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205 Notes 2008
205 Notes 2008
Email: tarek@uwaterloo.ca
Course Notes
University of Waterloo
Civil Engineering
Course Material: Booklet of Hibbeler, 2005 “Mechanics of Materials,” 6th Edition, Prentice Hall
(Book store), and Course Notes (download)
- Each week, a number of suggested problems will be given to serve as background study for
the quizzes. Solutions are not to be handed in.
- Teaching Assistants will provide one-to-one help and will prepare you for quizzes.
- Course notes, solutions to suggested problems, and solutions to quizzes will be posted on the
course web site.
Page
Basic Concepts 4
1. Internal loadings on beams and frames 7
2. Stresses on beams and frames 13
3. Stress/strain transformation 17
4. Mohr’s circle for stress and strain 19
5. Strain Rosettes 26
6. Generalized Hooke’s law 28
7. Theories of failure 31
8. Deflection using integration method 34
9. Moment – Area Method 37
10. Strain Energy Method 44
11. Virtual Work Method 47
12. Statically indeterminate beams and frames 50
13. Castigliano’s Theorem 51
14. Buckling 52
15. Influence Lines
Objectives:
- Solve Problems in a structured systematic manner;
- Study the behavior of bodies that are considered
deformable under different loading conditions; &
- Analyze and design various machines / systems
Basic Concepts
b) Types of Supports
Supports exert reactions in the direction in which they restrain movement.
Roller
Support
(restricts in one Rubber
direction only and
allows rotation)
Hinged or Pinned
Support (restricts in two
ways and allows rotation)
Fixed Support
(restricts in two directions
and also restricts rotation)
Force in
Intermediate Pin or Hinge direction of
(Gives one extra condition) Gives extra condition
member
∑ M Right = 0
∑ M Left = 0
Examples:
Unstable Stable
Does not return to original shape if load is released
r = _______
c = _______
r = _______, then____________________
2. Frames:
j = No. of joints
m = No. of membrs if 3m + r < 3j + c Unstable
r = unknown support reactions if 3m + r = 3j + c Statically determinate
c = special conditions if 3m + r > 3j + c Statically Indeterminate
j = 3; m = 2; c = 0; r = 3
Then,
Stable & Statically determinate
3. Trusses:
j = No. of joints if m + r < 2j Unstable
m = No. of membrs if m + r = 2j Statically determinate
r = unknown support reactions if m + r > 2j Statically Indeterminate
j = 8; m = 12; r = 3
Then,
m + 3 = 15 < 2j, or Unstable
∑ Fx = 0 ∑ + =∑ -
∑ Fy = 0 ∑ + =∑ -
∑M = 0 - +
∑ Any
∑
point
Considering the whole structure
Sign Convention
for Internal Forces:
+ ive
B.M.D.
S.F.D.
N.F.D
P
Important Note: a b
L/2 L/2
P/2 P/2
PL/4
Important Rule: To get the internal forces (B.M. & S.F.) we always calculate from one side.
B.M.D.: P
4. Identify points of change in load or shape. a c
5. Calculate the moment at each point, considering only b
one side of the structure and the sign convention.
i.e., Left of point a, B.M. = 0; P/2 P/2
Right of point c, B.M. = 0; and
Either left or right of point b, B.M. = + P. L / 4
+PL/4
6. Draw the B.M.D. using the values calculated in step 5,
then connect these values. 0
B.M.D. 0
7. Check if the B.M.D. is logical.
-P/2
Rules: End P
Free end Pin
1. B.M. at free end = 0
2. Any support has B.M. on top of it, unless it is an end pin, end roller, or an intermediate pin.
WL2/8
W Mb
2 a b Ma
3. The B.M. at the middle of a UDL is +wL /8.
L
Special case: simple beam
4. Any connection has same B.M. (value and sign) at its two sides.
+M
5. Shear curve is one higher degree than load curve. +M
Connection is in equilibrium
6. Moment curve is one higher degree than shear curve.
2m 2m 4m
1 3
3
4 6m 8
P
w KN/m
P/2 P/2
+PL/4
w KN/m
P
2 KN/m
P 3
2 KN
P/2 P/2
w KN/m
P 3
6.67 7.33
6m
2m
Examples on Page 10
Rules:
- Load curve =
a b
- Shear curve =
- Moment curve =
- Area of shear =
= difference in moment =
- Shear curve =
- Moment curve =
= difference in shear =
- Area of shear =
= difference in moment =
M T
V
M
M V T
M
P
Stresses - τ
A’
Q = A’ . Y’
x 10”
A
800 lb
14”
A 500 lb
Mz=500x14 10”
500 lb
A
800 lb
T=800x14
14”
500 lb
C
B
Example: Determine the internal stresses at points A, B, C, & D VQ / It
= 0.5 MPa
D
C
V = 3 KN
T = 3 KN B T.c / J
My = 10.5 KN.m = 15.3 MPa
D
C
B A
-
- -
σθ = (P Cos θ) / (A / Cos θ) or
Very important conclusions: 2
σθ = σx Cos θ
- Under tension only, shear is automatically present at various planes. τθ = ½ σx Sin 2θ
- The plane of maximum shear is when Sin 2θ = max or when θ = 45.
- Maximum shear = σx /2 = P / 2A
- It is important to study stress transformation and shear failure.
σy
τxy
σx x
Questions: y'
Is this the maximum stress? If not, then x'
What is the value of max. normal stress & its orientation? and σy’ τx’y’
What is the value of maximum shear stress & its orientation? σx’ θ
x
General Equations:
75 MPa
Example: 60 MPa
For the given state of stress, determine the normal and shearing
stresses after an element has been rotated 40 degrees counter-clockwise. 30 MPa
=0
or tan 2θ = 2 τxy / (σx - σy) or at θ1 , θ2 having 90 degrees apart. These are called principal planes.
3. σx’ becomes maximum when dσx’ / dθ = 0, or when differentiating the following equation:
we get, tan 2 θp = 2 τxy / (σx - σy) or, exactly at the principal planes, which has shear stress = 0.
The value of the principal normal stresses are:
2
σ max, min = σx + σy ± (σx -2 σy) + τ2xy
2
tan 2 θs = - (σx - σy) / 2 τxy and the value of maximum shear stress τxy is:
2
τx’y’ max = (σx - σy) + τ2xy
2
Example:
In the general equations, even if the original τxy on the element = 0, then still the shear at any plane (τx’y’)has
a value as a function of normal stresses.
Stresses at Point H:
Principal stresses:
τxy σy
τxy
X σx ? σx σ
0 σy
τxy
?
τ X
Step 2: Draw a circle from the center to pass by points X and Y. Determine σmax , σmin , θp , τmax , θs
Notice that Shear stress is positive in the bottom half of the circle.
?
σy
τxy
Y X
Y σx
? ? σ
0
?
X
Solved Examples 9-7 to 9-13
τ
30 MPa
Y
X’
75
o
80
θ2 30 σ 60
Y X
-75 θ1 30
Y’ X
Example:
For the given state of stress, determine: a) principal planes; and b) principal stresses. 60 MPa
Analytically: σx = -40 MPa; σy = +60 MPa ; τxy = +25 MPa 25 MPa
tan 2θp = 2 τxy / (σx - σy) = 2 x 25 / (-40 -60) = -0.5
40 MPa
or at θp1 = -13.28; θp2 = 76.7
2
σmax, σmin = Average ± R = σx +2 σy ± (σx -2 σy) + τ2xy = 10 ± 55.9 MPa
65.9
Graphically: Two points X & Y
Center = x
R = Y 13.28
45.9
σmax, σmin = Average ± R
Y 2θ σ 60
65.9
13.28 25
Y X 40
X
45.9
Assume σ1 > σ2 > σ3 are principal normal stresses ( no shear), then let’s draw Mohr’s circle.
τmax
σ2
σ1 σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
σ3
Case 1: both σ1 and σ2 are positive Case 2: both σ1 and σ2 are negative
Then, τmax = σ1 / 2 Then, τmax = σ2 / 2
τmax τmax
σ2 σ1 σ2 σ1
τmax
σ2 σ1
Examples
- Normal Strain (due to axial load + bending moment) and Shear Strain (due to transverse shear + torsion).
=
+ +
What is the value of maximum normal strain and the plane in which it exists? and
What is the value of maximum shear strain and the plane in which it exists?
- General equations for strains on a plane at angle θ for a member under two dimensional strain. Notice that all
equations look the same as those of stress transformation, except that τxy is resembled by :
‘’
‘’
‘
‘ θ
Important Observations:
=0
or tan 2θ = γxy / (εx - εy) or at θ1 , θ2 having 90 degrees apart. These are called principal planes.
3. εx’ becomes maximum when dεx’ / dθ = 0, or when differentiating the following equation:
we get, tan 2 θp = γxy / (εx - εy) or, exactly at the principal planes, which has shear strain = 0.
Y
Y
ε
2θp
X
X
γ/2
degrees clockwise. Find principal strains and the maximum shear strain along with the orientation of elements.
Y
Solution
o o
2θs = 36.8 + 90 = 126.8
γ/2 x10-6
α = 60 - 36.8 = 23.2 Y
X’
Then R=750
εx’ = 400 - R Cos α = 400 – 750 x Cos 23.2 = -290 x10-6
α ε x10-6
εy’ = 400 + R Cos α = 400 + 750 x Cos 23.2 = 1090 x10-6 36.8o 400 α
γx’y’/ 2 = R Sin α = -750 Sin 23.2 = -295 x10-6
R=750
Y’
X
γ/2 x10-6
o
At 30 Clockwise At Principal Planes At Maximum Shear Plane
Y’ Y’
+ + +
ε2 ε1
Case 2: both ε1 and ε2 are negative Case 3: ε1 and ε2 have opposite signs
Then, γmax/2 = ε2 / 2 Then, γmax/2 = (ε1 - ε2) / 2
ε2 ε1 ε2 ε1
Example:
b
a
Using the strain rosette shown, the measured values at each stain gauge is as follows:
εa = 8 x 10-4 , εb = -6 x 10-4, εc = -4 x 10-4 c
Determine the principal strains at the point.
A
Solution Using Only Mohr’s Circle:
C
ε1 = 2 + R = 12 x 10-4 ; ε2 = 2 – R = -8 x 10-4
γ/2 x10-4
© Dr. Tarek Hegazy 26 Mechanics of Materials II
Example:
Solution:
Strategy: We draw a Mohr’s circle for strain and on it will find the strains at the
o
orientations of the strain gauges (45 apart).
+
X
Longer in X
? Shorter in Y
+ive shear strain.
?
?
εx = σ x / E εx = - ν . σ y / E εx =
εy = - ν. σx / E εy = σy / E εy =
εz = - ν. σx / E εz = - ν. σy / E εz =
- Assumptions: (1) τ has not correlation with εx and εy; (2) σx and σy have no relation with γxy ; (3) principal strains
occur in directions parallel to principal stresses.
-General Equations:
E.εx = σx - ν (σ
σy + σz); G. γxy = τxy
E.εy = σy - ν (σ
σx + σz); G. γyz = τyz
E.εz = σz - ν (σ
σx + σy); G. γzx = τzx
- Relationship between E, ν , G:
Let’s consider the case of pure torsion, i.e., σx = 0 and σy = 0, Let’s draw Mohr’s circles
for both stress and strains.
Y Y
σ ε
0 σmax 0 εmax
τ X γxy/2 X
Principal stresses are: σ1 = τxy ; σ2 = - τxy Principal strains are: ε1 = γxy/2 ; ε2 = - γxy/2
Now, let’s apply Hook’s Equation, as follows:
E.ε1 = σ1 - ν (σ
σ2) ; then
E.ε1 = E. γxy/2 = τxy - ν (- τxy) = τxy . (1 + ν) = G. γxy . (1 + ν)
Note: Since most engineering materials has ν = 1/3, then G = 3/8 E and K = E
© Dr. Tarek Hegazy 28 Mechanics of Materials II
Example:
Notice the difference between Mohr’s circles for stress & strain
Example:
Example:
Example:
Solution Approach: Since we are given the forces, let’s calculate the
Stresses at point P, then, convert these stresses into strains.
Shear Stresses
Strains at Point P:
Example: A steel shaft (45 mm in diameter) is exposed to a tensile yield strength = σyield = 250 MPa.
Determine P at which yield occurs using Von Mises and Tresca critera.
Solution
1) Principal Stresses
T = 1.7 KN.m
2
σx = P / A = P /π (0.0225)
P?
4
τxy = T.c / J = 1.7 x (0.0225) / ½ π (0.0225) = 95.01 95.01
σx
Mohr's circle:
Center = σx / 2
2 2
R = [(σx/2) + τxy ] ½
σ1 = σx / 2 + R; σ2 = σx / 2 - R
X
2) Using Von Mises
then, P = 299.3 KN
3) Using TRESCA
then, P = 258.4 KN
Notice the force P under TRESCA (focuses on Shear) is smaller than Von Mises
Terminology:
ds
Rdθ = ds ≅ dx
or θ θ+dθ
1/R = dθ/dx
ds dυ
θ
dx
Also, dυ/dx = tan θ ≅ θ
2 2
Differentiating both sides, then d υ/dx = dθ/dx
2
Accordingly, 1 = M = dθ = dυ
2
R EI dx dx
Notes:
- Recall relationships between load, shear, and bending moment. Now, we can expand it to:
2 2 3 3 4 4
EI d υ/dx = M(x); EI d υ/dx = V(x); EI d υ/dx = -W(x)
Step-by-Step
∑ X = 0, +
1. Get beam reactions: ∑ Y = 0,∑ M= 0
+ +
2. Get equation of B.M. at each beam segment with change in load or shape
4. Integrate the moment a second time to get the deflection (elastic curve)
5. Substitute at points of special conditions (boundary conditions) to get the constants C1 & C2
7. Put slope = 0 to determine the location (x) that has maximum deflection
Example:
For the part AB, determine the equation of the elastic curve and maximum deflection if:
6 4 P
I = 301x10 mm , E=200 GPa, P=250 KN, a = 1.2 m, L = 5 m.
Ya L Yb a
1. Reactions:
P
∑Ma =0
+ Yb . L - P . (L + a) = 0
or Yb = P (1 + a/L)
+
∑ Y = 0 , then Ya + Yb – P = 0 or P.a/L P(1 +a/L)
Ya = - P. a/L
3. Integrate the moment to get the slope: 8. Applying same steps at the free end:
2 2
= - P.a.x / 2L + C1 = - P.x /2 + C3 …(3)
Recall M = dθ
EI dx
Then, XB
θB/A = M dx
EI
XA
change in area under
slope M/EI diagram
nd
2 Moment Area Theorem:
Case 1: Cantilever
Xd θD
θD/A = M dx = θD - θA , both negative = |θA| - |θD|
EI
Xa
tBA / (L1+L2)
L1
tCB
θB = tAB / L1 A heavy load B ∆c
θB C
= (∆c + |tCB| ) / L2 L2
tAB
∆ tCA
tBA
∆ = tBA . (L1+L2)/L1 A θA B C
L1 L2 ∆c
Then, ∆c = |tCA| - | ∆ | heavy load
-b
a
= =
a
+ive
-ive
-b
-a
Method of Superposition:
- Using Standard tables for various beam conditions and types of loads (Appendix C)
150lb L1 300lb
600
C D
A B
D
4” 24” 6”
250 lb 400 lb -1800
600 tDC =1/EI [ + (600 x 24 /2) . 2/3 . 24
- (1800 x 24 /2) . 1/3 . 24 ]
M/EI
θC = tDC / 24
-1800 = ( |∆A| + | tAC | ) / 4
tDC 600
∆A
θC A
tAC = 1/EI [600. 4/2 . 2/3 . 4]
tAC
A B
D θA = tBA / L
wL/6 wL/3
= Moment of M/EI @ B / L
3rd = [w.L2 /6EI . L/2 . L/3 - w. L2/6EI . L/4 . L/5] / L
degree
= +
P
RB ?
∆1 + ∆2 =0
______ statically
indeterminate P
MA ?
= +
θ1 + θ2 =0
First, we reduce the beam to a statically determinate, then
We compensate for the change in the deflection behavior.
Example: 12 Kips Determine the reactions, then draw the S.F.D. & the B.M.D.
3 Kip/ft
C
A
B
6 ft 6 ft 12 ft
=
12 Kips
3 Kip/ft
∆1 ∆1
A B C
tAC tBC
+
RB
∆2
∆2 = - RB L3 / 48 EI
∆1 + ∆2 =0
Solution:
- For a structural element under load and deformation, External Work Ue = Internal Strain Energy Ui.
Ue = ½ P. ∆
Normal Shear
L
2 2
Ui = σ . dV and Ui = τ . dV V= dV = dA dx
v
2E v 2G v A 0
L
Strain Energy calculations for different loading conditions are shown in next page.
Ue = ½ P. ∆ & Ui =
Ue = ½ Mo . θ & Ui
Ue = ½ P. ∆ & Ui
Limitations: Applies to single load only. Also, in case 2, only solpe is calculated not deflection.
Also, how to get deflection at a point at which no direct load is applied.
Axial L
Load 2 2
Ui = σ . dV = N dA dx
2
2E v 2EA A 0
L
Bending 2 2 2
Ui = σ /2E dV or Ui = M . y dA dx
Moment v 2 E I2 A 0
σ = M.y =I
I
L
Ui = M2 dx
2EI
0
L
Pure 2
Ui = ½ τ . γ . dV = τ /2G A. dx
Shear
v 0
τ = V.Q
I.t
L
Shear
Stress Ui = fs V2 dx where, fs = 6/5 - rectangular section
2GA
0
L
Torsion 2
Ui = ½ τ . γ dV = τ /2G . dA . dx
v A 0
τ = T.c
J
L
Ui = T2 dx
2GJ
0
Solution: Put a virtual load of 1.0 at the desired point of a virtual system. Then apply the principal of
conservation of virtual work, as follows:
∆?
L
+ m M dx Bending
0 EI
L
+ fs v V dx Shear
0 GA
L
+ t T dx Torsion
0 GJ
Real
2. Determine horizontal Virtual 1.0
deflection at desired point
N n
M m
V v
T t
Solved Examples 14-11 to 14-16
w
Example: Get deflection at A A
.
L/2 L/2
3 t/m
Calculate:
- The horizontal displacement at point b,
- The vertical displacement at point g
- The slope at point f
EI = 20,000 m2.t
w
C
A
B
L/2 L/2
Reduced w
System
∆1
+
∆1 + RB ∆2 = 0
Compensation
∆2
RB . 1.0
Also,
w
L/2 L/2
Reduced w
System
θ1
θ 1 + M A θ2 = 0 +
Compensation
1.0
θ2
MA .
Examples:
- Put an external load at the position of required deflection: external load (Q) either horizontal or
vertical to get horizontal or vertical deflection; or an external moment to get slope.
- Deformation = first derivative of the Strain Energy with respect to the applied load.
∆ = dU / dQ , & substituting Q = 0
L L
2
= δ N dx = N δ N dx Axial Load (Trusses)
δQ 0
2EA 0
EA δQ
L
L
= δ M2 dx = M δ M dx Bending Moment
δQ 2EI 0 E I δQ
0
L
L
= δ fs V2 dx = fs V δ V dx Shear
δQ 2GA 0 G A δQ
0
L L
2
= δ T dx = T δT dx Torsion
δQ 0 2GJ 0 G J δQ
Example:
υ υ
M
P
M + P. υ = 0
2
Recall, M =dυ
2
EI dx
2
Then, dυ + P. υ = 0
2
dx EI
υ= 0 at x = L υ= 0 at x = 0
0.5
or when, Sin [(P/EI) . L] = 0 C2 = 0
P/A should be
within allowable Smaller of the
stresses. two directions
x & y.
OR
(L/r)2