BOILERS - AN OVERVIEW

Abstract:
The production of steam and its utilization have undergone radical changes over
the years through the pioneering efforts of scientists and engineers in the fields of fuel
and combustion technology, boiler operation and power generation.
In this report let us go through the various elements of the boilers such as their
components, accessories, mountings etc and other aspects like their classification, design,
operation, maintenance, inspection etc. The design aspect is being highlighted.

Introduction:
Generally the term boiler is referred to as a device used for generating either
steam for power generation or hot water for heating purposes. But the term boiler has
been defined by the Indian Boiler Act, 1923, as a closed pressure vessel with a capacity
exceeding 22.75 lts used for generating steam under pressure.
Boilers are a part and parcel of any manufacturing unit. Without them no
operations such as power generation, heating, and many others cannot be performed. And
we know the result of what would happen. Such is the importance of boilers in the
industry.

Classification:
Boilers are classified on the basis of:

 Mode of circulation of working fluid

a) Natural circulation boiler: here the circulation of water takes place due to
the difference in density between the saturated steam and the feed water.
Feed water tank

Boiler

b) Forced circulation boilers: here the circulation of water takes place by the
help of a feed pump.
Feed water tank

Boiler Feed pump

 Type of fuel used
a) Coal fired b) Gas fired c) Oil fired d) Wood fired
e) Bagasse fired

 Steam pressure
a) Low pressure boilers – operating steam pressure < 1.021 atm.
operating pressure of hot water < 10.893 atm
temperature = 394 K
b) Power boilers - conditions exceeding L.P.Boilers.
c) Miniature boilers - I.D of shell not > 406.4 mm
- Gross volume not > 0.14158 m3
- Water heating surface not > 1.858 m2
- Working pressure not > 6.8 atm
1 atm = 1.033 kg/cm2

 Furnace position
a) Externally fired boilers: here the furnace is located outside the boiler.
b) Internally fired boilers: here the furnace is inside the boiler.

 Type of furnace
a) Dutch oven boiler b) Open boiler c) Scotch boiler
d) Screened boiler e) Twin boiler

 Shape and position of tubes

Shape - a) Straight tube boiler b) Bent tube boiler
Position – a) Horizontal b) Vertical c) Inclined

 Tube contents
a) Fire tube boilers: here the tubes contain the flue gases and water
surrounds them.
b) Water tube boilers: here the tubes contain water and the flue gases
surround them.

 Mode of firing
a) Fired boilers :here the firing is done with the help of fuel.
b) Non fired boilers: here firing is done by the combustion products.

 Nature of heat source

a) Fuel fired boiler b) Waste heat boilers
c) Electrical powered boilers d) Nuclear powered boilers

 Boiler size
a) Commercial boilers - heating surface = 11.98 to 331.756 m2
gross heat output = 300 to 10827 kJ/s

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 b) Residential boilers - heating surface = 1.486 to 27.313 m2
gross heat output = upto 30 kJ/s
c) Oil fired boilers - gross heat output = upto 30 kJ/s

 Nature of use
a) Stationary boilers b) Mobile boilers

 Materials of construction
a) Low pressure heating boilers - cast iron or steel
b) Miniature boilers - copper, stainless steel etc
c) Power boilers - special steels

 Manufacturer’s trade name for e.g.

a) Benson boiler b) La Mont boiler
c) Babcock boiler d) Wilcox boiler

Essential Qualities Of A Good Boiler:

The essential qualities of a good boiler are as follows
 Capable of quick start-up.
 Should meet large load fluctuations
 Occupy less floor space
 Should afford easy maintenance and inspection
 Capable of producing maximum steam with minimum fuel consumption.
 Light and simple in construction
 The joints must be accessible and away from direct flame impact.
 Tubes should be sufficiently strong to resist wear and corrosion.
 Mud and other deposits should not collect on heated plates.
 The velocity of water and other flue gases should be minimum.

Criteria For The Selection Of A Boiler:

The factors taken into account while selecting a boiler are
 Power required to be generated.
 Operating pressure.
 Fuel quality and type.
 Water availability and its quality.
 Probable load factor.
 Location of the powerhouse or process plants.
 Cost of operation and maintenance.
 Cost of installation and erection.
 Availability of floor space.

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Boiler Auxiliaries:
Boiler auxiliaries are the devices incorporated in the boiler circuit to boost up
the efficiency and performance of the steam generation plant and assist in the
systematic and adequate operation of the boiler unit for prolonged periods.
The various boiler auxiliaries are as stated below
 Air preheater.
 Economizer.
 Super heater.
 De-super heater.
 Boiler feed pump.
 Forced draft and induced draft fans.
 Mechanical separator.
 Equipment tanks
 Feed water tanks
 De-aerator
 Continuous blow down expander
 Drainage expander
 Chemical dosing system.
 Soot blowers and wall blowers.
 Pressure reduction valve.
 Pulverizers and fuel firing system.
 Ash handling systems.

Boiler Circuits:

All the above mentioned auxiliaries are a part and parcel of the boiler circuits.
Some in one type of circuit and some in the other. Let us get a brief idea about these
boiler circuits. There are basically six types of boiler circuits. they are:
 Fuel circuit.
 Air circuit.
 Gas circuit.
 Water circuit.
 Steam circuit.

 Fuel Circuits:
The fuel circuit consists of the following elements:
 Loaders: Used to lift the coal from ground level to elevated crusher
hoppers.
 Pulverisers: Sometimes the size of the coal is not as per the
requirement. At that time the coal crushers are put to work, the coal thus
obtained is of uniform size also. The particle size obtained is of the order
of 15-25 mm.
 Magnetic Seperators: They are used to remove metallic objects so as to
avoid serious damage to the crushers.

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  Coal Driers: It is very much essential to remove the moisture content
from the coal, other wise it will lead to incomplete combustion. This is
done by blowing hot air over the coal bed.
 Feeders: this is the one that supplies the pulverised coal to the furnace.
this may be done either by employing the natural or screw conveyer or
vibratory feeder.

Raw coal Primary crusher Magnetic seperator

F.D. fan
Pulverizer
Ai
r
Coal bunker Coal drier
Feeder Grinder

Boiler

Fig 1. Block diagram of a Fuel circuit.

 Air Circuits:
The air circuits primarily consist of the following:
 Air filters: These are used when the air entering the feeder contains
impurities, unnecessary gases or suspended particles.
 Forced draft fans: These are used to push the air through the
combustion air supply system in to the furnace. Its discharge pressure
must be high enough to equal the resistance of air ducts, air heater, burners
or any other resistance between the fan discharge and the furnace.
 Primary air fan: A branch line is taken from the FD fan to push the
fuel inside the furnace.
 Air Preheater: this is the device used for heating the combustion air
by picking up the heat from the flue gases. The preheating of air helps in:
1. Igniting the fuel.
2. Improving combustion efficiency by ensuring complete combustion.
3. Reducing the flue gas temperature.
4. Reducing the physical size of the boiler.

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 Air
F.D.fan Air Preheater Furnace

Boiler

Fig 2. Block diagram of an Air circuit.

 Gas Circuits:
The gas circuits primarily consist of the following:
 Dust Collectors: These are used to collect the dust, which is carried
by the flue gases. If the dust is not eliminated from the flue gases, it leads
to the erosion of the ducts, which may lead to the failure of the ducts. A
rotary valve is used to discharge the fly ash from the dust collector.
Efficiency is 85-95%.
 Bag Filters: When the pollution norms are very stringent as in the
densely populated regions bag filters are used. They are very costly.
 Electro Static Precipitator (ESP): They operate by charging dust
particles as the gas passes through the electrically charged wires. This dust
is attracted to, and collected on oppositely charged plates, which are
periodically rapped and moved.
 Induced Draft Fan: These fans suck the flue gases and force them
through the chimney. Even a temporary stoppage of the boiler can
necessitate the shutdown of the boiler. Here dampers are used to control
the volume and the path of flow to prevent the jamming of the hot gases.
 Chimney : This is a long, vertical cylindrical column used to discharge
the flue gases at such a height that they will not create any problem to the
surroundings. Its height is usually 20 mts.

C
h
i
Boiler Air filter I.D.fan m
n
e
y

Fig 3. The block diagram of a gas circuit.

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 Water Circuits:
The water circuits primarily consist of the following:
 Boiler feed pump: It is a device which pumps the water to the steam
drum via the economizer (for preheating). It is a usual practice to employ
two pumps in case one gets clogged.
 Economizer: It is a heat recovery equipment that picks up the heat from
the flue gases and heats the feed water. They work under higher steam
drum pressure than the working pressure of the boiler. They are located at
the pump discharge side of the feed water circuit. According to the I.B.R
an economizer is defined as any part of a feed pipe which is under
pressure and through which feed water passes directly through a boiler and
is exposed to the action of flue gases for the purpose of waste heat
recovery.
 Water Preheater: These are basically shell and tube type heat
exchangers working at atmospheric pressure. They work on the principle
of natural circulation.
 Evaporator: This is the one where the generation of steam takes place.
It is called saturated steam. Steam which is fully vaporized is known as
saturated steam, there is no moisture content.
 Superheater: It is used to superheat the saturated steam produced in an
evaporator to a specified temperature. here the phase does not change.
 De-superheater: it is installed to control the steam temperature by
injecting water to the superheated steam.
 De-aerator: It is a device which removes the dissolved gases in the feed
water and hence prevents corrosion.
 Chemical dosing: this is a process to remove the traces of dissolved
gases which are still left after the process of de-aeration. There are two
types:
1. L.P.dosing.
2. H.P.dosing.

Feed pump Economizer Steam drum

Evaporator

De-superheater Superheater 1

Superheater 2

Fig 4. The block diagram of a water circuit

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Boiler Mountings and Accessories:

Boiler mountings are the fittings primarily intended for the safety of the boiler
and control of the steam generation process completely.
The various mountings and accessories are as stated below.
 Pressure gauges.
 Safety valves (2 nos.).
 Water level indicators (2 nos.).
 Feed check valve.
 Steam stop valve.
 Fusible plug.
 Blow off cock.
 Man holes and mud holes.

Boiler Design:

Whether the boiler is a drum or once through type, or whether it is an individual

unit or a small part of a large complex, it is necessary in design to give proper
consideration to performance required from the total complex of the steam-generating
unit. Within this framework, there are some important items, which must be
accomplished in boiler design. The items which are of importance are as stated
below:

 Determine the heat to be absorbed in the boiler and other heat transfer equipment,
the optimum efficiency to use, and the type of fuel or fuels for which the unit is to
be designed. When a particular fuel is selected, determine the amount of fuel
required, the necessary or preferred preheated air temperature and the quantities
of air required and flue gas to be generated.
 Determine the size and shape required for the furnace, giving consideration to
location, the space requirements of burners or fuel bed, and incorporating
sufficient furnace volume to accomplish complete combustion. Provision must
also be made for proper handling of ash contained in the fuel, and water cooled
surface must be provide in the furnace walls to reduce the gas temperature leaving
the furnace to the desired value.
 The general disposition of the convection heating surfaces must be so planned that
the superheater and the reheater when provided, are located at the optimum
temperature zone where the gas temperature is high enough to afford good heat
transfer from the gas to the steam, yet not so high as to result in excessive tube
temperatures or excessive fouling from ash in the fuel.
 Pressure parts must be designed in accordance with applicable codes using
approved materials with stresses not exceeding those allowable at the
temperatures experienced during operation.

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 A tight boiler setting or enclosure must be constructed around the furnace, boiler,
superheater, reheater and air heater, and gastight flues or ducts must be provided
to convey the gases of combustion to the stack.
 Supports for pressure parts and setting must be designed with adequate
consideration for expansion and local requirements, including wind and
earthquake loading.

 Fuel Characteristics:
From these very characteristics, a boiler designer gets the knowledge of heat
value available from the fuel as well as tits specific properties such as:
 ash content and percent of volatile matter
 nature of ash and its fusion point
 unburnt fuel losses as carbon is lost and escapes through the flue gases
 the presence of such corrosive agents like sulfur and vanadium that will
dictate the flue gas exit temperature as well as the materials of
construction of the heating surfaces of the boiler to avoid the problems
of corrosion and slagging.
It is these characteristics that govern the fuel burning mechanism in a boiler,
which in turn influences the boiler design.
It is usually possible to determine which fuel is the most difficult from the
standpoint of combustion and ash handling, and the unit is therefore designed for
the most difficult fuel that would be used. In the case of sulfur-bearing fuels, flue
gas temperature is usually kept above the dew point to avoid sulfur corrosion of
economizer or air heater surfaces. The efficiency of combustion is 100 minus the
sum of the heat loses expressed in percentage. After the efficiency is calculated the
fuel input rate is then determined by the formula

Wf = q / (Qh * eff)
Where:
Wf = fuel input rate, lb/hr
Qh = high heat value of fuel, Btu/lb
eff = efficiency of combustion, %/100

The fuel input rate determines the furnace volume and design specifications.
As the furnace design undergoes a change, so does the layout of the heat-absorbing
surface of the boiler. However it can be safely concluded that the type of fuel
burning equipment and the method of firing exercise much greater influence on
furnace design than on boiler design.

 Gas Flow Characteristics:

The gas flow through the boiler is effected by the differential pressure
between the combustion products in the furnace core and the flue gases at the boiler
exit. This pressure difference, called draught (draft) may be affected by natural

9
 means or by mechanical means to supply the necessary primary and secondary air
to sustain and control fuel combustion.
Depending upon whether this draught is produced naturally (by chimney
effect) or by mechanical means (by installing induced draught fans, forced draught
fans or both), the boiler design is altered accordingly. The quantity of excess air
supplied in the form of secondary air influences the boiler capacity as well as the
furnace temperature.
Again, higher boiler efficiency needs combustion air to be preheated and
therefore, an air preheater is to be installed almost invariably in the convective shaft
of the boiler furnace, and that means a further draft loss, which must be taken into
account in the overall design of the steam generator.

 Steam Requirements:
The quality of the steam required is another important consideration the
designer has to make (i.e.) whether the steam required should be wet, dry or
superheated. If wet steam is required then the designer may do away with the
separator and superheater. If 99.5% dry steam is required then he has to opt for
suitable steam separators. The incorporation of a superheater and reheater
becomes obvious if superheated steam or steam reheating is required downstream,
e.g., in the turbo alternator.

Gas-mass velocity Vs steam quality

1400

1200

1000 safe

800 unsafe
Smooth
tube
600 safe Ribbed
tube
400
unsafe
200

0
Steam quality,(%)

Fig 2. Steam quality limit for nucleate boiling in smooth and ribbed tubes
as a function of mass velocity.

The steam requirements are taken into consideration and after that the steam
flow, steam pressure, and temperature and the boiler feed water temperature are

10
 determined, the required rate of heat absorption, Q, is determined from the
equation:

Q = w’ (h2’ - h1’) + w” (h2”- h1”)

Where:
Q = rate of heat absorption, Btu/hr
w’ = primary steam or feed water flow, lb/hr
w” = reheat steam flow, lb/hr
h1’ = enthalpy of feed water entering, Btu/lb
h2’ = enthalpy of primary steam leaving the superheater, Btu/lb
h1” = enthalpy of steam entering reheater, Btu/lb
h2” = enthalpy of steam leaving reheater, Btu/lb

 Furnace Design:
The furnace volume must be sufficient to maintain the necessary heat release
rate and furnace temperature while the combustion space should be sufficient to
contain the flame so that it does not directly hit the water walls. The rate of steam
generation and the heat release rate, which in turn govern the size and shape of the
furnace, nature and materials of construction of the furnace walls and disposition of
the heat-absorbing surface in the radiant and convective shafts of the furnace.
When pulverized coal or Cyclone-Furnace firing is used, the walls in which
the burners or cyclones are located must be designed to accommodate them along
with the necessary fuel and air supply lines.
Where fuel is burned on stokers or hearths, the size of the furnace is usually
set by providing a plan area based on a specified release of heat per sq. ft of base
area per hr. The furnace must also be proportional so that combustion is completed
with due regard to the factors of temperature, turbulence and time.
Preheated air is beneficial in obtaining an adequate combustion temperature,
and is required for pulverized coal or Cyclone-Furnace firing, as well as for residual
or heavy oils. Turbulence is primarily a function of fuel-burning equipment, and its
importance lies in supplying air, not only to individual fuel particles but also to any
unburnt or partially burnt gases until combustion is completed. The time factor is
fulfilled primarily by providing sufficient furnace volume so that the combustion
gases remain in the furnace long enough to assure complete combustion.
The furnace bottom design becomes a major consideration during the design
of coal-fired boilers. They may be pulverized coal fired or stroker or grate fired. For
pulverized coal firing, the furnace bottom should be cone shaped to drop all molten
slag to be carried off mechanically, pneumatically or by water. In the case of stroker
fired boilers, high pressure water jets are directed upon the sash and the molten slag
as they spill over the chain at the furnace bottom. The lack of proper furnace design
for ash and slag removal may result in excessive slagging of water walls impairing
the heat transfer characteristics and performance of the boiler.
Most of the modern boiler furnaces have all water-cooled walls. This not only
reduces maintenance of the furnace walls but also serves to reduce the gas
temperature entering the convection bank to the point where slag deposits and

11
 superheater corrosion can be controlled by sootblowers. The wall tubes of the
furnaces are spaced close centers to obtain maximum heat absorption. Membrane
walls with refractory lining are used in the lower furnace walls of cyclone-fired
units.

 Convection Boiler Surface:

The cost of furnace wall cooling surface is relatively higher than that of the
boiler surface, therefore the furnace size and surface are limited to the amount
required to lower the gas temperature entering the convection tube banks
sufficiently to avoid ash deposits.
The first few rows of tubes in the convection bank may be boiler tubes widely
spaced to provide gas lanes wide enough to prevent plugging with ash and slag and
to facilitate cleaning. In many large units they are used to support the furnace rear
wall tubes. These screen tubes (widely spaced boiler tubes) receive heat by
radiation from the furnace and by convection and radiation from the combustion
gases passing through them.
Design of the boiler surface after the superheater will depend upon the
particular type of unit selected, desired gas temperature drop, and acceptable gas
pressure drop through the boiler surface. The object in the design of convection
heating surfaces is to establish the combination of tube diameter, tube spacing,
length of tubes, number of tubes, width and depth, and gas baffling that will give
the desired gas temperature drop with the permissible pressure drop.
Heating surface and pressure drop are directly interrelated since both are
primarily dependent on gas mass velocity. So if there is an optimum gas mass
velocity it results in the optimum combination of heating surface and gas pressure
drop.
Gas turns between tube banks generally add draft loses with little or no benefit
to heat absorption and hence designed for easy flow.

 Convection Banks:
Under this category come the aspects like tube spacing and arrangement, tube
diameter, penetration of radiation, and effect of lanes.

 Tube spacing and arrangement:

In addition to heat absorption and resistance to gas flow, the other important
factors to be considered in establishing the optimum tube spacing and
arrangement for a convection surface are lagging or fouling of surfaces,
accessibility for cleaning, and space occupied. A large longitudinal spacing in
relation to the transverse spacing is usually undesirable, since the length of the
flow path for the calculated surface may be excessive.
There are some important points to be considered regarding the arrangement
of tubes:

1) The tubes must be son arranged that they will not be subjected to excessive
bending-moment stresses in carrying the weight of the tubes, drums, other

12
 parts which they support, and contained water. When the unit is bottom-
supported, the tubes must satisfy column requirements.
2) The holding strength of the tube seats must not be exceeded.
3) Provision must be made to accommodate the required expansion of pressure
parts. For a top-supported unit, the hanger rods must be designed in such a
way that they swing at the proper angle, and they must be long enough to
take the movement without excessive stresses in either the rods or the
pressure parts. Bottom-supported boilers should be anchored only at one
point, guided along one line, and allowed to expand freely in all other
directions. To reduce the frictional forces and resultant stresses in the
pressure parts, roller saddles or mountings are desirable for bottom-
supported heavy loads.

 Tube Diameter:
For turbulent flow, the heat transfer conductance is inversely proportional to
some power of the tube diameter. The tube diameter should be held minimum for
most effective heat transfer, however this optimum tube diameter may require an
arrangement that is expensive to fabricate, costly to install and difficult to
maintain in operating condition. A compromise between heat transfer
effectiveness and manufacturing, erection, and service limitations is thus
necessary in the selection of tube diameter.
In oil fired marine boilers of high rating, 1-in. O.D tubes are use in boiler
banks beyond the screen tubes. The high heat absorption rates in the furnace
necessitate an augmented quantity of circulating water. For this reason the screen
and water wall tubes are usually have 11/2 in. outer diameter.
Fixed plan area and Fixed surface and
performance performance

3 4
Transverse tube
Transverse tube

Draft
spacing (in.)

Draft 3 loss
spacing

2 loss Height
Ht & 2
1 Vol Volume
Surfac 1
e Plan
0 0 area
Outside tube Outside tube
diameter (in.) diameter (in.)

Fig 3. General effect of convection tube arrangement on volume occupied,

amount of surface, draft loss, and floor area for selected conditions fixed.

 Penetration of Radiation:
A convection bank of tubes bordering a furnace or a cavity acts as a black
body radiant heat absorber. Some of this heat however radiates through the spaces
between the tubes. The effect of this penetration is especially important in
establishing tube temperatures for superheaters located close to the furnace or
high temperature cavity.

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  Effect of Lanes:
Lanes in tube banks, formed by the omission of a row of tubes, may
decrease the heat absorption considerably. These passages, in effect, act as
bypasses to the hot gases through the banks. Although the overall efficiency
decreases, the high mass flow rate and gas weight through the lanes increase the
absorption rates of the remaining tubes.
Lanes must be eliminated both within tube banks and between tube banks
and walls. This is not always possible for e.g., with superheaters space must be
allowed for additional surface to satisfy future increases in steam temperature. In
these cases an alternative arrangement is made to satisfy the need of space.

 Heat Transfer Characteristics:

All the three modes of heat transfer – radiation, conduction and convection
enter into the equation, either alone or in combination during theoretical
calculations of water walls, superheaters, economizers and air heaters.
Radiation heat transfer is prevalent in the core (hottest part) of the furnace and
the transfer of radiant energy to the boiler tubes is dependent on the luminosity of
the flame and the amount of heat absorbing surface exposed to the flame.

The rate of radiant heat absorbed by the water wall is:

qrad = E*A*F*S*[(T1)4- (T2)4]

Where:
qrad = radiant heat absorbed by water wall, W
E = emissitivity of the flame
A = area of cross section of radiant heat absorbing surface, m2
F = view-factor
S = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67*10-8 W/m2K4
T1 = absolute temperature of flame, K
T2 = absolute temperature of radiant heat absorbing surface, K
The coefficient of radiative heat transfer is given by:

hrad = qrad / (A*T)

Where:
hrad = coefficient of radiative heat transfer, W/ m2K
qrad =radiant heat absorbed by water wall, W
T = temperature difference between the core and inner dia, K

The radiative resistance is given by:

Rrad = 1/ hrad*A

Rrad = radiative resistance

14
 hrad = coefficient of radiative heat transfer, W/ m2K
A = area of cross section of radiant heat absorbing surface, m2

Heat transfer in the second vertical shaft and the horizontal duct of the furnace
take place entirely by convection. The rate of heat transfer from hot flue gases to
the heat absorbing surfaces out in this zone is given by:

qconv = hconv *A* T

Where:
qconv = heat absorbed by convection, W
hconv = coefficient of convective heat transfer, W/m2K
T = temperature difference between the hot gases and walls, K
The convective resistance Rconv is given by:

Rconv = 1/(hconv*A)

Heat transfer by the mode of conduction takes place through the wall
thickness of the tubes as well as across the scale or depositions on both the inside
and the outside of the tube surface. The rate of conductive heat transfer through a
wall is given by:

qcond = k*A*(T/X)

For a composite wall,

qcond = k1*A*(T/X)1 +k2*A*(T/X)2 + k3*A*(T/X)3

and conductive resistance is,

Rcond = (1/A)[ (X1+X2+X3) / (k1+k2+k3) ]

Where:
k1 = thermal conductivity of the scale, W/mK
(T/X)1 = temperature gradient across the scale, K/m
k2 = thermal conductivity of the tube wall, W/mK
(T/X)2 = temperature gradient across the tube wall, K/m
k3 = thermal conductivity of the slag deposition, W/mK
(T/X)3 = temperature gradient across the slag, K/m

If all the three processes take place simultaneously then the overall resistance
to the heat flow is given by:

R = Rcond+Rconv+Rrad
Therefore heat flow rate,

q = T/ R =U*A*T

15
 where, U is known as the overall heat transfer coefficient.

A boiler designer must consider the internal and external fouling factors while
designing the superheaters, waterwalls, economizers, etc.

 Heat transfer to water:

a) Water-film conductance:
The film conductance for water in economizers is so much higher than
the gas side conductance that it is neglected in determining the economizer
surface.
b) Boiling-water conductance:
The combined gas side conductance (convection plus intertube
radiation) seldom exceeds 30Btu/sq ft, hr, F in boiler design practice. The film
conductance for boiling water (10,000Btu/sq ft, hr, F) is so much larger that it
is generally neglected in calculating the resistance of heat flow.
c) Effect of oil or scale:
Water and steam-side scale deposits interpose a high
resistance to the flow of heat. The additional temperature drop required in
maintaining a given fluid temperature inside the tube, as the thickness of the
scale increases, leads to a high metal temperature and ultimate failure. The
high heat absorption rates in furnace enclosure tubes of high capacity boilers
make it essential to prevent the formation of scale to assure continuity of
service. Good feed water treatment and proper operating practices prevent
deposition of scale and other contaminants.

 Heat transfer to steam:

In the design of superheaters, the steam film constitutes a significant
resistance to the flow of heat, and although this resistance is much lower than the
gas-side resistance, it cannot be neglect6ed in computing the overall resistance to
heat flow or the heat transfer rate. It is particularly significant in calculating
superheater tube temperatures, since the temperature of the inside tube wall is
equal to the steam temperature plus the temperature drop through the steam film.
It is imperative to prevent the scale deposits in superheater tubes because
of the magnitude of resistance to heat flow in the steam flow and the elevated
temperatures at which the superheater tubes operate. Even an extremely thin layer
of scale forms an insulating barrier, which together with the steam film, may be
sufficient to cause overheating and ultimate failure of a tube.

 Design of Pressure Parts:

Boilers have achieved the safety and reliability, which they now have through
the use of sound materials and safe practices for determining acceptable stresses in
tubes, drums and other pressure parts. Boilers are always designed to applicable
codes. In each case, the stress allowable depends on the maximum temperature to
which the part is subjected, and therefore it is important that the pressure parts be so

16
 designed that the design temperatures are known and not exceeded in operation. In
boilers the material temperatures are normally designed to be only a few degrees
above the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure.
In boiler tubes this is accomplished by providing sufficient water to avoid the
occurrence of a DNB, or departure from nucleate boiling. So adequate supply of
water must be provided for each tube, and this is particularly important in furnace
and screen tubes where the heat input is high. Steam drums have thick walls, and
hence it is necessary to limit the heat flow through them to avoid excessively high
thermal gradients. Where the heat input through a drum would be too high, because
of high gas pressure or velocity, insulation may be provided on the outside of the
drum. In a drum type boiler equipment is provided in the steam drum for the
reduction of moisture and the solids in the steam to acceptable values.
The boiler safety valve constitutes a very important item in the safety of
modern boilers. By law, the boiler design pressure must not be less than the safety
valve relief pressure. The operating pressure in the boiler, in turn, depends upon the
pressure required at the point of use and the intervening pressure drop.

 Boiler Settings:
The term boiler setting refers to all the walls that form the boiler and furnace
enclosure, and includes the lagging and insulation of these walls. Casing is sheet or
plate attached to pressure parts for the purpose of supporting the insulation or
forming a tight enclosure. Lagging is an outer covering over a wall for the purpose
of protecting insulation or improving appearance.

 Design Requirements:
Settings must safely contain high temperature gases and air. Leakage, heat
loss and maintenance must be reduced to acceptable values. A number of factors
require consideration in the design of settings. They are as listed below:
1) Enclosures must withstand the effects of high temperatures, ranging upto
3500F in some cases.
2) The action of ash and slag must be considered from the following point of
viewpoints:
i) Destructive chemical reactions between slag and metal or refractory
can occur under certain circumstances.
ii) Accumulations of ash on the water walls can significantly reduce heat
absorption.
iii) Ash accumulations can fall from a height and cause injury to personnel
or damage to apparatus.
iv) High-velocity ash particles can erode the pressure parts.
3) Enclosures must be designed for high pressures and differential expansion
of component parts.
4) Supports must be designed to accommodate the effects of thermal
expansion, temperature and pressure stresses, and wind and earthquake
loadings appropriate to the plant site.

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 5) The effect of explosions as well as implosions must be taken into account
to lessen the probability of injury and damage.
6) Vibrations caused by combustion pulsations and the flow characteristics of
gas and air must be limited to acceptable values.
7) The insulation of the enclosure must limit the heat loss to an economic
minimum.
8) The surface temperature or the ambient air temperature must not cause
discomfort or hazard to the operating personnel.
9) Enclosures must be gas-tight to minimize leakage into or out of the
setting.
10) The design must be adequate to meet the corrosive effects of ash and
gases.
11) Setting of outdoor units must be weatherproof.
12) Settings must be designed for economical fabrication and erection.
13) Serviceability, including access for inspection and maintenance, is
essential.
14) Good appearance, consistent with cost and maintenance requirements, is
always desirable.

This was about the distinct features of boiler design. After the boiler has been
designed it is fabricated, erected and then put to use. Now let us see the various aspects in
the boiler operation, inspection and maintenance. These are much more important
because only when they are put to use u get the output for which they have been
designed.

Boiler Operation, Inspection and Maintenance:

Boiler operation is a very important aspect. Even the smallest of the errors and it
may prove fatal to the operating personnel as well as the surroundings. There are
some conditions specified before hand to ensure safe operation of the boiler. The
principal characteristics that are taken into consideration in describing the operating
conditions of the boiler are:
 Average efficiency of a boiler for a particular operating period.
 Net efficiency of boiler at rated load.
 Availability factor, i.e., the ratio of operation time and reserve time to the
calendar time.
 Operation factor, i.e., the actual operating time of the boiler to the length of
the calendar time (month, year) considered.
 Capacity factor, i.e., the ratio of the total steam generated during operation
time to the probable steam generation during the calendar time at the rated
steam generation time.
 Average and maximum time of a campaign (i.e., the operation time to
failure).

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Regimes of operation:
There are two regimes of operation of the boiler, they are the steady regime
during which the steam parameters change insignificantly with time and the unsteady
regime in which there fluctuations of steam parameters due to internal and external
disturbances. The factors that are responsible for these disturbances are listed below:

Factors responsible for internal Factors responsible for external

disturbances are the variation disturbances are the variation
of: of:

 Flow rate of boiling feed

water.
 Temperature of boiling feed
water.
 Fuel consumption rate.
 Combustion airflow rate,
etc.
 Steam pressure in the steam
main.
 Load of the turbo
alternator.
 The degree of opening of
start-up and shutdown
device.

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 Boiler Shutdown:
In the process of boiler operation one of the most important processes is boiler
shut down there are three basic principle types of shutdowns. They are:
 Emergency shutdown
 Shutdown for repairing jobs with cooling of the whole or part of the boiler
unit.
 Shutdown for repairing jobs or to reserve without cooling of the boiler and
steam pipelines.
The emergency shutdown is carried on when any one of the following things
which are listed below happen:
 Explosion in the furnace damaging the brickwork or pressure parts.
 Flame extinction in the furnace.
 Deformation of the pressure parts that might invite explosion and endanger
the operating personnel.
 Failure to ensure reliable boiler operation because of bad visibility, fire and
danger of explosion.
 Non-permissible rise of superheated steam temperature.
 Failure of feed pumps.
 Failure of both water-level gauges for drum type boilers and feedwater flow
meters for once-through boilers.
 When the water level in the drum drops below the safety mark or in the case
of once-through boilers, the supply of water I interrupted for more than 30
sec.
 Rupture of tubes in the water-steam path.
 Fuel burning on the hat recovery zone. This is accompanied by abnormal
rise of temperature of the flue gases.
 Inadmissible pressure drop of gas or fuel oil behind the control valve.
 When there is no steam flow through the steam reheater.

Boiler tube failure (leakage):

Due to some reasons there may be leakage in the boiler tubes. This is also
referred to as tube failure. Tube leakages, if minor, can be detected by the loss of
working fluid from the system, by the noise produced from the leak and also in case
of boiler water chemicals. The procedure to be adopted in case of a leakage are:
 Boiler is to be shutdown and cooled.
 Boiler drum is to be drained.
 Inspection and detection of leakages has to be carried out.
 Leaks are to be repaired and leaky tubes are to be replaced.

Prec

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 autions for non-drainable superheaters:
Non-drainable type of superheaters are very hazardous and especially during
steam raising. There are certain precautions to be taken at that time. They are:
 Temperature of the superheater tubes must not be allowed to raise above the
higher allowable limit .
 No abnormal temperature difference between any two parts must be
allowed.
 During start-up, the tube metal temperature is kept below the temperature
that the tubes attain at the maximum designed capacity.
 The firing rate of the tubes must be controlled to avoid accumulation of
condensate in the superheater coils.

Inspection process and its importance:

The inspection of the boilers is carried out according to preplanned schedules
and n a regular basis to detect defects, locate the deterioration of material, abnormal
wear, etc., so that these can be rectified to avoid serious damage. The inspection is
generally carried out both during the operation and shutdown at least once in a
quarter.
During the loading of the boiler, one should inspect to ascertain the following
things:
 Feed systems, signals, interlocks, regulating devices, instruments,
auxiliaries, furnaces and boilers functioning properly and satisfactorily.
 The boiler operation is in conformity with the instructions specified by the
boiler suppliers, Govt. regulations, safety rules, etc., with respect to the
working parameters, viz. Steam temperature, pressure, water level, draft
losses, etc.
 Equipment is kept clean, tidy and in workable condition. Floors and
passages are clean, adequate provision is made for fire fighting.
 Skilled and well informed operators are manning the boiler.
The processes of operation, inspection and maintenance are thus very important
for good life and efficiency of the boiler and also to prevent hazards.

Conclusions:

From the above report we get a bird’s view of the various aspects related to
boilers. The process of the design of a boiler is very complex and the designer has to pool
up all the considerations and constraints, which play a major role in the performance of
the boiler after it has been erected. After the erection process the tasks of operation
inspection and maintenance play a vital role in ensuring the proper working of the boiler.

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Bibliography:

Boiler Operation Engineering – P.Chattopadhyay

Boiler design - Collected papers
A text book of Heat transfer - Sachdeva

C:\WDir\boilers.doc

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