The factors that affect plant growth can be classified as genetic or environmental.

A. Genetic Factor

1. Field crops - Yield potential is determined by genes of the plant. A large part of the
increase in yield over the years has been due to hybrids and improved varieties. Other
characteristics such as quality, disease resistance, drought hardiness are determined by
the genetic makeup. Corn hybrids are an example of a dramatic yiel incease resulting
from genetics. Genetic engineering is now becoming an important tool in changing a
plants potential.

2. Nursery crops and turf - not interested in total growth as much as appearance. Ex. is
Bermudagrass

1. Coastal bermudagass- As a forage the grower is interested in yield and feed quality.

2. Tifdwarf - Golf greens - interested in appearance, cover, wear resistance not how
much total growth occurs.

3. Variety and Plant Nutrient needs-Hybrid corn producing 200 bu/ac requires more plant
nutrients than a hybrid producing 100 bu/ac. As potential crop yields are increased, the
plant nutrients required are increased. Current research in the Soil Science and Genetics
department is concerned with developing corn hybrids that use nitrogen more efficiently
- Produce more grain per pound of N - fertilizer.

4. A producer has control over the genetic factor by his choice of variety.

Field crops - highest yielding, disease resistant, etc.

Nursery - Best appearance - dwarf vs larger shrubs

B. Environmental Factors

definition - All external conditions and influences affecting the life and development of an
organism.

The following are regarded as the most important environmental factors

 Temperature

 Moisture supply

 Radiant energy

Composition of the atmosphere

 Soil aeration and soil structure

 Soil reaction

 Biotic factors

 Supply of mineral nutrients

  Absence of growth-restricting substances

Each can be a limiting factor in plant growth. These environmental factors do

not act independently example - inverse relationship between soil moisture and
air

a. Temperature - A measure of the intensity of heat. Plant growth occurs in a fairly

narrow range - 60 - 100 degrees F

1. Temperature directly affects

photosynthesis

respiration

transpiration - loss of water

absorption of water and nutrients

2. The rate of these processes increases with an increase in temperature responses are
different with different crops

cotton vs collards or potatoes

fescue vs bermuda grass

These generalizations hold within a crops range of adaptation

3. Temperature also affects soil organisms nitrifying bacteria inhibited by low

temperature. pH may decrease in summer due to activities of microorganisms

4. Soil temperature affects water and nutrient uptake

b. Moisture supply - Plant growth restricted by low and high levels of soil moisture

1. can be regulated with drainage and irrigation

2. good soil moisture improves nutrient uptake

If moisture is a limiting factor fertilizer is not used efficiently.

c. Radiant energy

Quality, intensity and duration of light are important

1. Quality can't be controlled on a field scale - Feasible on specialty crops

2. Intensity of light (brightness) is an important factor.

photosynthesis light intensity

Corn with upright leaves being bred to intercept more light

3. Duration - Photoperiodism - Plant behavior in relation to day length

- long day plants - flower only if days are longer than same critical period - 12 hours
Grains and clovers

- short day plants - flower only if days are shorter than a critical period soybeans.

- indeterminate - flower over a wide range of day lengths. Tomato, cotton, buckwheat

Some crops fail to flower in certain geographical areas

Chrysanthemums can be made to bloom by controlling photoperiod.

d. Composition of the atmosphere

CO2 makes up 0.03 per cent of air by volume. Photosynthesis converts CO2 to organic
material in the plant. CO2 is returned to atmosphere by respiration and decomposition

In a corn field or closed greenhouse CO2 level may drop and become a limiting factor in
growth.

Increasing CO2 can increase crop yields respiration of plants and animals - decomposition
of manure or plant residue may release CO2

greenhouse crops

Plant growth and quality can be enhanced by supplemental CO2. Growth responses have
been shown with tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, flower crops, greens, peas, beans,
potatoes

Air Quality

Air pollutants in sufficient quantities are toxic to plants sulfur dioxide - provides sulfur at
low levels

carbon monoxide

hydrofluoric acid

e. Soil aeration

Compact soils of high bulk density and poor structure are aerated poorly.

Pore space is occupied by air and water so the amount of air and water are inversely
proportional to the amount of oxygen in the soil. On well drained soils, oxygen content is
not likely to be limiting to plant growth.

Plants vary widely in their sensitivity to soil oxygen. Paddy rice vs tobacco

f. Soil reaction

- pH influences availability of certain nutrients ex phosphate availability low on acid soils.

Al is toxic to plants
diseases affected by pH

Potato scab controlled by keeping pH below 5.5

g. Biotic factors

disease - heavier fertilization may increase vegetative growth and susceptibility to

disease

Root knot nematodes reduce absorption so more fertilizer is necessary.

insects

weeds - compete for moisture nutrients light

allelopathy - harmful substances released by roots.

h. Mineral nutrients essential nutrients - any element that functions in plant metabolism

Non-mineral nutrients (from water and air)

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Primary nutrients

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium

Secondary nutrients

calcium, magnesium, sulfur

Micronutrients

copper, manganese, zinc, boron, molybdenum, chlorine, iron

Beneficial to some plants

cobalt, vanadium, sodium, silicon,

i. Absence of growth - restricting substances

High concentrations of plant nutrients

aluminum, nickel, lead - associated with sewage disposal, wastes from industry, mines,
etc.

organic compounds - phenols, oil

Stephen w. Broome

Fertilizer and soil fertility

http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/lockers/Broome_S/ssc051/index.html 1988

A Review of Factors Affecting Plant Growth

Marianne Ames, Graduate Fellow
Wayne S. Johnson, Assistant Professor
Univer http://www.hydrofarm.com/articles/factors_plantgrowth.phpsity of Nevada, Reno

2009

Growth is defined as an irreversible change in the size of a cell, organ or whole organism. It may
also be the increase in cell number without changes in volume or weight. Commonly, growth is the
increase in the amount of living material (protoplasm) which leads to an increase in cell size and
ultimately cell division. The increase in protoplasm is brought about as water, carbon dioxide and
inorganic salts are transformed into living material. Growth occurs only in living cells by metabolic
processes involved in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates at the
expense of metabolic energy provided by photosynthesis and respiration (7).

Differentiation is the processes involved in the establishment of localized differences in biochemical

and metabolic activity and in structural organization that result in new patterns of growth (7).
Differentiation of individual cells involves the system atic turning on and off of genetic control
mechanisms, with mitotic processes in cell division insuring genetic continuity of all cells (7).

Whole plant development is the orderly and progressive change from seed germination through
juvenility, maturity, flowering and fruiting. Environmental factors may influence developmental
times or block particular stages altogether (7).

The terms growth, differentiation and development encompass the events related to the
progressive unfolding of the plants genetic information in relation to environmental cues. The plant
receives various internal and external stimuli that interact with the genetic information which may
then change metabolic activity and influence structural organization (12).

Growth in plants is restricted to certain embryonic regions, variously called meristems, buds and
cambium. These localized embryonic regions of higher plants differ from animals where growth
typically occurs throughout the organism. The stems and roots have apical meristems responsible
for extension growth which usually remain permanently embryonic and capable of growth for long
periods. Growth in girth occurs with cell division and enlargement in cambial tissue of stems (16).

The growth and developmental patterns of plants are commonly used to classify plants into
groups. Annual plants complete their entire life cycle, from seed to seed, in a single growing
season, whereas biennial plants require two growing seasons. Perennials grow year after year
often taking years to mature. In herbaceous perennials the roots and shoots can remain alive
indefinately but the shoot system may be killed by frost. Each spring shoot growth resumes from
adventitious buds at the crown of the plant. In woody perennials, both the shoots and the roots
remain alive indefinitely (7).

Indeterminate plants are those whose main axes remain vegetative and in which flowers form in
axillary buds. These plants have shoots which continue to grow in favorable conditions and include
such vining plants as cucumbers, peas and grapes. A determinate plant's main and secondary axes
terminate in a flower bud and consequently shoot elongation stops as in sweet corn, bush
tomatoes, peppers, bush beans, etc. (4).

Measurement of Growth
Plant growth is often measured as a change in area, length, volume, height, wet or dry weight.
These methods may not always be a satisfactory measure of growth at a particular stage of plant
development, i.e., a germinating seed may show an overall loss in dry weight due to the utilization
of food reserves during respiration, although the seed is definitely growing as evidenced by its
emerging roots and shoots.

The relative growth rate (RGR) which is the size increase per unit interval of time has two
components: the net assimilation rate (NAR) and the leaf area ratio (LAR). The NAR is the rate of
increase of dry weight per unit time per unit of leaf surface whi ch is a measure of the amount of
photosynthetic product going into plant material. The LAR is the ratio of leaf area to dry weight
which is the measure of the proportion of the plant that is engaged in photosynthesis (12).
Combined they give a relative de scription of growth over time based upon plant characteristics.

Vegetative Growth

Germination includes all the steps from the seed imbibing water until the seedling is self-
sustaining. Within the seed, reserve substances are enzymatically converted into materials used in
synthesis or oxidized through respiration to release energy. The seed requires water, air (oxygen),
and the proper temperature range such that biochemical processes can operate (7).

A seed is considered germinated when it has produced a plant that is potentially capable of
continuous growth. From the beginning of this stage, until initiation of the first flower primordium,
the plant is in the vegetative stage of growth. When a plant cannot be made to flower it is said to
be juvenile (7).

The juvenile growth phase is characterized by the most rapid rate of growth the plant will undergo.
As well, the juvenile plant may exhibit different morphological or physiological features than a
mature plant of the same species. A common feature of many juvenile plants is the ability to
initiate adventitious roots readily, an ability which is often decreased or lost in mature plants. The
juvenile phase varies from one to two months for annuals, to many years for woody perennials
(7). The ability to infl uence the length of time a plant is in the juvenile phase is important in some
circumstances. Plant propagators want to maintain juvenility in order to vegetatively propagate
cuttings while flower and fruit growers want to reduce the juvenile phase. Earlier flowering and
fruiting reduces production costs and allows for an earlier return on investments.

Environmental factors such as periods of long or short daylight, varying nutritional levels or
supplying carbon dioxide enriched atmosphere may increase vegetative growth and if properly
controlled may shorten the time to maturity. The affect that environmental and hormonal factors
have on the length of juvenile phase will depend ultimately on genetic control (7).

A plant is considered mature when it becomes potentially capable of reproducing. Although a plant
may be mature, flowering may not occur until environmental conditions are favorable (7).

Reproductive Growth

The vegetative stage of growth ends when the vegetative stem primordia is transformed into
flower primordia. Once floral initiation has begun the process is irreversible and will continue even
if environmental conditions which stimulated initiation have changed (7).

Photoperiodism is the growth response of a plant to the length of the light and dark periods. Short
day plants initiate flowering only when the daylength is less than 12 hours, and include many
spring and fall flowering temperate plants. Long day plants i nitiate flowering only when the
daylength is greater than 12 hours, or a specific critical period. Most summer flowering plants are
long day plants. Day neutral plants can initiate flowering independent of day length (7).

The flowering stimulus is formed in leaves and transported to the apical meristem in response to
the photoperiod. The theory that a flowering hormone florigen is responsible for flower induction
has been postulated, however, this substance has not yet been isolated. The leaves of some plants
initiate flowering in response to only one cycle of the proper daylength. Most plants require many
cycles of proper photoperiod in order to initiate flowering and many such as the chrysanthemum
may also require the proper temperature during short days to initiate flowers (7).

Phytochrome is a blue-green pigment found in all plants. It is found in two forms; the Pr form
absorbs red light (660 nm) and is converted into the Pfr form. The Pfr form absorbs far red light
(730 nm) and is converted back into the Pr form. Pfr is also s lowly converted to Pr during the dark
phase. The net transformation from the inactive Pr form to the active Pfr form during the course of
a changing photoperiod affects the flowering mechanism (4). Interruption of the dark phase (night
break) by a brief p eriod of light can inhibit flowering of short day plants and initiate flowering in
long day plants. Red light (incandescent lamps) are commonly used to effectively produce night
break. Phytochrome is also responsible for the initiation and inhibition of germination of some
seeds, however, a light requirement is not necessary for most seeds (7).

Temperature also has a direct effect on flowering. The term vernalization is used to denote any
cold temperature treatment to a plant that induces flowering (4). Many biennials require a period
of low temperature to induce flowering. A plant which has been given a cold treatment can be
grafted onto a nonvernalized plant, and both will flower (7). This implies that a substance is
produced which passes across the graft union to induce flowering in the nonvernalized plant. The
flower initiating substance has not yet been identified, however, the cold requirement of some
plants has been replaced by the multiple application of gibberellic acid.

Although photoperiodism and vernalization are interrelated, the stimuli produced by each are not
identical. Even after a plant has received the proper temperature for vernalization, flowering will
not be initiated until the plant is exposed to the proper photoperiod (7).

Water may also affect flower initiation. Many plants show more flowering in the spring when the
previous summer and fall were dry (7).

Fruit development usually occurs concomitantly with flowering. Prior to pollination the increase in
fruit size is a result of cell division. The stimuli and nutrients for this growth are supplied by the
plant. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from th e anther to the stigma and serves two functions;
first, the inhibition of flower and fruit abscission and second, to provide the male gamete for
fertilization. These two functions occur separately and even though pollination has occured and
fruit set is o btained, fertilization may not take place. This may be due to the failure of the pollen
to germinate or the pollen tube to grow fast enough to reach the ovary before it is shed. Pollen
requires the presence of organic and inorganic substances on the pisti l to stimulate its
germination. Other substances chemically attract the growth of the pollen tube and may prevent
fertilization. Fruit that is set and grows without fertilization and thus does not produce viable seed
is called parthenocarpic. Seedless fruit are often horticulturally desireable; however vegetative
propagation may be required to continue the cultivar (7).

When fertilization occurs, the developing plant no longer depends on the parent plant for a source
of growth stimuli. The stimuli now come from the developing seed. The effect of the seed on fruit
development is chemically mediated. The growth regulators auxin, gibberellin and cytokinin play a
role in fruit development. The concentration of these substances varies at different stages of fruit
development and consequently affect fruit growth and development (7).

Food materials necessary for the developing fruit are supplied by various plant parts. The
availability of nutrients and moisture will have a direct effect on fruit size. When the number of
fruit set is high, the size of the individual fruits will be redu ced. Removal of some of the fruit at an
early stage will allow the remaining fruit to obtain more nutrients and water to produce larger
fruits. Judicious fruit thinning may lead to larger, better quality fruit and an increased profit
margin.

Fruit ripening of many but not all fruits coincides with a specific physiological process, the
climateric. It is characterized by a sudden rise in the respiration of the fruit resulting in a burst of
carbon dioxide production. Pigment changes also occur at this time with peak ripeness occurring at
the peak of the climateric or immediately thereafter (7).
Temperature has a great effect on the rate of maturation and progress of the climateric.
Respiration rates increase with higher temperatures increasing carbon dioxide production and
decreasing fruit life, particularly postharvest storage life (7).

Ethylene, a gaseous plant hormone, is important in fruit ripening. Ethylene is produced by the
developing fruit, by rotting tissue and may be a contaminant of natural gas. When fruit is stored
under conditions where ethylene is removed from the environment, ripening can be delayed (7).

Senescence refers to the processes involved in the deterioration of the plant or its organs prior to
death. In annuals and biennials, senescence occurs after flowering and fruiting. In perrenials it
occurs as a gradual decrease in growth and viability. Se nescence can be postponed in some
plants; however, death is inevitable (7).

INTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH

Genetic - The genetic compliment of a plant is acquired when the zygote is formed from male and
female gametes (12). The genetic information is duplicated and passed on with subsequent cell
divisions. As the plant enlarges to its mature size some genes are activated while others are
inactivated. Certain genes direct the synthesis of enzymes that catalyze specific biochemical
reactions required for growth and differentiation. The genes involved in protein synthesis are
referred to as structural genes. Regulatory and operator genes regulate the activity of the
structural genes (4). The signals that stimulate the regulatory genes are believed to be growth
regulators, inorganic ions, coenzymes and environmental factors such as temperature and light.

Growth Regulators

The term hormone was developed by animal physiologists to denote naturally occurring organic
substances, produced at a specific site (usually a gland), effective at low concentrations, whose
action may be involved at sites far removed from their origin. The term growth regulator has been
used to include all naturally occurring and synthetically produced substances that affect plant
growth and development (7).

Growth hormones participate in both genetic and environmental control of growth and
differentiation. The pattern of distribution of growth hormones in the plant is controlled by
interactions between the environment and genetic factors in the plant (16). They may be either
growth inhibitors or promotors depending on the site of action and concentration of the substance.
There are 5 major types of plant hormones: auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid and
ethylene.

Auxins are growth hormones produced in all higher plants. They appear to be formed in the
meristematic tissues of stem and root apices, young developing leaves, flowers and fruits (16).
The highest rate of auxin biosynthesis is in the shoot apical region. Auxin is transported downward
resulting in a concentration gradient in the various plant parts. The resultant concentration of
auxin has been correlated to inhibition and stimulation of growth as well as differentiation of
organs and tissues (7).

Auxins influence plant growth in many ways including cell enlargement and elongation,
phototropism, geotropism, apical dominance, abscission of plant parts, flower initiation and
development, root initiation, fruit set and growth, tuber and bulb formation, and seed germination.
Commercially synthetic auxins are used to initiate adventitous roots from cuttings. Indolebutyric
acid, indoleproprionic acid and naphthaleneacetic acid are synthectic auxins applied to the bases of
stem cuttings to stimulate the initiation of adventitous roots (4).

Weed control by another synthetic auxin, 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), is widespread

as a selective herbicide against broadleef weeds. Auxins are also used to increase fruit set. Use of
4-chloro-phenoxyacetic acid to increase blossom and fruit set in tomatoes is also successful.
Auxins are also commonly used in tissue culture procedures to initiate rooting in explants or callus
(4).
Gibberellins are a group of naturally occurring plant hormones that affect cell enlargement and
division which leads to internode elongation in stems. They have a dwarf reversing response
allowing certain dwarf cultivars to grow to normal height when treated with gibberellin. They affect
many developmental processes, particularly those controlled by temperature and light such as
seed and plant dormancy, germination, seed stalk and fruit development (7).

Gibberellins are used commercially to increase fruit size of "Thompson Seedless" grapes. They are
applied at fruit set or shortly thereafter. They also promote male flower initiation in cucumbers
when pollen is wanted for hybrid seed production and may overcome the cold requirement for
flowering of some perennial plants (4).

Cvtokinins Drimarilv Dromote cell division but they also influence cell enlargement, tissue
differentiation, dormancy, phases of flowering and fruiting and retardation of leaf senescence (4).

Cytokinins and auxins interact to affect differentiation. A high auxin to low cytokinin ratio
stimulates root development, whereas a low auxin and high cytokinin ratio stimulates bud
development. Equal concentrations of auxin and cytokinin results in undifferentiated tissue or
callus (7).

Cytokinins are not commonly used in agriculture, however, cytokinin may be used in tissue culture
to induce shoot development (4).

Ethylene is a gas that diffuses readily throughout the plant. It is produced in meristematic tissues,
ripening fruits, senescing flowers and fruits and germinating seeds. The cuticular coating of the
plant tends to prevent losses from the plant (4).

Synthetic ethylene-releasing compounds such as ethephon have several valuable commercial

applications. Ethephon is used to ripen bananas, pineapples, melons and tomatoes, and when
applied as a preharvest spray it promotes uniform ripening of apples, cherries and pineapple. It is
used to increase the production of female flowers on cocumbers which develop fruits and increase
yields. High concentrations of ethylene may be harmful to plants, inducing leaf abscission and
hastening senescence of flowers and fruits (4).

Abscisic acid interacts with other hormones in the plant, counteracting their growth-promoting
effects. It inhibits rather than stimulates plant growth. Abscisic acid promotes dormancy in seeds
and is involved in leaf and fruit abscision. The abscisic acid content of leaves increases following
water stress, where it induces closure of the stomata (4). Abscisic acid is expensive to synthesize
and no commercial applications are as yet in use.

Greenhouse growers and nurserymen commonly use growth retardants in managing plant growth.
Many synthetic compounds are available to dwarf plants, increase branching and manage flowering
to produce compact flowering plants in a timely manner. Use of growth retardants is specific by
species and desired result.

EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH

Plant growth and development are influenced by physical, chemical and biological components in
the plants environment. Any factor in the plants' environment that is less than optimum, whether
it is deficient or in excess, will limit plant growth (17).

Light

Plants respond to light of the wavelengths from 300-800 nm. Plants grown in the absence of light
are said to be etiolated. Etiolated plants lack chlorophyll, are tall and spindly with long internodes
and have small leaves that have failed to expand (12). Their morphological expression of etiolation
is related to the effect of light on auxin distribution and synthesis (4). There are no anatomical
differences in the tissues formed in the light or dark, however, light accelerates many phases of
growth while inhibiting certain aspects of internode elongation (12).

Light can have an effect on the morphology of the plant. Leaves on the same plant may differ
depending on whether they are sun leaves or shade leaves. Sun leaves are often thicker with extra
layers of pallisade parenchyma, and shorter petioles. They are also smaller in area (12).

A plant's response to light will vary depending on the intensity, duration and wavelength of the
light it receives.

Light intensity refers to the concentration of light waves striking the leaf surface (7). Light
intensity has been expressed in footcandles by scientists and growers until recently. Watts per
square meter or microeinstein's per square centimeter are more useful and describe energy per
unit area which can be related directly to power consumption for cost analysis.

Light intensity is high where there are no clouds and little moisture in the air. Water vapor in the
atmosphere absorbs radiation so light intensity is lower in cloudy or humid areas. Light intensity
will vary with the elevation, latitude, season and the weather conditions affecting the amount of
water vapor in the air (4).

Photoprocesses in the plant vary in the intensity of the light required to initiate the reactions and
the effect of the intensity on the rate of the reaction (7). The rate of photosynthesis drops on
cloudy days. However, not all plants require high light intensities. Shade plants may require as
little as 1/10 full sunlight for optimum growth and higher levels may cause sun burning, scald and
in severe cases death if sufficient soil moisture is not available.

Photoperiodism refers to the physiological responses of plants to variations in the duration of

daylight (4). The shift from vegetative growth to reproductive growth is a response to the
photoperiod. The length of the vegetative growth period can be extended by growing plants in
photoperiods that do not induce flowering. Daylength may also affect the time to first flower, the
number of flowers produced and the number of fruit set (12). Likewise short days and cooler
temperatures initiate dormancy in many temperate zone perennial plants.

The light reactions of the plant are carried on by different pigment systems that absorb specific
wavelengths of light, i.e., blue, green, yellow or red light (12). Chlorophyll absorbs that radiant
energy necessary for the photoprocesses of photosynthesis (7). Chlorophyll absorbs light in the
red and blue portions of the spectrum (7). Phototropism, the movement or bending of stems,
leaves and flowers toward light, is triggered by blue light (4). This process is believed to occur due
to the accumulation of auxin in the shaded side promoting cell growth. Thus the bending
movement toward the light source is a result of increased cell growth on the shaded side (4).
When leaves are subjected to high levels of radiation, they may orient themselves parallel to the
energy source in order to minimize the harmful effects of the intense radiation (12).

Although incoming light in the typical greenhouse in mid-winter often does not exceed 1000-1500
footcandles in many locations, good growth of lettuce may be obtained at intensities as low as 500
footcandles. Bolting results from long days and high tempera tures so most varieties of
greenhouse lettuce are not grown in late spring and early summer (18).

Early spring cucumbers, at the seedling stage, respond to supplemental light. Daylength of about
12-14 hours with 1800-2000 foot candles at the plant level should be provided. Crowding should
be avoided to prevent plants from becoming spindly (18).

Tomatoes grown in the late fall or early winter should be exposed to as much light as possible
during normal daylight hours. However, artificial lights should not be used to extend the daylength
as tomatoes are plants which flower and fruit better if dayl ength is twelve hours or less. If
artificial lights are used, at least 500 foot candles at the leaf surface should be provided.
Supplementary artificial light may only be economically feasible for tomatoes at the seedling stage
where a greater number of p lants can be illuminated per square foot (18).

Temperature

The temperature range that supports plant growth is generally from 40-97 degrees F (4.5-36
degrees C) (7). Optimum temperatures for growth vary with the species and the stage of
development and usually fluctuates night to day.

Several growth processes are sensitive to temperature. Among these are respiration, part of the
photosynthetic process, maturation, flowering, fruit ripening and dormancy (7).

Photosynthetic rates are determined mainly by light intensity, CO2 levels and temperature (11).
Temperature has little effect on photosynthetic rate from 50-86 degrees F (15-30 degrees C) until
light and CO2 become saturated for the photosynthetic process. At this point, an increase in
temperature from 68-86 degrees F (20-30 degrees C) results in a marked increase in the
photosynthetic rate (11). On warm days, midday leaf temperatures may be high and inhibit
photosythetic activity (12). Not only are metabolic processes reduced at high leaf temperatures,
but moisture stress, from increased transpirational losses, results in stomatal closure which
decreases the supply of CO2 to the chloroplasts slowing photosynthesis.

Respiration rates increase rapidly as the temperature increases. Temperature is a controlling factor
in establishing the compensation point of greenhouse crops, the point at which the rate of CO2
consumed in photosynthesis equals the rate of CO2 given off in respiration, because of its affect on
respiration rate (11). As temperatures rise the level at which the compensation point occurs for a
particular light level or CO2 concentration will decrease. A cessation of growth occurs when the
rate of respiration increases more rapidly than the rate of photosynthesis, resulting in a depletion
of food reserves (7).

Maintaining day/night temperatures at specific levels can increase yield and quality of crops.
Optimum growth of many crops occurs when greenhouse temperatures are cooler at night than
during the day. The response of plants to diurnal temperature fluctuations is referred to as
thermoperiodicity (11).

Temperature effects on flowering may be direct or inductive (11). The effect of temperature is
direct when flower initiation occurs during the period of temperature treatment. If a specific
temperature induces a change within the plant which permits flowering at another time, the effect
is considered to be inductive. Vernalization is the inductive effect of cold temperatures on flower
initiation. Many biennials and perennials require cold treatments to induce flowering.

Root temperatures also affect the rate of plant growth. Increasing root temperatures up to about
26 degrees C (76 degrees F) may increase top growth and the uptake of inorganic ions. This is
true of many hydroponically grown crops, cucumbers in particular (2).

Gases

Green plants require oxygen for normal growth and development. The energy released in cellular
respiration, from the breakdown of carbohydrates and complex organic molecules, consumes
oxygen and releases CO2. Most plants respire continuously, day and night, requiring a continuous
supply of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration or fermentation occurs in the absence of oxygen. The
products of this form of respiration are often deleterious to the plant and the energy released is
relatively small compared to aerobic respiration. Roots also require oxygen for aerobic respiration
which they obtain directly from the growing media. The absorption of salts and root extension are
dependent upon the energy supplied from respiration. Poorly aerated growing medias result in a
decrease in water absorption due to a reduction in the permeability of the root cells. After
extended periods of poor root aeration the roots stop growing and are more susceptible to disease
(11).

Seeds require oxygen to germinate. Seed germination is inhibited by a lack of oxygen for
prolonged periods. Often thick or oily seed coats must be removed from the seed so oxygen will be
available to the embryo. Compacted or water logged soils or growing media can also create an
oxygen-less environment and seeds will not germinate.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide(CO2) is a raw material required for photosynthesis. The atmospheric CO2
concentration at the plant level is the most important rate determining factor for further increases
in photosynthesis and yield (18). CO2 concentrations may fall below the ambient air
concentration .03% (300 ppm) in the greenhouse when weather conditions restrict ventilation or
infiltration. A crop in a tightly closed greenhouse will soon deplete the CO2 concentration which
reduces growth and production by slowing or stopping photosynthesis. Unless replaced, the CO2
concentration will remain at the plants compensation point, the level at which the CO2 produced
from respiration equals the amount used for photosynthesis. No growth occurs at this point.

When weather conditions permit, ventilation is an effective method of maintaining CO2

concentrations at the normal air levels. However, plants respond favorably to higher CO2
concentrations, making greenhouse supplementation of CO2 an effective method of increasing
plant growth (11). Although the CO2 response is dependent upon light intensity, beneficial effects
are obtained over a wide range of light intensities, either natural or artificial. CO2 enrichment is of
special significance in hydroponic culture as decaying organic matter in the soil, a source of CO2, is
not present (18).

CO2 is commonly supplied at 800-1600 ppm via gas CO2 generators or large tanks of liquid CO2
depending upon the cost comparison between the two and the availability of the bottled carbon
dioxide.

Air pollutants

Air pollution is an important problem for producers of greenhouse crops. The sources of air
pollution are increasing as new industries and highways are built. This is a particular problem for
horticultural operations near urban and industrial areas. Among the phytotoxic pollutants are
ozone, peroxyacel nitrates, oxides of sulfur, hydrocarbons, fluorides, carbon monoxide, herbicides,
fumigants, mercury vapors (do not use mercury thermometers in greenhouses), and phytotoxic
gases produced from incomplete combustion of CO2 generators (7). It may be necessary for
greenhouse owners to move to areas where phytotoxic gases are not present, or to grow species
that are less sensitive to these substances (11).

Often leaves and flowers are first to show signs of air pollution. Unusual discolorations, spotting,
twisting or turning of leaves and abortion of flowers followed by poor growth are symptoms of air
pollution.

Water

Most growing plants contain about 90% water (4). Water is the medium for transfer within the
plant and is the solvent system of the cell. Water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis
required for the production of new compounds. In soft tissues water pressure provides support and
as plants lose water from their leaves they are cooled (7). A net loss of water will cause growth to
stop and continued deficiency results in death.

A growing plant absorbs water from the soil and gives it off in transpiration. CO2 enters the plant
through a film of water that surrounds the leaf and as the film evaporates it is replenished by the
plant. The transpirational loss of water in exchange for CO2 is necessary for plant growth. Rapidly
growing plants require large quantities of water, far in excess of that found in the plant for
synthesis of new materials (7).

Moisture stress is generally detrimental to plant growth reducing both yield and quality of the crop.
The degree and duration of the stress will determine how severely growth is reduced, however,
growth rate may never return to the level it was before the stress (11).

The stage of growth when moisture stress occurs is also important. Moisture stress at the time of
flower initiation may significantly reduce yield. Severe stress leads to premature flower, leaf and
fruit drop (11).

Transpiration leads to moisture stress if moisture is not readily available to the roots. As moisture
stress increases, stomates close and photosynthesis is reduced. Warm dry air has a high
evaporative capacity, increasing the rate of transpiration. As we ll, the increase in leaf temperature
resulting from high light intensity raises the rate of transpirational loss (11).

Poor water quality can be a major problem for growers, particulary those with hydroponic systems,
due to contamination from organic and inorganic substances. Even the best domestic water
supplies may contain substances that affect plant growth. Therefore, a complete water analysis is
recommended for greenhouse growers. Hydroponic systems require detailed elemental analysis of
irrigation waters. In order to develop an appropriate recommendation for nutrient levels in solution
the concentration of existing elements in the water must be known. Adjustments can then be
made in the solution for the crop to be grown. Depending on the result of the water analysis, some
form of water treatment may be necessary. Water treatment may simply involve the use of a
filtering system for particulate debris, or may require more sophisticated methods of ion exchange
or reverse osmosis in addition to filtration. In some cases all that may be necessary is the
adjustment of nutrient solution, as in hard water areas where the majority of calcium and
magnesium is already provided by the water source (9).

Nutrition

 Factors affecting Plants Growth

Growth is also determined by environmental factors, such as temperature, available
water, available light, and available nutrients in the soil. Any change in the
availability of these external conditions will be reflected in the plants growth. Biotic
factors (living organisms) also affect plant growth.

Plants compete with other plants for space, water, light and nutrients. Plants can be so
crowded that no single individual makes normal growth.
Many plants rely on birds and insects to effect pollination.
Grazing animals may affect vegetation.
Soil fertility is influenced by the activity of bacteria and fungi.
Bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and insects can parasitize plants.
Some plant roots require an association with fungi to maintain normal activity
(mycorrhizal association).
Growing a beautiful and fruitful garden takes more than a green thumb. There are
several plant growth factors that effect your garden, including the soil in your area
and the climate of your region. You may even have different conditions than your
neighbor, so it is important that when you want the best garden possible that you take
into account all of the factors of your property.

Soil

The soil on your property is perhaps the one thing that can make or break a great
garden. Before you plant anything, you can have your soil tested to make sure the pH
balance is going to work for the garden you have planned. For example, herb gardens
need a balanced pH that is between 6.0 and 7.0 on a pH tester. You can pick up a pH
tester at your local gardening center, or you can have your soil tested for a small fee
through your local health or water department.

Your soil can easily be adjusted, if necessary, using oyster shell lime for more acidic
soil, or sulfur for less acidic soil. You can simply mix the recommended amount into
your soil to promote plant growth.

Climate

Climate is one of the plant growth factors that can't be controlled easily, and can
change depending on the location of your property in a certain region. For example,
living on a hillside can be cooler and windier than surrounding areas. The best way to
prepare your garden for the climate of your property is to choose plants that grow well
in your specific area.

Planning your garden according to your soil and climate will help you have a
beautiful and productive garden. It may take a little time to find the right combination
of plants, especially in extreme climates, but it is worth the effort to add a little beauty
to your property.

Space for Plants

When you are planning your garden, you may want to determine which plants you are
going to use, and then determine how much space you are going to need. Some plants,
such as squash, need a larger space than other plants, such as tomatoes. If you are
growing a combination of flowers, herbs, and vegetables or fruits, then you may need
to consider grouping these plants and treating the soil according to each groups needs.

Space is one of the plant growth factors that is easily controlled by you. Each of your
plants will need enough room for their root system to grow undisturbed, and you will
need enough space between each plant to work in your garden. When you are
planning your garden, taking the time to find out how much space each type of plant
needs will help your garden become more productive.

Fertilizer

Lastly, you will want to use some kind of fertilizer in your garden. If you want an
organic garden, then you can consider using manure to fertilize your garden, or you
 can use a commercially prepared fertilizer. Either way, fertilizer is one of the plant
growth factors that can improve your chances of a bountiful garden.

Plants

How does the amount of water affect plant growth?

Plants are living things. They live in places all around the world.  Plants can grow in
deserts, rain forests, and even in your own backyard.  But no matter where plants grow
they all need soil, water, air, and sunshine. A plant's needs change as it grows. Plants
need a lot of water during early growth, flowering and fruit setting.

How does the hours of sunlight affect the plant growth?

In the summer time, days are long and we have more hours of sunlight. In the winter,
however, the days are short and we only get a few hours of sunlight each day. Do you
think that this has any affect on a plants life? Is it what causes autumn and falling leaves
and finally creates leafless and almost lifeless trees?

 How does the temperature affect the plant growth?

For farmers and growers it is important to know the best

conditions for the growth of their products. In the past, just
by experience most farmers and growers learned what is the
best season for planting certain plants. With modern
technologies and production of plants in green houses and
other controlled environments, we have lost part of our
dependencies to seasons and weather conditions. We now
need to know the best conditions and adjust our
environment according to that. 
Temperature, light, air, water, soil, pH and nutrients are among the factors that may be
studied for each specific plant. 

 How do pollutants affect the plant growth?

Water impurities generally include minerals, viruses, bacteria and other organic
materials. Sewer water from homes and industries contains a large variety of such water
impurities. Currently sewer water is going through some initial treatment to remove
some impurities and then it is discharged into rivers and oceans. 
If water impurities are not harmful to the plants, part of such water can be used for
irrigation and watering gardens. 

 How does PH level affect the plant growth?

Introduction
It is well known that chemical properties of soil have a major effect in plant growth. Now
we can optimize the plant's growth by adding specific fertilizers and minerals. Another
property of soil that we can control and that may have some effects on a plant's growth is
the PH of soil. PH shows acidity or alkalinity level of soil. In this project we will study the
effect of pH on plant growth.

What is the effect of acid rain on plant growth?

 Introduction:
Many damages to the plants, buildings and other structures
are contributed to the acid rain. Acid rain is relatively a new
phenomena because it is caused by gases from burning coal
and natural oil. You may have noticed that the air is cleaner
and fresher after a rain. Have you wondered what happens
to the fumes and gases and particles in the air during a
rain. They are all washed by the rain. The highest amount
of such pollutants are absorbed by the rain drops in the first
few minutes of a heavy rain.
When gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen oxide (NO and NO2) are absorbed
by the rain, they are converted to sulfurous acid and nitrous and nitric acids. That is what
we call acid rain.