Book 3 Module 4 SERVO MECHANISMS Licence By Post Le cence By Post © copytt 1B EASASS 43 ISSUE 05 1208Licence By Post Io part ofthis study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by ‘ty mean, of stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or impart without bor written permission from Licence By Post ‘Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated re-written to keep pace withthe changing {echinology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements. I is Jmportant Ghat, for good outcome to any CAA EASA examination, you std ith oUF latest {sate books.avrnority It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/ training purposes only ‘When carrying out a procedure/work on aireraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aireraft maintenance manual or equipment mantiacturer’s handbook, You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company poliey as regards local procedures, recording, report wniting, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should fllow the regulations /guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities ‘and national governments.CONTENTS Servomechanism principles ‘Open loop control systems Closed loop control systems Servo mechanisms Performance of servomechanisms Improvement of transient response Differentiators: Integrators Servomechanisms systems and components Synchronous transmitters Synchros Torque synchros Control synchros Differential synchros ‘Torque differential synchro system ‘The control differential synchro system Resolver synchros Slab synchros ‘The synchrotel Inductance transmitters ‘The E and I bar transducer Linear variable differential transformers Capacitance transmittersHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK In general the same applies to this book as to book 1 in this module, in other ‘words, the category B person should have a sound knowledge of the subject (in this case servo-mechanisms) and their applications. This means that itis written to the B2 level, and B1 people should check the How to Tackle This Book section of book 1 to check what subjects should be leamt and to what depth, None of the contents applies to the A Line Mechanic. ‘You may need to read some sections of the book more than once to get a thorough understanding of the subject, and for Full Student students you can always contact your tutor if still in doubt Some details of scientists have been included for interest only and these need not be committed to memory. Note that when dealing with the theory of feed-back we have used electrical signals as the signal medium and for the mechanical parts we have used, predominately, rotating shafts, The signal system could be electronic or a light system and the mechanical element could be motors, shafts, steel cables, pulleys, hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems, drive belts, etc, or a combination of any of these ‘The signalling system could include computers with pre-programmed responses to signals to cope with the various frictions in the system and to keep response time short. Remember, @ feed-back system is not required when the system has to produce a discrete output. In other words, OPEN or CLOSED (fuel cocks), UP or DOWN (landing gear). When the system output is variable or continuous such as Nap position (UP, PART DOWN, DOWN), engine throttle controls (CRUISE THRUST, LANDING THRUST, TAKE-OFF THRUST) then a feed-back system will be required, Probably the best examples of a continuously variable output system are powered fiying controls and powered nose wheel steering, Lines used in drawings are used to represent electrical and mechanical connections. To distinguish between the two they are drawn thus:‘SERVOMECHANISM PRINCIPLES A servomechanism is a force amplifier mechanism where the output accurately follows the input but with greater power. The output movement can be linear or rotary, If the output is controlled by the input only, with no feed-back, itis called an Open Loop system. If there is some form of feed-back or follow-up the ‘system is ealled a Closed Loop system using the servo-loop to provide part of the control. Most closed-loop systems use negative feed-back where essentially the servomechanism constantly compares demand input with output and any difference generating an error signal which drives the output in the required direction to reduce the error to zer0. ‘Servomechanisms may be powered: + Hydrautically ~ as in servo valves used in powered flying control systems. + Bleetrically ~ ac or de powered. Inputs into servomechanisms may be: + Mechanical - push/pull rods, pilot operated from the Might deck for example. Hydraulic ~ from a control valve for example. + Blectrical - ac or de. Control within the servo mechanism may be: + Mechanical - as in most powered flying control units + Blectrical - using analogue signals, + Blectronie ~ using position and speed data converted into digital data. In the industry, servomechanisms are generally considered to be electrical in operation, hence their inclusion in the module 3 part of the EASA syllabus. So we have concentrated here on the electrically operated servomechanisms ‘while hydraulic servos are covered in module 11/12 (Jor the mechanical, person) and module 13 (for the avionic person), Most of the examples in this book use rotary motion but this, of course, can easily be changed into linear motion by the inclusion of a simple gearbox.OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS. ‘Suppose that we wish to control the position of a radar scanner (the load). ‘Suppose also that we have a motor capable of driving the scanner and some ‘means of controlling the motor. Such an arrangement is illustrated in figure 1 a Fig. 1 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM ‘The control element controls the magnitude and direction of the input to a power amplifier, whose output drives the motor at the desired speed in the Fequired direction. The motor, in turn, moves the load in accordance with the input demand, The motor is connected to the load mechanically, eg a set of gears or a rotating drive shaft or moving levers/chains ete, ‘The control element (in the cockpit} could be calibrated with a scale indicating the required position of the load. When the contro! dial is set to the correct setting for the required position, the load (usually unseen) will move in the required direction and at a particular speed, and with some systems at a particular acceleration (rate of change of speed) In practice, the accuracy of this form of control is limited because there are several factors, other than the input, that affect the output. For example, variations in the output load (friction within the support bearings ~ for example) would effect the speed of the motor. Any variations in the amplifier characteristics would also affect the motor as well as the motor circuitry itself. ‘There are no means of controlling these variations in an open-loop system and, because of the resulting inaccuracy, open-loop systems are rarely used, (CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS. ‘These are control systems where the output from the system is feed back to the input to modify the output. This is called feed-back and can come in many forms, ‘The feed-back can be human, mechanical, electrical or electronic.Ifthe operator, for example, observes what the load is doing and makes appropriate corrections at the input, the system is no longer open-loop; itis now, in effect, a closed-loop system with the human operator completing the loop between output and input. He/she compares the desired effect with the factual effect and adjusts the system so as to reduce the error between them. He/she is thus an ‘error detector, and the amount of error which the person observes determines how adjustments are made to the input to produce the desired results, ‘This sort of control is used using the human error detector ~ in almost every activity we do— driving a car ~ combing ones hair ~ using hand tools etc. ‘To measure the error and take the necessary correcting action, we have ‘built in’ the human operator as an essential control element. A more effective and cfficient control can be obtained by replacing the human operator with an ‘automatic control system. In addition there is a saving in manpower costs. ‘The essential features of a closed loop system are: + The feed-back of output information concerning the behaviour of the load. + The comparison of this information with the behaviour demanded by the input. + The production of an error signal proportional to the difference between the desired behaviour and the actual behaviour. + The amplification of the error signal to control the power into a sservomotor (for electrically controlied systems). * The movement of the load by the servomotor in such a direction/speed acceleration as to reduce the error signal to zero, at which point the output is the same as that demanded by the input. Negative Feedback With most feed-back control systems the feed-back is negative feed-back. In other words the feed-back tries to negate or reduce the original input demand signal so that the output from the system more closely relates to the original input. I positive feed-back occurs then the result is usually chaos because the original demand input is reinforced by the feed-back signal so the input signal continuously grows. As the input signal grows so does the output signal, with fan increase in the output signal so the feed-back gets bigger, increasing the {input signal ~ and so on, When this happens it is usually the result of some ‘malfunction in the system. Al the feed-back systems in this book are negative feed-back systems unless stated otherwise.Figure 2 shows a block diagram of a basic closed-loop control system. In this arrangement: * 0,48 the input demand, which in this case is in the form of a shaft angle. (6, ~ theta in) + Qis the output shaft angle of the load (8, theta out) * The control element converts the demand 6, into some form suitable for operation of the error detector, eg produces a voltage proportional to 6, —C—[Ba [en Fig. 2 CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM + The feedback element does the same for the output angle A, €g produces a voltage proportional to, The error detector has two inputs applied to it, one due to 6, and. the other due to 4 It produces an error signal e proportional to the difference between the two inputs, ic (0, ~ 6). ‘The error signal operates the power amplifier which, in turn, causes the motor to rotate until 8, equals 6, (output equals demand). At this point the error signal is zero and the drive from the motor ceases, the output load having taken up the position demanded by the input, ‘A Practical Closed-Loop Control System Figure 3 shows a signal transmitter system consisting of rotor within a three coil stator. It is wired to a control transformer, which can be some distance away, eg at the other end of the aircraft. The system is ac powered ‘with the rotor of the control transformer (CT) taking up the same position as the rotor of the transmitter (CX.‘The mechanical input demand 8, sets the angle of the CX rotor. The resulting alternating field in the CT stator colls induces a voltage in the CT rotor and this voltage is fed as an error or misalignment signal to the amplifier. The amplifier output is used to drive an ac servomotor that turns the output shaft to the load and also the shaft to the CT rotor. This shaft turns the CT rotor through output angle @., When the output shaft is tured into alignment with the setting of the input shalt (05 0) the CT rotor is at right angles to the CX rotor and its own stator field, In this position there is no error signal induced in the CT rotor, there is no input to the amplifier and the servomotor stops. The output has now taken up the position demanded by the input. ” Fig. 3 PRACTICAL CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Deadband So far we have assumed that how-ever small the input signal there will be some response at the output. This, however, is not true ~ or at least depends ‘very much on the system, With all/systems there is a Deadband ~ a range of input movement, usually very small, that will not produce any output. This will occur about each null position. The deadband can be reduced to an absolute minimum, but this is expensive and may not be necessary. SERVO-MECHANISMS. To be classed as a servomechanism, an automatic control system must have: (@) Error actuation. (d) Power amplification. [@) Closed loop control. (@) Continuous operation, or ‘follow-up’ properties, ie if the load is disturbed from the demanded position, it will return to that position,"The system is said to be error actuated because itis the error between the output demanded by the input and the actual output which starts the action. ‘The final net input to the amplifier is the error signal and not the input demand. ‘There must be torque amplification to be able to drive heavy loads so the servo contains an amplifier that supplies the necessary driving power to the ‘servomotor, the motor providing the required torque. Continuous operation is assured in a servomechanism because any variation in the output from that demanded by the input automatically produces difference signal between output and input, and hence an error signal. The terror signal again starts the correcting action. [A servomnechanism has many applications, covering a wide range of power, position, speed and acceleration requirements. ‘Types of Servo ‘There are two main classes of servomechanism - Remote Position Control (RPC) ‘servos and Speed Control servos. (2) RPC servos. These are used to control the angular or linear position of a load. (&) Speed Control servos, These are used to control the speed of @ load. In this case, the speed of the driving motor is made proportional to the input demand (usually a voltage input), Inputs “The two types of input to a servo are: 1. Step Input - created when the input shaft is suddenly rotated from ‘one angular position to another. Step inputs are considered as a movement from one position to another taking zero time and shown on a graph as a straight vertical line. In fact there is always a finite time taken from position 1 to position 2 but for theoretical considerations this is ignored. 2. Ramp Input - created when the input shaft is rotated at a constant angular velocity.{ amas) near Fig. 4 STEP INPUT Fig. 8 RAMP INPUT PERFORMANCE OF SERVOMECHANISMS. Response ‘The response of a servo is the pattern of behaviour of the load when a change ig made to the input condition. It has so far been assumed that ifthe input moves to 6, the load will simply follow, its response being a reproduction of the input movement, ‘The paragraphs that follow will show that matters are not as simple as this, ‘Step Input - No Friction With reference to figure 6. Assume that the input and output are aligned at 0, until the input suddenly changes to @,. An error signal proportional to @, - 6, ‘appears at the amplifier input from the error detector and the motor is energised to move and null, or cancel, the error.Fig, 6 SIMPLE SERVOMECHANISM CONTROL SYSTEM ‘One important point must be emphasised. The torque delivered by the motor to the load is directly proportional to the error. It acts only on the inertia of the load, which therefore accelerates at a rate proportional to the error. As the error reduces s0 the acceleration reduces, until it reaches zero with zer0 error. But this is not a satisfactory state of affairs, for the load acceleration is in one sense only and that to increase its velocity. Saying that the acceleration is zero at zero error simply means that the load has reached a steady speed when we require it to be stationary. Further, since there is nothing to stop it so it moves past the required position. ‘The error signal produced, and, therefore, the torque applied to the load, now reverses in sense to slow down the load. Since, however, the components operate symmetrically about the null, the pattern of deceleration is a mirror image of the original acceleration, ‘The load stops when it has overshot by the initial error, and from there the performance is repeated. The resulting load oscillation about the demanded position is illustrated graphically in figure 7. RADNS) Fig. 7 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT - NO FRICTIONRamp Input - No Friction “The description of the response can be followed in figure 8. In the early stages of the ramp, while the error signal is small, the load accelerates slowly and lags ‘behind the input. ‘The error signal grows as the lag increases, building up the acceleration. Eventually the load speed equals the input speed but since a substantial position error exists it continues to accelerate, ‘When its speed excceds that of the input the position error starts to decrease; the acceleration reduces and the load reaches a constant speed at zero position ‘error with no error signal. ‘The load speed, however, exceeds the input speed and an overshoot results. ‘Thus the outcome is a continuous oscillation as shown. ‘SHAFT ourpuT—_ (RADIANS) : 781 | neue NY owe —— Fig. 8 RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT - NO FRICTION Effect of Restraints ‘The oscillatory responses are obviously not desirable, and luckily, restraints on the load have a stabilising effect. Various inherent factors oppose the load ‘movement and they include static friction, kinetic (sliding) friction, electrical eddy currents, air resistance, viscous lubricants and others, Lamping them all together for the moment, the general effect is to reduce the amplitude of each successive swing until gradually the output becomes steady. ‘The oscillations are known as transients and they are effective during the transient response period, or settling time. Once the output has settled it has reached the steady state. While restraints are beneficial in stabilising, or damping the response, they do have certain detrimental effects. One of these is that power is wasted; another is the introduction of error into the steady state.Steady State Brrors Examination of the various restraints present would show that their effect is in part due to a small constant magnitude force known as Coulomb Friction and. {in part to Viscous Friction that increases with speed. Coulomb friction is that part ofthe frictional force that is independent of speed, {or example a brake shoe pressed against a brake drum. Its breaking effect dose not change with speed but is reasonably constant. ‘The resistance due to coulomb friction tends to degrade the sensitivity of a servo, for a torque has to be created to overcome it before there is any ‘movement of the load. To provide this torque the load error must reach some finite size, and any errors less than this will not praduce movement. Figure 9 shows the effect of coulomb friction on the response to a step input. esronse ° ai —— Fig. 9 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT WITH COULUME FRICTION ‘The load comes to rest somewhere within a band of error, known as the Dead ‘Space, the width of which depends on the amount of coulomb friction. For ‘most modern servos the coulomb friction is very small, and its effect is often ignored. Viscous friction does not produce a dead space in the step input case since it has no value when the speed is zero. It does however produce a similar effect, ‘when a ramp input is considered, In the steady state the load is moving with constant speed; itis therefore being resisted by viscous friction, An error signal must be produced to overcome this therefore, an error must exist ‘The response is illustrated in figure 10 and the error necessary to overcome the friction is known as Velocity Lag. -10-‘The output shaft rotates at the same speed as the Input shaft but lags behind by some constant angle. This positional error is velocity lag Coulomb friction may be considered small compared with viscous friction during a ramp input, but, of course, it also contributes to this error. However, the greater part is due to viscous friction, and since this increases with speed the error is generally reckoned to vary in direct proportion to speed. ° ° rae —— | Fig. 10 RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT WITH VISCOUS FRICTION Response of a RPC Servo to a Step Input (Negligible Coulomb Friction) Witlrreference to figure 11. Assuming the output shaft is driving a load, and ‘has taken up a position which agrees with that demanded by the input shaft (0, ~ 0). The error signal is zero and the servo is stationary. Fig. 11 BASIC RPC SERVO SYSTEM -n-InpuT DEMAND 8: OUTPUTeo RESPONSE TINE os Fig. 12 RESPONSE CURVE Now suppose a step input is applied. The sequence of events is illustrated in figure 12. @) ) cc} (a ©) ‘The input demand 0, is suddenly changed to a new value at point a on the graph. The output shat cannot immediately follow this ‘change in demand because of the inertia of the load. Therefore there is now a difference between Q, and 8, and an error signal is produced. ‘The error signal, after amplification, causes the motor to accelerate in an attempt to bring the output shaft to the new demanded position. Because of the inertia of the load this takes time; there is therefore a time lag during which the output angle 8, is changing in response to the change in demand (b in figure 12) ‘As the motor tums the load, the output angle 0, approaches the demand angle 6, The error signal, which is proportional to (0, -8,), therefore decreases but the driving force remains until 0, equals 8, ‘at point ¢; this is the required load position, By the time 0, has reached the demanded position, the load has ‘acquired momentum and overshoots to point d. ‘The error signal now increases in the opposite direction (@, greater than @) and the motor applies a reverse torque which eventually stops the load and brings it back to the required position at point 12-(9 Once again, however, the momentum of the load carries it past the required position and another overshoot occurs (to point 0, ‘The load may thus oscillate about its final required position many times before it comes to rest, A servomechanism that does this is said to be ‘hunting. IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE For many applications the simple servo using its inherent friction for damping is perfectly adequate, This is usually the case for small position servos, but, where large loads are involved the transient response is unsatisfactory. ‘Time and energy is wasted during this period, and component wear is increased. The number of oscillations should be reduced and also the response time shortened, Two methods are commonly employed ~ viscous damping and velocity feedback damping, Viscous Damping ‘This method is simply a controlled increase of the inherent viscous damping to achieve the required response, One device in use is the eddy current damper as ‘shown in figure 13. ‘This simple device consists of a thin dise of metal with high electrical conductivity (usually aluminium), which is attached to the output shaft of the ‘servo, It spins between the poles of stationary electromagnets mounted around its periphery. Oo Fig. 13 EDDY CURRENT DAMPER -1a-Electromagnetic eddy currents are induced of a magnitude proportional to the field strength and to the dise velocity. These eddy currents set up magnetic fields that act against the inducing lelds and forces opposing the disc rotation are created, ‘These forces are close to being proportional to disc velocity, and therefore provide parallels to the inherent viscous forces. They can be controlled by {adjusting the current flow to the electromagnets, thus varying the amount of ‘damping that can be applied. Figure 14 shows the effect of varying levels of viscous damping, coulomb friction being ignored for simplicity. Using only inherent friction Under Damping is achieved and the system takes a long time to settle down. ‘Too much viscous friction will produce a sluggish response and the system is Over Damped. The degree of damping which just prevents any overshoot is known a8 Critical Damping Slightly less damping than this, to allow one small overshoot is known as Optimum Damping, which gives the shortest settling time. Most designers aim for this condition, { Fig. 14 LEVELS OF DAMPING - STEP INPUT ‘The effect on the transients for a ramp input can be similarly adjusted to produce optimum damping, A snag arises, however. This is the fact that for any increase in viscous friction there is an increase in velocity lag. ‘Thus to remove the transient oscillations completely a considerable velocity lag. ‘must be expected. Figure 15 illustrates the response for two levels of damping for a ramp input. w14-vous Fig. 15 LEVELS OF DAMPING - RAMP INPUT Velocity Feedback Damping ‘This form of damping is similar to viscous friction damping in one respect; the compensation produced is proportional to the velocity, or rate of movement, of the output shaft. Velocity feedback damping has the advantage, however, that it consumes little power. In an RPC servo the load is required to be moved from one position to another as quickly as possible without causing instability such as hunting or wasting power. We have already seen that a step input applied to a servo causes the servomotor to apply a torque, which accelerates the load. As the load gathers speed and approaches the desired position an arrangement is required that will ‘anticipate’ that the load is going to overshoot and so reverse the motor torque before the desired position is reached, If the arrangement is adjusted correctly the result is that the load comes to rest, just as it reaches the required position with no overshoot and no hunting. For a servomechanism, this arrangement is achieved by attaching a tacho: generator to the output shaft. A tacho-generator is a small ac or de generator that produces a voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the output shat. A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the amplifier in ‘opposition to the error signal (negative feedback) to provide the necessary compensation. This is known as Velocity Feedback Damping, because the voltage fed back is proportional to the velocity of the output shaft. .15-