3 i SAA HB59—1994 Handbook Ergonomics— The human factor A practical approach to work systems design Fist published as part of SAA MED—1975 Rovised and redesignated in part as SAA HBS9—1994, PUBLISHED BY STANDARDS AUSTRALIA (STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA) 1 THE CRESCENT, HOMEBUSH, NSW 2140 ISBN 0 7262 91935SAA HBS9— 1994 2 PREFACE This Handbook has been prepared as a basic guide to the subject of ergonomics. It is not intended for use as a definitive reference source, since a number of excellent texts on the subject have already been published. However, for those who do not need to acquire a more comprehensive treatment, this handbook will prove useful. Ergonomics is a design philosophy which studies the three-way interactions between people, the equipment they use at their workplaces, and the environment within which the people, and equipment are placed. Its object is to design both the workplace and the environment in such a way that the most efficient use is made of human capabilities, without exceeding human capacities. To fully understand the limitations of the human body, ergonomists need to have a working knowledge of anatomy, the ability to perceive the forces at work on the body, and a knowledge of the psychological, as well as the physiological, needs of the individual within a work system. ‘The practitioners of ergonomics come from a wide variety of backgrounds—the sciences, engineering, medicine, and psychology. The subject forms the basis (or at least a part) of an increasing number of courses available within a number of colleges and universities across Australia, and indeed the world. Appendix A lists the documents referred to in this Handbook together with related documents for further reading, © Copyright ~ STANDARDS AUSTRALIA \Ysrs of Standards are reminded that copyright subsists in all Standards Australis publications and software, Except where the Copyright At allows and excel where provid fr below no publications o software produced by Stands Australia ay be geared in vl ‘neni any fom or waited by ny men, fon rn pemision I rig om andardsAustaa. Persion may be conditional on an appropriate royal payment. Reqiesls for permission and ifortnation fn commercial software royalties shoud be directed (o the Need office of Standards Ausra. * Standards Australia will permit up to 10 percent of the technical content pages of @ Standard to be copied for use texclusively inhouse by purchasers ofthe Standard without payment of a royalty oF advice to Standards Austala, Standards Australia will also penn the inclusion of it copyright material in computer software programs for no royal ‘payment provided such programs ae used exsiesively inhouse by the eretors ofthe progam. muy Care should be taken to ensute that material used is from the current edition of the Standard and that it is updated whenever the Standard is amended or revised. The number and date ofthe Standard should therefore be clearly identified. ‘The use of material in print form or in computer software programs to be used commefially, with or without payment, of in Gomera Concats Subject fo the payne Of sfoyalty a policy may be varied by Standady Australia a any me.(AUGESSEU UY UMARLES O1UM UINIVEROII 1 UL eM miay eu tt 3 SAA HBs9— 1994 CONTENTS Page FOREWORD ......... 91H WE SAGA BATHE Sind Ate a mame nnres 5 SECTION 1 HUMAN PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES ANTHROPOMETRY .. 6 BIOMECHANICS cece 13 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM 15 Skeletal system Muscular system . . . Muscle energy sources Static muscle fatigue Dynamic muscle fatigue REACH ENVELOPES Static reach envelopes . Dynamic reach envelopes . Clearances . Strength . SECTION 2 PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS DISPLAYS AND CONTROLS ... 2 Design of displays and controls 2 DISPLAYS .. 2B Analogue displays . 23 Scale divisions . 4 Scale design . 25 Numeral height - 26 Pointer position +. 26 Digital displays 27 Colour ...... . 27 Size of display ........ 227 Advantages of digital displays 27 Disadvantages of digital displays 27 OTHER FORMS OF DISPLAY ... . 28 CONTROLS 2.2.0... e eee eee ceteeeeeee cee 29 Continuous controls : 22 29 Discrete controls 29 Toggle switches 29 Rocker switches + 29 Rotary switches and knobs -. 30 Push-buttons . . . 32 Feedback F 33 Illuminated push-buttons 33 Markings on push-buttons 33 Indicator lights... 2.2... Fe aie ae sees 35eZee UY UMRALEO SHURE UIE! 1 Uh 2 ney SAA HB59— 1994 4 Page CONTROL IDENTIFICATION Colour coding . Shape coding Size coding Labelling STEREOTYPES . : PANEL DESIGN AND CONTROL IDE THE EYE AND VISION Anatomy of the eye . Visual field Accommodation Glare Relative glare Absolute glare Adaptive glare Humidity LIGHTING . THE EAR, HEARING AND NOISE. Noise Anatomy of the ear Daily noise dose (DND) . Effects on performance . VIBRATION Whole-body vibration... Part-body vibration . Vibration reduction techniques THERMAL ENVIRONMENT TIFICATION SECTION 3. WORK ORGANISATIONALFACTORS INTRODUCTION . 38 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE. 55 CONSULTATION . . 35 MULTISKILLING 7 - 56 PACED SYSTEMS OF WORK . . 56 TIME MAXIMIZATION . 36 OPERATOR AUTONOMY ... 37 SYSTEMS APPROACH . . MANAGEMENT STYLES SECTION 4 APPLIED ERGONOMIC EXAMPLES WORKPLACE DESIGN—OFFICE ENVIRONMENT ......... 2.22.2 25-25 59 APPENDIX A LIST OF REFERENCED AND RELATED DOCUMENTS ...... 61ety cu POURS UY UMARLES O1URI UNVIVEROH 5 SAA HS9— 1994 FOREWORD Ergonomics is a science which developed from the need to understand the physiological, psychological and social needs of operators during the process of designing work environments. These requirements must be understood by the designer while developing the brief for the product or facility under consideration, since failure to take these human factors into consideration during the design phase can create unforeseen errors when the product or system is used. Historically, engineers, architects and designers have tended to assess the suitability of their designs against their own experiences and expectations, only to find that once the design is implemented, many users employ different criteria for assessment and a variety of unforeseen problems with the product have arisen. In the majority of cases, these oversights or errors will cause annoyance to the operator. However, in complex systems, the results may be disastrous. ‘The word ergonomics, first used in 1949, is derived from two Greek words, ergon ‘meaning work, and nomos meaning natural laws. Thus, ergonomics means the natural laws relating to work. Ergonomics can be seen by some as being as much an art as it is a science due to the many subtle differences which individuals bring to their working environment, Concentration on the physical capabilities and needs of the population tends to oversimplify these needs as being an extension of the engincering model to product design. The various shapes and sizes of the population (anthropometry) together with the strength and power of the human musculoskeletal system (biomechanics) provide an engineering basis for assessing design suitability. The cognitive or information processing capabilities of people influences their decision- making processes as well as their abilities to understand and interpret information provided to them. Related to this information processing capability, ergonomics provides data and guidance on the capabilities of human visual and auditory systems. The design and development of computer software has been a growth area for ergonomics during the 1980s in recognition of the significant influence that computer instructions and commands have on the abilitics of users to learn and operate the multitude of computer systems now available, The assessment of computer software, or information technology, is one of the main areas of current ergonomic research. Other areas of research include the evaluation of the body's sensitivity to variations in the thermal environment as well as the effects of cither localised or whole-body vibration. Ergonomics provides a recognition of the context where the users of the work environment are likely to be influenced by the overall work system and organisation over their tasks, Most tasks performed by users are within an environment consisting of a social interaction with work peers, coupled with a management structure to provide guidance on the work practices and work organisation within which constraints their tasks are performed, The influence of the performance requirements, involving both the quantity and quality of output expected, also influences the capabilities of the user to meet the system demands, The macro-ergonomic study involving work organisation is a major element in understanding human performance capabilities within their working environment. Within a group of people involved in performing work, individual differences, including Personality type, ability to cope with stress, fatigue and motivation, will be present and will determine the ability of cach individual to maintain consistent output to meet the set performance requirements. The ability of supervisors and managers to account for these needs will generally have as great an impact on the efficiency of their system as will the physical capabilities of the staff. The challenge in ergonomics in the 1990s is to provide a balanced input in a holistic concept of the needs of people within their work environments. To optimise the efficiency of the human clement within a man-machine system, which includes the reduction of injury risks, remains the current primary focus of ergonomics in Australia,ruven UY UAARLED O1UT) UIVERONE Yc wy 4 SAA H59— 1994 6 SECTION 1 HUMAN PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES ANTHROPOMETRY ‘Anthropometry is the science which deals with the size and shape of people within a population. The population may be of any size, numerically, though the normal and natural meaning of population would indicate the population of a particular country. ‘A number of countries in the world, including the United States of America, Germany, United Kingdom and Japan, have sampled sufficient numbers of their respective populations to have developed a national anthropometric profile. Australia has not yet developed such a database, hence uses elements of the American or European database as a guide. A number of studies in Australia, including those carried out by both the coal industry and the automotive industry in 1991, indicates that direct dependence on overseas anthropometric data can be misleading to the designer because of Australia’s cosmopolitan population. Hence, these data should only be used as a guide. When designing for an adult population, a number of questions must be answered prior to using these databases. These questions include the following: (@) Are the users both male and female? ‘The answer to this question is generally ‘Yes’. With increased multi-skilling in the workplace and affirmative action programs, a cross-section of the adult population, regardless of gender, is generally found. (6) Who is in the user population? In the manufacturing industry, it is often found that particular ethnic groups congregate onto particular shifts. Hence, the anthropometric profile of a company may differ between shifts as well as between cities where particular ethnic groups may live. (©) Which group within the population will be placed at the greatest disadvantage by the design? For example, the tallest-will hit their head; shortest cannot reach; overweight won't fit; and left-handers cannot operate systems. An objective of ergonomics is not to design for the ‘average person’ (who does not exist), but for the majority of the user population, typically 90 percent, Special arrangements are often required for those at the extreme ends of the population, i.e. the very small or very large. (@) Which are the critical anthropometric dimensions? Table 1 provides a range of anthropometric dimensions for the Sth, SOth and 95th percentiles of British adults and Figure 1 shows the positions on the body to which the data in Table | refers. For example, bench heights refer to standing clbow height (Item 6), seat height refers to popliteal height (Item 18), while machine ‘guarding refers to finger, hand and arm dimensions (Items 25-42), as appropriate. Ergonomists tend to design workplaces that will suit the majority of users from nearly the smallest to nearly the largest. Typically, this would cover the range from the Sth percentile to the 95th percentile of the user population. People who fall outside this range, usually require special arrangements. Where the workforce or population includes both male and female members, as will most often be the case, the range will typically ‘encompass the Sth percentile female to the 95th percentile male. One must, however, bbe alert and ensure that this is the case. The design may require adjustability, if the task requires it, or the use of standardised dimensions with consideration of the groups at greatest disadvantage. COPYRIGHT7 SAA HIBS9— 1994 TABLE 1 ANTHROPOMETRIC ESTIMATES FOR BRITISH ADULTS Women Dimension number and body parameter a swite | vite | rite | rte 0 [Boy mass «| «| 6] = 1 _[ See res | 1740 | 185s | 1305 [iso | 1710 2 _[ Bye neigh tis] 1a | ims | aos | 1s0s | 1610 3 | Neck high a7 | _taas [159s | ra80 [iais [taro | Stour bei ras | _142s_| 1535 [121s [vaio | aos 5 | Chen batt tas_[12m | 136 | 1080 [1170 | rass © _| Btbow beige Too ros | 1180 | 950 | 1005 | 108s 7 | ine tei so [920 | 100 | mo | 80 | as 8 Knuckle height 690 135 820 660 720 730 9 | Fiageip beg so_| os | 720 | seo | eas | as 10 Sitting height | 850 910 965 795, 850 910 Ti Siting eye eigbe m0 | 70 | es | eas | m0 | os 12 | Siting shoaler elake so [9s | os | sos | 355 | oto 13 | Siting ebow hake wo | ms] 25 | 1s | mas | a0 1 | Thigh thickness ws [160 | vas | as | ass 80 TS | Batockknes lnath ws | _os | ois | 20 | so | a0 16 | Buwockpopieat tens wo | 0s [sso | as | wo | a0 17 Knoe bight os | ss | ss | ass | soo | si0 18 | Popltcal heigh ses | wo | «90 | ass | 00 | ass 19 | Shoulder breadth (ido) eo [as | so | as5 | 3s | as 20 | Shoulder breadth (bneromiah ses [400 | a0 | 325 | ass [35 21_| Elbow-slbow breadth 30 | 450 | io} soo | aes | 7s 22_| Hip breadth so | 360 | os | 10 | 370 | as : 23 | Chet (bat) depth zs_| 250 | 285 | 210 | 250 | 295 i 24 | Albdominal dep zo_| 270 | 320 | 205 | ass | 30s : 25 Shoulder-fingertip length 20 780 840 655 705 760 i 26 Shoulder-clbow length 330 365 395 300 330 360 : 27_| Blbow-tingentip tenth wo | | so | 40 | «0 | 460 i 28 | Se Toss | 1790 | 92s | a0 [10s [15 A 29 _| Elbow span ws_| os | 1020 | 740 | a0 | 00 ; 30 Were rack zou [210 | 20 | 19s [00 | Ps 3 31_| Sing vera length vas [tas [ass [cso | v2ss | 1300 j (continued) 5 ‘COPYRIGHTSAA HLBS9— 1994 TABLE 1 (continued) ‘Men Dimension number and body parameter | — seq som) 95th | Sth 35th tite | Site | Yile | Seite ile 32__| Horizontal reach 85 390 | 45 760 860 33__| Hand length 173 189 205 159 | 174 189 34 | Hand breadth (metacarpal) 78 87 95 o 6 3 35 _| Hand breadth (including thumb) 7 105 ua & 2 9 36 | Hand girth 201 216 236 169 | 184 199 37 | Palm length 8 107 116 9 7 105 38 _ | Index finger length @ 72 9 Cy or Za 39 _ | Index finger breadth 19 21 24 16 18 20 40___| Hand thickness at palm 2 EB 38 me 28 3 41 | Hand thickness (including thumb) a 3 38 40 45 50 42__| Maximum grip diameter 45 32 39 B ® 33 43 | Foot length 240 265 285, as | 2s 255, 44 | Foot breadth - 85 95 10 80 90 100 45 _| Foot girth 220 243 270 210 | 2s 245, 46__| Heet-ball length 175 t90_[ 210 160 [175 190 47 | Ankle height 60 70 85 35 6 75 48 | Head length 180 19s 205 165 [180 190 49 | Head breadth 145 155 165 135 | 145 155 30 | Head height 205 225 240 200 | 20 | 240 31__| Head wirth 335, 565 590 s2s_| 550 575 32_ | Barear breadth 12s BS 145 20 | 130 135 53 | Anter-pupilary breadth 35 60 70 35 60 6 34 | Maximum diameter from chin 240. 255 265 ms | 235 246 55 _ | Nose-back of head 205 m0 | 235 190 | 205 20 56 | Coronal are 330. 350. 375 ais [340 360 57__| Sagittal ate 350 380 | 405 325 [350 | 375 58 _ | Neck girth 345 315 a5 335 | 365 415 59 | Chest (burst) girth 840 950_| 1110 wo [935 | 1135 60 | Underbust girth = = = ors_[_ 775 940) 61 | Waist girth 705 805 965 365 [685 885 (continued) COPYRIGHT° SAA HBS9— 1994 TABLE 1 (continued) Men Women Dimension number and body parameter |S, —] som] asm) sim) sot | osm site | %ite | site | vite | vite | ite 2 [ip sinh 390 365 [ 10m | sas | 985 | ies 63 _| Waist height 90s [1075 | 1150 | 920 | 100s | 108s 4 _| Crotch height 760 40 | 0 | 67s | 750 | as 65_| Waist font 360 410 | 460 | 305 | 355 | aos 66 _| Waist back 390) a0 [sto [365 | aos [as 67 _| tnersaye 320 375 | as | 305 | 350 | 395 68 | Sloove length Gpine-weist) 810 as | 990 [735 | 790 | as @ | Maximum body beeadth | 480 30 | so | 35s | a0 | as 70__| Maxinmm body depth 255 290 | xs | 2s [275 | 325 71_| Kaosling height vaio [1295 | 1380 | 1130 | 1205 | 1280 72 | Buttock-heel length vas | 107 | 1160 | 875 | 965 | 1058 WY VEAL O1URI UNIVEROTET UH 24 may 2011 COPYRIGHTUP ORARLES SHURE UIIVERGI UN ey 208 SAA HEBs9—1994 a Vertical ret nce plane FIGURE 1 (in part) BODY DATUM POINTS COPYRIGHT" SAA Hns9— 1994 FIGURE 1 (in part) BODY DATUM POINTS ‘COPYRIGHTMARROUU UY LANES OLUNE UIMVEROHE UI 29 way 2044 SAA HBS9— 1994 69 58 (git IG 58 (girth) 61 (girth) 62 {girth} ] —? L_ 50 (gietm * ee women 63 J ! fj ( i FIGURE 1 (in part) BODY DATUM POINTS COPYRIGHT