with confidence
and clarity, whilst at the same time reflecting on your own personality
>>Accents.
>>Finding your voice.
>>The effect of breath on voice and speech.
>>Vocal production.

Vocal Production:
The following three core elements of vocal production need to be understood for
anyone wishing to become an effective speaker:
>>Volume - to be heard.
>>Clarity - to be understood.
>>Variety - to add interest.
>>>Pace,Volume,Pitch - Inflection - Emphasis,Pause.

9. Use your Body Too

It has been estimated that more than three quarters of communication is non-
verbal.
That means that as well as your tone of voice, your body language is crucial to
getting your message across. Make sure that you are giving the right messages: body
language to avoid includes crossed arms, hands held behind your back or in your
pockets, and pacing the stage.
Make your gestures open and confident, and move naturally around the stage, and
among the audience too, if possible.

10. Relax, Breathe and Enjoy

If you find presenting difficult, it can be hard to be calm and relaxed about
doing it.
One option is to start by concentrating on your breathing. Slow it down, and make
sure that youre breathing fully. Make sure that you continue to pause for breath
occasionally during your presentation too.

References:
1)https://www.skillsyouneed.com/present/presentation-tips.html
2)http://acmg.seas.harvard.edu/education.html