w01 Cits2211lectures Propositions

Propositional Logic Truth Tables
CITS2211 Discrete Structures

Propositional Logic
Unit coordinator: Rachel Cardell-Oliver
July 31, 2017

Highlights
This lecture will address the following questions:

1 What is a proposition?
2 How are propositions combined?
3 How are propositions related to natural language and things in
the real world such as computer programs?
4 How is the truth or falsity of a proposition decided?
Reading
Mathematics for Computer Science

Introduction
Chapter 1, Section 1.1
Why study propositional logic
English language has many ambiguities. This is tolerable in

normal conversation but not if we wish to formulate precise
ideas.
Propositions and logical connectives arise all the time in
computer programs. For example, in conditional statements or
loops.
Computer programs themselves can be reasoned about using
logic. It is possible (although difficult) to prove a program is
correct.
Leading CPU chip manufacturers now routinely prove chip
correctness to avoid mistakes like the notorious Intel division
bug in the 1990s.
The first topic in cits2211 is logic.
Definition (from
www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/logic):
Reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of

validity.
Example: Warm up: You have 4 cards. Each card has a number on
one side and a letter on the other. If the cards are dealt so that
you can see
K 5 2 J
Which cards would you have to turn over, to test the rule that if
theres a J on one side then theres a 5 on the other side? Give
reasons for your answer.
Definition: A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.
Example: All men are mortal
Example: The earth is flat
Example: 1+1 = 2
Example: The evergreen forests of Canada comprise spruce, pine

and fir trees.
In English, we combine simple propositions into more complex ones

using connectives.
Example: The earth is not flat (not F)
Example: The earth is flat or I am mad (F or M)
Example: The earth is flat unless I am mad (F or M)
Example: Your money or your life (M or L, but be aware this really

means M xor L)
Example: If all men are mortal and all Greeks are men then all
Greeks are mortal (if MX and GM then GX)
Example: All babies are illogical (B implies not L)

Example: It is raining today and today is winter. (R and W)
Example: It is raining despite the season being winter. (R and W)
Example: If I can afford it then I will buy it (A implies B)
Example: I will buy it if I can afford it (A implies B)
Example: I will buy it when I can afford it (A implies B)
Example: I can afford it only if I buy it (A implies B)

not
and
The logic operators are: or
implies (if-then)
iff (if and only if)
The meaning of these operators can be defined using a truth table.

P Q PQ P Q PQ
P P T T T T
T F T F T F
F T F T F T
F F F F
P Q PQ P Q PQ
P P T T T T T T
T F T F F T F T
F T F T F F T T
F F F F F F
P Q PQ P Q PQ
T T T T
T F T F
F T F T
F F F F
P Q PQ P Q PQ
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T
Implication is important, remember an implication is true exactly

when the if-part is false or the then-part is true. False implies
anything, True can not imply false.
Example: True: If pigs can oink then the sky is blue
Example: False: If the sky is blue then the sky is red
Example: True: If pigs can fly then the sky is red
Example: True: If pigs can fly then the sky is blue

Propositional logic is a formal language
A formal language consists of

1 A set of permitted symbols; its alphabet
2 Rules defining the correct order of symbol in sentences; its
syntax
3 Assignment of meaning to correctly written sentences; its
semantics
Here is the formal language of propositional logic:

1 The alphabet of propositional logic consists of symbols for
denoting propositions called identifiers. For example, P, Q
and R, punctuation symbols, that is brackets ( ), and
propositional connectives , , , , .
2 The syntax of propositional logic is defined by the following
rules for construction of well formed formulae (wff), which
represent propositions: An identifier is a proposition. If P and
Q are propositions then so are P, P Q, P Q, P Q
and P Q. Note that arbitrarily complex propositions can
be built recursively using these rules.
3 The semantics of a proposition (its truth value) is derived
from the possible truth values of its sub-parts and the truth
tables for connectives.
Which of the following are wff of propositional logic ? Why ?
P Q
P Q R (S P)
P P
P Q
Brackets can be used to resolve ambiguity. But over-using brackets

can be irritating. Definition: Precedence of Symbols:
B rackets
N egation
C onjunction
D isjunction
I mplication
E quivalence
Example: Add (redundant!) brackets to the following formula to

show how it is interpreted under the operator precedence rules.
P Q S T V W
Todays lecture will address the following questions:

1 How to use truth tables to evaluate compound propositions
2 Introduce some common rules of propositional logic
3 How to identify tautologies and equivalences
Definition: Two propositions are equivalent if they have the same

truth value for all possible values of their identifiers.
Here are some commonly used propositional equivalences. Each
can be derived from a truth table (exercise).
Expression Equivalent To Name of Rule

P Q Q P Commutativity
P Q Q P
(P Q) R P (Q R) Associativity
(P Q) R P (Q R)
(P Q) P Q De Morgans laws
(P Q) P Q
PQ P Q Implication
PQ Q P Contrapositive
P (P) Double negation
Example: Derive De Morgans law (P Q) equivalent to

P Q using a truth table.
LHS RHS
P Q P Q (P Q) P Q P Q LHS RHS
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example: Derive the contrapositive law using a truth table.
LHS RHS
P Q PQ Q P Q P LHS RHS
T T
T F
F T
F F
Propositional Logic in Programs
Propositional logic is used in computer programs.
If ( x > 0 || ( x <= 0 && y > 100 ) )

return true;
else
return false;
Example: Use propositional logic to simplify this statement.

Definition: A tautology is a compound proposition which is true

under all possible assignments of truth values to its prime
propositions.
Example: Show that P P is a tautology.
Definition: A contradiction is a compound proposition which is

false under all possible assignments of truth values to its prime
propositions.
Example: Show that P P is a contradiction.

Definition: An contingent proposition is one which is neither a

tautology nor a contradiction.
Example: Show that P P is a contingent proposition.
Definition: Two propositions are logically equivalent if and only if

their equivalence is a tautology.
Example: Show that P Q is logically equivalent to P Q

Axioms of Propositional Logic (1)

P Q Q P
(P Q) R P (Q R)
P (Q R) (P Q) (P R) Distributivity
P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
(P Q) P Q De Morgan
(P Q) P Q
P P Double Negation
P P T Excluded Middle
P P F Contradiction

PQ P Q Implication
PQ (P Q) (Q P) Equivalence
P (P Q) P Or Absorption
P P P
P T T
P F P
P (P Q) P And Absorption
P P P
P T P
P F F
P P Identity
The table of rules on the previous two pages (axioms) can be used
to derive all tautologies.
An even more elegant axiomatisation was discovered by Edward
Vermilye Huntington in 1933.

(P Q) (P Q) P Huntington axiom
But note that these axioms are not very convenient for writing
proofs. So you are recommended to use a wider range of laws.

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Propositional Logic Truth Tables

CITS2211 Discrete Structures

Unit coordinator: Rachel Cardell-Oliver

July 31, 2017

This lecture will address the following questions:

Mathematics for Computer Science

Why study propositional logic

English language has many ambiguities. This is tolerable in

The first topic in cits2211 is logic.

Reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of

Definition: A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.

Example: All men are mortal

Example: The earth is flat

Example: The evergreen forests of Canada comprise spruce, pine

In English, we combine simple propositions into more complex ones

Example: The earth is not flat (not F)

Example: The earth is flat or I am mad (F or M)

Example: The earth is flat unless I am mad (F or M)

Example: Your money or your life (M or L, but be aware this really

Example: All babies are illogical (B implies not L)

Example: It is raining today and today is winter. (R and W)

Example: It is raining despite the season being winter. (R and W)

Example: If I can afford it then I will buy it (A implies B)

Example: I will buy it if I can afford it (A implies B)

Example: I will buy it when I can afford it (A implies B)

Example: I can afford it only if I buy it (A implies B)

The meaning of these operators can be defined using a truth table.

Implication is important, remember an implication is true exactly

Example: True: If pigs can oink then the sky is blue

Example: False: If the sky is blue then the sky is red

Example: True: If pigs can fly then the sky is red

Example: True: If pigs can fly then the sky is blue

Propositional logic is a formal language

A formal language consists of

Here is the formal language of propositional logic:

Which of the following are wff of propositional logic ? Why ?

Brackets can be used to resolve ambiguity. But over-using brackets

Example: Add (redundant!) brackets to the following formula to

Todays lecture will address the following questions:

Definition: Two propositions are equivalent if they have the same

Expression Equivalent To Name of Rule

Example: Derive De Morgans law (P Q) equivalent to

Example: Derive the contrapositive law using a truth table.

Propositional Logic in Programs

Propositional logic is used in computer programs.

If ( x > 0 || ( x <= 0 && y > 100 ) )

Example: Use propositional logic to simplify this statement.

Definition: A tautology is a compound proposition which is true

Example: Show that P P is a tautology.

Definition: A contradiction is a compound proposition which is

Example: Show that P P is a contradiction.

Definition: An contingent proposition is one which is neither a

Example: Show that P P is a contingent proposition.

Definition: Two propositions are logically equivalent if and only if

Example: Show that P Q is logically equivalent to P Q

Axioms of Propositional Logic (1)

Expression Equivalent To Name of Rule

Axioms of Propositional Logic (2)

Expression Equivalent To Name of Rule

Axioms of Propositional Logic (3)

Expression Equivalent To Name of Rule

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