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Microphone Techniques For Live Sound Reinforcement English PDF
Microphone Techniques For Live Sound Reinforcement English PDF
Microphone Techniques For Live Sound Reinforcement English PDF
TECHNIQUES
LIVE SOUND REINFORCEMENT
Introduction ........................................................................... 4
Microphone Placement....................................................... 22
Glossary ............................................................................. 35
Live Sound
3
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Introduction
Introduction
4
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Because the voltage is exactly the same on Pin 2 and Pictured here are two studio microphones
Pin 3, phantom power will have no effect on balanced responding to the sound impulse produced by an
dynamic microphones: no current will flow since there electric spark: condenser mic on top, dynamic mic
is no voltage difference across the output. In fact, on bottom. It is evident that it takes almost twice as
phantom power supplies have current limiting which long for the dynamic microphone to respond to the
will prevent damage to a dynamic microphone even if sound. It also takes longer for the dynamic to stop
it is shorted or miswired. In general, balanced dynamic moving after the impulse has passed (notice the
microphones can be connected to phantom powered ripple on the second half of the graph). Since
mixer inputs with no problem. condenser microphones generally have better
transient response then dynamics, they are better
suited for instruments that have very sharp attack
or extended high frequency output such as
cymbals. It is this transient response difference
that causes condenser mics to have a more crisp,
detailed sound and dynamic mics to have a more
mellow, rounded sound.
Transient Response
6
Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
The decision to use a condenser or dynamic microphone A microphone whose response has peaks or dips in certain
depends not only on the sound source and the sound frequency areas exhibits a shaped response.
reinforcement system but on the physical setting as well.
From a practical standpoint, if the microphone will be used A shaped response is usually designed to enhance a sound
in a severe environment such as a rock and roll club or for source in a particular application.
outdoor sound, dynamic types would be a good choice.
In a more controlled environment such as a concert hall For instance, a microphone may have a peak in the 2 - 8
or theatrical setting, a condenser microphone might be kHz range to increase intelligibility for live vocals. This shape
preferred for many sound sources, especially when the is called a presence peak or rise. A microphone may also be
highest sound quality is desired. designed to be less sensitive to certain other frequencies.
One example is reduced low frequency response (low end
Frequency response - The output level or sensitivity of the roll-off) to minimize unwanted boominess or stage rumble.
microphone over its operating range from lowest to highest
frequency.
The Decibel
Virtually all microphone manufacturers list the frequency The decibel (dB) is an expression often used in electrical
response of their microphones over a range, for example and acoustic measurements. The decibel is a number
50 - 15,000 Hz. This usually corresponds with a graph that that represents a ratio of two values of a quantity such as
indicates output level relative to frequency. The graph has voltage. It is actually a logarithmic ratio whose main
frequency in Hertz (Hz) on the x-axis and relative response purpose is to scale a large measurement range down to
in decibels (dB) on the y-axis. a much smaller and more useable range. The form of
the decibel relationship for voltage is:
A microphone whose output is equal at all frequencies has
dB = 20 x log(V1/V2)
a flat frequency response.
where 20 is a constant, V1 is one voltage, V2 is the
Flat response microphones typically have an extended other voltage, and log is logarithm base 10.
frequency range. They reproduce a variety of sound
Examples:
sources without changing or coloring the original sound.
What is the relationship in decibels between
100 volts and 1 volt?
dB = 20 x log(100/1)
dB = 20 x log(100)
dB = 20 x 2 (the log of 100 is 2)
dB = 40
That is, 100 volts is 40dB greater than 1 volt.
What is the relationship in decibels between
0.001 volt and 1 volt?
dB = 20 x log(0.001/1)
Flat frequency response dB = 20 x log(0.001)
dB = 20 x (-3) (the log of .001 is -3)
dB = -60
That is, 0.001 volt is 60dB less that 1 volt.
Similarly:
if one voltage is equal to the other they are 0dB different
if one voltage is twice the other they are 6dB different
if one voltage is ten times the other they are 20dB
different
Shaped frequency response 7
Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
Since the decibel is a ratio of two values, there must Directionality - A microphones sensitivity to sound relative
be an explicit or implicit reference value for any to the direction or angle from which the sound arrives.
measurement given in dB. This is usually indicated
by a suffix on the decibel value such as: dBV There are a number of different directional patterns found
(reference to 1 volt which is 0dBV) or dB SPL in microphone design. These are typically plotted in a polar
(reference to 0.0002 microbar which is 0dB Sound pattern to graphically display the directionality of the
Pressure Level) microphone. The polar pattern shows the variation in
sensitivity 360 degrees around the microphone, assuming
1. Compare 2. Compress 3. scale (x 20) that the microphone is in the center and that 0 degrees
0 represents the front of the microphone.
10 =1 0
101=10 20
102=100 40 The three basic directional types of microphones are
omnidirectional, unidirectional, and bidirectional.
b a 103=1000 60
104=10,000 80
The omnidirectional microphone has equal output or
b/a 105=100,000 100 sensitivity at all angles. Its coverage angle is a full 360
106=1,000,000 120 degrees. An omnidirectional microphone will pick up
the maximum amount of ambient sound. In live sound
Decibel scale situations an omni should be placed very close to the
for dBV or dB SPL sound source to pick up a useable balance between direct
sound and ambient sound. In addition, an omni cannot be
One reason that the decibel is so useful in certain aimed away from undesired sources such as PA speakers
audio measurements is that this scaling function which may cause feedback.
closely approximates the behavior of human hearing
sensitivity. For example, a change of 1dB SPL is
about the smallest difference in loudness that can
be perceived while a 3dB SPL change is generally
noticeable. A 6dB SPL change is quite noticeable
and finally, a 10dB SPL change is perceived as
twice as loud.
8
Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
Cardioid Supercardioid
For example, the use of a cardioid microphone for a guitar The bidirectional microphone has maximum sensitivity at
amplifier which is near the drum set is one way to reduce both 0 degrees (front) and at 180 degrees (back). It has the
bleed-through of drums into the reinforced guitar sound. least amount of output at 90 degree angles (sides). The
coverage or pickup angle is only about 90 degrees at both
Unidirectional microphones have several variations on the the front and the rear. It has the same amount of ambient
cardioid pattern. Two of these are the supercardioid and pickup as the cardioid. This mic could be used for picking
hypercardioid. up two opposing sound sources, such as a vocal duet.
Though rarely found in sound reinforcement they are used
Both patterns offer narrower front pickup angles than the in certain stereo techniques, such as M-S (mid-side).
cardioid (115 degrees for the supercardioid and 105
degrees for the hypercardioid) and also greater rejection
of ambient sound. While the cardioid is least sensitive at
the rear (180 degrees off-axis) the least sensitive direction
is at 126 degrees off-axis for the supercardioid and 110
degrees for the hypercardioid. When placed properly they
can provide more focused pickup and less ambient noise
than the cardioid pattern, but they have some pickup
directly at the rear, called a rear lobe. The rejection at the
rear is -12 dB for the supercardioid and only -6 dB for
the hypercardioid. A good cardioid type has at least
15-20 dB of rear rejection.
9
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
10
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
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Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
12
Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
13
Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
The frequency 1
/2 CYCLE 30
of a sound
20
wave indicates
10
the rate of + 0
PRESSURE
pressure 0 AMPLITUDE
_
variations
DISTANCE WAVELENGTH Ambient sounds
or cycles.
One cycle is Loudness
Schematic of sound wave
a change from
high pressure to low pressure and back to high pressure. The The fluctuation of air pressure created by sound is a change
number of cycles per second is called Hertz, abbreviated above and below normal atmospheric pressure. This is what
Hz. So, a 1,000 Hz tone has 1,000 cycles per second. the human ear responds to. The varying amount of pressure
of the air molecules compressing and expanding is related
The wavelength of a sound is the physical distance from to the apparent loudness at thehuman ear. The greater the
the start of one cycle to the start of the next cycle. Wave- pressure change, the louder the sound. Under ideal
length is related to frequency by the speed of sound. The conditions the human ear can sense a pressure change as
speed of sound in air is about 1130 feet per second or 344 small as 0.0002 microbars (1 microbar = 1/1,000,000
meters/second. The speed of sound is constant no matter atmospheric pressure). The threshold of pain is about 200
what the frequency. The wavelength of a sound wave of microbars, one million times greater! Obviously the human
any frequency can be determined by these relationships: ear responds to a wide range of amplitude of sound. This
amplitude range is more commonly measured in decibels
Sound Pressure Level (dB SPL), relative to 0.0002
The Wave Equation: c = f l
microbars (0 dB SPL). 0 dB SPL is the threshold of hearing
speed of sound = frequency wavelength
Lp and 120 dB SPL is the threshold of pain. 1dB is about the
or
smallest change in SPL that can be heard. A 3dB change is
speed of sound generally noticeable while a 6dB change is very noticeable.
wavelength =
frequency A 10dB SPL increase is perceived to be twice as loud!
for a 500Hz sound wave:
Sound Propagation
1,130 feet per second
wavelength =
500Hz There are four basic ways in which sound can be altered
wavelength = 2.26 feet by its environment as it travels or propagates: reflection,
absorption, diffraction and refraction.
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Microphone Techniques
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1. Reflection - A sound wave can be reflected by a 4. Refraction - The bending of a sound wave as it passes
surface or other object if the object is physically as large or through some change in the density of the environment.
larger than the wavelength of the sound. Because low This effect is primarily noticeable outdoors at large
frequency sounds have long wavelengths they can only be distances from loudspeakers due to atmospheric effects
reflected by large objects. Higher frequencies can be such as wind or temperature gradients. The sound will
reflected by smaller objects and surfaces as well as large. appear to bend in a certain direction due to these effects.
The reflected sound will have a different frequency
characteristic than the direct sound if all frequencies are Direct vs. Ambient Sound
not reflected equally.
A very important property of direct sound is that it
Reflection is also the source of echo, reverb, and standing becomes weaker as it travels away from the sound
waves: source. The amount of change is controlled by the
inverse-square law which states that the level change
Echo occurs when a reflected sound is delayed long is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
enough (by a distant reflective surface) to be heard by the change. When the distance from a sound source
listener as a distinct repetition of the direct sound. doubles, the sound level decreases by 6dB. This is a
noticeable decrease. For example, if the sound from a
Reverberation consists of many reflections of a sound, guitar amplifier is 100 dB SPL at 1 ft. from the cabinet
maintaining the sound in a reflective space for a time even it will be 94 dB at 2 ft., 88 dB at 4 ft., 82 dB at 8 ft., etc.
after the direct sound has stopped. Conversely, when the distance is cut in half the sound
level increases by 6dB: It will be 106 dB at 6 inches
Standing waves in a room occur for certain frequencies and 112 dB at 3 inches!
related to the distance between parallel walls. The original
sound and the reflected sound will begin to reinforce each On the other hand, the ambient sound in a room is at
other when the distance between two opposite walls is nearly the same level throughout the room. This is
equal to a multiple of half the wavelength of the sound. because the ambient sound has been reflected many
This happens primarily at low frequencies due to their times within the room until it is essentially non-
longer wavelengths and relatively high energy. directional. Reverberation is an example of non-
directional sound.
2. Absorption - Some materials absorb sound rather than
reflect it. Again, the efficiency of absorption is dependent For this reason the ambient sound of the room will
on the wavelength. Thin absorbers like carpet and acoustic become increasingly apparent as a microphone is
ceiling tiles can affect high frequencies only, while thick placed further away from the direct sound source.
absorbers such as drapes, padded furniture and specially In every room, there is a distance (measured from the
designed bass traps are required to attenuate low frequencies. sound source) where the direct sound and the reflected
Reverberation in a room can be controlled by adding (or reverberant) sound become equal in intensity.
absorption: the more absorption the less reverberation. In acoustics, this is known as the Critical Distance.
Clothed humans absorb mid and high frequencies well, so If a microphone is placed at the Critical Distance or
the presence or absence of an audience has a significant farther, the sound quality picked up may be very poor.
effect on the sound in an otherwise reverberant venue. This sound is often described as echoey, reverberant,
or bottom of the barrel. The reflected sound overlaps
3. Diffraction - A sound wave will typically bend around and blurs the direct sound.
obstacles in its path which are smaller than its wavelength.
Because a low frequency sound wave is much longer than Critical distance may be estimated by listening to a
a high frequency wave, low frequencies will bend around sound source at a very short distance, then moving
objects that high frequencies cannot. The effect is that high away until the sound level no longer decreases but
frequencies tend to have a higher directivity and are more seems to be constant. That distance is critical distance.
easily blocked while low frequencies are essentially
omnidirectional. In sound reinforcement, it is difficult to
get good directional control at low frequencies for both
microphones and loudspeakers.
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Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
+1
A unidirectional microphone should be positioned no farther +2
0
than 50% of the Critical Distance, e.g. if the Critical Distance -1
of phase +1
+ = 0
0
Phase relationships and interference effects -1
b
one cycle or one period The phase of a single
+1 +2
frequency sound wave is 0
+1
-1
always described relative
to the starting point of the
phase shifts
+1
+ = 0
-1
0
wave or 0 degrees. The -1 -2
Most soundwaves are not a single frequency but are The second case occurs when two closely spaced micro-
made up of many frequencies. When identical multiple- phones are wired out of phase, that is, with reverse polarity.
frequency soundwaves combine there are three This usually only happens by accident, due to miswired
possibilities for the resulting wave: a doubling of microphones or cables but the effect is also used as the
amplitude at all frequencies if the waves are in phase, a basis for certain noise-canceling microphones. In this
complete cancellation at all frequencies if the waves are technique, two identical microphones are placed very close
180 degrees out of phase, or partial cancellation and to each other (sometimes within the same housing) and
partial reinforcement at various frequencies if the waves wired with opposite polarity. Sound waves from distant
have intermediate phase relationship. The results may be sources which arrive equally at the two microphones
heard as interference effects. are effectively canceled when the outputs are mixed.
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Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
However, sound from a source which is much closer to than one speaker or multiple loudspeaker cabinets for a
one element than to other will be heard. Such close-talk single instrument would be examples. The delayed sound
microphones, which must literally have the lips of the talker travels a longer distance (longer time) to the mic and thus
touching the grille, are used in high-noise environments has a phase difference relative to the direct sound. When
such as aircraft and industrial paging but rarely with these sounds combine (acoustically) at the microphone,
musical instruments due to their limited frequency response. comb filtering results. This time the effect of the comb
filtering depends on the distance between the microphone
It is the last case which is most likely in musical sound rein- and the source of the reflection or the distance between
forcement, and the audible result is a degraded frequency the multiple sources.
response called comb filtering. The pattern of peaks and
dips resembles the teeth of a comb and the depth and
location of these notches depend on the degree of phase shift.
When it is necessary to use multiple microphones or to One effect often heard in sound reinforcement occurs
use microphones near reflective surfaces the resulting when two microphones are placed in close proximity
interference effects may be minimized by using the 3-to-1 to the same sound source, such as a drum kit or
rule. For multiple microphones the rule states that the instrument amplifier. Many times this is due to the
distance between microphones should be at least three phase relationship of the sounds arriving at the
times the distance from each microphone to its intended microphones. If two microphones are picking up the
sound source. The sound picked up by the more distant same sound source from different locations, some
microphone is then at least 12dB less than the sound phase cancellation or summing may be occurring.
picked up by the closer one. This insures that the audible Phase cancellation happens when two microphones
effects of comb filtering are reduced by at least that much. are receiving the same soundwave but with opposite
For reflective surfaces, the microphone should be at least pressure zones (that is,180 degrees out of phase).
11/2 times as far from that surface as it is from its intended This is usually not desired. A mic with a different
sound source. Again, this insures minimum audibility of polar pattern may reduce the pickup of unwanted
interference effects. sound and reduce the effect or physical isolation can
be used. With a drum kit, physical isolation of the
individual drums is not possible. In this situation the
choice of microphones may be more dependent on
the off-axis rejection characteristic of the mic.
18
Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
To calculate NAG: NAG = 20 x log (Df/Dn) The simplified PAG equation is:
Where: Df = distance from sound source PAG = 20 (log D1 - log D2 + log D0 - log Ds)
to furthest listener -10 log NOM -6
Dn = distance from sound source Where: PAG = Potential Acoustic Gain (in dB)
to nearest listener
Ds = distance from sound source to microphone
log = logarithm to base 10
D0 = distance from sound source to listener
Note: the sound source may be a musical instrument,
a vocalist or perhaps a loudspeaker. D1 = distance from microphone to loudspeaker
The equation for NAG is based on the inverse-square D2 = distance from loudspeaker to listener
law, which says that the sound level decreases by 6dB
each time the distance to the source doubles. For NOM = the number of open microphones
example, the sound level (without a sound system) at
the first row of the audience (10 feet from the stage) -6 = a 6 dB feedback stability margin
might be a comfortable 85dB. At the last row of the
audience (80 feet from the stage) the level will be 18dB log = logarithm to base 10
less or 67dB. In this case the sound system needs to
provide 18dB of gain so that the last row can hear at the In order to make PAG as large as possible, that is, to
same level as the first row. The limitation in real-world provide the maximum gain-before-feedback, the following
sound systems is not how loud the system can get with rules should be observed:
a recorded sound source but rather how loud it can get
with a microphone as its input. The maximum loudness 1) Place the microphone as close to
is ultimately limited by acoustic feedback. the sound source as practical.
The amount of gain-before-feedback that a sound 2) Keep the microphone as far away
reinforcement system can provide may be estimated from the loudspeaker as practical.
mathematically. This Potential Acoustic Gain involves
the distances between sound system components, the 3) Place the loudspeaker as close to
number of open mics, and other variables. The system the audience as practical.
will be sufficient if the calculated Potential Acoustic Gain
(PAG) is equal to or greater than the Needed Acoustic Gain 4) Keep the number of microphones
(NAG). Below is an illustration showing the key distances. to a minimum.
PAG
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Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
The NOM term in the PAG equation reflects the fact that Here are some suggestions to follow when miking musical
gain-before-feedback decreases by 3dB every time instruments for sound reinforcement.
the number of open (active) microphones doubles. For
example, if a system has a PAG of 20dB with a single Try to get the sound source (instrument, voice, or amplifier)
microphone, adding a second microphone will decrease to sound good acoustically (live) before miking it.
PAG to 17dB and adding a third and fourth mic will
decrease PAG to 14dB. This is why the number of Use a microphone with a frequency response that is
microphones should be kept to a minimum and why limited to the frequency range of the instrument, if
unused microphones should be turned off or attenuated. possible, or filter out frequencies below the lowest
Essentially, the gain-before-feedback of a sound system fundamental frequency of the instrument.
can be evaluated strictly on the relative location of sources,
microphones, loudspeakers, and audience, as well as the To determine a good starting microphone position, try
number of microphones, but without regard to the actual closing one ear with your finger. Listen to the sound
type of component. Though quite simple, the results are source with the other ear and move around until you find
very useful as a best case estimate. a spot that sounds good. Put the microphone there.
However, this may not be practical (or healthy) for
Understanding principles of basic acoustics can help extremely close placement near loud sources.
to create an awareness of potential influences on
reinforced sound and to provide some insight into The closer a microphone is to a sound source, the louder
controlling them. When effects of this sort are the sound source is compared to reverberation and
encountered and are undesirable, it may be possible ambient noise. Also, the Potential Acoustic Gain is
to adjust the sound source, use a microphone with a increasedthat is, the system can produce more level
different directional characteristic, reposition the before feedback occurs. Each time the distance
microphone or use fewer microphones, or possibly use between the microphone and sound source is halved,
acoustic treatment to improve the situation. Keep in the sound pressure level at the microphone (and hence
mind that in most cases, acoustic problems can best be the system) will increase by 6 dB. (Inverse Square Law)
solved acoustically, not strictly by electronic devices.
Place the microphone only as close as necessary.
General Rules Too close a placement can color the sound sources tone
quality (timbre), by picking up only one part of the instru-
Microphone technique is largely a matter of personal ment. Be aware of Proximity Effect with unidirectional
tastewhatever method sounds right for the particular microphones and use bass rolloff if necessary.
instrument, musician, and song is right. There is no one
ideal microphone to use on any particular instrument. Use as few microphones as are necessary to get a good
There is also no one ideal way to place a microphone. sound. To do that, you can often pick up two or more
Choose and place the microphone to get the sound you sound sources with one microphone. Remember: every
want. We recommend experimenting with a variety time the number of microphones doubles, the Potential
of microphones and positions until you create your Acoustic Gain of the sound system decreases by 3 dB.
desired sound. However, the desired sound can often This means that the volume level of the system must be
be achieved more quickly and consistently by turned down for every extra mic added in order to
understanding basic microphone characteristics, prevent feedback. In addition, the amount of noise
sound-radiation properties of musical instruments, and picked up increases as does the likelihood of interference
acoustic fundamentals as presented above. effects such as comb-filtering.
20
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
When multiple microphones are used, the distance To reduce pop (explosive breath sounds occurring
between microphones should be at least three times the with the letters p, b, and t):
distance from each microphone to its intended sound
source. This will help eliminate phase cancellation. For 1) mic either closer or farther than 3 inches
example, if two microphones are each placed one foot from the mouth (because the
from their sound sources, the distance between the 3-inch distance is worst)
microphones should be at least three feet. (3 to 1 Rule)
2) place the microphone out of the path
To reduce feedback and pickup of unwanted sounds: of pop travel (to the side, above, or
below the mouth)
1) place microphone as close as practical
to desired sound source 3) use an omnidirectional microphone
3) aim unidirectional microphone toward If the sound from your loudspeakers is distorted the
desired sound source (on-axis) microphone signal may be overloading your mixers
input. To correct this situation, use an in-line attenuator
4) aim unidirectional microphone away from (such as the Shure A15AS), or use the input attenuator on
undesired sound source (180 degrees your mixer to reduce the signal level from the microphone.
off-axis for cardioid, 126 degrees off-axis
for supercardioid) Seasoned sound engineers have developed favorite micro-
phone techniques through years of experience. If you lack
5) use minimum number of microphones this experience, the suggestions listed on the following
pages should help you find a good starting point. These
To reduce handling noise and stand thumps: suggestions are not the only possibilities; other micro-
phones and positions may work as well or better for your in-
1) use an accessory shock mount tended application. RememberExperiment and Listen!
(such as the Shure A55M)
21
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Lead vocal:
Backup vocals:
One microphone per singer Bassy, robust Minimizes feedback and leakage.
Handheld near chin or stand-mounted (unless an omni Allows engineer control of voice balances.
Touching lips or a few inches away is used) Roll off bass if necessary for more natural sound
when using cardioids.
Choral groups:
1 to 3 feet above and 2 to 4 feet in Full range, Use flat-response unidirectional microphones,
front of the first row of the choir, good blend, Use minimum number of microphones needed
aimed toward the middle row(s) of semi-distant to avoid overlapping pickup areas.
the choir, approximately 1 microphone
per 15-20 people
Acoustic guitar:
8 inches from sound hole Bassy Good starting placement when leakage or
feedback is a problem. Roll off bass for a more
natural sound (more for a uni than an omni).
3 inches from sound hole Very bassy, boomy, Very good isolation. Bass rolloff needed for
muddy, full a natural sound.
4 to 8 inches from bridge Woody, warm, Reduces pick and string noise.
mellow. Midbasy,
lacks detail
6 inches above the side, over the bridge, Natural, Less pickup of ambience and leakage than
and even with the front soundboard well-balanced, 3 feet from sound hole.
slightly bright
22
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Banjo:
3 inches from center of head Bassy, thumpy Rejects feedback and leakage.
Roll off bass for natural sound.
Violin (fiddle):
23
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Grand piano:
12 inches above middle strings, Natural, Less pickup of ambience and leakage.
8 inches horizontally from hammers well-balanced Move microphone(s) farther from hammers
with lid off or at full stick to reduce attack and mechanical noises.
Good coincident-stereo placement.
See Stereo Microphone Techniques section.
8 inches above treble strings, as above Natural, Place one microphone over bass strings and one
well-balanced, over treble strings for stereo. Phase cancellations
slightly bright may occur if the recording is heard in mono.
Aiming into Thin, dull, hard, Very good isolation. Sometimes sounds good for
sound holes constricted rock music. Boost mid-bass and treble for more
natural sound.
6 inches over middle strings, Muddy, boomy, Improves isolation. Bass rolloff and some treble
8 inches from hammers, dull, lacks attack boost required for more natural sound.
with lid on short stick
Underneath the piano, aiming up at the Bassy, dull, full Unobtrusive placement.
soundboard
Surface-mount microphone mounted Bright, Excellent isolation. Experiment with lid height
on underside of lid over lower treble well- and microphone placement on piano lid for
strings, horizontally close to hammers balanced desired sounds.
for brighter sound, further from
hammers for more mellow sound
Two surface-mount microphones Bright, Excellent isolation. Moving low mic away
positioned on the closed lid, under the well-balanced, from keyboard six inches provides truer
edge at its keyboard edge, approximately strong attack reproduction of the bass strings while reducing
2/3 of the distance from middle A to each damper noise. By splaying these two mics
end of the keyboard outward slightly, the overlap in the middle
registers can be minimized.
Surface-mount microphone placed Full, natural Excellent isolation. Minimizes hammer and
vertically on the inside of the frame, damper noise. Best if used in conjunction with
or rim, of the two surface-mount microphones mounted to
piano, at or closed lid, as above.
near the
apex of the
pianos
curved wall
24
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Upright piano:
Just over open top, above treble strings Natural (but lacks Good placement when only one
deep bass), picks microphone is used.
up hammer attack
Just over open top, above bass strings Slightly full or Mike bass and treble strings for stereo.
tubby, picks up
hammer attack
Inside top near the bass and Natural, picks up Minimizes feedback and leakage.
treble stings hammer attack Use two microphones for stereo.
8 inches from bass side of soundboard Full, slightly tubby, Use this placement with the
no hammer attack following placement for stereo.
8 inches from treble side of soundboard Thin, constricted, Use this placement with the
no hammer attack preceding placement for stereo.
1 foot from center of soundboard on Natural, good Minimize pickup of floor vibrations by
hard floor or one-foot-square plate presence mounting microphone in low-profile
on carpeted floor, aiming at piano. shock-mounted microphone stand.
Soundboard should face into room
Aiming at hammers from front, several Bright, picks up Mike bass and treble strings for stereo.
inches away (remove front panel) hammer attack
The sound from these instruments is very directional. Placing the mic off axis with the bell of the instrument will
result in less pickup of high frequencies.
1 to 2 feet from bell. A couple of On-axis to bell Close miking sounds tight and minimizes
instruments can play into one sounds bright; to feedback and leakage. More distant placement
microphone one side sounds gives fuller, more dramatic sound.
natural or mellow
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Microphone Techniques
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LIVE SOUND
French horn:
Microphone aiming toward bell Natural Watch out for extreme fluctuations on VU meter.
Saxophone:
With the saxophone, the sound is fairly well distributed between the finger holes and the bell. Miking close to the
finger holes will result in key noise. The soprano sax must be considered separately because its bell does not curve
upward. This means that, unlike all other saxophones, placing a microphone toward the middle of the instrument
will not pick-up the sound from the key holes and the bell simultaneously. The saxophone has sound characteristics
similar to the human voice. Thus, a shaped response microphone designed for voice works well.
A few inches from and aiming into bell Bright Minimizes feedback and leakage.
A few inches from sound holes Warm, full Picks up fingering noise.
Flute:
The sound energy from a flute is projected both by the embouchure and by the first open fingerhole.
For good pickup, place the mic as close as possible to the instrument. However, if the mic is too close to the mouth,
breath noise will be apparent. Use a windscreen on the mic to overcome this difficulty.
A few inches from area between Natural, Pop filter or windscreen may be required
mouthpiece and first set of finger holes breathy on microphone.
26
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Harmonica:
Accordion:
The electric guitar has sound characteristics similar to the human voice. Thus, a shaped response microphone
designed for voice works well.
4 inches from grille cloth at center of Natural, Small microphone desk stand may be used if
speaker cone well-balanced loudspeaker is close to floor.
Off-center with respect to speaker cone Dull or mellow Microphone closer to edge of speaker cone results
in duller sound. Reduces amplifier hiss noise.
3 feet from center of speaker cone Thin, reduced bass Picks up more room ambience and leakage.
Microphone placed behind open Depends on Can be combined with mic in front of cabinet,
back cabinet position but be careful of phase cancellation.
Mike speaker as described in Depends on Roll off bass for clarity, roll off highs to reduce hiss.
Electric Guitar Amplifier section brand of piano
27
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Mike top louvers and bottom bass Natural, Excellent overall sound.
speaker 3 inches to 1 foot away well-balanced
Drum kit:
In most sound reinforcement systems, the drum set is miked with each drum having its own mic. Using microphones
with tight polar patterns on toms helps to isolate the sound from each drum. It is possible to share one mic with two
toms, but then, a microphone with a wider polar pattern should be used. The snare requires a mic that can handle
very high SPL, so a dynamic mic is usually chosen. To avoid picking up the hi-hat in the snare mic, aim the null of the
snare mic towards the hi-hat. The brilliance and high frequencies of cymbals are picked up best by a flat response
condenser mic.
1. Overhead-Cymbals:
One microphone over center of drum Natural; sounds like Picks up ambience and leakage. For cymbal
set, about 1 foot above drummers drummer hears set pickup only, roll off low frequencies. Boost at
head (Position A); or use two spaced 10,000 Hz for added sizzle. To reduce excessive
or crossed microphones for stereo cymbal ringing, apply masking tape in radial
(Positions A or B). See Stereo strips from bell to rim.
Microphone Techniques section
28
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
2. Snare drum:
Just above top head at edge of drum, Full, Tape gauze pad or handkerchief
aiming at top head. Coming in from smooth on top head to tighten sound.
front of set on boom (Position C); Boost at 5,000 Hz for attack,
or miniature microphone mounted if necessary.
directly on drum
Placing a pad of paper towels where the beater hits the drum will lessen boominess. If you get rattling or buzzing
problems with the drum, put masking tape across the drum head to damp out these nuisances. Placing the mic off
center will pick up more overtones.
4. Tom-toms:
One microphone between every Full, Inside drum gives best isolation.
two tom-toms, close to top heads good impact Boost at 5,000 Hz for attack,
(Position E); or one microphone just if necessary.
above each tom-tom rim, aiming at
top head (Position F); or one
microphone inside each tom-tom
with bottom head removed; or
miniature microphone mounted
directly on drum
5. Hi-hat:
Place single microphone a few inches from Natural In combination with Placements 3 and 7,
snare drum edge, next to high tom, just provides good pickup with minimum number
above top head of tom. Microphone of microphones. Tight sound with little leakage.
comes in from front of the set on a boom
(Position H)
Using single microphone, place its grille Natural In combination with Placements 3 and 6,
just above floor tom, aiming up toward provides good pickup with minimum number of
cymbals and one of high tomes (Position I) microphones. Tight sound with little leakage.
One microphone: Use Placement 1. Placement 6 may work if the drummer limits playing to one side of the drum set.
One microphone aiming down between Natural Provides full sound with good attack.
pair of drums, just above top heads
Tambourine:
One microphone placed 6 to 12 inches Natural Experiment with distance and angles if
from instrument sound is too bright.
30
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Steel Drums:
Microphone placed underneath pan Decent if used for tenor or second pans.
Too boomy with lower voiced pans.
Cello, Bass
One microphone placed 4 - 6 inches Natural Can double up pans to a single microphone.
above each pan
Two microphones aiming down toward Natural Pan two microphones to left and right for stereo.
instrument, about 1 1/2 feet above it, See Stereo Microphone Techniques section.
spaced 2 feet apart, or angled 135
apart with grilles touching
Glockenspiel:
One microphone placed 4 - 6 inches Bright, with lots For less attack, use rubber mallets instead of metal
above bars of attack mallets. Plastic mallets will give a medium attack.
Downstage:
Surface-mount microphones along front Voice range, Use flat response, unidirectional microphones.
of stage aimed upstage, one microphone semi-distant Use minimum number of microphones needed to
center stage; use stage left and stage avoid overlapping pickup area. Use shock mount
right mics as needed, approximately 1 if needed.
per 10-15 feet
Upstage:
Microphones suspended 8 -10 feet Voice range, Use flat response, unidirectional microphones.
above stage aimed upstage, one semi-distant Use minimum number of microphones needed to
microphone center stage; use stage avoid overlapping pickup area.
left and stage right mics as needed,
approximately 1 per 10-15 feet
Spot pickup:
Use wireless microphones on principal Voice range, Multiple wireless systems must utilize different
actors; mics concealed in set; shotgun on mic frequencies. Use lavaliere or handheld
microphones from above or below microphones as appropriate.
31
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
MS (Mid-Side) Comments
Near-Coincident
Techniques Comments
32
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
Musical Ensemble
Three microphones spaced Improved localization compared
several feet apart horizontally, to two spaced microphones.
aiming straight ahead toward
ensemble. Center microphone
signal is split equally to both
channels. Example:
Microphones 5 feet apart.
(Top View)
33
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND Selection Guide
1 2 3 4 5
Bell mounted with A56D enables microphone A50D enables microphone Use mics in pairs and for BETA181 is a side address
34 A98KCS clamp. to mount on rim. to mount on rim. optimum flexibility, use A27M mic and available with
stereo microphone mount. multiple polar pattern options.
Microphone Techniques
for
Glossary LIVE SOUND
3-to-1 Rule-When using multiple microphones, Critical Distance-In acoustics, the distance from a sound
the distance between microphones should be at least source in a room at which the direct sound level is equal
3 times the distance from each microphone to its to the reverberant sound level.
intended sound source.
Current-Charge flowing in an electrical circuit.
Absorption-The dissipation of sound energy by losses Analogous to the amount of a fluid flowing in a pipe.
due to sound absorbent materials.
Decibel (dB)-A number used to express relative output
Active Circuitry-Electrical circuitry which requires power sensitivity. It is a logarithmic ratio.
to operate, such as transistors and vacuum tubes.
Diaphragm-The thin membrane in a microphone which
Ambience-Room acoustics or natural reverberation. moves in response to sound waves.
Amplitude-The strength or level of sound pressure or Diffraction-The bending of sound waves around an
voltage. object which is physically smaller than the wavelength
of the sound.
Audio Chain-The series of interconnected audio
equipment used for recording or PA. Direct Sound-Sound which travels by a straight path
from a sound source to a microphone or listener.
Backplate-The solid conductive disk that forms the
fixed half of a condenser element. Distance Factor-The equivalent operating distance of a
directional microphone compared to an omnidirectional
Balanced-A circuit that carries information by means of microphone to achieve the same ratio of direct to
two equal but opposite polarity signals, on two conductors. reverberant sound.
Bidirectional Microphone-A microphone that picks Distant Pickup-Microphone placement farther than
up equally from two opposite directions. The angle of 2 feet from the sound source.
best rejection is 90 deg. from the front (or rear) of the
microphone, that is, directly at the sides. Dynamic Microphone-A microphone that generates an
electrical signal when sound waves cause a conductor to
Boundary/Surface Microphone-A microphone designed vibrate in a magnetic field. In a moving-coil microphone,
to be mounted on an acoustically reflective surface. the conductor is a coil of wire attached to the diaphragm.
Cardioid Microphone-A unidirectional microphone with Dynamic Range-The range of amplitude of a sound
moderately wide front pickup (131 deg.). Angle of best source or the range of sound level that a microphone
rejection is 180 deg. from the front of the microphone, can successfully pick up.
that is, directly at the rear.
Echo-Reflection of sound that is delayed long enough
Cartridge (Transducer)-The element in a microphone (more than about 50 msec.) to be heard as a distinct
that converts acoustical energy (sound) into electrical repetition of the original sound.
energy (the signal).
Electret-A material (such as Teflon) that can retain a
Close Pickup-Microphone placement within 2 feet of a permanent electric charge.
sound source.
EQ-Equalization or tone control to shape frequency
Comb Filtering-An interference effect in which the response in some desired way.
frequency response exhibits regular deep notches.
Feedback-In a PA system consisting of a microphone,
Condenser Microphone-A microphone that generates amplifier, and loudspeaker feedback is the ringing or
an electrical signal when sound waves vary the spacing howling sound caused by amplified sound from the loud-
between two charged surfaces: the diaphragm and the speaker entering the microphone and being re-amplified.
backplate.
35
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND Glossary
Flat Response-A frequency response that is uniform and Leakage-Pickup of an instrument by a microphone
equal at all frequencies. intended to pick up another instrument. Creative leakage
is artistically favorable leakage that adds a loose or
Frequency-The rate of repetition of a cyclic phenomenon live feel to a recording.
such as a sound wave.
NAG-Needed Acoustic Gain is the amount of gain that a
Frequency Response Tailoring Switch-A switch on a sound system must provide for a distant listener to hear
microphone that affects the tone quality reproduced by as if he or she was close to the unamplified sound source.
the microphone by means of an equalization circuit.
(Similar to a bass or treble control on a hi-fi receiver.) Noise-Unwanted electrical or acoustic interference.
Frequency Response-A graph showing how a microphone Noise Canceling-A microphone that rejects ambient or
responds to various sound frequencies. It is a plot of distant sound.
electrical output (in decibels) vs. frequency (in Hertz).
NOM-Number of open microphones in a sound system.
Fundamental-The lowest frequency component of a Decreases gain-before-feedback by 3dB everytime NOM
complex waveform such as musical note. It establishes doubles.
the basic pitch of the note.
Omnidirectional Microphone-A microphone that picks
Gain-Amplification of sound level or voltage. up sound equally well from all directions.
Gain-Before-Feedback-The amount of gain that can Overload-Exceeding the signal level capability of a
be achieved in a sound system before feedback or microphone or electrical circuit.
ringing occurs.
PAG-Potential Acoustic Gain is the calculated gain that a
Harmonic-Frequency components above the fundamental sound system can achieve at or just below the point of
of a complex waveform. They are generally multiples of the feedback.
fundamental which establish the timbre or tone of the note.
Phantom Power-A method of providing power to the
Hypercardioid-A unidirectional microphone with tighter electronics of a condenser microphone through the
front pickup (105 deg.) than a supercardioid, but with microphone cable.
more rear pickup. Angle of best rejection is about 110
deg. from the front of the microphone. Phase-The time relationship between cycles of
different waves.
Impedance-In an electrical circuit, opposition to the
flow of alternating current, measured in ohms. A high Pickup Angle / Coverage Angle-The effective arc of
impedance microphone has an impedance of 10,000 coverage of a microphone, usually taken to be within
ohms or more. A low impedance microphone has an the 3dB down points in its directional response.
impedance of 50 to 600 ohms.
Pitch-The fundamental or basic frequency of a musical
Interference-Destructive combining of sound waves or note.
electrical signals due to phase differences.
Polar Pattern (Directional Pattern, Polar Response)-
Inverse Square Law-States that direct sound levels A graph showing how the sensitivity of a microphone
increase (or decrease) by an amount proportional to varies with the angle of the sound source, at a particular
the square of the change in distance. frequency. Examples of polar patterns are unidirectional
and omnidirectional.
Isolation-Freedom from leakage; ability to reject
unwanted sounds. Polarization-The charge or voltage on a condenser
microphone element.
36
Microphone Techniques
for
Glossary LIVE SOUND
Pop Filter-An acoustically transparent shield around a Sound Chain-The series of interconnected audio
microphone cartridge that reduces popping sounds. equipment used for recording or PA.
Often a ball-shaped grille, foam cover or fabric barrier.
Sound Reinforcement-Amplification of live sound
Pop-A thump of explosive breath sound produced sources.
when a puff of air from the mouth strikes the
microphone diaphragm. Occurs most often with p, Speed of Sound-The speed of sound waves, about
t, and b sounds. 1130 feet per second in air.
Presence Peak-An increase in microphone output in the SPL-Sound Pressure Level is the loudness of sound
presence frequency range of 2000 Hz to 10,000 Hz. relative to a reference level of 0.0002 microbars.
A presence peak increases clarity, articulation, apparent
closeness, and punch. Standing Wave-A stationary sound wave that is
reinforced by reflection between two parallel surfaces
Proximity Effect-The increase in bass occurring with that are spaced a wavelength apart.
most unidirectional microphones when they are placed
close to an instrument or vocalist (within 1 ft.). Does not Supercardioid Microphone-A unidirectional microphone
occur with omnidirectional microphones. with tighter front pickup angle (115 deg.) than a cardioid,
but with some rear pickup. Angle of best rejection is
Rear Lobe-A region of pickup at the rear of a 126 deg. from the front of the microphone, that is,
supercardioid or hypercardioid microphone polar 54 deg. from the rear.
pattern. A bidirectional microphone has a rear lobe
equal to its front pickup. Timbre-The characteristic tone of a voice or instrument;
a function of harmonics.
Reflection-The bouncing of sound waves back from
an object or surface which is physically larger than the Transducer-A device that converts one form of energy to
wavelength of the sound. another. A microphone transducer (cartridge) converts
acoustical energy (sound) into electrical energy (the
Refraction-The bending of sound waves by a change audio signal).
in the density of the transmission medium, such as
temperature gradients in air due to wind. Transient Response-The ability of a device to respond
to a rapidly changing input.
Resistance-The opposition to the flow of current in an
electrical circuit. It is analogous to the friction of fluid Unbalanced-A circuit that carries information by means
flowing in a pipe. of one signal on a single conductor.
Rolloff-A gradual decrease in response below or above Voice Coil-Small coil of wire attached to the diaphragm
some specified frequency. of a dynamic microphone.
Sensitivity-The electrical output that a microphone Voltage-The potential difference in an electric circuit.
produces for a given sound pressure level. Analogous to the pressure on fluid flowing in a pipe.
Shaped Response-A frequency response that exhibits Wavelength-The physical distance between the start
significant variation from flat within its range. It is and end of one cycle of a soundwave.
usually designed to enhance the sound for a particular
application.
37
Microphone Techniques
for
LIVE SOUND
38
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