A Grammar of Meutegwenish

Na O
Meutegwen su Jeuukwen

MrIcerly

June 18, 2014

Contents

1 A Grammar 3
1.1 Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1.1 Gemination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1.2 Labialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1.3 Palatalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2.1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2.2 Nasal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2.3 Silent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2.4 Diphthongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Phonotactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Stress and Intonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.5.1 Formal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.5.2 Popular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.5.3 Other Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Syntax and Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1.1 Sentence Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1.2 Noun Phrase Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1.3 Verb Phrase Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1.4 Null-Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2.1 The Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2.2 Degrees of Plurality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2.3 Definiteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2.4 Measure Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2.5 Ergativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2.6 Topicality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2.7 Genitive Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2.8 Indirect Object, Benefactive, and Malefactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.4 Postpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.5 Adjectives and Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.5.1 Superlatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.6 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1
 1.2.6.1 Number Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.6.2 Cardinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.6.3 Ordinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.7 Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.7.1 Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.7.2 Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.7.3 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.7.4 Infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.7.5 Copula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.8 Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.8.1 Strong and Weak Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.8.2 Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.9 Dependent Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.9.1 Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.10 Temporal Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.11 Questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.12 Direct Address and Politeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Sample Texts 21
2.1 Article 1 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 The Babel Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 My Hovercraft is Full of Eels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 The North Wind and the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Glossary 25
3.1 Glossing and Grammatical Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Introduction
Meutegwenish, pronounced [mjut@"gwEnIS], is a constructed language created by MrIcerly. The
name Meutegwenish comes from a now-defunct compound word, meaning house-near-language,
or neighbors language. This is because in the authors original fictional setting, the languages
culture took place near the speakers of the creators first language. Meutegwenishs design goals
were to have a unique aesthetic with an underlying East Asian-like framework. This included strict
syllable structure with a highly analytic syntax. Features such as measure words and intensive
word compounding were also included. The language transitioned from a sketch to reality around
October 2013, and has been under intermittent development ever since.
This documentation is a conglomeration of all the mechanics behind the language, from phonol-
ogy to grammar, to provide a full description. Reading this should give the user a complete
understanding of the language.

2
Chapter 1

A Grammar

1.1 Phonology
1.1.1 Consonants

Figure 1.1: The Consonants of Meutegwenish

Bilabial / Palatal /
Post-
Labio- Alveolar Alveolo- Velar Glottal
alveolar
dental palatal
Nasal m hmi n hni (N)***
p hpi t hti c hci k hki
Plain b hbi d hdi hji g hgi (P)**
Stop
p: hppi t: htti c: hcci k: hkki
pw hpwi tw htwi cw hcwi kw hkwi
Labialized bw hbwi dw hdwi w hjwi gw hgwi
w
p: hppwi w
t: httwi c:w hccwi k:w hkkwi
 > 
Affricate (ts)* (dz)* (tC)* (d)*
Fricative f hfi v hvi s hsi z hzi S hshi Z hzhi (C)* ()*
Lateral
l hli
Approximant
Approximant hri j hyi
>
Syllable initially, [s] and [z] become [ts] and [dz]. Before high vowels alveolar fricatives and
> > > 
affricates palatalize: [ts] and [dz] become [tC] and [d], [S] and [Z] become [C] [].
Glottal stops only appear in certain circumstances, and thus can remain unwritten. If the
need to be written arises then hqi is used.
[n] assimilates to [N] before velar consonants.

1.1.1.1 Gemination
All unvoiced stops phonemically geminate, therefore the length of time a consonant is held is
perceived differently. Gemination is indicated by a double letter in orthography.
(1) cu [cu:] m. Crops
(2) ccu [c:u:] n. Lock

3
1.1.1.2 Labialization
All stops have a labialized variant. Labialization is a noticeable rounding in the lips when pro-
nouncing the consonant. The variant is phonemic.
(3) -ku [ku:] bm. Made of
(4) kwu [kw u:] nm. Four
(5) pax [pA:] v. To ride, mount
(6) pwax [pw A:] adj. Venial, insignificant

1.1.1.3 Palatalization
Alveolar and postalveolar fricatives and affricates will palatalize before high vowels. This change is
 assimilate
not phonemic and is only phonetic, as the distinction makes no difference. [ts] and [dz]

to [tC] and [d]; [S] and [Z] become [C] and [], respectively.
>
(7) su [tCu:] pp. gen
(8) shik [CIk] m. Lattice
(9) shoh [So:] nm. Five

1.1.2 Vowels

Figure 1.2: The Cardinal Vowel and Diphthong Phonemes

i iu u

eu

e o
au

Meutegwenish consists of five cardinal vowel placements, indicated by the phonemes /i/, /u/, /e/,
/o/, and /a/. These phonemes vary in a number of other phonemic and phonetic modifications.
Vowels can be voiced, unvoiced, or nasalized voiced. Within each of these there is contrastive
length. There exists three diphthongs, all end in [u].

1.1.2.1 Length
As Meutegwenish vowels change in length, the qualities of the vowels also change.

(10) pum [pUm] adj. Earthy

(11) pum [pu:m] n. Fruit
(12) axm [m] conj. Weak and
(13) am [A:m] n. Mouth

4
 Figure 1.3: Short Vowels
Front Back
Near-close I U
Open-mid E O
Near-open ()*
Open a
[a] and [] are phones of phoneme /a/. [a] changes to [] after unvoiced consonants and
when syllable-initial.

Figure 1.4: Long Vowels

Font Back
Close i: u:
Close-mid e: o:
Open A:

1.1.2.2 Nasal
One of the possible modifications to a vowel is whether or not it is nasalized. In nasalized vowels air
passes through the nasal cavity as well as the oral. Nasal vowels contrast with voiced and devoiced
vowels.

(14) nax [nA:] adj. That

(15) nah [nA:] art. indf

1.1.2.3 Silent
Silent vowels contrast with nasal and voiced vowels. Silent vowels are articulated by not using the
vocal cords, almost like a whisper.

(16) kwen [kw En] n. Language

(17) kwehn [kw En] adv. How

1.1.2.4 Diphthongs
All three diphthongs in Meutegwenish, [au], [eu], and [iu], end in [u]. It should be noted that
diphthongs do not nasalize or devoice, they onlyexist as the
voiced variant.

(18) Mewtegwen [meu"te:gw En] The Meutegwenish language

(19) miw [miu] n. Cat

(20) raw [rau] m. Small animal

1.1.3 Phonotactics
Like any language, Meutegwenish contains sets of constraints for how words are formed. These
constraints are organized below into the aspects they affect.

Voicing:

5
 Consonants succeeding unvoiced vowels must be unvoiced. In the issue of word compounding
which the language does extensively a glottal stop is inserted after the vowel to avoid issues.

No word initial unvoiced vowels.

Consonant clusters must match the voicing of the consonant closest to the nucleus.
Syllables and Syllable Structure:
Syllable structure is (C)(C)V(C) or (C)(C)VnK where C is a consonant, V is a vowel, and
K is a velar stop.

Consonant clusters must be plosive + fricative.

There are no phonemic consonant clusters.

Syllables must contain a vowel.

Geminates and affricates are considered consonant clusters.

Sonorants are not allowed in clusters, except /n/ before velar stops.

Labialized plosives do not occur before consonants.

Vowel Sequences:
Besides the aforementioned diphthongs, vowel combinations are not permitted, and a glottal
stop in introduced between vowels.
Vowel Length:
Word final vowels lengthen. This is only phonetic, not phonemic.

(21) toh [to:] n. Man

(22) tohmah [tO"mA:] n. Group of people, nation

1.1.4 Stress and Intonation
Stress in Meutegwenish is strength based (dynamic accent). It does not occur in single syllable
words, but on multisyllable words it occurs on the first syllable. However, it may fall on the second
syllable if there is a long vowel or diphthong in the second or third syllable. Do note that the
determination for stress takes into account the phonetic, word final vowel lengthening.
(23) tawvazh ["tauvaZ] v. To duel

(24) akkoawdaw ["k:OPaudau] n. Shepherd boy

(25) akku ["k:u:] n. Girl
(26) bamah [bA:"mA:] n. Gathering of farm animals

(27) aj [A:] pn. They (people)
Intonation in Meutegwenish is always gently falling, meaning that a sentence starts with a higher
tone than what it ends with. All sentences follow this pattern, regardless of their nature question
or statement.
An important feature in Meutegwenish intonation is the sudden downstep on the first syllable of
the topic noun. This feature is expanded upon further in the grammar section.

6
 (28) Awc pwen o, ox zhaxvo yax kwehn set.
pardon subj I.abs, def post office.top towards how go
>
[auc pw En o: (.) o: ZA"vo: jA: kwEn tsEt]

Excuse me, how do I get to the post office?

1.1.5 Orthography
Meutegwenishs orthography is morpho-phonemic, meaning that words are written as they are
grammatically realized, rather than strictly how they are pronounced. While the majority of the
written word is phonetically written, the word-final vowel lengthening is ignored when writing.
Observe the differences between example 21 and example 22 in section 1.1.3. Even though the final
vowel in htohi is long, it is not indicated in orthography because, when compounded, the final h-ohi
is short.
There exists two forms of romanization: a formal variant and a popular variant. The majority
of sounds have the same letters for both varieties, and are listed out in sections 1.1.1 and 1.1.2
Both convey the same language but with different conventions.

1.1.5.1 Formal
The formal variant is designed for readability and conciseness. Its employment of diacritics pro-
motes it goal, but has the drawback of being less type-able.

Conventions:

Nasalized vowels are indicated by an ogonek.

Silent vowels are indicated by a ring below.

Long vowels have a macron.

Diphthongs are hau, eu, iui.

Lexical items and their respective articles are capitalized in titles.

O nu pan nget to ka u pe be ttang se ttang eu

def.pl all human.cl man.erg beginning down free.v gno str and have gno equal
cceul a m do.
dignity.abs wk and entitlements.abs
>
[O"nu: pn NgEt to: kA:P"u: pe: be: t:Ng i: tse: t:Ng eu c:eul m do:]
All human beingsare born free equal in dignity andrights.
and

1.1.5.2 Popular
The popular variant is easily type-able, but requires more effort to read. It is characterized by its
usage of digraphs.

Conventions:

Nasalized vowels are followed by hxi.

Silent vowels are followed by hhi.

7
 Long vowels have an acute accent.

Diphthongs are haw, ew, iwi.

Only the first word is capitalized in titles.

Oxnu pan nget toh kaxu peh beh ttang sex ttang ew
def.pl all human.cl man.erg beginning down free.v gno str and have gno equal
ccewl axm dox.
dignity.abs wk and entitlements.abs
>
[O"nu: pn NgEt to: kA:P"u: pe: be: t:Ng i: tse: t:Ng eu c:eul m do:]
All human beingsare born free equal in dignity andrights.
and

1.1.5.3 Other Letters

Since the the drop in intonation on the topic is crucial to conveying various grammatical elements,
an apostrophe, hi, is used before the topic noun. If the need to write a glottal stop arises hqi is
used. This should most often not be necessary, as there is a regular appearance of [P].

1.2 Grammar
1.2.1 Syntax and Word Order
Meutegwenish is a highly analytic language, and thus word order matters immensely. Phrase order
is largely head final, meaning that the head of a noun or verb phrase is near the end. There are
a few exceptions, however. Postpositions and particles are the most noticeable. These two objects
go directly after the noun or verb they modify.

Figure 1.5: Dependency Syntax Tree of a Complex Sentence

VP

NP PP PP A NP

NP NP A

Art Art N

o ox tehlvo j ox oor mewte san zeho tehl mo tiw

O ox tehlvo j ox oor mewte san zeho tehl mo tiw.

I.erg.top def store in def I.adj friend ben wise.adv buy large gift
> >
[o: o: te:l"vo: i: o: o:P"o: meu"te: tsn dzEP"o: te:l mo: tiu]
I wiselybought a large gift in the store formy friend.

8
1.2.1.1 Sentence Word Order
Word order of a sentence follows a general SVO (subject-verb-object) pattern. A maximal sentence
would be in this order:

erg > Prep. phrases > Benefactive/Indirect object > Verb > abs > Malefactive

1.2.1.2 Noun Phrase Word Order

A maximal noun phase would look like so:

Article > Relative clauses > Adjectives > Genitives > Measure words > Head >
Postpositions/Grammar particles

(29) . . . oxy o jew deh luhc axm sah ox tohawdaw sheh daw
def.pauc I observe rel yellow wk and little def shepherd.gen farm animal.cl sheep
san
ben
>
[O"ji: o: eu de: lUc m sA: o: tOP"audau Se: dau tsn]
. . . for the yellow
and little
sheep oftheshepherd
that I observed yesterday

1.2.1.3 Verb Phrase Order

Verbs and their respective phrases follow a similar pattern to that of nouns:

Adverbs > Head > Grammar particles

(30) Kwehn zhh pol gweh.

how run duration inch you.abs.top
[kw En i: pOl gw e:]
did
How you start
running (for exercise)?

1.2.1.4 Null-Subject
In many cases the subject is left out, if obvious. This situation is called null-subject. Sentences
with a null-subject typically have no topic.

(31) O yec coh. Loc.

I.erg.top nudge it.abs. Fall.
[o: jEc co: (..) lOc]
I pushedit. It fell.

1.2.2 Nouns
1.2.2.1 The Article
The article in Meutegwenish conveys two aspects of nouns: plurality and definiteness. The article
itself is agglutinative, and combines two aspects to indicate the aforementioned properties. The
pattern is always def/indef.sing/pau/plur. To indicate a definite noun hox-i is used. Paucal
number is h-yi and plural number is h-nui. If nothing is written, singular is assumed.

9
 Indefiniteness is slightly more complex. The indefinite article hnah-i will be used if there is a
noun or dependant clause modifying the indefinite noun, or the noun is imbedded in a noun phrase.
Elsewise, the definiteness part article will remain unmentioned.

(32) Dawdaw ox daw .

bleat def sheep.abs.top
[dau"dau o: dau]
sheep
The bleats.

(33) Nah ox Mewtegwen su jewukwen

indf def Meutegwenish language gen grammar
>
[nA: o: meu"te:gw En tCu: euP"u:kw En

A Grammar of Meutegwenish

1.2.2.2 Degrees of Plurality

Meutegwenish contains three degrees of plurality: singular, paucal, and plural. Singular represents
a single object. The paucal number indicates a small group, or a collection of a few. Plural indicates
many objects. The exact line between paucal and plural is blurry. Native speakers usually use plural
for above twenty, however the usage of the plural number has been observed for numbers as low as
six. If the number is unknown, paucal is often assumed.

(34) Y lx fol
pauc flower.cl flower
[ji: l: fOl]
A few flowers
(35) Y kwu mil lex
pauc four moderate animal.cl horse
[ji: kw u: mIl le:]
Four horses

1.2.2.3 Definiteness
Definiteness in Meutegwenish has a loose definition. The definite article hox-i is used in a more
metaphorical sense. Take for example this sentence:

(36) Awzh ttang kaw oxnu pan nget toh.

oblige gno die.inf def.pl all human.cl man.top.abs
[auZ t:Ng kau O"nu: pn NgEt to:]
men must die.
All

Literally, this sentence means all the men are obliged to die. In general, the definite article is
used for definiteness, abstract terms (words with no physical referents), and names. Names will be
touched on later in section 1.2.12.

1.2.2.4 Measure Words

All nouns in Meutegwenish are mass nouns, which means that they can not be explicitly pluralized.
To circumvent this, measure words are used. Measure words are used whenever the noun would

10
be plural or when modified by a numeral, and are placed within the noun phrase. There are many
measure words, all pertain to a specific semantic category. The exact word used by an individual
can be subjective or humorous, and doesnt always have to be entirely accurate. Pronouns do not
need measure words, as there is a specific plural form for each.

(37) lx [l:] m. Flower, shrubbery

(38) nef [nEf] m. Unnaturally box like
(39) oxy kkoh shik cwadshak
def.pauc six lattice.cl basket
[O"ji: k:o: CIk cw A:d"SA:k]
The six baskets

1.2.2.5 Ergativity
Meutegwenish handles transitive and intransitive verbs with ergativity. This means that the agent
of a transitive verb is ergative. The patient, or object, of a transitive verb and the core argument of
an intransitive verb are in the absolutive. Ergative nouns are placed before the verb, and absolutive
nouns after.

Figure 1.6: Meutegwenish Expression of Ergative Morphosyntactic Alignment

Function Case
Agent of transitive erg
Object of transitive abs
Argument of intransitive abs

(40) Loc fo ox toh.

fall dur def man.abs.top
[lOc fo: o: to:]
The man was falling for a while

1.2.2.6 Topicality
Topicality is expressed with a drop in intonation on the first syllable of the topic noun. The topic
of a sentence, usually defined as what the sentence is talking about, is most often the subject.
However, there are a few cases where it is not most often in intransitive and passive clauses.
Passive clauses are discussed more in section 1.2.7.3.

(41) O bul zhat oxy oor bub bulu.

I.erg.top eat ces def.pauc I.adj food.cl food.abs
[o: bUl Zat O"ji: o:P"o: bUb bU"lu:]
I stopped eating my food.

In intransitive clauses, the argument of the verb is expressed the same way as the object of a
transitive verb, this means that, while still technically the subject, the topic is expressed on the
object. Observe example 40 in section 1.2.2.5. In it, the man falling is the subject, but htohi is
after the verb, where absolutive nouns go.

11
1.2.2.7 Genitive Constructions
The genitive case is expressed in multiple ways in Meutegwenish. There are two methods for
indicating nominal possession, with one being more popular than the other.
The older, more archaic form exists as particle hsui. It placed after the possessor noun, and
the possessive phrase is placed in the noun phrase of the possessed. Usage of this method is
largely dying out, and sticks to the formal written form, as is the case with the title for this
document, demonstrated in example 33 in section 1.2.2.1. hOx Mewtegwen sui is the possessor of
hnah jewukweni.
The most commonly used (and entirely so in the colloquial language) genitive construction is
placing the possessor in the noun phrase in the same position as if hsui was there, but without the
particle. Colloquially, the title would be rendered as:

(42) Nah ox Mewegwen jewukwen

indf def Meutegwenish language.gen grammar
[nA: o: meu"te:gw En euP"u:kw En]
AGrammar of Meutegwenish

1.2.2.8 Indirect Object, Benefactive, and Malefactive

The indirect object is the object affected by the action within a sentence. In Meutegwenish, the
indirect object is indicated by particle hsani. The indirect object noun phrase will always appear
after the last noun in its vicinity, but whether or not it is before the verb or after the verb determines
additional information.
The benefactive case is often conflated with the indirect object, and indicates that the object
was affected by the action in a positive way. To indicate such an affect, the noun phrase is placed
before the verb phrase.
The malefactive is indicated by placing the noun on the other side of the sentence, after the verb.
Malefactive nouns are nouns affected in strictly a negative way by the action.

(43) o san zhiwk ca.

I ben kill he.abs.top
>
[iuk cA: o: tsn]
He was killed for me (his death was good for me).
(44) Zhiwk ca o san
kill he.abs.top I mal
[o: tsn iuk cA:]
(and it was not good for me (perhaps he was was a friend )).
He was killed

1.2.3 Pronouns
Pronouns behave similarly to nouns, but have a few deviations. The article is never used for
pronouns, they have their own ways of representing their two degrees of plurality: singular and
plural.

12
 Figure 1.7: Pronouns of Meutegwenish
Person Singular Plural
1st o ro (exclusive) yo (inclusive)
2nd gweh gwehc
ca (human) aj (human)
3rd c (animate) coh (inanimate) j (animate) yoh (inanimate)
cot (indefinite) jot (indefinite)

First person plural includes a differentiation between whether or not the individual spoken to is
included in the group we. Third person plural and singular have separate pronouns for whether
or not the object spoken about is human, or, if not, animate or inanimate.
Pronominal genetives are handled as if they are adjectives, as their construction involves the
nominal adjectivalizer h-ori.

1.2.4 Postpositions
All adpositions words that indicate spatial or temporal relation come after the noun they
modify, making them postpositions. Some postpositions also carry grammatical information, such
as the indirect object hsani. All particles in Meutegwenish are expressed as postpositions.

(45) Thzew j zewrewsh

river in swim
> >
[ti:P"dzeu i: dzeu"euS]
swim
To in the river

(46) Yah pol

fly inch
[jA: pOl]
begin flying
To

1.2.5 Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are handled in much the same way. Most adverbs exist as an adjective root,
and h-oi is used to adverbialize.

1.2.5.1 Superlatives
There are varying degrees of Meutegwenish superlatives in two different scales, all of which apply
to both adjectives and adverbs. The first scale is true fact, it consists of three degrees. The -
est degree is a highly strengthened form of the adjective. It is expressed by reduplication of the
adjective. A degree lower, but still enhancing the adjective, is the -er scale. The lowest degree is
the attenuative degree, or -ish. This weakens the strength of the adjective.

Figure 1.8: The Absolute Superlatives

Degree Adjective
-est adj
-er mo + adj
-ish sah + adj

13
 The second scale refers to comparative superlatives. These compare degrees with another adjec-
tive of adverb phrase. Particle hvuxi is used to indicate comparison.

(47) Zhehar yer kwek ox biworbiwor uk!

this.erg.top ever is def fun day
["ZEP jE kw Ek o: biuP"o:biuPo: u:k]

is the best day ever!
This

(48) Yum ek pwen, sah rehr.

neg worry subj, att sturdy.v
>
[jUm e:k pw En (.) tsA: E]

Dont worry, its safe-ish.
(49) Ox zheh leliw ox bohfar vux bohf ur.
def this table.erg.top def sky comp blue.v mir
[o: Ze: lEliu o: "bo:f vu: bo:f u:]
Thistable is bluer than the sky.

1.2.6 Numbers
The Meutegwenish numeral system is heximal (base-6). This means that each place-value expressed
is a power of six.

1.2.6.1 Number Forming

Each place value (6x ) in a number is one compound word, the rules for forming such a word are
listed below:

If the place value is more than 0, then the suffix is h-mahi (collection of), and the place value
(6x ) is put before the morpheme, and the value within the place value is put at the beginning

If the place value is less than 0, then the suffix is h-sui (of), and the place value (6x ) is at the
end, with the value before the morpheme

(50) 10 = hkkohi, six

(51) 12 = hkkoh axm tawi, six and two
(52) 45 = hkwukkohmah axm shohi, four groups of six and five
(53) 125 = hmahk tawkkohmah axm shohi, thirty-six, two groups of six, and five
(54) 343 = hpawtmahkmah kwukkohmah axm pawti, three groups of thirty-six, four groups of
six, and three
(55) 31.11 = hpawtkkohmah gwu gwusukkoh axm gwusukmahki, three groups of six, one, six of
one, and thirty-six of one
(56) 0.4 = hkwusukkohi, six of four

14
1.2.6.2 Cardinals
Cardinal numbers (one, two, three) are treated just like measure words, and should be placed in a
noun phrase as such.

(57) Jwex shohsawkmah axm kwumahkmah ruxj!

7776 5216 wk and 436 above.v
>
[w e: So:"tsauk m "kw UmakmA U]
nine
Its over thousand!

1.2.6.3 Ordinals
Ordinal numbers (first, second, third) are formed with the number and the adjectival suffix h-ori.
Shortened numerical forms are the numeral with the suffix h-ori. Ordinals are handled as if they
are adjectives.

(58) Ox gwuor nget toh

def one.adj human.cl man
[o: gw u:P"o: NgEt to:]
The first man

(59) Ox yoor axm 1or cog pwoj kwek. . .

def us incl.adj wk and one.adj idea.cl direction is
[o: jo:P"o: m gw u:P"o: co:g pw o: kw Ek]
Our first step is. . .

1.2.7 Verbs
Verbs in Meutegwenish carry a number of grammatical features: aspect, mood, and voice. A
common verbal feature, tense, is not expressed, and is usually inferred via context or phrases that
specify time (now, tomorrow, yesterday).
The order by which particles are applied are aspect, mood, and voice.

1.2.7.1 Aspect
The most prominent and in-depth of verbal features is aspect. Aspect demonstrates how the action
took place in the flow of time. There are five distinct aspects expressed: perfective, habitual,
inceptive, cessative, and durative.
The most common is perfective. Indicated by a lack of aspectual particle, it means that the
action discussed is one single unit in time; it happens, happened, or will happen.

(60) O rxd gweh.

I.erg.top mock you.abs
[o: :d gw e:]
I mock you.

Habitual aspect refers to when the action occurs multiple times in succession. Particle hzawi is
used to indicate the aspect.

15
 (61) Yaw zaw o!
laugh hab I.abs.top
>
[jau dzau o:]

I kept
laughing!

When the action begins, inceptive aspect is used. The aspect is also called inchoative. hPoli is
used when the verb is inceptive.

(62) O co pol oxnu nget panar!

I.erg.top conquer inch def.pl human.cl all.n.abs
[o: co: pOl O"nu: NgEt "pn]
I will begin to conquer all!

The opposite of inceptive is cessative. Cessative refers to the ending of the action, and is indicated
by particle hzhati.

(63) Fax zhat ox akko.

weep cess def boy.abs.top
[fA: Zat o: "k:o:]
The boy stopped crying.

Durative aspect, marked by hfoi, refers to when the action occurs over a certain time.

(64) Ox yov kwoh yov mh fo ca.

def tall time through away state.v dur he.abs.top
[o: jo:v kw o: jOv mi: fo: cA:]
He will bea while.

1.2.7.2 Mood
Verbal mood indicates the speakers attitude towards the sentence. Meutegwenish covers five moods:
indicative, subjunctive, gnomic, admirative, and hypothetical.
Indicative is a realis mood states that something happened. The lack of a mood particle indicates
indicative mood.

(65) Loc ca.

fall she.abs.top
[lOc cA:]
She fell.

The subjunctive mood demonstrates irreality, something the speaker wishes were true or is yet
to be true. It can also be used for judgement, opinion, and imperatives. It is indicated by particle
hpweni.

(66) Lat pwen oxy nax raw miw!

fetch subj def.pauc that small animal.cl cat.abs.top
[lat pw En O"ji: nA: au miu]
Pick up those cats!

16
 Gnomic verbs are verbs that state an observation, and usually something that is universally true.
hTtangi indicates the gnomic mood.

(67) Yah ttang oxnu faw yahrawiw oxnu raw

fly gno def.pl flying animal.cl bird.abs.top str and def.pl small animal.cl
miw biwahp ttang.
cat.erg.top play gno
[jA: t:Ng O"nu: fau jA:"auPiu i: O"nu: au miu "biuPp t:Ng]

Birds fly and catsplay.

Admirative mood expresses the speakers surprise or unpreparedness for the action. It is expressed
with huri.

(68) Aj yawn zaw ur zu.

they people.erg.top converse hab mir refl
>
[A: jaun dzau u: du:]

Apparently
theyve been talking amongst themselves.

Hypothetical presents a situation that is counterfactual to reality, but might have happened. It
expresses verbs that couldve happened with htwai.

(69) Ox naxvo mh kaw twa gwehc!

def that.place away state die hyp yall.abs.top
[o: na"vo: mi: kau tw A: gw e:c]
Yall couldve out there!
died

1.2.7.3 Voice
Voice is largely carried out by manipulation of objects and topicality. In the active voice subject
and object remain as they normally do, however, in the passive things switch. The doer of the
action remains in the ergative, and the individual acted upon in the absolutive, but the topic goes
from the subject to the object. Omission of the doer in the passive is common.

(70) Ca tew ox toh.

he.erg.top thank def man.abs
[cA: teu o: to:]
the
He thanks man.

(71) Ca tew ox toh.

he.erg thank def man.abs.top
[cA: teu o: to:]
was
The man thanked by him.

(72) Tew ox toh.

thank def man.abs.top
[teu o: to:]
manwas thanked.
The

Reflexive voice is indicated by the verbal particle hzui, as indicated by example 68 in sec-
tion 1.2.7.2.

17
1.2.7.4 Infinitives
Infinitive verbs are handled similarly to nouns syntactically. There are no particles to indicate the
infinitive, so the presence of two verbs in a sentence indicates an infinitive.

(73) Biwor ttang bl!

fun.v gno read.inf.abs.top
[biuP"o: t:Ng bi:l]

Reading is fun!

1.2.7.5 Copula
The copula in Meutegwenish is complex, and its functions are split across multiple verbs. The
most simple use is the linking of noun and adjective. Adjectives are treated exactly like verbs in
this respect they are placed syntactically where a verb would, and receive verbal adverbs and
particles the same.

(74) O yov kwoh yov soh fo pwen.

I.erg long time through quiet.v dur subj
>
[o: jo:v kw o: jOv tso: fo: pw En]
I will be quiet for
a while.

However, when two nouns are linked, the verb hkweki is used. One noun is ergative and one is
absolutive.

(75) O kwek ox poluor ox bewr mezhor-zinral yu!

I.erg.top am def precise def novel Major-General.gen representation.abs
>
[o: kw Ek o: po:l"u:Po: o: beu me:Z"o:r "dInal ju:]
I am the very model of a modern major general!

Temporal copulas are covered in section 1.2.10.

1.2.8 Conjunctions
1.2.8.1 Strong and Weak Conjunctions
The majority of conjunctions have two counterparts: sentential binding (strong) and phrase bind-
ing (weak). Sentential binding conjunctions only bind full clauses that can stand alone, while
weak, phrasal conjunctions can bind anything else adjectival, nominal, or dependent clauses. It
should be noted that sentences that begin with conjunctions begin with the strong form.

(76) Oxnu axng ngi axm oxnu axng luhc!

def.plur rock.cl silver wk and def.plur rock.cl gold
[o"nu: Ng Ngi: m o"nu: Ng lUc]
Silver and gold!

O yec coh loc.

I.erg.top nudge it.abs str and fall

[o: jEc co: i: lOc]

I pushedit and it fell.

18
1.2.8.2 Conditionals
Conditional statements are indicated by the conjunction hexi. It precedes both the protasis, the
if phrase, and the apodosis, the then phrase. It is at the beginning of both clauses.
(77) Ex ox yoxzh yov set fo gweh, ex kah pwen set.
cond def hell through go dur you.abs.top, cond persist subj go.inf.abs
> >
[e: o: jOZ jOv tsEt fo: gw e: (.) e: kA: pw En tsEt]
If you are going throughhell, keepgoing. Wintson Churchill

1.2.9 Dependent Clauses

Dependent clauses that cannot stand alone in a complex sentence are represented by the conjunction
hdehi.
(78) Oxn o deh gweh voxrzhad pwen.
alert I.abs.top dep you.erg.top leave subj
[o:n o: de: gw e: "vo:Zad pw En]
you
I heard that were leaving.

1.2.9.1 Relative Clauses

Relative clauses, a form of a dependant clause, are indicated by the same particle hdehi, but with a
drop in intonation. This particle appears at the end of the relative phrase, which, in turn, is placed
between the article and the antecedents other noun-phrase objects. All relative clauses function
as reduced relative clauses, meaning that the sentence contained is in the passive voice.
(79) Loc ox o bewv deh bohf biwuiw
fall def I.erg throw rel blue ball.abs.top
[lOc o: o: beuv de: bo:f biuP"u:Piu]
The blue ball that
was byme fell.
thrown

1.2.10 Temporal Constructions

Time in Meutegwenish is not horizontal, but vertical. Time falls as opposed to traveling left. This
way of thinking affects how temporal phrases are constructed.
Time as a height, rather than a length is demonstrated in example 64 in section 1.2.7.1. Time
isnt long as much as it is tall.
Another temporal construct demonstrated in example 64 is duration of time. Duration is ex-
pressed by postposition hyovi, through.
Existing in or over time is handled by a special verb, hyewni.
(80) Yewn bul ox yov kwoh.
temporally exist eat.inf.top def tall time
[jeun bUl o: jo:v kw o:]

Eating takes a long time.
(81) Ox zhehvo yax ox gwuormhc yax dwew pol ca.
def this.place at def morning at exist inch he.abs.top
[o: ZEP"vo: jA: o: gw u:P"o:mi:c jA: dw eu pOl cA:]
be here in the morning
He will

19
1.2.11 Questioning
Most questions in Meutegwenish are handled by adverbs such as hkwehni, how, but, due to the
lack of yes or no, questions requiring affirmation are expressed differently. These questions follow
the go not go question form, meaning that the verb is repeated twice, once being negated. No
and yes are instead echoing the verb back, either negative or not, respectively. The questioning
enclitic, hax-i, calls into question the object specified.

(82) Gweh kwehn twap ca.

you.erg.top how hit him.abs
[gw e: kw En tw p cA:]
How did you hit him?

(83) Gweh axzhehar shuh twap ca.

you.erg.top q-this inst hit him.abs
[gw e: "ZEP Cu: tw p cA:]
Youhit him with this?

(84) Aj tehl yum tehl naxar.

they.erg.top buy neg buy that.abs
[A: te:l jUm te:l "naP]
buy that?
Did they

1.2.12 Direct Address and Politeness

Direct address is specifying the name of the person being commanded. In Meutegwenish, the
addressee is put into the benefactive case, that is with particle hsani before the verb. When
speaking to an individual of higher prestige, or even just attempting formality or politeness, the
name of the individual discussed this may be the one spoken to is spelled out in full with
the article attached. In situations where the name is unknown, the definite article is attached to
the personal pronoun. Plural number is used if the individuals spoken to are more than one, not
paucal.

(85) Zhon san lat pwen oxy nax ed bahppew!

John ben fetch subj def.pauc that sheet.cl sock.abs.top
>
[Zo:n tsn lat pw En O"ji: nA: Ed bA:"p:eu]
John, pick up those socks!

(86) Ox ox Axnna twex deh zheh ppub ttwo!

def def Anna.erg cook rel this dinner.erg.top amazing.v
[o: o: n"nA: tw e: de: Ze: p:Ub t:w o:]
This dinner made byAnna is wonderful!

20
Chapter 2

Sample Texts

2.1 Article 1 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

It is common convention to use Article 1 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights for a short
sample of the language. The translation of the first article is provided below:
Oxnu pan nget toh kaxu peh beh ttang sex ttang ew ccewl axm dox. Tiwahp
ttang ox rak pwehr axm ox pwo mewteo laxv pwen zu.
(87) Oxnu pan nget toh kaxu peh beh ttang sex ttang ew
def.pl all human.cl man.erg beginning down free.v gno str and have gno equal
ccewl axm dox. Tiwahp ttang ox rak pwehr axm
dignity.abs wk and entitlements.abs. gifted gno def conclude.inf ability.abs wk and
ox pwo mewteo laxv pwen zu.
def soul.abs str and neighbor.adv behave subj rel
>
[O"nu: pn NgEt to: kA:P"u: pe: be: t:Ng i: tse: t:Ng eu c:eul m do: (..) tiuPp t:Ng
>
o: ak pw e m o: pw o: i: meu"te:Po: lA:v pw En du:]
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

2.2 The Babel Story

A common tradition in the community surrounding the creation of languages is to translate the
Tower of Babel. It is a passage from the Book of Genesis of the Bible that tells the biblical story of
how the many languages across the Earth were created. Its story of creating languages from one
is a common theme across the conlang community.

(88) 1. Kkepwen, ox dwum shahsh awf ttang ox ew gwu pek kwen.

Now the whole earth had one language and the same words.
2. I mhctehkor voxr keht aj nuryov rar nah ox Shinar puh j zewvr cwa
naxvo j twev.
And as they migrated from the east they came upon a plain in the land of Shinar and
settled there.
3. I aj yawn zu Zhad pwen, yo cwa pwen yef oxnu kwev kweviw, dwumo
twex yoh. I awf oxnu kwev kweviw oxnu kwev kweviwzhewz san awf oxnu
kwev ebzhewz.

21
 And they said to one another, Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly.
And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar.
4. Fadoreh aj yawn Zhad pwen, yo cwa pwen yo san kweviwahp nah awf
nah ox bohfar j awf ox coh yovar def yovshahp deh tohmah, oxnu nget
panar cwe yo; aws ox dwum shahsh twut twaj pol.
Then they said, Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the
heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad
upon the face of the whole earth.
5. Ox Lored bohfar reh zhad si ox tohmah axm ox oxnu nget uztoh kwevi-
wahp deh yovshahp.
The Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which mortals had built.
6. I ox Lored yawn Kkepwen, aj kwek ur ox gwu cawl tohmah, awf ox
gwu pek kwen; zhehar loso kwek pwen ox ox aj yefu kaxu; oxnu aj kwzh
deh ppew yumkwis yumceng pwen.
And the Lord said, Look, they are one people, and they have all one language; and
this is only the beginning of what they will do; nothing that they propose to do will
now be impossible for them.
7. Zhad pwen, yo peh zhad pwen, ngar pwen ox ajor kwen, aj ox nax raku
san yum ngaw pwen zu.
Come, let us go down, and confuse their language there, so that they will not under-
stand one anothers speech.
8. Ox Lored ox nax raku san ox dwum shahsh twut twaj aj, voxrzhad ox
los axm reng tohmah.
So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they
left off building the city.
9. Ox nax raku san ppolahp pol ox Babel, raku ox Lored naxvo j twaj ox
ox dwum shahsh gwu pek kwen; ox Lored naxvo reh ox dwum shahsh
twut twaj aj.
Therefore it was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the
earth; and from there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.
Genesis 11:19, NRSVCE

2.3 My Hovercraft is Full of Eels

A rather humorous excerpt from Monty Pythons Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook is often used for
translation exercises, the Meutegwenish version is below:
Ox oor shawcwadtoh awf oxnu sez kku kkafpwos!

(89) Ox oor shawcwadtoh awf oxnu sez kku kkafpwos!

def I.adj wind wagon.erg.top carries def.plur too much aquatic.cl eel.abs
>
[o: o:Po: Sau"cw A:dto: auf O"nu: tsEz k:u: k:f"pw o:s]

My hovercraft is fullof eels!

22
2.4 The North Wind and the Sun
The North Wind and the Sun is one of Aesops Fables, a collection of short stories credited to
an Ancient Greek slave named Aesop. This particular fable teaches persuasion over force, and is
commonly chosen for phonetic transcriptions.
Ox ret shaw axm ox mhc ja fo deh cot tut cot vux mahc fad nah a pwu shuh
ayek deh toh keht yax.
Aj iwzh deh co gwuo ag ox toh gihk ox caor pwu deh cot tut cot vux mahc.
Ox ret shaw ca ttef vux mahco yefshaw, aws ox caor mo mahc shaw ag mo zumo
sum pwu;
ttaho ox ret shaw buv. Ox mhc fadoreh axm ao sush, ox toh nuro gihk.
I raku san awzh ox ret shaw ttel deh ox mhc kwek mo mahc cot.
(90) Ox ret shaw axm ox mhc ja fo deh cot tut
def north wind.erg.top wk and def sun.erg.top argue dur dep one.erg.top other
cot vux mahc fad yax keht nah a pwu shuh ayek deh
one comp strong.v when towards wander indf warm cloak inst warm by rel
toh.
man.abs.top
[o: Et Sau m o: mi:c A: fo: de: co:t tu:t co:t vu: mac fd jA: kEt nA: A: pw u: Cu:
:]
A:jEk de: to

The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came
along wrapped in a warm cloak.

Aj iwzh deh co gwuo ag ox toh gihk

they people.erg.top agree dep one.erg.top one.adv force def man.abs undress.inf
ox caor pwu deh cot tut cot vux mahc.
def him.adj cloak.abs dep one.erg.top other one comp strong.v

[A: iuZ de: co: gw u:P"o: g o: to: gIk o: cA:P"o: pw u: de: co:t tu:t co:t vu: mac ]
They agreed
that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off
should be considered stronger than the other.

Ox ret shaw ca ttef vux mahco yefshaw, aws ox caor mo

def north wind.erg.top he.erg able comp strong.adv blow, str but def him.adj -er
mahc shaw ag mo zumo sum pwu;
strong wind.erg.top force -er tight.adv dress cloak.abs
>
[o: Et Sau cA: t:Ef vu: mac"o: jEf"Sau (.) aus o: cA:P"o: mo: mac Sau g mo: du:"mo:
>
tCUm pw u:]
Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did
the traveler fold his cloak around him;

ttaho ox ret shaw buv. Fadoreh axm ao sush ox

end.adv def north wind.erg.top surrender. then wk and warmly shined def
mhc , ox toh nuro gihk.
sun.abs.top , str and def man now.adv undressed

23
 >
[t:P"o: o: Et Sau bu:v (..) fd"o:e: m A:P"o: tCu:S o: mi:c (.) i: o to: nu:"o: gIk]

and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shinedout warmly, and
immediately the traveler took off his cloak.

I ox nax raku san awzh ox ret shaw ttel deh ox

str and def that reason ben oblige def north wind.abs.top confess.inf dep def
mhc kwek mo mahc cot.
sun.erg.top is -er strong.v one

>
[i: o: nA: ak"u: tsn auZ o: Et Sau t:e:l de: o: mi:c kw Ek mo: mac co:t]
And so the North Wind was obliged to confess
thatthe Sun was the stronger of the two.

24
Chapter 3

Glossary

3.1 Glossing and Grammatical Abbreviations

Reduplication inch Inchoative or inceptive aspect
A Adjectival phrase indf Indefinite
abs Absolutive case inf Infinitive
adj Adjective inst Instrumental case
adv Adverb m Measure word
art Article mal Malefactive case
Art See art mir Admirative mood
att Attenuative n Noun
ben Benefactive case neg Negative
bm Bound morpheme nm Number
ces Cessative aspect NP Noun phrase
cl Classifier, See m pauc Paucal number
comp Comparative pl Plural number
cond Conditional pn Pronoun
def Definite pp Postposition
dep Dependent clause PP Postpositional phrase
dur Durative or delimitative aspect q Interrogative
-er -er superlative degree refl Reflexive voice
erg Ergative case rel Relative phrase
gen Genitive case subj Subjunctive mood
gno Gnomic mood top Topic
hab Habitual aspect v Verb
hyp Hypothetical mood VP Verb phrase

25