SYSTEMS, STRATEGIES & RESEARCH FOR LUBRICATION PROFESSIONALS AN PUBLICATION | AUGUST 2017

TLT
T R I B O LO G Y &
LU B R I C AT I O N
T E C H N O LO G Y

13 YEARS
of publishing excellence

What can it do?

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What you need to get started
(Hint: its not a degree in statistics)

+ 3D Printing: The next

Industrial Revolution?

+ Fighting Foam:
Q&A with Michael Stapels

+ Einstein, STLE & you

+ New economic models drive

Latin America & the Caribbean

+ Selecting the right plane bearing

+ W. Edwards Deming:
14 Points for Management

+ CH;FFSSCHA=;LM

Digital TLT: Sponsored this month by Acme-Hardesty and Temix at www.stle.org.

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 Contents
16
FEATURES
MARKET TRENDS
16 Lubricant growth in Latin
America and the Caribbean
New economic models are
driving demand with Brazil,
Mexico, Argentina and Chile
leading the way.
By Sharbel Luzuriaga
20 MINUTES WITH
22 Michael Stapels
This research chemist with Kao
Chemicals GmbH discusses foam
countermeasures and why he
recommends ethercarboxylic
acids for the formulation of
metalworking uids.
By Rachel Fowler
LUBRICATION FUNDAMENTALS
28 Words mean things
Especially when it comes to
3D printing, which could be
on the verge of ushering in a
third Industrial Revolution.
By Dr. Robert M. Gresham
W W W. ST L E .O RG
TLT / AUGUST 2017 / VOLUME 73 / NO. 8
22 28
WEBINARS 2018 TRIBOLOGY FRONTIERS CONFERENCE
32 Selecting the right 50 2016 Abstract: Shining a
plane bearings light on the tribological
They do jobs other bearings rehydration of cartilage
cant, but understanding their The 2018 TFC Planning Committee
heat, friction and material is partnering with TLT to present
properties is critical. a new feature2016 TFC
By Debbie Sniderman Highlights.
By Axel C. Moore,
Brian T. Graham, Chris Price
FEATURE ARTICLE
and David L. Burris
40 Moneyball for uid
development
PEER-REVIEWED PAPER (EDITORS CHOICE)
Statistical design of experiments
couples a numbers-based 52 Optimization of Mechanism
approach with practical of Boundary Lubrication in
experience to extract the Fully Formulated Commercial
most information from the Engine Oil Using Design of
fewest experiments. Experiment
By Dr. Nancy McGuire By Gabi N. Nehme and
Micheline Dib
40
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 1
 Contents
DEPARTMENTS EDITOR
Evan Zabawski, CLS
TestOil
10 Tech Beat Calgary, Alberta, Canada
ezabawski@testoil.com
Printing batteries;
photoelectrochemical PUBLISHER/ SENIOR FEATURE WRITER
generation of hydrogen over EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Jeanna Van Rensselar
Thomas T. Astrene
100% quantum efciency; tastrene@stle.org CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
hexagonal close-packed Stuart F. Brown
MANAGING EDITOR Dr. Neil Canter
high-entropy alloy. Rachel Fowler Dr. Robert M. Gresham
rfowler@stle.org Dr. Nancy McGuire
By Dr. Neil Canter Debbie Sniderman

74 Newsmakers 6 CIRCULATION
COORDINATORS
ADVERTISING SALES
Tracy Nicholas VanEe
This months newsmakers Myrna Scott Phone: (630) 922-3459
Judy Enblom Fax: (630) 904-4563
include Sea-Land Chemical, Nadine Sanchez tnicholas@stle.org
Spectro Scientic, SONGWON COLUMNS (847) 825-5536
DESIGN/PRODUCTION
Industrial Co., The Schaefer Joe Ruck
Group and more. 4 Presidents Report
The Jeanie McCoy TECHNICAL EDITORS
84 Sounding Board Scholarship Award Mikey Benes Dr. Peter Lee
Baker Hughes Southwest Research
Which lubricant component will Institute
be most critical to meeting your 6 From the Editor Dr. John Bomidi
Baker Hughes David Lindsay
future challenges? Silk round ball batch Michelle Brakke
Afton Chemical Corp.
Lubrication Dr. James MacNeil
Technologies Inc. Qualice
90 Advertisers Index 8 Headquarters Report
Patrick Brutto Shawn McCarthy
Albert Einsteinyoung ANGUS Chemical Co. Ocean State Oil
92 Resources professional Neil Buchanan Dr. Hamidreza Mohseni
HollyFrontier Corp./ Bosch Brake Components
Keep up to date with the latest Petro-Canada America
technical literature available in 94 Cutting Edge Lubricants Inc. Dr. Mary Moon
Zeroing in on ZDDP Presque Isle
print and online. Bridget Dubbert Innovations
tribolm growth Engineered Lubricants
Jason Papacek
Dr. Monica A. Ford
Calumet Specialty
Ingevity
96 Automotive Tribology Products Partners, L.P.
Dr. Hamed Ghaednia
The future of ying is near Ford Motor Co. Dr. Jonathan Reeds
Precision Polyolens
Dr. Arnab Ghosh
Sentient Science Joe Schultz
The Lubrizol Corp.
Dr. Michael Glasgow
Afton Chemical Corp. Dr. Don Smolenski
Evonik Oil Additives USA
Dr. Martin Greaves
The Dow Chemical Co. Tom Triola
The Timken Co.
This Months Factoids Tyler Housel
Lexolube Div. Zschimmer Dr. Paula Vettel
W. Edwards Deming: 14 Points for Management & Schwarz Novvi, LLC
Dr. Robert Jackson Dr. Nick Weinzapfel
Auburn University Sentient Science

Copyright 2017 Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers. All Rights Reserved. TRIBOLOGY AND LUBRICATION TECHNOLOGY (USPS 865740)
TLT magazine is owned and published in print and electronically by the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE). Vol. 73, Number 8, (ISSN-1545-858), is published monthly
The views set forth in this magazine are those of the authors and not necessarily the views of STLE. Material from TLT magazine by the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers,
may be reproduced only with written permission from STLE. TLT magazine assumes no liability or responsibility for any 840 Busse Hwy, Park Ridge, IL 60068-2376. Periodicals
inaccurate, delayed or incomplete information. For more information, contact us at TLT@stle.org. Postage is Paid at Park Ridge, IL and at additional mailing
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must be by international money order or bank draft drawn on U.S. bank. IL 60068-2376.

Front Cover Can Stock Photo / maxmitzu

2 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

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PRESIDENTS REPORT
Michael Anderson
The Jeanie McCoy Scholarship Award
STLE has created a new program to assist
young women pursuing careers in tribology.
AN AREA THAT HAS ALWAYS
BEEN NEAR AND DEAR TO ME is
the fostering of our young people
to explore and pursue careers in
the eld of tribology. In fact, one
of the rst committees on which I
served the Chicago Section (1982-
1984) was in a newly established
program called Careers in Lubrica-
tion. This was a small group of
Chicago Section members who
visited universities to meet with
undergraduate and graduate stu-
dents and talk about a little known
eld called tribology.
During this time we had the
pleasure of establishing two stu-
dent chapters. The rst was at Pur-
due University Calumet and the
other at Northwestern University. It
was really a great opportunity to
see the excitement in these young
people as they participated in the
Chicago Section by attending local meetings
and promoting tribology at their own cam-
puses with the assistance of Chicago Section
members.
One of STLEs primary and ongoing goals
is education. With this in mind, STLE is always
looking for ways to promote tribology and the
study of related sciences within academia.
Today STLE has active student sections at
University of Monterrey (Mexico), Auburn Uni-
versity, University of Texas (two chapters),
North Texas and Arlington (combined) and
Houston. As the number of programs increas-
es within the colleges and universities, there
is an ever-growing need to recognize and
encourage these students and others to pur-
sue careers in the eld of tribology and lubri-
cation sciences.
Currently STLE offers three scholarship
awards for students pursuing the study of
tribology and/or a related science eld:
4 William Edwards Demingknown to the world as W. Edwards Demingwas born in Sioux City, Iowa, Oct. 14, 1900.
On June 21 STLE Executive Director Ed Salek and I
presented a plaque to Life Member Jeanie McCoy
recognizing the new scholarship named in her honor
for women pursuing careers in tribology.
E. Richard Booser Scholarship for under-
graduate students engaged in the study
of tribology.
Elmer E. Klaus Fellowship for graduate
students pursuing a career in the study of
tribology.
Early Careerist Award for recent gradu-
ates who are making positive advances in
the eld of tribology.
The rst two of these awards were named
in honor of STLE members who, throughout
their careers, helped enhance the eld of tribol-
ogy through education, whether in academia
or industry. This year we are recognizing an-
other outstanding STLE member by establishing
a scholarship award named in her honor.
Jeanie McCoy of Jeanie McCoy Technolo-
gies (retired) has spent a lifetime promoting
the science of tribology and lubrication engi-
neering. STLEs newest scholarship, the Jeanie
McCoy Scholarship Award, will recog-
nize and support outstanding young
women studying to pursue a career
in tribology (see Page 5).
Having known Jeanie for almost
40 years, I can attest to her dedica-
tion in all the fundamental goals of
promoting tribology and STLE. Re-
cently STLE Executive Director Ed
Salek and I met with Jeanie to pres-
ent the plaque recognizing the es-
tablishment of the scholarship
named after her. Presenting the
plaque to Jeanie in person will cer-
tainly be one of the highlights of my
term as STLE president.
With the ever-growing promo-
tion of tribology, the future looks
bright for young people entering our
industry. And STLE is one of the lead-
ing reasons this eld is growing.
STLE also assists the local sec-
tions scholarship programs by
matching the local sections awards up to a
total of $15,000. STLE promotes student work
through the poster sessions at the annual
meeting as well. This, plus the above men-
tioned scholarship awards, brings the yearly
amount of STLE scholarship funding to well
over $50,000. STLE is living up to its goal in
education through these funding programs in
order to challenge students to excel in devel-
oping their knowledge in our eld.
So I openly encourage you to support
young people and the promotion of knowl-
edge through education in tribology to keep
the world moving more efciently.
Mike Anderson is Area Manager
Asia Pacic/Latin America for
Falex Corp. in Sugar Grove, Ill.
You can reach him at
manderson@falex.com.
 STLE creates Jeanie McCoy
Scholarship Award
New honor benets female college and high school students
pursuing careers in tribology.

STLEs board of directors has developed a scholarship named after STLE

Life Member Jeanie S. McCoy of Jeanie McCoy Technologies (retired).
The new award, the Jeanie McCoy Scholarship Award, will aid female
college and high school students pursuing careers in tribology.
The STLE board approved the award at the societys 72nd Annual
Meeting & Exhibition last May in Atlanta. The scholarship will be pre-
sented for the rst time during STLEs 73rd Annual Meeting next year in
Minneapolis, Minn.
The scholarships requirements were developed with the assistance
of STLE Past President Dr. Maureen Hunter of King Industries and state
that the recipient must be a female matriculating student pursuing an
education or career in the eld of tribology and enrolled as one of the
following:

a senior in high school with plans to pursue an education in

the eld of tribology
an undergraduate student pursuing a degree with tribology
science experience
a graduate student pursuing a degree in the tribology sciences.

McCoy has been a member of STLE for more than 65 years, joining in
the early 1950s when the lubrication industry was clearly male dominated.
While STLEs historical records cannot verify that McCoy was the societys
rst woman member, she was certainly one of the rst, one of the most
active and one of the longest members of STLE.
McCoy began her career working for The Hodson Oil Co., whose
president, Walter Hodson, is credited as the person most responsible
for starting STLE in 1944. In 1952 she began a long career with Interna-
tional Harvester Co. (IHC), retiring in 1985. At that time she began a
consulting company, Jeanie McCoy Technologies, focusing on the prop-
er application and maintenance of metalworking uids.
McCoys technical expertise has helped many organizations improve
the efciency of their operations and extend the life of their metalworking
uids by developing technologies to control bacterial growth. One of her
rst assignments at IHC was addressing bacterial growth at one of the
companys manufacturing plants that was so bad the city forced the plant
to shut down. McCoy developed a chemistry to reduce the contamination
from bacteria growth that solved the immediate issue. She then instituted
a maintenance program to prevent bacterial growth by regularly inspect-
ing the various uids used at all IHC manufacturing facilities.
In 1952 Jeanie applied for membership in the American Society of
Lubrication Engineers (ASLE), which became STLE in 1987. She served as
editor of Lubrication Engineering, ASLEs original technical magazine
that eventually became TLT, for more than two decades. In 1989 she
became the rst woman STLE member to be elevated to the grade of
Fellow, STLEs highest honor for technical excellence and presence in
the eld of tribology and lubrication engineering.
In 1991 the society presented McCoy with the P.M. Ku Meritorious Award
for tirelessly serving STLE and its local sections throughout the U.S.,
Canada and the world with her many education courses and speaking
engagements on metalworking uid maintenance. In 2000, to recognize
her outstanding lifetime contributions to the promotion of tribology and
lubricants, she received the International Award, STLEs highest honor, and
later was named a Life Member of the society.

Demings theories on quality control in mass production would revolutionize the world and rebuild national economies. 5
FROM THE EDITOR
Evan Zabawski
Silk round ball patch
TIGHT WEAVE? SILK. ANOTHER 40
YARDS. This exchange in the lm The Last
of the Mohicans has always caught my inter-
est. It takes place between a member of the
colonial militia and the main character, Hawk-
eye, regarding the type of material Hawkeye is
using as a patch when he loads his long rie
in readiness for a long-distance shot.
I had always presumed that a smoother
fabric would result in less frictional loss as
the shot traveled down the barrel, thereby
resulting in further travel. After revisiting
the lm as it nears its 25th anniversary this
month, I thought I would look a little further
into the validity of Hawkeyes remark, which
does not appear in the text of the original
book by James Fenimore Cooper.
To begin with, the process of loading
a intlock long rie entails standing the
rie upright, pouring in a measured powder
charge, tapping the rie to help settle the
powder, placing a lubricated cloth patch on
the end of the barrel, centering the round
ball (shot) on the patch, starting the bullet
down using a bullet starter, ramming the bul-
let down the bore (using a ramrod) until it
contacts the charge, priming the rie and,
nally, cocking the hammer.
The speed of the ball as it exits the bar-
rel (muzzle velocity) is inuenced by both
the charge and the patch, and this speed
ultimately affects the distance and accu-
racy of the shot. One other factor that only
affects the accuracy is the riing; these are
the helical grooves that impart a spin to the
ball. Pennsylvania ries, like Hawkeyes, typi-
cally had a very slow twist, being less than
one complete turn over the nearly four-foot
length of the barrel, suggesting speed is re-
quired for a fast spin.
The use of silk patches is conrmed in
Holdens Dollar Magazine, Vol. VI, No. III, from
September 1850 and contains an article titled
Three Chapters for Young Sportsmen, written
by Charley Chase, which provides guidance
6 AUGUST 2017
Hollywood fact or ction?
The speed of the ball as it exits the barrel (muzzle velocity) is inuenced by both the
charge and the patch.
regarding patch material selection. It says,
Place your patch for which oiled canvas
or silk will answer, but the nest kid leather,
delicately greased, is the best article square
on the nozzle.
Oiled canvas is simply another term for
waxed cotton, which is cotton impregnated
with beeswax or a parafn-based wax. Other
contemporary documents reference patch
lubricant as commonly being rendered hog
or sheep tallow, frequently mixed with bees-
wax, suggesting the chief difference between
an oiled canvas patch and a silk patch is the
material itself.
The rationale for even using a patch at
all is not to separate the ball from the pow-
der charge, as it is in pellet-loaded ries, but
rather to create a gas-tight seal around the
ball to transfer as much of the energy from
the explosion as possible without cutting the
ball and leaving wear debris in the barrel.
Given a .50-inch bore using a ball measuring
.489-.491 inches, it leaves .0045-.0055 inches
of a gap all the way around the ball. However,
once the .01-inch grooves are factored in as
well, the ideal material thickness becomes
.015 inches .001 inches, which is about the
thickness of card stock paper. Pillow ticking,
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
20th Century Fox Film Corporation
which is a tight weave linen used to prevent
down feathers from poking through the fabric,
has a common thickness of .015 inches but
may range from .010 to .020 inches.
Silk has a very similar thickness but a
higher tensile strength, which may have
greater resilience in preserving the seal
around the ball as it travels the length of the
barrel. This is reinforced by Henry Wilkinson
(of Wilkinson Sword fame, a company now
known for making shaving razors) when he
wrote in his 1841 Engines of War, I have found
silk patches the best for very ne shooting,
as they admit of using a larger ball than any
other material without tearing or cutting, in
forcing down the barrel.
At least I have a better understanding of
the logic and that it is not a friction-related
decision, but hard data could prove if it actu-
ally yields greater distance.
Evan Zabawski, CLS, is the
senior technical advisor for
TestOil in Calgary, Alberta,
Canada. You can reach him at
ezabawski@testoil.com.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
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HEADQUARTERS REPORT
Edward P. Salek, CAE / Executive Director
Albert Einsteinyoung professional
The edgling genius needed a break. He got it thanks to a reluctant
mentor and a lecture at an association conference.
M Y SUMMER READING LIST INCLUDED
Einstein: His Life and Universe, a biogra-
phy written in 2007 by Walter Isaacson,
CEO of The Aspen Institute and a former
head of CNN. Hes written a number of
other biographies, including a more re-
cent best seller about Steve Jobs. This
earlier work by Isaacson came to my at-
tention after watching an episode of the
National Geographic network television
series titled Genius, which was based on
the book.
In one of the opening chapters, Isaa-
cson describes Einsteins struggles as a
young professional in Switzerland during
the rst decade of the 20th Century. Ein-
stein already had achieved a certain
prominence by publishing more than 20
revolutionary papers that had been no-
ticed by the giants in the eld of theo-
retical physics. His list of admirers in-
cluded Max Planck (the originator of
quantum theory) and Arnold Sommerfeld
(famous in the lubrication world for the num-
ber that bears his name).
Somewhat surprisingly, Einsteins scien-
tic research was basically being done in his
spare time. To earn a living, he was working
as a patent examiner in Bern, Switzerland. His
repeated efforts to join the academic world
had not been successful. At one point he even
applied for a job teaching high school math-
ematics but failed to make it into the top tier
among 21 candidates for the position.
Einsteins luck changed thanks to assis-
tance by Alfred Kleiner, a professor of physics
at the University of Zurich, who had helped
Einstein get his doctorate in 1905. Although
eager to assist his protg, Kleiner encoun-
tered some reservations after sitting through
a clumsy lecture Einstein gave as a sort of
8 Deming is credited for the Japanese Industrial Miracle where Japan not only recovered from the ruin of WWII but quickly emerged as a world economic leader.
The principle that launched Einsteins career
in 1909 is still relevant for STLE members
in 2017.
guest instructor at the University of Bern. He
informed Einstein that he was hesitant to
nominate him for a faculty position in Zurich.
But Einstein persisted and delivered a
February 1909 lecture to the Zurich Physics
Society that turned his reluctant mentor into
an advocate. Einstein was recommended for
a faculty position, approved by a secret vote
of the Zurich faculty and joined the university
as a 30-year-old junior professor in October
1909. By 1921 he would receive the Nobel Prize
in Physics. His remarkable achievements con-
tinued for the next 35 years until his death in
April 1955.
What lessons can be learned from this
sliver of history? For anyone starting a career,
the message is that associations are a place
where you can bring your skills to the attention
of people who make decisions that affect
your future. It was true in 1909, apparently,
and it certainly is true at STLE in 2017.
For those more experienced people
who are on the other side of the equation,
take the time and have the patience to be
a supportive mentor. Consider how differ-
ent the world might be if professor Klein-
er did not have a change of heart about
Einstein after sitting in on his disorga-
nized classroom lecture.
Finally, be persistent. According to
Isaacson, Kleiners criticism stung Einstein
and caused him to take the Zurich society
lecture much more seriously than the
classroom lecture in Bern. Theres much to
be said for requesting a second chance and
then making the most of the opportunity
as Einstein did in this instance.
Finally, a thought that applies to many
situations: Judge people by their poten-
tial, not by their background, appearance
or current position. In 1909 Einstein was a
patent examiner with limited teaching skills,
early signs of his trademark unruly appear-
ance and an amazing capability to conduct
thought experiments that would unlock the
secrets of our universe. Try not to ignore sub-
stance because of the supercial.
If youre looking for a good book to close
out the summer, I can recommend Einstein:
His Life and Universe by Walter Isaacson. And,
if youre searching for a place to build your
career, make STLE your professional home.
You can reach Certied
Association Executive Ed Salek
at esalek@stle.org.
TECH BEAT
Dr. Neil Canter / Contributing Editor

Printing batteries
A 2,000-year-old technique can place a stretchable battery
on fabrics or on materials that adhere to the skin.

FINDING WAYS TO MAKE SMALL ELECTRON- The value of this nding is that the performance. It also is expensive to
ICS more user friendly and exible con- device was comfortable for the user in prepare this battery.
tinues to be a research objective. Har- contrast to conventional batteries that A promising way to prepare a
nessing these devices can be useful in have stiff surfaces and are not compat- stretchable battery is through a tech-
a wide range of applications, including ible for use with individuals, particu- nique known as screen printing. This is
those related to medical sensors, textile larly during periods of exercise. a method that has been used for nearly
optics and soft robotics. The tattoo was developed by the 2,000 years and involves applying an
In a previous TLT article, a exible research group of Joseph Wang, Dis- ink to a substrate through the use of a
biofuel cell in the form of a temporary tinguished Professor and chair of the mesh stencil which also is known as a
skin tattoo was developed.1 The fuel nanoengineering department at the screen. Screen printing is used in many
used by this device was lactate acces- University of California San Diego in applications such as applying designs
sible from human sweat found on the La Jolla, Calif. Rajan Kumar, graduate to T-shirts.
skin. In testing, the biofuel cell was able student working with professor Wang,
to maintain power output at 50% of its points out the problems in trying to use
original value for a four-week period. conventional batteries in small wear-
The researchers developed
able electronics. He says, Batteries are
a very appealing option for use in small an ink containing a zinc-silver
electronics, but their use is limited be- oxide that was mixed with a
cause they are rigid and bulky. Exam-
KEY CO
CONCEPTS
C S ples include coin cells, button batteries
binder consisting of a
and pouch batteries. polystyrene-polyisoprene-
Stretchable batteries that can
Several approaches have been polystyrene (SIS) block
be used in exible electronics taken to develop stretchable batter-
have been prepared
prepar d by ies that would be better designed for copolymer.
appl
applying
p ng an ink too a substrate
ssubst
b t ate
tee use in exible electronics. Kumar says,
such as a T-shirt through a Two of the approaches used to prepare
technique
technique
q known as screen stretchable batteries are known as de- Kumar and his colleagues have now
terministic composite and the random successfully used screen printing to
printing.
composite fabrication. The determinis- place a stretchable battery on fabrics
A new ink binder known as SIS tic battery is arranged in a coil that can or on materials that adhere to the skin.
show exibility when uncoiled. Limi-
works well because it combines
co b ess STYRENE ISOPRENE
tations for this technique include the
elasticity
l t ty withth hardness.
h d expense of fabricating the battery and BLOCK COPOLYMERS
also the loss of effective operating area. The researchers developed an ink con-
During
Duringg testing
t t g thee battery
b ttery was
waas
In a random battery, exible elastomers taining a zinc-silver oxide that was
stt etched
stretched
t h d too an elongation
elongg t n of are combined with traditional battery mixed with a binder consisting of a
1,300%
300%% without
th t suffering
fffering a loss
loosss powders. This helps with stretchabil- polystyrene-polyisoprene-polystyrene
in performance. ity, but the non-conductive properties (SIS) block copolymer. Kumar says,
of the elastomer lead to diminished We initially worked with a zinc-based

10 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 Figure 1 | A stretchable zinc-based battery was screen printed as the word NANO on a white T-shirt and is powering a lit green LED.
(Figure courtesy of the University of California San Diego.)
battery because it has a high charge
density and is more stable than lith-
ium batteries but is not rechargeable.
The problem with lithium batteries is
that this type of processing may lead
them to catch on re. We feel that
screen printing can be done with any
type of battery.
One of the unique aspects of this
battery is the use of SIS as a new elas-
tic binder. The researchers evaluated a
series of polymers but could not iden-
tify a suitable one due to a number of
problems. Kumar says, We looked at
the top carbon-based binders, but they
exhibited bad performance in part be-
cause of poor elasticity. The unique
structure of SIS was found to be ap-
pealing because it combines the elas-
ticity of long polyisoprene chains (the
homopolymer is natural rubber) with
the hardness of two short polystyrene
terminal ends.
Kumar indicates that SIS is a highly
stable binder that will allow battery ink
According to legend, U.S. manufacturers rejected Demings theories, prompting him to introduce them to the Japanese.
to sit in storage for a week without de-
stabilizing. A minimal amount of SIS
also can be used.
To illustrate the performance of
the stretchable battery, the research-
ers screen printed it onto a stretch-
able textile as shown in Figure 1. Then
they stretched, crushed and indented
the textile multiple times. The screen-
printed battery was stretched to an
elongation of 1,300% without losing
any performance. Kumar says, One
analysis tool used was to evaluate the
strain the stretchable battery was sub-
jected to in real time.
A major problem seen by research-
ers is the formation of cracks that oc-
cur during stretching. Kumar says,
Electrolytes can seep into the crack
leading to a drop-in voltage and as a
consequence reduce performance.
Future work will involve boosting
the performance of the printed battery
and enabling it to recharge so that it
can be used over a longer operating
timeframe. A factor that may help the
researchers with durability is that most
printed batteries may not need to be
stretched by 100%. Kumar says, We
believe that stretching to 50% may be
adequate for most applications.
The stretchable battery prepared
by screen printing exhibits the highest
capacity and discharge current density
to date. Additional information can be
found in a recent article2 or by contact-
ing Kumar at rak010@ucsd.edu.
REFERENCES
1. Canter, N. (2014), A new type of
tattoo, TLT, 70 (11), pp. 8-9.
2. Kumar, R., Shin, J., Yin, L., You,
J., Meng, Y. and Wang, J. (2017),
All-printed, stretchable Zn-Ag2O
rechargeable battery via hyper-
elastic binder for self-powering
wearable electronics, Advanced
Energy Materials, 7 (8), 1602096.
11
TECH BEAT
Photoelectrochemical generation of
hydrogen over 100% quantum efciency
A new photoelectrochemical cell generates better performance than
a photovoltaic cell using the same anode and cathode electrodes.
FINDING APPROACHES TO INCREASE THE
EFFICIENT CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY
into electricity and other useful prod-
ucts is a continuing focus of research.
A good deal of attention has been paid
to working with perovskitescrystal-
line materials containing organic and
inorganic components.
A previous TLT article discussed
research to determine the efciency
of perovskites.1 A technique known as
scanning photocurrent microscopy was
used to measure the diffusion length
KE CONCEPTS
KEY CO C TS
A photoelectrochemical cell has
bee developed that exhibits a
been
quantum efciency exceedingg
100% inin the
thee ultraviolet-visible
ult a o et s b e
light range.
The cell used a technique known
as multiple exciton generation
that enables one high-energy
high-ene g
photon to generate multiple
electrons.
The researchers achieved this
resultt by splitting hydrogen
result
sulde into its elemental
species, hydrogen and sulfur.
12 AUGUST 2017
for an organmetallic halide perovskite.
This parameter represents the distance
that an electron or a hole passes from
the point of generation until either the
two species recombine or the electrons
are extracted into an electric eld. To
improve efciency, the diffusion length
must be extended. For this specic
perovskite, the diffusion length is be-
tween 10-20 microns.
The use of solar energy to produce
hydrogen through the splitting of water
can be done by a number of methods.
One attractive approach is through a
photoelectrochemical process where
semiconductor electrodes convert so-
lar energy into the chemical energy of
hydrogen.
Yong Yan, assistant professor in the
chemistry and environmental science
department at the New Jersey Institute
of Technology in Newark, N.J., says,
There are three obstacles in the way
of efciently producing hydrogen using
photoelectrochemistry. A material must
be used that absorbs solar energy in a
similar fashion to solar panels. The cat-
alytic process for producing electrons
and holes must be more effective to ef-
ciently reduce water to hydrogen and
oxidize water to form oxygen. These
two processes must be compatible with
each other.
The challenge facing researchers is
to maximize the external quantum ef-
ciency, which is dened as the ratio
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
of the number of electrons collected by
the photoelectrode cell per second to
the number of photons incident on the
photoelectrode per second. Yan says,
This process is particularly
effective at wavelengths of
450 nanometers and lower
where a 10%-20% efciency
boost from MEG is achieved.
When a photon interacts with the
electrode, one electron and one hole
pair are produced. The problem is that
high-energy photons having energy
levels greater than the semiconductor
band gap produce high-energy species
needing to relax. Unfortunately these
species dissipate the extra energy as
heat leading to a loss of efciency.
An approach that can be used to
capture this extra kinetic energy is
known as multiple exciton generation
(MEG). Yan says, In MEG, one high-
energy photon can generate multiple
excitons and then electrons leading to
the potential for increasing the external
quantum efciency above 100%.
Yan indicates that production of
two electron-hole pairs can boost the
W W W. ST L E .O RG

external quantum efciency to 200%.
Development of a photoelectrochemi-
cal process that can boost the efciency
above 100% and also utilize photons in
the more readily available, ultraviolet-
visible light range may lead to a more
efcient approach for producing hy-
drogen. Such a process has now been
realized.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE SPLITTING
Yan and his colleagues developed a
photoelectrochemical cell that exhibits
an external quantum efciency exceed-
ing 100% in the ultraviolet-visible light
range. He says, Our system contains
an anode consisting of a lead sulde
quantum dot electrode deposited on
top of a uorine-doped tin oxide/ti-
tanium dioxide dielectric stack and a
cathode prepared from platinum.
Yan continues, Quantum dots
consist of small quantities of semi-
conductor particles a few nanometers
in diameter that exhibit specic band
gaps. These materials are very good
at absorbing energy and generating
electrons and holes. For our work, we
chose lead sulde because this com-
pound has generated high MEG ef-
ciency in the past.
Figure 2 shows an image of the pho-
toelectrode and the photoelectrochemi-
cal cell. The anode was placed in a one
molar sodium sulde aqueous solution
to facilitate ion ow and the cathode
W W W. ST L E .O RG
was as in a phosphate-buffered solution
in a separate compartment.
The anode is exposed to white
light that was passed through a mono-
chromator where electrons, holes and
hydrogen cations are produced. Elec-
trons and hydrogen cations then move
to the cathode where reduction leads
to the formation of hydrogen gas. The
holes oxidize sulde to form free sulfur,
which is dissolved in the sodium sul-
de solution. A salt bridge was present
to connect the anode to the cathode
completing the electric circuit and en-
abling sodium and hydrogen cations to
move from the anode to the cathode.
Yan says, In fact, we are splitting
hydrogen sulde into its elemental spe-
cies, hydrogen and sulfur.
The cathode is kept in the dark to
ensure that there is no interference
with the light-illuminated anode. The
researchers measured the amount of
hydrogen generated at the anode to the
known number of incident photons at
a specic wavelength. In adjusting the
wavelength of light, they found that the
external quantum efciency reached
up to 120% with MEG producing two
low-energy electrons from a single
high-energy photon. This process is
particularly effective at wavelengths
of 450 nanometers and lower where a
10%-20% efciency boost from MEG
is achieved.
Yan indicates that this photoelectro-
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 2 | A photoelectrode
(left) was used in the
photochemical cell on the
right to achieve a quantum
efciency greater than
100% in the generation of
hydrogen from solar energy.
(Figure courtesy of New Jersey
Institute of Technology.)
chemical cell generates better perfor-
mance than a photovoltaic cell using
the same anode and cathode electrodes.
He says, In this system, it is very dif-
cult for the photovoltaic cell to produce
an external quantum efciency above
100%. The problem is the hole recom-
bination and the interference light ab-
sorption by the titanium dioxide in the
ultraviolet-visible light range.
For the future, Yan is working to de-
velop a photoelectrochemical cell that
will split water. He says, We need a
better approach with more stable and
applicable reactions that can take place
at the anode and cathode.
Additional information can be
found in a recent reference2 or by con-
tacting Yan at yong.yan@njit.edu.
REFERENCES
1. Canter, N. (2017), Unraveling
the effectiveness of perovskite
solar cells, TLT, 73 (4), pp.
12-13.
2. Yan. Y., Crisp, R., Gu, J., Cherno-
mordik, B., Pach, G., Marshall, A.,
Turner, J. and Beard, M. (2017),
Multiple exciton generation for
photoelectrochemical hydrogen
evolution reactions with quantum
yields exceeding 100%, Nature
Energy, 2, Article Number: 17052.
AUGUST 2017 13
TECH BEAT

Hexagonal close-packed
high-entropy alloy
The new material is radiation resistant, making nuclear reactors
a potential application.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ALLOYS con- ber was discussed.1 For the example arrangements. Face-centered cubic
tinues as researchers strive for materials of ve metals, each element would be materials exhibit high symmetry, which
that combine properties such as strength present in a high-entropy alloy at a con- means that planes of atoms can readily
and ductility that are not normally centration of 20%. A high-entropy alloy move relatively to one another. This
found together in most conventional al- based on mixing equal percentages of leads this type of alloy to be highly
loys. Most alloys usually consist of one aluminum, lithium, magnesium, scan- ductile in nature.
metal in a high percentage, which limits dium and titanium was discussed. The Few high-entropy alloys to date
the available alloy compositions. researchers who prepared this high- have been present in hexagonal close-
In a previous TLT article, a new class entropy alloy found that it displayed a packed structures and those that are
of high-entropy alloys that contains ve higher strength-to-weight ratio than any typically contain uncommon and ex-
or more metals in roughly equal num- other existing metal. pensive elements. Tracy says, The ap-
Dr. Cameron Tracy, post-doctoral re- peal of hexagonal close-packed alloys is
searcher in the department of geological that they are lower symmetry systems
sciences at Stanford University in Stan- and tend to be very hard and brittle.
KE CONCEPTS
KEY CO C TS ford, Calif., says, High-entropy alloys Ideally the way to develop a versa-
have enormous potential because there tile high-entropy alloy is to combine
A new high-entropyy alloyy has are many ways to combine metals in high strength with good ductility. In
been developed
de ped by converting equal concentrations. They can exhibit effect, can a material that is present
a material with a face-centered properties not found in conventional al- in both the face-centered cubic and
loys. High-entropy alloys that have been hexagonal close-packed orientations
cubic atomic arrangement to a
prepared display greater fracture tough- be prepared? Such a material has now
hexagonal close-packed
ness (or strength per unit mass) than been developed.
structure under high pressure. nearly all conventional alloys.
A second advantage for high-entro- HIGH PRESSURE
After
tter the pressure is relieved,
py alloys is the wide variety of metals Tracy and his fellow researchers decid-
the resulting alloy contains potentially will enable researchers to ed to take a well-known high-entropy
both face-centered and develop materials with many different alloy that was prepared from an equi-
h gonal close-packed
hexagonal close-pp ked combinations of properties. Tracy says, molar mixture of chromium, manga-
st uctu es leading
structures le g to the With the development of high-entropy nese, iron, cobalt and nickel and com-
potential to design
design
g materials
matte als alloys, researchers are not constrained pressed this material under increasing
by having to work with specic ele- pressure to produce a slow transfor-
with specic hardness
ha d s and
ments on the periodic table. mation from a face-centered cubic to
d tility properties.
ductility prop t es. The initial types of high-entropy al- a hexagonal close-packed structure.
loys produced have originated from a He says, We selected this particular
The transition
tr tion between
variety of metals but have been limited high-entropy alloy because it has been
stt uctu
structures
t es is probably
prob blly high by their lattice structure. Tracy says, widely studied over the past decade
because it is hard for atoms to Most of the high-entropy alloys de- and exhibits such positive characteris-
move around and
a d diffuse. veloped either consist of face-centered tics as good corrosion resistance, oxida-
cubic or body-centered cubic atomic tion resistance and strength.

14 Deming acquired a bachelors degree in electrical engineering at the University of Wyoming. He worked his way through college as a janitor.

Figure 3 | High-entropy alloys produced by manipulating the arrangement of the atoms
could lead to unique materials that could be used commercially in applications where
ferrous alloys are commonly used. (Figure courtesy of Stanford University.)
The alloy is prepared by arc-melt-
ing the metals under an argon atmo-
sphere followed by drop-casting to
produce an ingot. High-pressure ex-
periments were performed by taking
powder from the ingot and placing
it in a symmetric, diamond anvil cell
in which the material is squeezed be-
tween two ultra-hard diamonds.
X-ray diffraction showed that a
transformation to a hexagonal close-
packed structure starts when a pressure
of 14 gigapascals is applied to the high-
entropy alloy. The researchers increased
the pressure to a maximum of 54
gigapascals. As the pressure increased,
the ratio of hexagonal close-packed to
face-centered cubic material increased.
When asked about the reasons for
using high pressure, Tracy commented
that his background in studying geol-
ogy under high pressures in the Earths
core where metals are present led to the
current work evaluating high-entropy
alloys. He says, We felt high-entropy
alloys have unique thermodynamic and
magnetic properties that can change
under pressure.
The breakdown in magnetism un-
der high pressure appears to be very
W W W. ST L E .O RG
important in enabling this phase trans-
formation to occur. Tracy says, Com-
putational analysis shows that the dis-
appearance of magnetism can promote
a change from a face-centered cubic to
a hexagonal close-packed structure un-
der ambient pressure. The application
of pressure to a material typically re-
duces its magnetism. As the magnetism
of this high-entropy alloy breaks down
at high pressure, the order of the alloy
also breaks down as planes of atoms
slowly shift into a hexagonal close-
packed conguration.
Once the pressure is relieved and
the alloy reverts to ambient pressure, a
segment of the hexagonal close-packed
structure moves back to a face-centered
cubic, but the high-entropy alloy re-
tains a good deal of the hexagonal
close-packed structure. Tracy says,
This behavior is unusual because in
most other cases the metal alloy will
completely revert back to its original
state. We are not sure why this specic
high-entropy alloy is different. One
theory is that the hexagonal close-
packed structure is in a metastable
state. To see if this is the case, we are
leaving samples at ambient pressure for
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
a few years to see if the high-entropy
alloy reverts back to a face-centered
cubic structure.
Tracy believes that the move to the
hexagonal close-packed geometry leads
to a distorted structure where it is hard
for atoms to move around and diffuse.
The barrier for moving to a face-cen-
tered cubic could be energetically high.
The slow transition between phases
may enable the ratio of the face-cen-
tered cubic to hexagonal close-packed
to be adjusted to vary the hardness and
ductility to meet specic applications.
This may lead to the commercialization
of such alloys (see Figure 3). One ap-
plication is for use in nuclear reactors
because high-entropy alloys are very
resistant to radiation damage.
Future work will be done to see
how subjecting the face-centered cu-
bic high-entropy alloy to elevated tem-
peratures (ranging from 5-1,000 C)
while under pressure affects the phase
transformation. Tracy says, Elevated
temperatures have been found to also
decrease magnetism.
Other work will include evaluating
different high-entropy alloys under
high pressure and evaluating the me-
chanical properties of these alloys. Ad-
ditional information can be found in a
recent article2 or by contacting Tracy at
cltracy@stanford.edu.
REFERENCES
1. Canter, N. (2015), High-entropy
alloys, TLT, 71 (3), pp. 14-15.
2. Tracy, C., Park. S., Rittman, D.,
Zinkle S., Bei, H., Lang, M.,
Ewing, R. and Mao, W. (2017),
High pressure synthesis of a
hexagonal close-packed phase of
the high-entropy alloy CrMnFe-
CoNi, Nature Communications, 8,
Article Number: 15634.
Neil Canter heads his own
consulting company, Chemical
Solutions, in Willow Grove, Pa.
Ideas for Tech Beat can be
submitted to him at
neilcanter@comcast.net.
AUGUST 2017 15
MARKET TRENDS
Sharbel Luzuriaga

Lubricant growth in Latin

America and the Caribbean
Can Stock Photo / monstersparrow

KEY CONCEPTS New economic models are

Latin America and
a d thee Caribbean are driving demand with Brazil,
among the worlds fastest-growing
lubricant-consuming regions. Mexico, Argentina and Chile
The
hee market
rket is expected to maintain
maintain
ta leading the way.
a shift toward technological
development,, as more advanced
engine oil
o performance grades enter
ente ALTHOUGH LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN contribute about
slightly less than 10% of the global nished lubricant demand,
in thee ne
near future.
the region remains one of the worlds fastest-growing lubricant-
The region
regi n iss characterized by high consuming regions, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of about 2% over the next ve years.
price sensitiveness, counterfeit
However, this general picture is primarily shaped by two ma-
products, parallel
p ll l imports
imp ts and low
low
w jor regional dominant players, namely Brazil and Mexico (see
end-user awareness
awarenes
aw ess of the benets Figure 1). These two countries display more conservative growth,
of lubricants.
lubr
b icants
ts. hiding several smaller but dynamic markets such as Chile, the
Dominican Republic, Panama and Costa Rica, where lubricant

16 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 observed in major energy and commodity-exporting countries
in South America, and less pronounced in net oil importers
in Central America.
In an attempt to remain less vulnerable to external turbu-
lences, local governments across the region have (or are in the
process of) implemented policy reforms, albeit at a varying
degree of success, in each country. The goal is to transform
heavily export-reliant markets into more competitive econo-
mies with a robust middle class and strong domestic market.
Therefore, it is paramount for lubricant suppliers operating
in Latin America and the Caribbean to be agile, offering a
lubricant product portfolio matching the emerging consump-
tion patterns in a region transitioning from high raw material
price/low nancing cost economies to low raw material prices/
high nancing cost economies.

NEW GROWTH AREAS

Beyond the Golden Decade there is a new era of growth
emerging in the Latin American and Caribbean nished lu-
bricants market; savvy lubricant suppliers must be open to
addressing new market needs.
Kline estimates the Latin American and Caribbean nished
lubricants market at around 3.7 million metric tons in 2015,
with the largest countries, including Brazil, Mexico and Ar-
gentina, accounting for more than 60% of the nished lubri-
cant demand in the region. By market segment, the industrial
segment accounts for 37% of demand, while the commercial
and consumer automotive segments represent 33% and 30%
shares of the total demand, respectively (see Figure 2).

Figure 1 | Finished lubricant demand in Latin America and the

Caribbean by country for 2015.

demand is posting above-average industry growth, as reported

by Kline in its recently published study titled Opportunities in
Lubricants: Latin America and Caribbean Market Analysis. In
this report, 17 countries from the Latin American and Carib-
bean region are covered.

REGIONAL DISPARITIES
The region exhibits remarkable disparities in growth between
commodity-exporting South American countries, compared
to more highly U.S.-reliant economies in Mexico and Central
America.
Following a bonanza fueled by soaring commodity prices
and exports to cater to Chinas insatiable appetite for raw
materials, the regional economies started to feel the adverse
effects of external and internal turbulences, ending a period
of economic expansion in the period spanning 2003-2013,
also known as the Golden Decade for the region. Due to het-
Figure 2 | Finished lubricant demand growth by segment for
erogeneity in Latin America, the extent of the negative impact the 2015-2025 period.
varies across the region, with the most negative impact being

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 17

 The regional finished lubricant
market can be characterized by qual-
ity shifts promoted by the renovation
of the local car parc (i.e., total number
of cars in a country or region) and the
modernization of the industrial sec-
tor reconguring to more added-value
manufacturing activities. The industrial
lubricant segment is dominated by ex-
tractive and related industries, such as
quarrying, mining, gas and oil extrac-
tion and rening, but also activities re-
lated to the processing of commodity
products for exports, including agricul-
tural and food-processing products, as
well as textile and light manufactur-
ing. The automotive and its associated
component supply industries consti-
tute another important market outlet
for lubricant consumption, notably in
Brazil and Mexico. The textile indus-
try is a key GDP contributor in Cen-
tral America and Mexico, with a dense
network of maquiladoras operating
in counties like Honduras, Guatemala
and El Salvador. Sugar cane cultivation,
and its processing industries, including
bioethanol and biomass for power gen-
eration, is creating demand for indus-
trial nished lubricants in Brazil and
Central America.
Process oils, hydraulic uids and
industrial engine oils accounts for
about 70% of the total industrial n-
ished lubricant consumption in Latin
America and the Caribbean. Process
oils are in relatively high demand and
nd application mostly in the food
processing, chemical, pharmaceutical
manufacturing, textile and rubber in-
dustries. Hydraulic uids are mainly
used in mining, steel manufacturing
and machinery. In terms of demand by
grade, the most demanded hydraulic
uid grade in Latin America is AW 68.
By industry, the mining industry rep-
resents the largest end-use application
for industrial lubricants in Chile, Peru
and Bolivia.
Within industrial engine oils, ma-
rine oils are the largest subcategory in
Latin America. In some countries like
Panama and Ecuador, it is reported that
some portion of the engine oils classi-
ed as marine are used in power gen-
18 Deming started his career teaching mathematics and then physics at the Colorado School of Mines while pursuing a masters degree
eration. In general, there are two types
of maritime engine oils: 2T and 4T. The
most common viscosity is monograde
SAE 40, followed by SAE 50 and SAE
30. All maritime oil requirements can
be met with these grades. Some of the
largest cruise and marine transport
companies prefer to carry lubricant
stock and keep maintenance on board.
This preference among large companies
for in-house maintenance continues to
curb demand for lubricants and ser-
vices at the shipyard.
The commercial automotive seg-
ment is the second most important
outlet for nished lubricants in Latin
Brazil, Mexico and
Argentina account for
more than 60% of
the nished lubricant
demand in the region.
America. Mining, construction, cargo
eet and public transportation, as well
as tourism, are among the most im-
portant market outlets for commercial
lubricants in the region. Given the un-
derdeveloped railroad infrastructure in
the region, the vast majority of all cargo
moved in the region is done via cargo
trucks and vehicles on the countrys
terrestrial highway system.
Latin America is one of the most
urbanized regions in the world, with
more than half of the population liv-
ing in major urban agglomerations.
Latin American commercial lubricant
demand also is composed of pub-
lic transportation eets, such as city
buses, as it is the preferred method of
transportation.
Conventional multigrade HDMO,
15Ws, continue to be the dominant
grade for heavy-duty engine oils in
Latin America, accounting for more
than 50% of the total heavy-duty mo-
tor oil demand in the region, with
sizeable consumption of SAE 30/40/50
monogrades representing 40% share
and high-viscosity multigrades ac-
counting for the balance. Low aware-
ness of the benets of lubricants and
adequate maintenance practices is
a recurrent issue observed in Latin
America. The persisting myth among
Latin American end-users that the
thicker, the better the lubricant has
yet to be completely defeated.
The Latin American consumer lu-
bricant segment is characterized by
high demand for high-viscosity mo-
tor multigrades such as 15Ws but also
20Ws and 25Ws; together, these grades
account for about 60% of the passen-
ger car motor oil demand in the region.
Demand for monogrades remains sig-
nicant (about 20%) in a region where
imports of aged vehicles from the U.S.
are still very popular, despite the vari-
ous initiatives to regulate this activity.
Brazil and Chile have the most modern
car population, with car parcs having
an average age of eight and nine years,
respectively. Contrary to this, Colombia
and Ecuador have some of the oldest
car parcs with an average age around
12 years in both countries. It is worth
mentioning that the Caribbean region
exhibits a strong consumer automo-
tive lubricant segment driven by the
proliferation of private passenger cars
services offering alternatives to means
of public transportation. In the Do-
minican Republic, private cars offering
public transportation services, known
in the local jargon as conchos, are a
popular form of transportation.
Primarily low-quality performance
lubricants are used. There is low pen-
etration of synthetic products and high
growth potential in the premium lubri-
cant product segment. Semi-synthetic
PCMOs have gained ground in some
markets, such as Chile and Costa Rica,
as a result of modernization of the car
parc based on imports of new cars re-
quiring higher quality engine oils.
On the other hand, penetration of
synthetic and semi-synthetic PCMO is
still low in some high-volume markets,
such as Mexico and Colombia, primar-
ily due to the limited knowledge of ve-
hicle owners regarding the benets of
 The regional goal is to transform heavily export-reliant markets into more competitive
economies with a robust middle class and strong domestic market.

synthetic lubricants. Global majors Shell and ExxonMo- LOOKING AHEAD

Lower viscosity grade PCMOs, SAE
0W-XX and SAE 5W-XX, currently ac-
count for a small share of 7% of the to-
tal PCMO demand. These are expected
to expand in 2020 to a share of 14%
and in 2025 to a share of 25% of the
total demand. The large motorcycle
population in Brazil and Colombia are
the largest markets for 2T/4T motor-
cycle oils.
KEY PLAYERS
Major lubricant multinationals remain
the leading market players in Latin
America, although their position is
being challenged by local players suc-
cessfully operating in the mid-tier and
low-tier segments.
bil, the top two suppliers of nished
lubricants in Latin America and the
Caribbean, service the region through
macro distributors and are increasingly
facing erce competition from local/
regional players, such as Petrobras,
Ipiranga (Brazil), Akron (Ex-MexLub),
Roshfrans (Mexico) and YPF (Argen-
tina), among others. Some of these
contenders aspire to achieve more gains
from global majors, which are operat-
ing indirectly through distributors. Lo-
cal suppliers have successfully applied
manufacturing-driven strategies, hav-
ing made inroads in low-tier lubricant
segments, with lock-in blend plant ca-
pacities with private label, service ll
and factory ll contracts.
The outlook for the Latin American n-
ished lubricant market remains bright
despite various challenges.
As the region starts to pick up, it is
entering a new post-recession cycle in
2017. The regional differences emerging
show that growth will not be uniform
and will largely depend on internal po-
litical stability, as well as the stance the
new U.S. administration will take in re-
lation to its southern neighbors.
Uncertainty around Brazils econo-
my, the largest market in South Ameri-
ca, which is immersed in a deep reces-
sion, combined with high volatility of
crude oil prices, are some of the factors
deterring a more robust growth in the
region. Since China became a major

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at the University of Colorado. He went on to accept a scholarship and acquire a doctorate in mathematics and physics at Yale in 1928. 19
 importer of South American commodi-
ties during the last decade, from crops
like soya to meat, metals and crude oil,
the slowdown of the Chinese economy
also has affected the regions growth.
With overall volumes continuing to
decline in Brazil during the 2016-2017
biennial, the main challenge in the lu-
bricants industry is keeping protabil- Figure 3 | Forecast lubricant demand in Latin America and the Caribbean for 2015-2025.
ity levels and avoiding value destruc-
tion in search of higher volume share.
However, Brazil is forecast to start
recovering by 2018 in the best-case sce-
nario. This will be driving demand for
PCMOs, which are estimated to grow at
a CAGR of 2.5% through 2025. Mexi-
co, Central America and the Caribbean
will post robust growth due to a closer
connection with the U.S., as well as
benets arising from the low crude oil
prices, given the fact that this regional
cluster is a net importer of crude oils,
except for Mexico.
Furthermore, the vehicle parc is
based on secondhand imports where
primarily low-quality performance lu-
bricants are used. There is minor pen-
etration of synthetic products, as well
as a signicant presence of counterfeit
products.
The market is expected to maintain
a shift toward technological develop-
ment, as more advanced engine oil
performance grades enter in the near
future. However, this development
Figure 4 | Key growth products in Latin America and the Caribbean for 2015-2025.
evolves faster in larger markets, such as
Brazil, Chile and Mexico. Convention-
al multigrade PCMOs, 15Ws, 20Ws,
25Ws and SAE 40/50 will progressive- 2020 and 4.3 million metric tons in quiring a different set of competences to
ly lose ground, favoring premium 5Ws 2025, with Brazil, Mexico, Argentina be successful in a region characterized
and 0Ws fuel economy grades. These and Chile leading the way (see Figure by high price sensitiveness, counter-
are expected to expand in 2020 to a 3). Future growth in the region will be feiting issues, parallel imports and low
share of 15% from 7% in 2015. driven by an increase in exports and end-user awareness of the benets of
Conventional multigrade HDMO, trade deals with North America and lubricants (see Figure 4).
15W-40/50, continues to be the domi- other regions, namely the EU, as well
nant grade for heavy-duty engine oils as countries from the Pacic Rim.
in Latin America. This viscosity grade Penetration of synthetic and semi- Sharbel Luzuriaga is a Project
Manager at Kline & Co. in the
will see a maximum volumetric growth synthetic PCMOs, and HDMO is grow-
Energy practice. You can reach
within the next ve years. Whereas in ing in Latin America and the Caribbean,
him at Sharbel.Luzuriaga@
the industrial segment, process oils along with the modernization of the car
klinegroup.com. Kline is an
(PO), hydraulic uids (HF) and indus- parc. The region poses a high growth international provider of
trial engine oils (IEO) lead the demand. potential for volumetric organic growth. world-class consulting services
Finished lubricant demand in Latin Savvy lubricant suppliers will have to be and high-quality market intelligence for industries
America and the Caribbean is forecast open to putting in place differentiated including lubricants and chemicals. Learn more at
to reach 3.9 million metric tons in lubricant marketing strategies, each re- www.klinegroup.com.

20 For the next 19 years he worked for various branches of the federal government, starting as a mathematical physicist for the Department of Agriculture.
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20 MINUTES WITH
Rachel Fowler / Managing Editor
Michael Stapels
MICHAEL STAPELS:
The Quick File
Michael Stapels is a research chemist
for Kao Chemicals GmbH. He studied
chemistry at the RWTH Aachen Univer-
sity in Germany where he received his
doctorate in polymer chemistry in No-
vember 2001.
After a research associate position
at the Unilever Research Laboratory
Port Sunlight in the UK and other indus-
trial R&D positions, he joined Kao Chemi-
cals in October 2005. In his position as
technical manager and group leader, he
is focused in the development of addi-
tives for the metalworking industry,
which includes the global technical cus-
tomer support.
Stapels has published and presented
papers at numerous technical confer-
ences including STLE Annual Meetings
and the TAE International Colloquium Tri-
bology. He is a member of STLE and is
volunteering in the Metalworking Fluid
Education & Training Subcommittee.
22 Deming also was a lecturer in the National Bureau of Standards, head of the Mathematics and Statistics Division of the Dept.
This research chemist with
Kao Chemicals GmbH discusses
foam countermeasures and why
he recommends ethercarboxylic
acids for the formulation of
metalworking uids.
TLT: How did you become involved with the metalworking
industry?
Stapels: My path to working in metalworking was somewhat
indirect. My rst contact to industry directly after the univer-
sity was in the global R&D center of Unilever in Port Sunlight,
UK. Here I was responsible for testing and optimizing cosmetic
products. During this period I was introduced and captivated by
the art of formulation. The lessons learned in this early stage of
my career are still the fundament even for my current position at
Kao Chemicals where my team develops innovative surfactants
and additives with special focus on the metalworking industry.
TLT: In Europe your company is known as The AKYPO Co.
Please explain this.
Stapels: First of all, this underlines that for our company and for
our customer, the AKYPO brand is a vital and essential part of
our product portfolio. From a chemists point of view, AKYPO
is the brand name for so-called ethercarboxylic acids. Ether-
carboxylic acids can be regarded as interrupted soaps with the
addition of a number of ethylene oxide (and also now available
in combination with propylene oxide) groups between the alkyl
chain and the carboxylate group and can be represented by the
following chemical structure:
 R is derived from fatty alcohols and
is between C4H9 and C18H37. The de-
gree of ethoxylation is represented by
n and usually lies between 2 and 20. M
may be hydrogen (free acid) or a cat-
ion such as sodium or magnesium. In
metalworking application ethercarbox-
ylic acids are typically neutralized with
alkanolamines to give the correspond-
ing ether carboxylate. Ethercarboxylic
acids are very useful co-emulsiers
mainly for the formulation of soluble
oils and semi-synthetics.
TLT: Why do you recommend the
use of ethercarboxylic acids for the
formulation of metalworking uids?
Stapels: In water-miscible metalwork-
ing fluids formulations, emulsifiers
constitute one of the most essential
components. As an integral part of met-
alworking uid concentrates, the emul-
sier stabilizes the resulting emulsion
and furthermore should facilitate tramp
oil removal and ltration during their
whole lifetime. In addition, emulsiers
need to fulll a whole range of further
requirements such as:
Low-foaming tendency
Good heat stability
Good toxicological and dermato-
logical prole.
Keeping in mind that the largest
component of the bulk uid in a met-
alworking process is watertypically
90% or moreit is obvious that the
water quality has a major inuence on
uid stability and longevity. On the one
side, water quality (hardness) differs
drastically from region to region, and
on the other side the electrolyte load
of the uid will increase during pro-
cessing. The decreasing water quality
affects the cutting uids balance nega-
tively. Using ethercarboxylic acids in
the emulsier package decreases the
uids sensitivity toward water quality
signicantly and thus enables long-
time use of a high-performance cut-
ting uid without regional restrictions
or modications.
of Agriculture and chief mathematician and advisor in sampling and survey techniques for the Bureau of Census.
TLT: What are typical misconcep-
tions you are confronted with when
introducing ethercarboxylic acids to
metalworking uid formulators?
Stapels: There are three major miscon-
ceptions:
1. Ethercarboxylic acids are foaming
too much.
2. Ethercarboxylic acids are too
expensive.
3. There is no need for hard water con-
trol because our uids are used in
soft water areas and/or only with wa-
ter from a water treatment system.
Let me start with the last point: You
should never underestimate the effect
of evaporation losses and the quality
of the topping up water. As a rule of
I was introduced and
captivated by the art
of formulation.
thumb you might calculate the follow-
ing: Assuming a 1,000 L bath with a
moderate water quality of 250 ppm,
depending on the evaporation losses
topping up of about 50-200 liters per
day is necessary. If the topping up wa-
ter quality also has a 250 ppm load,
you end up after one or two months
with bath water quality of about 1,000
ppmwhich is a signicant load!
There also are some hidden sources
for increasing water hardness such as
magnesite-bonded grinding wheels.
On the other hand, when using a
water treatment system, you might de-
crease the load of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in
your system on the cost of an increas-
ing Na+ concentration, which also neg-
atively inuences the emulsion quality
and stability.
I will only briey comment on the
price and cost situation. For judging
the performance of ethercarboxylic
acids, you should keep in mind that
the recommended use is not as a main
emulsier but as a co-emulsier with
all its impacts on dosage. If you nd
an optimal balance in your formula-
tion you will be for sure able to reduce
uid maintenance costs and efforts sig-
nicantly, but most important the uid
lifetime will be enhanced. These factors
should denitely be considered in your
price/performance analysis.
TLT: You also mentioned foam. What
kind of countermeasures/recommen-
dations do you provide to potential
users?
Stapels: I would like to highlight two
major points:
Large product range
Formulation know-how.
As The AKYPO Co. we offer a
broad range of different ethercarboxylic
acids. They differ in C-chain length and
degree of alkoxylation. For metalwork-
ing applications there are two main
groups: short-chain ethercarboxylic ac-
idsbased mainly on Hexanol (C6) or
Octanol (C8)and long-chain ether-
carboxylic acids traditionally based on
Oleylalcohol. If you combine these two
groups of ethercarboxylic acids in such
a way that they are tting perfectly to
the rest of your formulation, you will
end up in a formulation that provides
both extraordinary hard water control
and very good foam control.
As the foam control becomes more
and more critical over the years, we de-
veloped special grades of ethercarbox-
ylic acids where we additionally insert
a block of propylene oxide between the
hydrophobic tail and the hydrophilic
head group of the molecule. These
kinds of ethercarboxylic acids are a
viable alternative to standard prod-
ucts because they have signicantly
lower foaming potential in combina-
tion with more efcient emulsica-
tion. The concept of propoxylation in
order to reduce foaming is not limited
to ethercarboxylic acids. Thus, it also
nds widespread use in our industry
(e.g., in alkoxylated alcohols (nonionic
emulsier) and alkoxylated phosphate
esters (anionic emulsier)).
23
TLT: How signicant is the impact
of formulation on the uids perfor-
mance. Can you provide an example
of improved behavior just by an
optimized formulation?

Stapels: Lets choose a low-oil semi-syn-

thetic formulation based on sulfonates
as a starting point (formulation A, ba-
sis in Figure 1).This basis formulation
shows a very high foaming potential
(see Figures 2 and 3). Accordingly the
use of defoamers will be unavoidable
for the nal application. Typically the
rst tests of formulators with ethercar-
boxylic acids and/or nonionics is their
addition to existing formulations, so to
Figure 1 | Semi-synthetic metalworking uid formulations with different emulsier packages.
formulate on top (formulation B).
Doing so, the improvement in foam-
ing behavior is somewhat limited (see
Figures 2 and 3). Therefore, we usually
do not recommend to formulate ether-
carboxylic acids on top but to consid-
erif possiblethe whole emulsier
package. In the given example we op-
timized the amount of sulfonate, fatty
acid, ethercarboxylic acid as well as
the nonionic emulsier. The resulting
optimized formulation (formulation C)
shows an excellent foaming prole as
well as a signicantly increased hard
water tolerance due to the presence of
ethercarboxylic acid.

TLT: How does your lab support the

metalworking industry?

Stapels: As a strategic decision, our lab

in Germany has its main focus on the
metalworking industry. The team is a
sound mixture of synthesis and formu-
lation scientists working hand in hand
in the lab.
Accordingly, one important pillar
for us is to provide mutual support by
our experienced technical sales man-
agers and scientists to our customers
and also to keep contact to the end-
users. Here we can take advantage from
our geographic position in the middle
of Europe where a relevant number of
global key accounts are easily accessi-
ble. It also is very important to under-
stand regional differences from a tech-
nical point of view in order to provide
Figure 2 | Time dependent plot of foam height for 10% w/w dilutions of formulations
containing different emulsier packages at a water quality of 250 ppm. Measurement
includes 10 s of foaming and 20 s of foam collapse, tested with a Krss DFA100 Dynamic
Foam Analyzer.
the best solution to our customers. know-how developed over decades. As
From my point of view, our success a chemist you have lots of possibilities
is invigorated by our close contact to to change a moleculejust to men-
our customers and the vivid discussion tion raw material, synthesis strategies
and joint developments over the last including change stoichiometry, pro-
decade. In order to strengthen this even duction conditions, catalyst, etc. For
more, we are extending our international example, additives coming along with
presence by joining important meetings, the same CAS number may exhibit
conferences and education courses. drastically different behavior in the -
The other important pillar for our nal application. The more you under-
support is the synthesis and product stand the impact of the chemistry on

24 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

METALWORKING
ADDITIVES
AKYPO
AKYPO ROX
AMIDET
Emulsion stability
Lime soap dispersion
Hard water stability
Foam control
Corrosion inhibition
Rinsing and cleaning

ESSENTIALS FOR
LONGER LIFETIME
METALWORKING FLUIDS
Enriching lives,
in harmony with nature.

THE TECHNOLOGY OF KAO SURFACTANTS IN METALWORKING FLUIDS

Distributed in North America by: KAO Chemicals GmbH

Sea-Land Chemical Co. Kupferstr. 1 - D-46446
821 Westpoint Pkwy. Emmerich am Rhein
Westlake - OH 44145 Phone: +49 2822 711 0
Phone: (440) 871-7887 Fax: +49 2822 711 201
marketing@sealandchem.com metalworking@kaochemicals.de
www.sealandchem.com www.kaochemicals-eu.com
 ly accelerated, direct and efcient stability testing and ranking
Figure 3 | Foam height 15 s after shaking for 10% w/w dilutions
of formulations containing different emulsier packages at a
water quality of 250 ppm.
the performance in metalworking, the more reliable you will
be for any customer since metalworking applications are very
sensitive to performance uctuation.
TLT: Describe an important instrument the lab has recently
acquired for supporting research in additives.
Stapels: My current favorite is an analytical centrifuge that
measures instantaneously the extinction of transmitted light
across the full length of a sample. This sounds somewhat so-
phisticated, but with this tool we are able to perform physical-
Automate
Your Viscosity
Testing
Email AutomateMe@cannoninstrument.com
and request our viscosity brochure to learn more
About Us: Since 1938 CANNON Instrument Company has helped
generations of customers improve their viscosity measurement.
Our products meet or exceed international standards specifications
such as ASTM, SAE, ISO and AASHTO.
26 Deming developed his approach to quality management by combining earlier statistical theories of mass production with his own thinking.
of our formulations. By looking at the whole sample, we can
measure stability as well as understand the causes of instabili-
ty (e.g., occulation). Obviously accelerated emulsion testing,
determination of HLB values and increased understanding of
instability is a benet for a producer of emulsiers, but the
last pointranking our formulationsgives a particular link
to metalworking application.
Let me explain why. During this interview I talked quite
a lot about foam. Everybody in our industry knows that the
quality of an emulsion has a huge impact also on the foam-
ing performance as a rule of thumb (with all its limitations):
The more instable the emulsion, the less foamy it is. When
comparing the foaming performance of different formulations,
it is very important to be aware even of minor changes in
the emulsion quality. And this is exactly the point where a
standard rapid measurement with the analytical centrifuge is
benetical (statistically very robust!) by providing a so-called
instability indexwhich is an objective gure allowing to
predict the long-term emulsion stability.
Accordingly we are now able to collect routinely the in-
stability index of our emulsion and correlate other test results
(i.e., foaming performance) with this information.
You can reach Michael Stapels at
michael.stapels@kaochemicals.de.
10 Reasons you
should do it NOW!
1. Reduce subjectivity in timing
measurement
2. Eliminate impact of operator-to-
operator variability
3. Decrease mathematical errors
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6. Shorten time spent on sample
processing and testing
7. Reduce calibration costs
8. Lessen consumable usage and
disposal cost
9. Improve lab safety
10. Increase traceability and
reporting options
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LUBRICATION FUNDAMENTALS
Dr. Robert M. Gresham / Contributing Editor

Words
mean
things
Can Stock Photo / prescott09

Especially when it comes to

3D printing, which could be
KEY CONCEPTS on the verge of ushering in
Additive manufacturing is
a process that builds 3D
a third Industrial Revolution.
objects by adding layer
upon layer of material.

The applications for additive WE HAVE ALL ENDURED SITUATIONS where we thought we had said
manufacturing are virtuallyy things quite clearly and later found that we were completely
misunderstood. This can be quite unsettling, especially if the
limitless.
audience for what we said was quite large. This happened to us
GE Aircraft Engine Grou
Group is in working on the second iteration of the STLE Emerging Trends
Report survey. With careful re-analysis of the results, we should
now printing blades for
for the
be able to correct the error, so not to worry. However, this is an
low-pressure turbine of the example of words mean things, but not necessarily the same
GE9X jet engine, the largest thing to different people.
jet engine ever built.

28 Demings philosophy stressed cooperation among employees rather than competition. It called for
 In our survey, we asked about the
importance of additive manufactur-
ing. As you might guess, most folks
thought it was pretty important. One
group thought it would be more and
more important to manufacture both
old and newly developed additives
for lubricants with better quality and
lower cost. Yet another group thought
that additive manufacturing, based on
3D printing, would be the wave of the
future.
Yup, words mean things!
Lets take a closer look. Additive
manufacture (AM) in this second con-
text is to differentiate between addi-
tive and subtractive manufacturing. In
subtractive manufacturing material is
removed or subtracted from the work
piece. Examples are most machining
operations: sawing, milling, drilling,
grinding, etc. This, of course, results
in a lot of wasted material, which may
or may not be recyclable.
AM is an appropriate name to de-
scribe the technologies that build 3D
objects by adding layer upon layer
of material, whether the material is
plastic, metal, concrete or, one day,
perhaps even human tissue. Futurolo-
gist Jeremy Rifkin has claimed that 3D
printing signals the beginning of a third
industrial revolution succeeding the as-
sembly production line that dominated
manufacturing starting in the late 19th
Century and was popularized by Henry
Ford for building cars.
Common to AM technologies is the
use of a computer 3D modeling soft-
ware (computer-aided design or CAD),
3D machine equipment and layering
material. Once a CAD sketch is pro-
duced, the AM equipment reads in data
from the CAD le and lays downs or
adds successive layers of liquid, pow-
der, sheet material or other materials,
in a layer-upon-layer fashion to fabri-
cate a 3D object. The term AM encom-
passes many technologies including
subsets like 3D printing, rapid proto-
typing (RP), direct digital manufactur-
ing (DDM), layered manufacturing and
additive fabrication.
AM application is limitless. Early
use of AM in the form of rapid pro-
continuous improvement and the use of statistical measurements to track the quality of products.
Figure 1 | TiAl powder and nished components inside an Arcam 3D printer in Cameri,
Italy. (Figure courtesy of Avio Aero.)
totyping focused on preproduction
visualization models. More recently,
AM is being used to fabricate end-use
products in aircraft, dental restora-
tions, medical implants, automobiles
and even fashion products. It also is a
visualization tool in the design process.
Thus, it is a means to create highly
customized products for consumers
and professionals alike. It can be used
for industrial tooling, producing small
lots of production parts and, more and
more, large lots of production parts.
One most notable example is the
use of AM by the General Electric
(GE) Aircraft Engine Group. GEs cen-
terpiece plant is located on the at and
fertile plains that stretch seemingly for-
ever between Italys industrial dynamos
Additive manufacturing
is being used to fabricate
end-use products in
aircraft, dental
restorations, medical
implants, automobiles
and more.
of Milan and Turin, in tiny Cameri, It-
aly. In 2013 GE Aviation acquired Avio
Aero, one of the most advanced Euro-
pean additive manufacturing compa-
nies. They also have bought operations
in Sweden, Germany and now several
locations in the U.S.
The typical palette of materials used
for 3D printing can range in complex-
ity from simple plastics to advanced
superalloys. For example, the GE Au-
burn, Ala., factorys direct metal laser
melting (DMLM) machines create jet
engine fuel nozzles by fusing layers of
ne metal powder with a powerful la-
ser. Each layer is between 20 and 80
microns thick, thinner than a human
hair, and an inch of printed material
can contain up to 1,250 layers. Planes
powered by jet engines that use these
fuel nozzles already are ferrying pas-
sengers across Europe and Asia.
The Cameri plant uses 3D printing
machines that use an electron beam to
fuse together layers of a wonder mate-
rial called titanium aluminide (TiAl),
which is 50% lighter than the previ-
ously used nickel-based alloys (see
Figure 1). The electron gun accelerates
the beam until its several times more
powerful than lasers currently used
for printing metal parts. GE can build
blades from layers that are more than
29
 of the GE9X jet engine, the largest jet engine ever built (see
Figure 2). This engine is a mix of both evolutionary and revo-
lutionary technologies. The GE9X is the most fuel-efcient,
on a per-pounds-of-thrust basis, that GE has ever built. It
delivers 10% improved fuel burn versus the current GE90-
115B powered Boeing 777-300R and a 5% improved specic
fuel consumption versus any twin-aisle engine available plus
achieve an approximate 10:1 bypass ratio, a 60:1 pressure
ration and margin to Stage 5 noise limits.
This is merely one example of what can be done with this
exciting new technology that clearly will be an emerging trend
in many, many industries for years to come. There will still
be tribology issues with the mechanics of the 3D printer and
associated equipment but of a different nature than encoun-
tered in subtractive manufacture. It also is an example that
Figure 2 | Blades are being printed by GE for the low-pressure words mean things, but not necessarily the same thing to
turbine of the GE9X jet engine. different people, especially those who manufacture additives
for lubricants.

four times thicker than those used by laser-powered 3D print-

ers. They say the method is so fast that its competitive with
casting, the standard way to make parts from TiAl. There is
still nal surface nishing, but the material lost is negligible
versus standard subtractive manufacture for the whole part. Bob Gresham is STLEs director of professional development.
GE is now printing blades for the low-pressure turbine You can reach him at rgresham@stle.org.

Performance and service that are

LEADING EDGE
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30 Deming created his System of Profound Knowledge, a comprehensive theory for management organized around 14 Points for Management.
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Dsseldorf, Germany: +49 2115 6112 600 | bl.europe@emeryoleo.com
Telok Panglima Garang, Malaysia: +603 3326 8686 | bl.asia@emeryoleo.com
WEBINARS
Debbie Sniderman / Contributing Editor

Selecting the right

PLANE BEARINGS
They do jobs other bearings cant, but understanding their
heat, friction and material properties is critical.

KEY CONCEPTS

Dissipating the heat

plane bearingss generate
is critical to avoiding
plane bearing failure.
Can Stock Photo / MeisterPhotos

Graphene, Teon and

other additives
additi es affect
slipperiness and wear in
polymer
l plan bearings.
plane

Plane
Pla e bearings offer
Pl offe
advantages for many
applications wh
wheree
rolling bearings cant be
used.

32 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 MEET THE PRESENTER

This article is based on a Webinar originally presented by STLE Education on Aug. 24, 2016. Plane
Bearings is available at www.stle.org: $39 to STLE members, $59 for all others.
Robert Adams is U.S. director of engineering at Serapid, a manufacturer of lifting and moving sys-
tems using rigid chain technology. Adams also is CTO of Tribis Engineering, a company that performs
tribological testing and consulting. He is an adjunct professor at Oakland University, teaching under-
graduate and graduate tribology, and says that plane bearings are his passion. You can reach Adams
at radams@tribis.net.

Robert Adams

PLANE BEARINGS ARE THE SIMPLEST
TYPE OF ALL BEARINGS but also some
of the least understood. For the
purpose of this article, there are two
types of bearings: plane and rolling
element bearings.
Plane bearings are surface contact
bearings that slide. The name comes
from planar contact, but the con-
tact is not always planar. The most
primitive bearings are two at sur-
faces sliding on each other, but plane
bearings can be cylindrical, spherical
or have interesting proles.
A lot goes into selecting plane
bearings. Whether they are low or
high cost, making poor material se-
lections for a given application can
have catastrophic costs.
an apparent contact area is used, and
the frictional force is independent of
this apparent area.
The third law: The coefcient of
sliding friction (also known as the
kinetic friction) is independent of
the sliding velocity.
The fourth law is that kinetic
friction is always less than static
friction. When two surfaces arent
moving, static friction is large. As-
perities micro-weld to each other
and bond. When motion starts and
surfaces slide relative to each other,
the bonds break and dont have time
to fully form again, the friction force
is kinetic. If the kinetic friction were
higher, it would stop the motion.
The coefcient of friction is not
a material property but, rather, a
complex system response. It is re-
lated to surface roughness; environ-
ment such as temperature, vacuum
or atmosphere; working conditions
such as lubricant, load and speed;
and bulk properties. Plane bearings
are part of systems with complex
relationships, and sometimes sur-

BASIC LAWS OF FRICTION

To understand how plane bearings
work, its important to understand
basic laws of friction. The rst law
states that frictional force depends
on the coefcient of friction and
the load carried by the bearing:
F = L (see Figure 1).
The second law: Friction is in-
dependent of apparent area of con-
tact. When two surfaces touch each
other, they arent perfectly confor-
mal and dont touch each other ev-
erywhere. The area where they do
contact is where friction occurs, but
it cant easily be measured. Instead, Figure 1 | Coefcient of friction surface chart for the Igus J plane bearing.

Point 1: Create a constant purpose toward improvement. Plan for quality in the rst place instead of nding detects in the product afterward. 3 3
prising behaviors can be seen in fric-
tion tests. Friction maps showing the
relationships between coefcient of
friction, contact pressure and velocity
of various plane bearings show widely
differently behaviors.
SLIDING FRICTION MECHANISMS
The rst basic mechanism of friction in
plane bearings is asperity interlocking.
As two surfaces slide, asperities may
interlock and shear or tear each other
loose, creating wear debris. In general,
reducing the surface roughness reduces
friction.
Adhesion is the next mechanism.
The Bowden and Tabor adhesive fric-
tion theory says when surfaces con-
tact each other, they bond. On a micro
scale, asperities contact each other and
cause deformation and adhesive bonds.
During sliding, when relative motion
occurs, the bonds rupture at the inter-
face or in the mating bodies. The shear-
ing and breaking of these bonds result
in adhesive friction.
Frictional force caused by adhesion
is proportional to the real area of con-
tact and the shear strength of those ad-
hesive bonds. There is no way to know
the real area where micro-welding oc-
curs, only the apparent area. Robert
Figure 2 | Wear rate surface chart for the Igus J plane bearing.
34 Point 2: Adopt the new philosophy. Embrace quality throughout the organization.
Adams, U.S. director of engineering at
Serapid, says, The force due to friction
cant simply be calculated by looking
up values in a table. But formulas can
help understand the concept of what is
happening in plane bearings.
Bowden and Tabor theorized that fric-
tion was proportional to shear strength of
the material and inversely proportional to
surface hardness: + | oa /H. Maintaining
low shear strength at the points of con-
tact can keep friction down. Increasing
surface hardness also decreases friction.
High degrees of smoothness decrease
asperity interlocking, but there might
be more asperities in contact. Depend-
ing on the material, having a surface
that is too smooth could increase its
friction. Polyamides exhibit this behav-
ior and will have high friction if the
surface is too smooth. The rough sur-
faces in composite materials can shear
and ll in low spots, and soon create a
smooth sliding surface.
LIFE AND FAILURE
To understand how long a bearing
will last, its important to look at wear.
There are three wear models, each ac-
cepted and used by different people.
The volumetric wear rate, also
known as the Archard wear rate, is used
mainly in academia. It is the volume
of material that is removed per unit
of time, typically per hour since wear
rates are low.
The specic wear rate is unitless
and species how much material is
worn in nanometers per meter of slid-
ing distance, in nm/m (see Figure 2). It
is related to the volumetric wear rate by
the contact pressure. Divide volumetric
wear rate by contact pressure to get the
specic wear rate.
The traditional wear model is the
PV model, or wear velocity. Its com-
monly seen in commercial catalogs and
literature, but its units are complex,
and I dont advise using it, Adams
says. Wear rates are typically in terms
of 10E-9 inches of wear per hour. It is
calculated from contact sliding pres-
sure, velocity and a material constant
according to:
w=PVk
w = Wear velocity
P = Contact pressure
V = Sliding velocity
k = Material constant
The PV power model is used in
industry and has made its way into
standards, specs and requirements.
But for plane bearings, bearing life is
really dened by the amount of allow-
able wearhow much material can be
lost, Adams says. Depending on the
application, allowable wear may be
anywhere from a few hundred microns
to a few millimeters. In rolling element
bearings, bearing life is generally based
on fatigue. There is no fatigue in plane
bearings.
The units of PV can be written as
Watts/mm2. This implies that PV is a
power model and is interpreted as the
amount of energy that can go into the
bearing at its surface before it fails.
Graphs in bearing material catalogs
show wear tests with time at various
PV values. At higher PV, the wear rate
is higher.
PV graphs start with design crite-
ria and designate safe areas that take
into account max pressure, max sliding
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 velocity and a safe PV value (often be-
low 10,000 psi ft/min). But following
these rules you will still fail, Adams
says. Using the PV factor assumes it
is proportional to wear. In reality, the
thermal limit is what causes bearing
failure (see Figure 3). Always take PV
limits on plane bearings with a grain of
salt. People demand them and manu-
facturers provide them because theyre
requested in specications, but manu-
facturers wont stand by them.
Plane bearings generate heat at their Figure 3 | Plane bearing thermal failure. Figure 4 | Fan bushing thermal failure.
surfaces. If it cant be dissipated it over-
heats, causing bearing failure (see Fig-
ure 4). A more useful tool is to look thumb, a conservative estimate of heat dicator of material capability. The PV
at the amount of heat generated at the generation may be made by assuming limit found is highly dependent on the
surface of a plane bearing given by: the coefcient of friction to be 0.25. heat dissipation capability of the test
Performing a thermal analysis of the system. Depending on the test system,
H=PV heat at the wear surface will indicate PV limits may vary by two orders of
if the temperature will catastrophically magnitude. For published catalog, PV
where is the coefcient of friction. climb and melt the bearing or if it will limit values are not a property of the
Finite element analysis (FEA) soft- dissipate and the bearing can continue material but a listing of material be-
ware is helpful to calculate heat ows to run. havior on that particular test system,
in complex parts. As quick a rule of PV limit testing is not a good in- Adams says.

36 Point 3: Stop depending on inspections. They are costly, unreliable and dont improve quality.
 Polymer Bearing Materials
Phenolic (composites) Polyimides Polyethylene POM (acetal copolymer) Acetate (cellulosics)
CIP Kapton HDPE, UHMW Delrin Tenite
Orkot Meldin Poly-Steel Celcon Butyrate
Micarta Vespel Tivar Hostaform PC (polycarbonate)
Mylar Turcite Lucite
Polyamides Urethanes Cyrolon
Nylon PTFE, FEP, PFA PCTFE PEEK (polykeytones)
Nycast PPS, PS (sulde (uoropolymers) Torlon
Zytel polymers) Teon Ultraon
Nomex Ultraon Rulon Arlon
Kevlar Ryton Fluoroloy

Figure 5 | Polymer materials used.

PLANE BEARING MATERIALS

Many materials are used for plane
bearings. Figure 5 shows a sample of
the types of polymer materials used.
Often manufacturers start with an in-
expensive material and create good in-
expensive bearings by adding friction
modiers such as Teon or graphite
to reduce friction and glass to in-
crease stiffness. The same method
can be used with expensive materials
to make phenomenal bearings. Secret
sauces are blends of the additives.
When theyre added to simple poly-
mer materials, they can create some-
thing that is very slippery.
The magic lubricant PTFE, com-
monly known under the trade name
Teon, is popular for use in bearing
materials as well as hoses, fuel lines
and anything else that has to last a long
time and not degrade (see Figure 6).
It is chemically inert, doesnt bond or
stick to other materials well and main-
tains low levels of friction. It is a very
smooth, long molecule that looks and
behaves like oiled spaghetti, mean-
ing that its slippery and hydrophobic.
Water, alcohols and other highly polar
oxygen and hydroxyl containing com-
pounds wont adhere to it, adsorb on it
or wet it. This is because of the high
electronegativity of the uorine; the
molecules outer electron orbitals are
Figure 6 | Teon materials built up on the surface of a steel test disk and torn from the bear- completely lled, making the molecule
ing make micro-thin coatings of the bearing material on the mating surface that cant always highly stable.
be seen. They ll in the valleys in the surface. In this region there is low shear strength and Graphite and other materials with
high hardness, giving low friction. (Figure courtesy of Tribis Engineering.) similar hexagonal structures, such as

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 37

molybdenum sulde MoS2 and tung-
sten sulde WS2, are often added to
bulk materials to reach a desired lubric-
ity. Graphite has strong in-plane bonds
within its layers of hexagonal benzene
rings and weak ones between layers, al-
lowing planes to shear easily and create
low friction (see Figure 7). Metals such
as nickel and silver are popular additives
that strain graphites bonds and lower its
shear strength (see Figure 8).
Figure 7 | Singular molecular layer of graph-
ite. (Figure courtesy of Tribis Engineering.)
Figure 8 | Intercalated graphite has metal
atoms between its graphite planes that
stress bonds and reduce shear strength.
(Figure courtesy of Materialscientist at English
Wikipedia [CC BY-SA 3.0] (http://creative-
commons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL
(www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wiki-
media Commons.)
PLANE BEARING PERFORMANCE
One way to measure bearing perfor-
mance is to look at its wear. The di-
mensionless specic wear rate indi-
cates the amount of material removed
in nm, per meter of sliding distance.
High quality bearing materials on pla-
nar surfaces typically exhibit excellent
wear of <2 nm/m. Wear in lower cost
38 Point 4: Use a single supplier for any one item. The less variation in the input, the less variation in the output.
plane bearings is typically 2-20 nm/m.
When wear amounts are 20-100 nm/m,
the material is considered to be mod-
erate and not really made for plane
bearings, such as unmodied low-cost
ultra-high molecular weight (UHMW)
polyethylene. Materials that wear more
than 100 nm/m exhibit catastrophic
wear and may begin to roll and look
like uff spitting out from behind a
wear surface.
Lubrication is frequently used on
plane bearings. It lowers its friction
and adds an additional layer of protec-
tion but slows down the formation of
a benecial transfer lm at the surface.
The coefcient of friction in plane
bearings is estimated to range from
0.05 ). ) 0.10 when lubricated and
slightly higher at 0.10 ) ) 0.30 when
dry. By rule of thumb, coefcient of
friction is conservatively estimated to
be 0.25 for most plane bearings. If an
actual value is needed, test the specic
material and surface condition to get
a better estimate for specic operating
conditions.
PLANE BEARING APPLICATIONS
Plane bearings are used in applica-
tions that cause rolling bearings to fail.
Theyre used anywhere with extreme
loads, like in the giant Hale telescope.
They tolerate far higher loads than ball
bearings of comparable size.
Applications with oscillating loads
cry out for plane bearings; if a ball bear-
ing cant roll over several times, it will
fail. Oscillating back and forth, a ball
bearing cant distribute its lubrication
and will fatigue quickly.
Applications with large static loads
or impact loads would fracture a ball
bearing, so plane bearings are used.
Any applications involving low speeds,
intermittent motion or vibration are
good for plane bearings. Anything in-
volving electrical potential needs plane
bearings because electricity passing
through a ball erodes its surface. In
this case, use plane bearings without
metallic llers such as bronze or other
electrically conductive materials.
They are simple bearings that can
tolerate contamination and are good
at wiping it out of the way. Small con-
taminant particles embed in the bearing
material and are being removed from
the wear surface. When contaminants
are harder and attached to the wear sur-
face, like the little pieces of weld spat-
ter, they cause grooves in the bearing
but not cause failure.
Plane bearings can be used in appli-
cations that work at very high speeds.
Ive never seen a real velocity limit on
plane bearings. As long as the heat can
be dissipated, they can be used, Adams
says. They also offer many other advan-
tages, are available in small sizes and a
variety of materials, provide excellent
vibration dampening and are impact
resistant. They can run with soft metal
surfaces, in vacuums, corrosive or high-
temperature environments and can be
tailored for their operating environment.
They also can be used in environmen-
tally sensitive applications, on soft metal
surfaces and in food handling.
There are disadvantages to using
plane bearings, and the majority of
them involve heat. They generate heat
and have poor heat dissipation. They
experience higher friction than ball
bearings. And a plane bearing can be
thermally and electrically insulating,
which could be an advantage or disad-
vantage, depending on its use.
Heat management is key to using
plane bearings, and its typically over-
looked. The goal is to dissipate as much
heat as possible. Heat dissipation is
most commonly addressed in applica-
tions with intermittent use that provide
rest time to equalize temperatures. If
duty cycles are kept low and there are
only a few, heat management can be
ignored because every time it operates
it cools off before the next cycle.
Debbie Sniderman is an engineer and CEO of VI
Ventures, LLC, an engineering consulting com-
pany. You can reach her at info@vivllc.com.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Serapid: www.serapid.com
Tribis Engineering: www.tribis.net/
 FEATURE ARTICLE
Dr. Nancy McGuire / Contributing Editor

Moneyball for
uid development
Statistical design of experiments couples
a numbers-based approach with practical
experience to extract the most information
from the fewest experiments.
Can Stock Photo Inc. / kadmy

40 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

Statistical design of experiments (DOE) got its start in the 1920s when British
statisticians Ronald Fisher and Frank Yates devised the method as a means of
making breakthrough discoveries. Their brainchild involved lengthy and detailed
mathematical calculations, and applying it required a deep knowledge of statistics.
DOE use increased during the industri-
al boom following World War II. Dur-
ing the 1950s, U.S. statistician and en-
gineer W. Edwards Deming introduced
the idea of statistical quality control to
industries in Japan, U.S. manufacturers
having already rejected his theories.
Statistical methods for quality con-
trol and product development gained
traction in the U.S. during the 1990s,
with such initiatives as Total Quality
Management and Six Sigma, aided by
the emergence of desktop computers
that took on the burden of performing
the calculations and assisted in inter-
preting the results.1
The steady evolution of DOE soft-
ware has made this approach more
accessible to non-experts with a ba-
sic knowledge of statistical principles.
Today DOE is used for such things as
reducing the amount of scrap in a ski
manufacturers operations, coming up
with a new paint that wont peel off of an
aluminum tractor body and nding new
formulations for metalworking uids.
Point 5: Improve constantly and forever. Emphasize training and education so everyone can do their jobs better.
&t
/& 
D
> >
W
Figure 1 | The relationship between additive packages and uid properties and performance is
complicated. For example, additives that improve lubricity (solid line) also might affect emulsion
stability and foaming (dashed lines). (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao, Houghton International, Inc.)
MORE INFORMATION
FROM FEWER EXPERIMENTS
Statistical DOE uses numerical screen-
ing and modeling methods to extract
the maximum amount of information
from the minimum number of experi-
ments. Fluid formulations developers
use this systematic method to narrow
their list of additive candidates, identify
the formulation components that have
the strongest effects on performance,
examine interactions among multiple
components and devise an optimum
formulation window (including cost,
performance and stability factors) that
they can then validate in the lab.
This method is widely used in many
industries (pharmaceuticals, for exam-
ple), but its just beginning to emerge in
DW
^
&

developing lubricants and metalwork-
ing uids. STLE-member Yixing (Phil-
ip) Zhao, senior research scientist and
innovation team leader at Houghton
International, Inc., in Valley Forge, Pa.,
notes that metalworking uid devel-
opers often use a one-factor-at-a-time
approach, sometimes called an Ediso-
nian approach. This method is good for
initial screening efforts but often falls
short during optimization, he says. Its
not uncommon for a metalworking
uid to have 15-20 components, and
many of them interact with each other
(see Figure 1).
This industry really needs DOE,
Zhao says. Were a small industry with
limited resources and a reliance on old
knowledge. Theres a reluctance to use
41
DOE, but this could revitalize the area
and bring more efciency. He notes
a certain reluctance to part with the
old methods, but DOE lets developers
serve customers better and discover
new chemistries as well as conrming
whether new additives will work.
DOE can help you identify corre-
lations among multiple additives and
between additives and properties, he
says. Testing one variable at a time re-
quires a lot of experiments and doesnt
show you synergies and correlations.
In addition, he notes that DOE reveals
new correlations, cuts down on the
number of samples you need to test and
keeps you from running in circles when
interactions among additives introduce
complexity (see Figure 2).
Using DOE doesnt diminish the
value of personal experience, Zhao
emphasizes. You still need to do the
initial testing. We dont run hundreds
of samples like the pharma industry
does, he says. You have to pick your
samples for the initial work and under-
stand what the results actually mean
and how signicant the effects are.
STEP BY STEP
Dan Trauth, process research leader
at ANGUS Chemical Co. in Buffalo
Grove, Ill., was already an experienced
DOE user when he rst became in-
volved in uid formulations. He had
used the method in optimizing plant
operations for chemical manufactur-
ing. In the plant, he used DOE to un-
derstand product quality, capacity and
impurity levels: I can dial things up or
down, he says. Fluid formulations are
different, though. If youre developing
a mixture, you cant just keep adding
stuff. The components are not entirely
independent, and the formula composi-
tion must add up to 100%.
In developing formulations, his-
torically, you would use trial and er-
ror; you would test everything, Trauth
says. But it was hard to tell whether the
differences you saw were real or due to
measurement errors. Once you start
adding components, the number of
variables gets very large very fast, he
says, noting that testing eight variables
42 Point 6: Use training on the job. Train for consistency to reduce variation and build a foundation of common knowledge.
Figure 2 | DOE software provides several capabilities that bridge the gap between individual
components and the desired properties of the resulting uid formulation. Laboratory experi-
ments serve as input. The software identies correlations, which are statistically analyzed
and used to nd optimal compositions. (Figure courtesy of Hoon Kim, Chemetall.)
gives you 28 or 256 experiments, if you into play. Are you going for low cost?
are doing a complete DOE including Best performance? The DOE software
high and low values. To minimize the will calculate the formulation range
number of experiments, he says, You that maximizes what youre going for.
want to test the variables with the most Formulations in this range are then
impact. He adds that screening experi- tested in the lab to validate the results.
ments narrows the number of variables Zhao chooses the three or four most
so that you can test the broadest range effective additives for the next phase of
possible for each variable without caus- the statistical analysis. He uses a facto-
ing the experiments to fail. rial DOE method (testing all combina-
Thus, the typical DOE process for tions) to identify correlations among
uid formulations involves two or three the additives and optimize the formula-
phases. In the rst phase, developers tion. He notes that in some industries,
run screening tests in the lab, replacing like pharmaceuticals, where the num-
additives one at a time and drawing on ber of variables tends to be much larger
their previous experience. They enter and the research can be at a much ear-
the results of their lab tests into the DOE lier stage, a three-step process is used:
program and run a screening analysis to screening, identifying correlations and
see which additives have the strongest formula optimization. For his purpos-
benecial effects on overall uid prop- es, however, he nds it more efcient
erties. Additives that affect the results to combine the correlation analysis and
very littleor that have a negative ef- formula optimization into one step.
fectcan be eliminated from further Hoon Kim, senior principal R&D
consideration at this point. The initial scientist at Chemetall, a part of BASF
screening run also gives an indication Group based in New Providence, N.J.,
of which parameters are the most effec- develops new metalworking uid prod-
tive ones to optimize. The results of the ucts with an emphasis on uids for use
initial screening run narrow the problem with aluminum. He spends about half
down to a manageable set of variables. his time developing formulations and
Once the analysis of the screening the other half developing new additive
run is complete, Trauth says the de- technology. Part of the new additive
veloper denes an objective function technology work addresses environ-
to use in the optimization run. This is mental issues like nding replacements
where the developers main goal comes for chlorinated parafns.
 Kim uses a similar two-step DOE
^d
process. Screening lets us look at
multiple factors (more than six, say)
and see which ones have the strongest
effects. If were only studying two or
three factors, we sometimes skip the
screening and go right to the predic-
tive analysis, he says. Predictive DOE
is where he takes the most inuential Figure 3 | DOE analysis is used to optimize the concentration of uid additives. Here the ef-
factors, nds the correlations between fects of varying the concentration of an anti-staining additive are validated using aluminum
them and builds his model. This is alloy test strips. (Figure courtesy of Hoon Kim, Chemetall.)
where he does the optimization work.
Kim also emphasizes the importance of
setting parameter limits and specifying
a goal for the optimization in terms of
cost, performance or some other crite- Property Control: EP vs. LE vs. PP vs. Lubricity
rion. The computer nds an optimal
formulation based on those criteria,
he says.
Specialty chemical companies might
skip the screening altogether, Kim says,
since they produce individual chemi-
cals and are mainly interested in opti-
mizing the production process. Fluid
formulators, on the other hand, are
dealing with multi-component sys-
tems, and they need to narrow the fac-
tors they study to keep the number of
experiments manageable.
Kim and his colleagues have used
DOE for a variety of projects. For ex-
ample, they developed a new metal-
working uid formulation using 40
lab screening experiments as input to
the DOE program to come up with the
one nal formulation. We would have Figure 4 | Multivariate plots show the linear correlations between multiple variables simulta-
had to test hundreds of formulations neously. Elongated elliptical shapes indicate a strong correlation between variables, while a
otherwise, he says. broad round ellipse means a weak or no correlation. Here mixture design DOE was used to
In another study, they compared the evaluate the lubricity performance of two new lubricity agents (EP and LE) compared to the
anti-staining properties of a uid addi- current technology (PP). Only EP shows positive correlation with lubricity on steel (yellow
tive on aluminum alloys (see Figure 3). squares). Parameter estimates from the DOE indicated a potential synergistic interaction be-
tween EP and LE on aluminum (blue squares). This result indicates that the new EP and LE
After the initial screening tests, DOE
technology can improve the lubricity performance of the current formulation. (Figure courtesy
helped them optimize the concentra-
of Hoon Kim, Chemetall.)
tion of the additive to provide the best
stain protection without compromising
the overall uid performance.
Kim also cited the example of a new
extreme pressure (EP) additive tech- DOE recommended in the lab, and it ena and physical property databases
nology that his group developed (see works! he says. The computer gener- into their analyses, but DOE analysis is
Figure 4). They used DOE to see which ated the formulation, not us! rmly based in laboratory testing. You
chemistries were most effective at im- have to set up the screening, and that
proving lubricity. We put in all the EXPERIENCE STILL COUNTS requires knowledge, says Trauth. The
data and the computer came up with DOE doesnt do the science for you, DOE provides the math to help you ar-
the best formulation, Kim says. They however. Software packages like Aspen rive at conclusions. Manufacturers cant
validated the optimal formula that the incorporate known physical phenom- make huge changes in the plant or try

44 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

out every possibility, so DOE lets you
extrapolate from your initial screening
tests, he adds.
Experience is helpful in picking a
set of variables for initial screening, but
it really comes into play when its time
to interpret the results and begin to op-
timize a process or formulation. Look
at the error bars; how much uncertain-
ty is in the results? asks Trauth. This is
a good indicator of whether results are
signicant or merely a result of experi-
mental uncertainty. If the experimental
error is too large to derive a meaning-
ful result, thats when you do a second
set of DOE calculations over a tighter
range. If its really cheap and fast to do
the experiment on the y, then another
set of lab tests can provide clarity, but
if it takes a signicant amount of time
or effort to do the experiment, then
DOE is more efcient, he adds.
Experience also is valuable for get-
ting a feel for what should work and
knowledge of what just doesnt work,
Trauth says. At a former job, his em-
The DOE provides
the math to help you
arrive at conclusions.
ployer tried using high-throughput
research. This approach, in which you
use automated lab analysis instruments
to test every possible permutation, is
the opposite of DOE, which seeks to
narrow down the number of variables.
They used automated analysis to run
hundreds of tests, but it turned out
that DOE was better at producing the
needed information.
CASE STUDY:
A TALE OF THREE ADDITIVES
Zhao and his colleagues used DOE to
examine the effects of various additives
on soluble oil cutting uid emulsions.
Their objectives included improving
emulsion stability in very hard water,
reducing the tendency to foam and
maintaining good blooming (emulsion
spreading) characteristics.
They compared three nonionic
surfactants, each having a different
hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB,
a measure of a surfactants ability to
form emulsions) to see if high-HLB
surfactants caused more foam. For the

Emulsion Blooming Test Results

Figure 5 | Results of an emulsion blooming test using nine combinations of three additives (top table shows mixture compositions). Formula 2
formed an emulsion that quickly reached the bottom of the cylinder. Formulas 3 and 6 only formed emulsions in the top 2/3 of the cylinders. The
travel distances for each sample (bottom rows of the table) were used in the DOE analysis to nd correlations between additive combinations
and blooming distances. (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao, Houghton International, Inc.)

Point 7: Implement leadership. Dont simply superviseprovide support and resources to staffers. Be a coach, not a policeman. 45
 Emulsion Stability Test Results by Turbiscan

ZW^
&^q

Figure 6 | Turbiscan results for the group of samples shown in Figure 5. High backscattering intensities (BS%) indicate less breaking up of the
emulsion. After 25 hours, signicant changes are apparent in the emulsions at 50 C. Formulas 5 and 6 showed the least amount of change, in-
dicating that the high-HLB emulsier improves the stability of the emulsion. (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao, Houghton International, Inc.)

Results of Foam Tests and ANOVA

dd/^

Figure 7 | Analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the results of foam tests shows that all of the p-values are less than 0.05, indicating that all three
emulsiers and all of their combinations signicantly affect the foaming properties of the hard-water emulsions, either increasing or decreasing
the tendency to foam and the stability of the foam. (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao, Houghton International, Inc.)

46 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 ever, it turned out not to be a signi-
cant improvement) and the low-HLB
mixture worsened.
After doing a DOE optimization
run to balance the effects of emulsier
HLB on blooming, emulsion stability
and foam (see Figure 8), the Houghton
team devised an optimal formulation
that was signicantly better than their
control formula (see Figure 9). This for-
mulation was then validated in the lab
(see Figure 10 on Page 48).
Figure 8 | DOE helps developers select the optimization parameters that have the greatest
effect on a uids performance. They enter concentration ranges for each additive into the GETTING STARTED
factor section and the desired ranges of specic properties into the response section. The
Unlike the pioneers of DOE, todays u-
upper and lower weights and the importance values shown here are default values for the DOE
id developers dont need to be experts
program, but these could be adjusted as well. (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao, Houghton Interna-
tional, Inc.) in statistics to use the methods effec-
tively. However, they still need a basic
knowledge of statistical principles and
the ability to see what the results mean.
Learning to use DOE is like learning
to drive a car, says Kim; in the begin-
ning, youre nervous. But once you get
comfortable using the car, it can take
you a long distance very quickly. You
dont need to know everything about
the car or how to build one to be a
good driver. But it still requires some
skill from the driver.
Anyone wanting to get started with
DOE should check the software vendor
Websites, Kim recommends. The ven-
dors offer free tutorials on their Web-
sites that are very detailed. You can go
to training sessions geared to your level
of experience, he says.
Zhao recalls, I only had one stats
Figure 9 | The DOE software arrived at a formulation that produced the best combination of
course in college, and I still remem-
blooming distance, foam dissipation and emulsion stability. (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao,
Houghton International, Inc.) ber a few basics, but you dont need
much. Over the course of his career
he has used three software packages.
Some software is more powerful but
screening phase of the DOE, they com- optimal formula. difcult to use, and some software as-
pared nine formulations by injecting Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test- sumes that you are familiar with more
cutting uid concentrate into hard wa- ing from the DOE program showed technical terms. Dont be afraid to use
ter and recording the emulsion travel that the medium-HLB emulsier sig- the software, but do get the training,
distance with time, using a Turbiscan nicantly improved blooming, the low- he recommends.
instrument (see Figure 5 on Page 45). HLB emulsier made it signicantly Zhao says that with training, you
They also compared the stability of the worse and the high-HLB emulsier learn to interpret the results. On a ba-
emulsions over a 25-hour period (see had no statistically signicant effect. sic level, you can examine p-values
Figure 6) and the foaming properties of The analysis also showed that mixing and make sure that they are less than
each emulsion (see Figure 7). They en- either the medium-HLB or low-HLB 0.05. This typical cutoff point tells you
tered the results into the DOE program emulsier with the high-HLB emulsi- theres at most a 5% probability that
to nd correlations between formula- er produced synergistic effects: the the differences youre seeing are caused
tions and properties and to generate an medium-HLB mixture got better (how- by experimental error or uncertainty.

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 47

(Put another way, theres at least a 95%
chance that the differences youre see-
ing are real.) Even if a correlation is
what you want, if its not statistically
signicant, dont use it or re-examine
it, Zhao says.
If you dont know what youre do-
ing, statistics can lead you astray, says
Trauth. I took a stats class in college
and used statistics in grad school and in
my career. Six Sigma really got me into
it, he says, referring to his time at Dow
Chemical Co. When I started, we didnt
do much DOE, but Dow went in really
big for Six Sigma (a set of management
practices aimed at reducing inefciency
and errors to an absolute minimum.)
This effort included a lot of statistical
analysis, and employees received training
in the processes and methods, he says.
Trauth is one of two resident DOE
experts at ANGUS, but even so, they
rely on help from the companys soft-
ware tech support people. Most of his
experience is in using DOE for manu-
facturing processes, but now he works
with uid formulators as well. He re-
calls that there was some resistance at
rst to using DOE for formulations.
The thinking was, if you stay out of
the stats box you can be more creative,
he says. Part of this was a tendency on
the part of company chemists to look
for big changes, but his experience as
an engineer taught him that small but
signicant improvements can add up to
substantial cost savings.
Kim, Trauth and Zhao all noted
that the software vendors tech sup-
port people were an important source
of information and advice. Often,
these tech support staffers are experts
in a particular eld, and they have a
deep knowledge of the software and
its applications. In addition, they
gain experience from working with
several client companies on their ap-
plications. Although they cant share
specic information between compa-
nies, they are likely to know how to
deal with certain situations, drawing
on this experience.
Software vendors also sponsor user
groups and forums, online and at con-
ferences, where users can share their
know-how with one another. This is
especially helpful in smaller operations
where there might not be an opportu-
nity to do this kind of sharing in-house.
For example, Kim is the only person

K 
& &

K&/d&

Figure 10 | Lab tests validate that the optimal formula produced by the DOE analysis performs as well as or better than the control formula for
blooming properties (left), resistance to foaming (top right), and emulsion stability (bottom right). (Figure courtesy of Philip Zhao, Houghton In-
ternational, Inc.)

48 Point 8: Eliminate fear. Use open and honest communication to remove fear from the organization.
in his group to use the JMP software AN EMERGING CAPABILITY community. Fluid formulators are start-
package. I make use of JMPs on- Software and statistics are all very well ing to use it more often, but its still
line user community, he says. They and good, but can statistical DOE help not commonly used. This is a mature
have blogs and online information ex- you improve formulations in the real eld, he says, and senior people would
changes where more than 8,000 mem- world? rather trust their own experience. But
bers interact. They also sponsor live Trauth says that ANGUS Chemi- once they see what DOE can do, they
conferences called Discovery Summits cal makes four compounds, and sales see that it works, he says. I want to
that are forums for users to share their for one of them grew faster than for see more people use DOE!
experience and give presentations on any of the others. You want to make
how to use the software for various ap- more of what sells, he says. The reac-
plications. tion that made the compound was very REFERENCE
Zhao and Trauth arent as involved exothermic, and it was hard to control 1. A Quick History of the Design of
in software user communities, but they the temperature and pressure. DOE let Experiments (DOE), STAT 503:
Design of Experiments, Penn
do make use of their own companies Trauth and his team optimize the reac-
State Eberly College of Science.
in-house tech support staff as well soft- tion conditions. They came up with a
Available at https://onlinecourses.
ware companies tech support staff. model that showed they could control science.psu.edu/stat503/node/6.
They recommend the workshops that the temperature more easily if they used
the software companies sponsor as the dilute rather than concentrated nitric
best place to begin DOE training. Some acid in the reaction. His colleagues were
of this training is online in the form skeptical, but it worked beautifully!
of tutorials and webinars, and some is He adds, DOE can open up spaces you Nancy McGuire is a free-lance
offered in person. Larger companies wouldnt imagine would work. writer based in Silver Spring, Md.
might have in-house user groups and Kim notes that DOE is an emerging You can contact her at
training as well. technique in the metalworking uids nmcguire@wordchemist.com.
2017 PerkinElmer, Inc. All trademarks or registered trademarks are the property of PerkinElmer, Inc. and/or its subsidiaries.

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W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 49

2018 STLE
Tribology Frontiers
Conference
Oct. 28-31, 2018 Chicago
Message from the Chair
Dr. David L. Burris
Dear Industry Professional,
Marketing gurus say the best way to
promote any product is with a free
sample. In that spirit, the 2018 Tri-
bology Frontiers Conference Plan-
ning Committee is partnering with
TLT magazine to present a new fea-
ture2016 TFC Highlights.
These papers were chosen by a com-
mittee comprised of some of our most
distinguished and well-respected col-
leagues in tribology research. We then
asked the authors of those papers to
create abstracts of their work. Start-
ing with this issue, youll see these
abstracts monthly in TLT until the
2018 TFC.
The TFC differs from other tribology-
research conferences in that we have
a very specic theme. All research is
aimed at discovering the role tribology
will play in solving tomorrows most
critical technical, environmental and
societal problems.
50 AUGUST 2017
Co-sponsored by ASME Tribology Division.
After the TFC debuted in Chicago in Harman Khare, University of
2014, STLE held TFCs in 2015 and Pennsylvania
2016. While STLE is not presenting Ashlie Martini, University of
the TFC this year, as we are partner- California-Merced
ing with the Chinese Tribology Insti-
tute on the 2017 World Tribology Con- Robert Jackson, Auburn Univer-
gress next month in Beijing, we will sity
again present the TFC in October Perter Jacobs, ExxonMobil
2018. Were returning to the historic
Tevis Jacobs, University of
Drake hotel in downtown Chicago,
Pittsburgh
site of 2016s successful TFC and a
city thats easily reached from any- Bart Raeymakers, University of
where in the world. Utah.
Registration for the 2018 TFC opens Enjoy the abstractsand Ill see you
after the 73rd STLE Annual Meeting & in Chicago in October 2018.
Exhibition in Minneapolis next May.
Youll be able to access the TFC tech- David
nical program, register for the event
and reserve your room at the Drake
at www.stle.org.
I would like to extend my sincerest
thanks to the TFC Highlights Selection
Committee for selecting the papers that
will be abstracted and published in TLT:
Gary Doll, University of Akron
Benjamin Gould, Argonne
National Laboratory
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG
2016 TFC HIGHLIGHTS
Shining a light on the tribological
rehydration of cartilage
Axel C. Moore, Brian T. Graham, Chris Price, David L. Burris
University of Delaware
Cartilage exudes interstitial uid and metabolic waste prod-
ucts during loading and recovers interstitial uid and nu-
trients from the synovial uid during articulation through
mechanisms that remain unclear. Here we illustrate a fun-
damentally new and unanticipated mechanism of uid and
nutrient uptake by articular cartilage. During sliding follow-
ing static loading against glass (inset A), simultaneous com-
pression and friction reduction provide strong but indirect
evidence of sliding-induced uid recovery, which we call tri-
bological rehydration. An in-situ solute absorption assay was
used to test this hypothesis (inset B). The penetration of the
1nm diameter solute into the buried contact area was strongly
Point 9: Break down barriers between departments. Use cross-functional teamwork to build understanding and reduce adversarial relationships.
speed dependent; solute uptake in the center of contact was
only signicant at 60 mm/s, which is near physiological slid-
ing speeds (100-150 mm/s). The results suggest that uid
entrained at the leading edge of contact is pressurized and
subsequently forced back into the porous articular surface to
restore hydration, thickness, nutrition and lubrication. While
inactivity is associated with dysfunction and disease due to
exudation, these results suggest that regular physical activity
promotes long-term joint health because tribological rehy-
dration counteracts the detrimental effects of the exudation
process on the mechanical, tribological and biological func-
tions of cartilage.
51
PEER-REVIEWED
Optimization of Mechanism of Boundary
Lubrication in Fully Formulated Commercial
Engine Oil Using Design of Experiment
Manuscript received May 3, 2010
Manuscript accepted Oct. 23, 2010
Review led by Elaine Yamaguchi
STLE
Editors Note: This months
Feature article discusses the
benets of design of experi-
ment (DOE), so it only seems
tting that this months
Editors Choice paper be an
example of DOE. The princi-
pal author of this paper has
several other papers relating
to DOE published in Tribology
Transactions. What made this
particular paper interesting
was how well DOE was able to
reduce the need for time-con-
suming studies in identifying
the optimal load conditions
that formed a stable tribolm,
which resulted in less wear.
Evan Zabawski, CLS
Editor
52 AUGUST 2017
GABI N. NEHME and MICHELINE DIB
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Balamand
ElKoura, Lebanon
ABSTRACT
Design of experiment (DOE) analysis was used to study the desirability factor between
contact loads, oil quantity, and surface roughness. The analysis developed a series of
interactions between factors to get the best correlations between contact loads and oil
quantity that leads to the stabilization of the tribolm. A closed-loop boundary condition
test was developed to examine the behavior of lubricants under boundary conditions.
Polished and unpolished testing specimens were established to show the differences in
friction and wear proles under extreme boundary lubrication. The boundary condition
test was very reproducible and can be used to study the mechanism of boundary lubrica-
tion. The mechanism of antiwear lm formation and breakdown was followed carefully
by monitoring the friction coefcient over the duration of the test and running scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) on selected tests. The thickness of the boundary layer lubri-
cant, which is determined by the concentration of additives in the supplied oil, is optimized
for the polished and unpolished test cylinders. The optimized desirability shows the best
loading and oil supply condition that leads to greater consistency in the breakdown of the
tribolm for a xed contact load and xed amount of fully formulated zinc dialkyldithio-
phosphate (ZDDP) oil. The number of cycles to breakdown of the protective tribolm is
also consistent with the applied load for a xed thickness of the boundary lubrication lm.
It is evident that at lower contact loads a stable tribolm rich in phosphorous is formed,
whereas at higher contact loads the breakdown of the tribolm results in wear debris and
higher sulfur content on the wear surface.
KEY WORDS
Boundary Lubrication; Tribolm; Wear; Surface Roughness; DOE; SEM; EDX
INTRODUCTION
The lubricant in an internal combustion engine serves several purposes, such as
maintaining fuel economy, reducing wear, and providing corrosion protection (So
and Lin (1)). The Stribeck curve is extensively used to illustrate the three regimes of
lubrication, which include elastohydrodynamic (EHD), mixed, and extreme pressure
(EP) regions. Under low loads and/or high viscosity and high speed, the separation
of the contacting surfaces is large enough relative to surface roughness that the coef-
cient of friction is determined by the uid properties of the lubricant in the elas-
tohydrodynamic region of the lubrication. As load increases and/or speed decreases
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG
 Optimization of Mechanism of Boun

coupled with lower oil (lubricant) viscosities, contact between

surfaces can occur where the friction coefficient increases in TABLE 10.1 P% COMMERCIAL OIL COMPOSITION steel r
the extreme pressure region. Chemistry Methodology Composition (ppm) ken C
The interaction of lubricant with a solid surface results in the rin
Sulfur ASTM D3120 (11) 2,637 ter M1
the formation of a boundary layer with distinct physical and
Zinc ASTM D5185 (11) 1,002
chemical properties from the antiwear film formed in fully to rem
Phosphorous ASTM D5185 (11) 1,009
bathed oil. The transfer film was formed as a consequence cylinde
Silicon ASTM D5185 (11) 12
rangin
of the interaction of the lubricating medium with the metal Copper ASTM D5185 (11) 6
Sodium ASTM D5185 (11) 24 3 to 5
surface. In boundary lubrication, variation of friction coef-
Boron ASTM D5185 (11) 122 1,500-g
ficient, hardness of the rubbing surfaces, chemical reaction
Calcium ASTM D5185 (11) 2,450 5 N us
film formation, nature of the boundary lubricating film, and remov
Magnesium ASTM D5185 (11) 18
oxidative degradation under tribocontact play an important Molybdenum ASTM D5185 (11) 81 paper
role in the test outcome (Sheasby, et al. (2); Bell and Richards Cadmium ASTM D5185 (11) 2 roughn
(3); Gates, et al. (4); Sukirno (5)). 0.2 an
The commercial fully formulated oil used in the experi- four balls on a cylinder (Sheasby, et al. (12)), which contributed 3.75
ments contained 0.1% P zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP). greatly to the scientific understanding. The
It has been reported (Barnes, et al. (6)) that the main func- The antiwearinfilm
concentrations at the optimized
selected surface boundary during the
tests. Surface startup
roughness, chosen
tion of ZDDP is to prevent wear between surfaces and retard of anand
load, engine is very important
oil volume supplied because
were analyzedmost of as thefactors
wear in an
using the su
oxidation of the lubricating oil. The strength of the boundary engine occurs
two-level during
factorial this stage
design when a thin layer of lubricant
of experiment. carefu
film depends mainly on the decomposition of ZDDP and the coupled with a preexisting
The experiments weretransfer
processedlayer or intribofilm is the onlyas
two replicates and th
formation of polyphosphate products (Smith (7)); such prod- protection from metal-on-metal contact.
shown in Table 2 on Page 54. Lubrication under extreme The effectiveness of then w
boundary lubrication is dependent on many variables, includ- of oil
ucts are Zn (Fe) phosphate and Zn/Fe sulfides/oxides. The loading of 297405 N (corresponding to a Hertzian contact
ing concentration of additives in the supplied oil, load, and sur- bound
thickness and length of the chains forming the antiwear film is pressure of 2.52.77 GPa) and a limited quantity of oil were
face roughness. The primary antiwear agent used in engine oils and 75
complicated by lubricant chemistry, thermal effects, dynamic used to simulate the boundary conditions. The objective of
is ZDDP, and its decomposition was detailed in previous stud- A1
loading, speed, temperature, and material effects (Barkshire, this article is to develop a new closed-loop test method to
ies (Armstrong, et al. (13); Willermet, et al. (14); Yin, et al. (15); body.
et al. (8); Ma, et al. (9)). study
Spikesthe effect
(16); of contact
Martin, load
et al. (17); Cao,with respect
et al. to the et
(18); Barnes, optimized
al. (19); to ensu
Different test techniques have been previously applied to oil volume. The analysis provides a clear difference
Smith, (20); Coy and Jones (21)). The thickness and coverage from other
of ing of
evaluate boundary testing. Many test methods have been em- methods
these filmsbecause it uses DOE
on the boundary layer statistics
is important to in
optimize
determining and the
test and th
ployed to evaluate boundary lubrication, such as spinning ball the
wearfinal condition
resistance of boundary
of the the polished layer and unpolished
(Barkshire, et al.tests,
(22)).in ad- contro
on disk with direct observation (Sheasby, et al. (10)), pin on dition to characterizing
In this study, design oftheir chemistry
experiment (DOE) under the optimized
software was used has a h
disc, and four balls on a cylinder (Sheasby, et al. (12)), which loading
to optimizeand the
volume
volume of oil conditions
of fully formulated usingcommercial
EDS coupled with
oil with der, th
contributed greatly to the scientific understanding. respect to surface
X-ray of the wear track. finish and contact load. Commercial oil chem- the He
The antiwear film at the surface boundary during the istry and concentration of additives are provided in Table 1. The inert a
startup of an engine is very important because most of the EXPERIMENTAL
role of the lubricant PROCEDURE
volume and contact load was optimized, Instea
wear in an engine occurs during this stage when a thin layer and scanning electron
A Plint T53 Slim modified microscopy (SEM) coupled
ball-on-cylinder with energy-
machine (Phoe- came f
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray of the wear tracks were come f
of lubricant coupled with a preexisting transfer layer or tri- nix Tribology, Whitway, UK) was used for all tests. An SAE
used to indicate the existence of additive concentrations in se- surface
bofilm is the only protection from metal-on-metal contact. Timken steel ring (6466 Rockwell C Hardness [HRC], 60
lected optimized tests. Surface roughness, load, and oil volume The
The effectiveness of boundary lubrication is dependent on mm OD, Tim ken Co, Irving, TX) was the moving body. The
supplied were analyzed as factors using two-level factorial design test in
many variables, including concentration of additives in the surface finish of the rings was examined using a profilom-
of experiment. plied.
supplied oil, load, and surface roughness. The primary anti- eterThe
(Mahr Perthometer
experiments were M1, Akron,
processed OH).
in two The cylinders
replicates as shown were
in drople
wear agent used in engine oils is ZDDP, and its decomposi- cleaned with acetone to remove any machining
Table 2. Lubrication under extreme loading of 297405 N (corre- oil that was with a
tion was detailed in previous studies (Armstrong, et al. (13); present.
spondingThe to a as-received
Hertzian contact cylinders
pressure hadofinconsistent
2.52.77 GPa) surfaces
and a was ha
Willermet, et al. (14); Yin, et al. (15); Spikes (16); Martin, et with Ra quantity
limited or surface of roughness
oil were used ranging fromthe
to simulate 0.2boundary
to 0.4 mcon- and a unifo
al. (17); Cao, et al. (18); Barnes, et al. (19); Smith, (20); Coy asperities
ditions. The Rzobjective
height ranging from 3is to
of this article to 5 m. Some
develop a newcylinders
closed- dead w
and Jones (21)). The thickness and coverage of these films were
loop subsequently
test method topolished
study theusingeffectaof1,500-grit
contact load polishing
with respectpaper tered i
on the boundary layer is important in determining the wear to the
for 5,000optimized
cycles atoil700
volume.
rpm Theat a analysis
load of 5provides
N usinga neutral
clear differ-base Re
resistance of the boundary layer (Barkshire, et al. (22)). ence from other methods because it uses DOE
oil as a lubricant. The cylinder was then removed and ultra- statistics to opti- test wa
In this study, design of experiment (DOE) software was mize and test
sonicated the final to
in acetone condition
removeofthe thepolishing
polished and unpolished
paper abrasive mixtur
used to optimize the volume of fully formulated commercial tests, in addition to characterizing their chemistry
and neutral base oil. After cleaning, the surface roughness under the op- specim
oil with respect to surface finish and contact load. Commercial timized loading and volume of oil conditions
was measured to ensure that the Ra ranged between 0.2 and using EDS coupled Postte
with X-ray of the wear track. sured u
oil chemistry and concentration of additives are provided in 0.25 m and the average Rz range was between 3 and 3.75 m.
a JEO
Table 1. The role of the lubricant volume and contact load was The amount of PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL oil used in the boundary lubrication tests
mode
optimized, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled was chosen to simulate conditions that exist when oil has
A Plint T53 Slim modified ball-on-cylinder machine (Phoenix To
with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray of the drained from the surface. Cylinders were cleaned with acetone
Tribology, Whitway, UK) was used for all tests. An SAE Timken gather
wear tracks were used to indicate the existence of additive and weighed carefully. They were dipped in engine oil for a

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 53

 TABLE 2DATA FOR THREE FACTORS AND TWO RESPONSES INCLUDED IN THE ANALYSIS
Order of Tests, Factor # 1, Factor # 2, Factor # 3, Surface Roughness
Two-Level Factorial Oil Quantity Load (Intermediate vs. High) (Polished vs. Unpolished),
and Two Replicates 4080 L 297405 N 0.20.25 m Ra vs. 0.20.5 m Ra

1 40 297 Unpolished
2 40 405 Unpolished
3 80 405 Polished
4 40 297 Polished
5 80 405 Unpolished
6 80 297 Polished
7 80 297 Unpolished
8 40 297 Unpolished
9 80 297 Polished
10 80 405 Unpolished
11 80 405 Polished
12 40 405 Polished
13 80 297 Unpolished
14 40 405 Polished
15 40 297 Polished
16 40 405 Unpolished

Order of Tests, Response # 1, Response # 2,

Two-Level Factorial and Two Replicates Wear Depth (m) Number of Cycles to Failure

1 7.71 54,800
2 21.51 9,900
3 11.22 28,500
4 5.2 95,500
5 15.42 20,300
6 2.51 100,000
7 3.81 95,100
8 7.35 53,000
9 2.55 100,000
10 16.0 19,100
11 11.67 29,200
12 19.35 15,200
13 3.62 94,300
14 18.91 15,800
15 5.31 97,000
16 20.88 10,600

period of 15 min and then laid out on an absorbent paper for
a period of 12 h and then weighed again. The difference in
weight yielded the amount of oil that was present in the form
of a thin layer to make the boundary lm. The amount of oil
was found to be between 50 and 75 L.
A 12.5-mm tungsten carbide ball (79 HRC) was the coun-
terbody. A tungsten carbide ball was chosen as the counter-
surface to ensure that the wear occurred on the test cylinder.
The annealing of the steel ball at the contact point resulted
in extensive wear and the subsequent reduction of Hertzian
contact load was not controlled. With the use of a tungsten
carbide (WC) ball, which has a hardness of 15 Rockwell C
higher than the underlying cylinder, there was little or no
wear on the ball, essentially keeping the Hertzian contact load
constant. In addition, the WC ball was inert and did not inter-
act with the lubricant to form a tribolm. Instead, a transfer
lm formed on the surface of the ball, which came from the
ring surface. Hence, we examined only the outcome from the
interaction of the lubricant with the steel cylinder surface at
conditions of the test.
The cylinder and tungsten carbide ball were mounted on
the test instrument and a measured quantity of desired oil
was applied. A medical-grade syringe was used to dispense
oil in microdroplets of 55 L at the contact point of the ball
and cylinder with a load of 4.7 N applied. The shaft holding
the test cylinder was hand rotated while the oil was being
applied to ensure that a uniform quantity was applied on the
contact area. The desired dead weights were placed on the
lever. Test conditions were entered in the software and the
test was conducted at 700 rpm.

54 Point 10: Get rid of unclear slogans. Excellence in Service is short and memorable but what does it mean? How is it achieved?
 Required test data were gathered in real time and after the
test was completed the ring was washed with a hexaneac-
etone mixture to remove the debris and oil from the surface.
The wear specimens were stored in vacuum desiccators to
prevent rust. Posttest analysis was then carried out. The wear
prole was measured using the prolometer, and the surface
was examined using a JEOL JSM 845 SEM operating in sec-
ondary electron imaging mode coupled with EDS (Joel USA
Inc., MA).
To minimize experimentation processes and optimize the
gathered data for various responses, a useful tool is DOE ap-
plied to the analyzed factors and responses. The model was
used to optimize the important responses such as wear depth
and number of cycles to failure for specic ranges of load and
oil quantity, which can be justied during the verication of
these experiments for both polished and unpolished surfaces.
The justication was based on the model signicance and
its desirability (Appendix A). Due to space limitations, full
details of the statistical analyses are not included, such as
optimization of wear depth and number of cycles to failure
for all ranges of oil quantities and loads. This information is
available from the rst author.1
In order to calculate the thickness of the lubrication lm,
four models of the lm thickness, including the Grubin equa-
tion, the Dowson-Higginson equation, the Archard-Cowking
equation, and the Hamrock-Dowson equation were consid-
ered (Grubin (23); Dowson and Higginson (24); Archard and
Cowking (25); Hamrock and Dowson (26)). Detailed calcula-
tion was estimated applying the method used by Mourhatch,
et al. (27).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mechanism of Boundary Lubrication
Figure 1 represents three replicates of three polished tests
under extreme boundary lubrication. These tests were very
reproducible and show the frictional events that occur during
a typical boundary lubrication test. The early stages of the test
process marked as A are largely abrasive due to the wearing
of the asperities on the surface of the cylinder because an an-
tiwear protective lm has not been formed yet. The duration
of the phase for the antiwear additives ZDDP to break down
and form a protective layer is approximately 5001,000 rota-
tions. The stable antiwear lm formed at the end of stage A is
responsible for the steady-state friction behavior in region B,
where there is dominance of the benecial effects of tribolm
formation. The stable tribolm has been shown by several
earlier studies to be composed of polyphosphate chains, Fe,
and suldes and sulfates of zinc (Mourhatch and Aswath (27);
Rounds (28); Willermet, et al. (29)). The duration of stage
B is a strong function of several factors, which include the
amount of lubricant, surface roughness, and the applied load.
These factors will be used in DOE analysis to optimize the
condition of multiple experiments. When the protective lm
breaks down, there is a steep rise in the friction coefcient as
shown in stage C. The rise in friction corresponds to higher
W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 1 | Explanation of the frictional events of three consistent
polished tests in boundary lubrication: (A) beginning of the test and
the run-in process, (B) steady-state friction, (C) onset of scoring, (D)
reactivation of antiwear lm and healing process, (E) steady-state
friction after the healing process, and (F) steep rise of friction and
failure.
temperature, which results in the further breakdown of ZDDP
and the reestablishment of a protective antiwear lm. The
formation of this protective lm results in the decrease in the
coefcient of friction as shown in region D. The reformation
of the stable lm results in a stable steady-state coefcient of
friction as shown in region E. The breakdown of the protec-
tive lm results in abrasive wear, resulting in a rapid increase
in temperature and coefcient of friction and eventual burn-
off of the lubricant. This breakdown region is region F. The
duration and failure of the test depend greatly on the nature
of the protective antiwear lm, amount of lubricant additive
used, and applied load.
Reproducibility of the Boundary Lubrication Tests
Boundary lubrication occurs under conditions of extreme
stress and/or insufcient lubrication. Starved oil conditions
can easily mimic the boundary lubrication conditions because
a major portion of the load is supported not by the oil lm
but by the solid contact including the tribolm (Gates, et al.
(4); Sukirno (5); Gates and Hsu (30)). In order to study the
boundary lubrication, typical tests were conducted as part of
DOE to simulate and optimize conditions at the point of con-
tact. A closed system was chosen where a specied amount
of oil was applied to the contact surface and the boundary
lubrication has to be provided by the limited antiwear addi-
tive concentration in the supplied oil. Number of cycles to
failure and wear depth were used in the DOE as responses
(Table 2) to optimize loading and oil volume for polished
and unpolished testing conditions. All polished tests were
very reproducible and some inconsistencies were found in
the repeatability of the unpolished tests.
DOE is the simultaneous study of several variables. By
combining several variables in one study instead of creat-
ing a study for each, the amount of testing required will be
drastically reduced and greater process understanding will
AUGUST 2017 55
Figure 2a | Number of cycles to failure vs. oil quantity at 297 N loading.
Figure 2b | Number of cycles to failure vs. oil quantity at 405 N loading.
result. This is a direct contrast to typical one-factor-at-a-time
(OFAT) studies, which limit the understanding and waste
data. The DOE methodology spans a wide range of analytical
approaches developed for different situations or nal targets.
Figures 2a and 2c show the number of cycles to failure and
wear depth responses for the polished and unpolished tests
under a 297 N load (Hertzian contact pressure of 2.5 GPa).
They indicate an increase in the number of cycles to failure
and decrease in the wear depth as the volume of oil containing
ZDDP additives increases. Figures 2b and 2d show the same
responses under different loading condition (405 N). These
gures indicate an improvement in wear and failure time in
the polished surfaces over the unpolished ones.
A two-level factorial design was used as part of a DOE
analysis to optimize the wear depth and number of cycles
to failure with respect to fully formulated oil volume and
loading conditions using polished and unpolished surfaces.
There were three factors in the DOE and the tests were run
with two replicates for better consistency. Therefore, 16 ex-
periments were used for the DOE analysis. The DOE soft-
ware ran the analysis simultaneously for all factors and re-
sponses considered in the model. Evaluation of each response
and the percentage probability vs. effects were investigated
for all responses including the wear width response. Wear
depth and number of cycles to failure contribute largely to
56 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 2c | Wear depth vs. oil quantity at 297 N loading.
Figure 2d | Wear depth vs. oil quantity at 405 N loading.
the model based on the percentage probability and the effect
charts where interactions between factors are increasingly sig-
nicant. Wear width was rejected from the analysis because
the percentage probability vs. effects showed no signicant
interactions. The nal decision outcome of the DOE relied
on the number of cycles to failure and wear depth, where
optimization of loading conditions and oil volume are re-
quired. An example of number of cycles to failure and wear
depth interaction graphs for polished and unpolished surfaces
with respect to oil quantity and specic loads are shown in
Figure 2.
In this study, the model F-value related to wear depth and
number of cycles to failure was very signicant, along with
the specied interactions (as shown in Appendix A, Figures
A1 and A2, Tables A1 and A2) of the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) output and the half normal plots. In these ANOVA
tables there is a only a 0.01% chance that a model F-value this
large could occur due to noise for the wear depth response
and for the number of cycles to failure response.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
 The model is a reection of two responses and three fac-
tors. We cannot choose an increased numbers of cycles to
failure at the expense of wear depth. For higher desirability
we should look at the best load, oil volume, and surface nish
that can give us higher number of cycles to failure with mini-
mum wear depth. These were manipulated in DOE analysis
and optimization using the desirability function.
Desirability is used when multi-objective optimization
is sought according to Derringer (31) and Barrentine (32).
According to this approach, each response has to be con-
verted into a corresponding desirability function. The desir-
ability is high when the response approaches its target value.
Common goal types are target within range, minimum, and
maximum. Each is linked to its own desirability function.
So desirability will indicate, based on the model optimum
loadings and oil volumes, a good number of cycles to failure
coupled with minimum wear depth. Therefore a good desir-
ability is achieved when the responses and factors interactions
are optimized. In short, the desirability is based on what you
are targeting in the model when you evaluate your responses
before optimization; we are targeting maximum number of
cycle to failure and minimum wear depth with respect to load-
ing conditions and volume of oil. The desirability established
by the model presents a clear improvement when the polished
surfaces are compared to the unpolished surfaces ( Figure 3)
under identical loading and oil conditions. The DOE analysis
was conrmed by running two tests using 385 N (Hertzian
contact pressure of 2.72 GPa) and 80 L of oil. Figure 4 estab-
lishes clear evidence and conrms the DOE ndings related
to surface roughness and failure time.
Four replicates of polished cylinders and threes replicates
of unpolished cylinders were tested under a load of 385 N
and 50 L oil to check the consistency and the reproduc-
ibility of boundary lubrication. Number of cycles to failure,
Figure 3 | Desirability of the model under variation of loading (N) and
oil volume (L) for polished and unpolished surfaces.

Figure 4 | Friction variations of polished and unpolished test rings performed at 385 N loading under 80 L of boundary lubrication in com-
mercial oil.

Point 11: Eliminate management by objectives. Production targets encourage high output and low quality. 57
Figure 5 | Friction coefcients, wear proles, and wear volume vari-
ations of four polished test performed at 385 N loading under 50 L
of boundary lubrication.
wear proles, and wear volumes in the polished cylinders
were very consistent, with a variation of less than 10%, which
is signicant in tribology (Figure 5). However, the same re-
sponses were different and inconsistent in the unpolished
cylinders (Figure 6). The friction coefcient and wear vol-
ume were clearly better in the conditions shown in Figure 5.
The wear prole was measured using the prolometer at six
locations 30 apart and were extremely reproducible. Know-
ing the diameter of the cylinder, the wear volume was easily
determined. The three outcomes measured from these tests
(polished and unpolished) clearly indicate that the test is
viable and useful to examine the mechanism of boundary
lubrication.
58 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Figure 6 | Friction coefcients, wear proles, and wear volume vari-
ations of three unpolished test performed at 385 N loading under 50
L of boundary lubrication.
Amount of Oil and Additive Concentration Effects on
Polished Tests
The boundary lubrication tests were conducted with 4080
L oil to examine the role of the amount of oil in the bound-
ary layer on the durability of the tribological lm formed. All
the tests were conducted at a xed load of 385 N (Hertzian
contact pressure of 2.72 GPa). When a small amount of oil
was used, in oil-starved conditions occurred earlier in the
test, as indicated in Figure 7, which presents the variation of
friction coefcients and wear proles for the tests with 40,
50, 60, and 80 L oil as a function of number of cycles; the
number of cycles to nal breakdown of the boundary layer is
also shown. It is evident that the onset of abrasive wear rep-
W W W. ST L E .O RG
 Figure 7 | Polished test
rings performed at 385 N
loading under different
quantities of oil lubrica-
tion on surface boundary.
Friction coefcients and
wear prole representa-
tions of these tests for the
following oil volumes: (A)
40 L, (B) 50 L, (C) 60 L,
and (D) 80 L.

Figure 8 | Wear volume

and oil lm thickness as a
function of oil volume on
the boundary of the pol-
ished tests under extreme
load of 385 N.

resented by the increase in friction coefcient appeared rst
in the 40 L test due to the inability to form a stable antiwear
tribolm. When 60 and 80 L oil was used, a stable tribologi-
cal lm was formed, resulting in an increased time to break-
down. When more than 80 L oil was used, the excess oil was
spun off during the rst few cycles and results were similar
to the tests with 80 L oil. The data in Figure 7 present two
replicates of each test. It is immediately evident that the most
severe conditions occur for tests that had insufcient ZDDP to
develop a stable and continuous tribolm for wear protection.
Figure 8 shows the relationship between the thickness of the
oil layer on the cylinder (not contact lm thickness, which

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 59

 Figure 9 | Polished test cyl-
inders performed under dif-
ferent loading conditions
using 50 L of oil lubrica-
tion on the surface bound-
ary. Polished test cylinders
performed under different
loading conditions using 50
L of oil lubrication on sur-
face boundary. Variations in
wear prole for Figure 6a
for the following loadings:
(A) 405 N, (B) 395 N, (C)
385 N, (D) 375 N, (E) 365 N,
(F) 356 N, (G) 336 N, (H)
307 N, (I) 317 N, and (J) 297
N.

was between 40 and 78 nm and was estimated from the equa-
tions referenced by Grubin (23), Dowson and Higginson (24);
Archard and Cowking (25); and Hamrock and Dowson (26))
and the wear volume at the end of the test. The thickness of
the oil layer was calculated from the width of the wear lm
observed in the tests and the amount of oil applied for each
of the tests; because the width of the oil layer was essentially
the same in all cases, increasing the amount of oil resulted in
an increase in the thickness of the layer. There was an inverse
relationship between the amount of oil in the layer and the
wear volume at the end of the test, indicating that the thick-
ness of the oil layer (i.e., amount of oil present and hence the
amount of ZDDP present) and not the lm thickness at the
point of contact was critical in determining the strength and
durability of the protective tribolm formed on the surface of
the ring. This was conrmed by previous studies that analyzed
the importance of ZDDP (Mourhatch and Aswatch (27); Min-
fray, et al. (33); Bancroft, et al. (34); Ferrari, et al. (35), (36);
Ramakumar, et al. (37); Unnikrishnan, et al. (38); Bancroft
and Park (39)). Data on polished and unpolished tests (Table
2) under variant loading conditions were used in DOE to
optimize amount of oil and loading conditions.
Effect of Loading Pressure on Boundary Lubrication in
Polished Tests
Ten tests were conducted at loads between 297 and 405 N
(corresponding to a Hertzian contact pressure of 2.52.77
GPa) using 50 L of boundary lubrication oil. Friction coef-
cient as a function of number of cycles was recorded and
the wear proles were measured. Figures 9a, 9b, and 10 pres-
ent the friction, wear volumes, wear proles, and number of
cycles to failure variations as a function of loading conditions.

60 Point 12: Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Treat workers the same. Dont make them compete with other workers for rewards.


Figure 10 | No. of revolutions to failure and wear volume vs. load under 50 L of boundary lubrication (polished tests).

These gures established that as the load decreased, the time

to failure as depicted by the steep rise in friction coefcient
increased and less frictional uctuation resulted. The 405 N
loading showed a severe rise in friction at the start of the test
and a short time for full breakdown. In contrast, the 297 N
loading showed no sign of failure and a steady-state coef-
cient of friction. These tests present a detailed description of
loading effects. The small inconsistency that exists was prob-
ably due to the insufcient variation of the load. The lower
steady-state friction coefcient tests exhibited the lowest wear
width, wear depth, and wear volumes as depicted in Figure 9b
(graphs F through J) and Figure 10. These wear proles are
a direct representation of the variation of friction coefcients
and total time to failure. The high and low wear depth and
wear volumes correlated with the high and low number of
cycles to failure. Wear volumes presented the direct correla-
tion between the loading condition and the wear material
loss. This is attributed to the wear mechanism explained by
the SEM and EDS images.
Figure 11a | SEM and EDS analysis for 297 N wear track under 50 L
SEM and EDS Analysis of Polished and of boundary lubrication (polished tests).
Unpolished Conditions
Four polished tests (297, 336, 385, and 405 N loads) that
represent extreme pressure loading were selected for SEM and the wear track is shown in Figures 11a and 11b for the 297
EDS to be analyzed and compared to two unpolished tests run and 336 N polished tests. These gures indicate the presence
under the same conditions. of more phosphorus than sulfur on the wear surfaces, indicat-
SEM micrographs of the surfaces obtained after testing ing the presence of a tribolm. The lm has been shown to oc-
provided evidence of adhesion, abrasion, and plastic deforma- cur at low and intermediate loads (Smith (20)). The severity
tion. Figure 11 shows secondary electron images of the wear of the wear debris and material transfer at the extreme loads
surfaces of the cylinders at the end of the selected polished of 385 and 405 N suggest that no lubrication lm protected
and unpolished tribological tests. A smooth surface with in- the metal surfaces and more metal-to-metal contact resulted
signicant wear and clear phosphorus concentration inside where extensive adhesive pullout was present, leading to both

62 Point 13: Implement education and self-improvement. Build skills to make your
 Figure 11b | SEM and EDS analysis for 336 N wear track under 50 L
of boundary lubrication (polished tests).
Figure 11c | SEM and EDS analysis for 385 N wear track under 50 L
of boundary lubrication (polished tests).
higher friction and wear as shown in the higher magnication
SEM images (Figure 11g). It appears that sulfur and phos-
phorus exist on the wear scar but not centered in the wear
track. When the load reached 405 N, phosphorus concen-
tration diminished greatly in both polished and unpolished
tests, but sulfur was still showing some signicance (Figures
11d and 11f). Other studies (Smith and Bell (40)) have also
indicated that at extreme pressures organic polyphosphate
tribolms are unable to provide protection and are replaced
workforce more adaptable to change and better able to identify and achieve improvements.
Figure 11d | SEM and EDS analysis for 405 N wear track under 50 L
of boundary lubrication (polished tests).
DS analysis for 297 N wear track under 50 L of boundary lubrication (unpolished tests).
Figure 11e | SEM and EDS analysis for 297 N wear track under 50 L
of boundary lubrication (unpolished tests).
by an FeS solid tribolm, which is more adherent and more
stable. The unpolished 297 N secondary electron image (Fig-
ure 11e) shows a featureless wear track with less phosphorus
concentration inside when compared to the polished test.
This indicates that the wear debris formed because the pull-
ing of asperities diminished the presence of tribolm under a
starved lubricant volume of 50 L. Fuller, et al. (41) carried
out a spectroscopy study using X-ray absorption near-edge
spectroscopy (XANES) to identify sulfur and phosphorus-
63

Figure 11f | SEM and EDS analysis for 405 N wear track under 50 L
of boundary lubrication (unpolished tests).
Figure 11g | Higher magnication SEM for 385 N and 405 N loadings
under 50 L of boundary lubrication for the polished tests.
64 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
containing species. It was determined that in tribolms, long-
chain polyphosphates existed at lower temperature than in
thermal lms. They also found that increased heating times
caused increased lm thickness and increased levels of wear.
Willermet, et al. (42) used scanning force microscopy to in-
vestigate the wear resistance of antiwear lms generated under
conditions designed to simulate engine performance. Films
were produced under conditions of mild wear, expected to
lead primarily to phosphate formations, rather than under
extreme pressure conditions that may favor the growth of
suldes. Willermet, et al. (42), Fuller, et al. (43), and Kasrai,
et al. (44), (45) provided evidence through XANES and con-
tact voltage resistance that showed that steady-state friction
and moderate contact loading will lead to the formation of
antiwear tribolm that is capable of minimizing wear and
providing protection. These experiments indicate that bound-
ary tests give better performance when loading conditions and
oil amount are optimized with respect to surface roughness.
Optimization
The interactions between the quantity of oil on surfaces and
loading conditions were directly proportional to the wear
performance. The signicant improvement was shown dur-
ing the optimization process using the DOE software. DOE
broad analysis showed the effectiveness of an antiwear lm
during different loading condition. Optimum performance
and desirability are shown in Figures 12a and 12b. Increasing
oil quantity and thus increasing ZDDP additives and decreas-
ing load is signicant for all tests. Surface roughness and oil
volume worked in the same direction in boundary lubrica-
tion when compared to loading conditions. Desirability was
optimized for the polished and unpolished testing conditions,
and a selected optimized oil volume of 62 L and load of 307
Figure 12a | Optimized desirability of the model under optimized
loading (N) and oil quantity (L) for polished surfaces.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
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 N (Hertzian contact pressure of 2.53 GPa) were used to retest
Figure 12b | Optimized desirability of the model under optimized
loading (N) and oil quantity (L) for unpolished surfaces.
the boundary lubrication regime for the stated conditions of
surface roughness. Important responses in the model such
as wear depth and number of cycles to failure were recorded
and calculated and then the cylinders were carefully prepared
for SEM and EDX analysis. Figure 13 presents the frictional
events, wear volumes, and wear depth for the optimized pol-
ished and unpolished experiments under the same optimized
oil and load conditions. The peak friction was established
earlier in the polished test when the breakdown of the tri-
bolm occurred. This rise in friction coefcient resulted in
a rise in temperature and the reestablishment of the protec-
tive antiwear lm followed by a plateau regime in which the
coefcient of friction remained unchanged. However, there
were more friction uctuations and some increases in the wear
depth and wear volume in the unpolished test. The duration
of these tests and the improved tribolms depended greatly on
the optimized load and the ZDDP additives in the oil volume.
The amount of wear occurring during the optimized condi-
tions was minimal compared to the previous experiments. The
effects of phosphorus concentration and loading conditions

Figure 13 | Optimized polished and unpolished tests under optimized loading of 307 N and optimized oil volume of 62 L. A and B represent
friction coefcient, wear proles, and wear volumes for polished and unpolished tests, respectively.

66 Point 14: Make transformation everyones job. Analyze each small step and understand how it ts into the larger picture.
were established earlier by Mourhatch and Aswath (27).
SEM micrographs in secondary electron mode of the wear
tracks generated from these two tests are shown in Figure
14. It can be seen that the wear track is very smooth in both
cases, indicating the presence of a stable tribolm, which is
associated with the best wear performance. When both tracks
are compared, the unpolished test shows a larger region of
the wear track. The results presented by SEM were conrmed
by the EDS analysis shown in Figures 15 and 16. The inten-
sity of phosphorus formation is higher when the polished

Figure 14 | SEM images for opti-

mized polished and unpolished
tests under optimized loading
of 307 N and optimized oil vol-
ume of 62 L. A and B represent
the polished and unpolished
tests, respectively.

Figure 15 | EDS using X-rays of

wear track for optimized pol-
ished and unpolished tests un-
der optimized loading of 307 N
and optimized oil volume of 62
L. A and B represent the pol-
ished and unpolished tests, re-
spectively.

W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 67

Figure 16 | EDS images of phosphorus for optimized polished and unpolished tests under optimized loading of 307 N and optimized oil volume
of 62 L. A and B represent the polished and unpolished tests, respectively.
surfaces are compared to the unpolished surfaces, indicating
the formation of the tribolms in both, with more stability
in the case of polished conditions. The establishment of such
a tribolm has been previously reported (Huq, et al. (45)).
CONCLUSION
In this article, we presented a novel solution for an optimized
condition of boundary lubrication. The essence of the new
methodology is represented in several testing conditions that
yield the approximate solution of the boundary lubrication
problem. This solution can be presented clearly in terms of
wear, amount of ZDDP fully formulated oil, load, and SEM
analysis of selected testing conditions.
Wear under boundary lubrication is controlled by the nature
and effectiveness of the tribolms formed on the surface. The
extent of wear under boundary lubrication is directly related
to the variation of friction coefcient during the test. Polished
and unpolished tests were conducted to examine the behavior
of the tribolms and to optimize the loading and volume of oil
containing ZDDP using DOE and to optimize the stable forma-
tion of tribolms under these conditions.
REFERENCES
(1) So, H. and Lin, R. C. (1999), The Combined Effects of ZDDP,
Surface Texture and Hardness on the Running-in of Ferrous
Metal, Tribology International, 32, p 243.
(2) Sheasby, J. S., Caughlin, T. A., and Mackwood, W. A. (1996),
The Effect of Steel Hardness on the Performance of Anti-Wear
Additives, Wear, 201, p 209.
(3) Bell, J. C. and Richards, M. N. (1987), Some Effects of Hard-
ness and Microstructure on the Lubricated Wear of Steels, Pro-
ceedings of the 14th Leeds/Lyon Symposium on Tribology, France,
8-11 September 1987, pp 343353.
(4) Gates, R. S., Jewett, K. L., Hsu, S. M. (1989), A Study on the
Nature of Boundary Lubricating Film: Analytical Method De-
velopment, Tribology Transactions, 32(4), pp 423430.
68 Demings teachings in Japan were such a great success that he was awarded the Secord Order Medal of the Sacred Treasure by Japanese Emperor Hirohito in 1960.
In the current study, the solution provided led to the reduc-
tion of time-consuming experimentations and the optimiza-
tion of boundary lubrication for specic surface roughness.
Optimum lower load favors stable tribolm formation and a
small amount of abrasive wear, whereas at higher extreme loads
instability of the tribolm will dominate with respect to both
surfaces considered. SEM micrographs in secondary electron
mode and EDS analysis of wear tracks indicate that at higher
loads and starved lubrication regime the phosphorus concen-
tration is reduced and wear debris can be observed in the wear
tracks, whereas at the optimum loading condition darker and
smoother surfaces covering the wear scars were conrmed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the reviewers for their useful suggestions
and the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Balamand.
Support provided by the State of Texas as part of a Technology
Development and Transfer Grant and Platinum Research Or-
ganization LLC is gratefully acknowledged. The authors thank
Professor Pranesh B. Aswath, Professor Ronald L. Elsenbau-
mer, and Dr. Harold Shaub for useful discussions.
(5) Sukirno, M. M. (1999), Oxidative Degradation of Mineral Oil
under Tribocontact and ineffectiveness of Inhibitors, Tribology
Transactions, 42(2), pp 324330.
(6) Barnes, A. M., Bartle, K. D., and Thibon, V. R. A. (2001), A
Review of ZDDP Characterization and Role in the Lubricating
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tive Lubrication, Applied Physics, 33, p 187.
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Lubrication, Pergamon Press: London.
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Zhu, W., Bell, J. C., and Park, D. (1995), The Composition of
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(33) Minfray, C., Martin, J. M., and Esnouf, C. (2002), Proceedings
of the 30th International Conference on Metallurgy, April 28May
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(34) Bancroft, F. T., Bird, R. J., and Hutton, J. F. (1982), A multi-
technique approach of tribolm characterization, Wear, 77, p
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(35) Ferrari, E. S., Robert, K. J., and Sansone, M. (1999), Wear, 236,
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(36) Ferrari, E. S., Robert, K. J., and Adams, D. (2002), Wear, 253, p 759.
(37) Ramakumar, S. S. V., Aggarwal, N., and Madhusudhana Rao, A.
(1994), Lubrication Science, 7, p 25.
(38) Unnikrishnan, R., Jain, M. C., and Harinarayan, A. K. (2002),
Wear, 252, p 240.
(39) Bancroft, F. T. and Park, D. (1986), Wear, 108, p 213.
(40) Smith, G. C., and Bell, J. C. (1999), Multi-Technique Surface
Analytical Studies of Automotive Anti-Wear Films, Applied
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(41) Fuller, M. L. S., Yin, Z., Kasrai, M., Bancroft, G. M., Yamaguchi,
E. S., Ryason, P. R., Willermet, P. A., and Tan, K. H. (1998),
Chemical Characterization of Tribochemical and Thermal
Films Formation Studied by X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy,
Tribology International, 31(10), pp 627644.
(42) Willermet, P. A., Carter, R. O., Schmitz, P. J., Everson, M.,
Scholl, D. J., and Weber, W. H. (2006), Formation, Structure
and Properties of Lubricant-Derived Anti-Wear Films, Lubri-
cation Science, 9, pp 325348.
(43) Fuller, M. L. S., Kasrai, M., Bancroft, G. M., Fyfe, K., and Tan,
K. H. (1998), Solution Decomposition of ZDDP and Its Effect
on Anti-Wear and Thermal Film Formation Studied by X-ray
Absorption Spectroscopy, Tribology International, 31(10), pp
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(44) Kasrai, M., Fuller, M. S., Bancroft, G. M., Yamaguchi, E. S., and
Ryason, P. R. (2003), X-ray Absorption Study of the Effect of
Calcium Sulfonate on Antiwear Film Formation Generated
from Neutral and Basic ZDDPs: Part 1Phosphorus Species,
Tribology Transactions, 46(4), pp 534542.
(45) Kasrai, M., Fuller, M. S., Bancroft, G. M., Yamaguchi, E. S., and
Ryason, P. R. (2003), X-ray Absorption Study of the Effect of
Calcium Sulfonate on Antiwear Film Formation Generated
from Neutral and Basic ZDDPs: Part 2Sulfur Species, Tribol-
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(46) Huq, M. Z., Aswath, P. B., and Elsenbaumer, R. L. (2007),
TEM Studies of Antiwear Films/Wear Particles Generated un-
der Boundary Conditions Lubrication, Tribology International,
39(1), pp 111116.
AUGUST 2017 69

APPENDIX A

Figure A1 | Standardized effect of the wear depth response with Figure A2 | Standardized effect of the number of cycles to failure
respect to half-normal percentage of probability. response with respect to half-normal percentage of probability.

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TABLE A1
ANOVA for selected factorial model Analysis of variance table [Partial sum of squares - Type III]
Wear Depth (m)
Response 1
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Value p-value Prob > F

Model 724.00 7 103.43 1264.40 < 0.0001 signicant

A-oit quantify 97.12 1 97.12 1187.30 <0.0001
B-surface rot 23.36 1 23.96 292.92 <0.0001
C-load 586.85 1 586.85 7174.21 <0.0001
AB 0.31 1 0.31 3.77 0.0333
AC 10.99 1 10.99 134.34 <0.0001
BC 2.06 1 2.06 25.17 0.0010
ABC 2.71 1 2.71 33.03 0.0004
Pure Error 0.65 8 0.082
Cor Total 724.65 15
The Model F-value of 1264.40 implies the model is signicant. There is only a 0.01% chance that a Model F-Value this large could occur due
to noise.
Values of Prob > F less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are signicant.
In this case A, B, C, AC, BC, ABC are signicant model terms.
Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not signicant.
If there are many insignicant model terms (not counting those required to support hierarchy), model reduction may improve your model.

Std. Dev. 0.29 R-Squared 0.9991

Mean 10.81 Adj R-Squared 0.9933

C.V.% 2.64 Pred R-Square 0.9964
PRESS 2.62 Adeq Precision 92.292

The Pred R-Squared of 0.9964 is in reasonable agreement with the Adj R-Squared of 0.9933.
Adeq Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable. Your ratio of 92.292 indicates an adequate signal. This
model can be used to navigate the design space.
TABLE A2
ANOVA for selected factorial model Analysis of variance table [Partial sum of squares - Type III]
Number of Cycles to Failure
Response 2
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Value p-value Proli > F

Model 2.148E+010 7 3.069E+009 5511.49 <0.0001 signicant

A-oil quantify 1.134E+089 1 1.134E+009 2036.37 <0.0001
B-suffsce rot 3.626E+008 1 3.626E+008 172B.49 <0.0001
C-load 1.830E+010 1 1.830E+010 32860.74 *0.0001
AB 2.747E+008 1 2.747E+008 433.34 <0.0001
AC 1.180E+008 1 1.183E+008 212.37 <0.0001
BC 2.764E+008 1 2. 764E+008 436.32 *0.0001
ABC 4.192E+008 1 4.192E+008 752.82 <0.0001
Pure Error 4.455E+006 8 S.569E+005
Cor Total 2.149E+010 15

The Model F-value of 5511.49 implies the model is signicant. There is only a 0.01% chance that a Model F-Value this large could occur due
to noise.
Values of Prob > F less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are signicant.
In this case A, B, C, AB, AC, BC, ABC are signicant model terms.
Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not signicant.
If there are many insignicant model terms (not counting those required to support hierarchy), model reduction may improve your model.

Std. Dev. 746.24 R-Squared 0.9998

Mean 52393.75 Adj R-Squared 0.9996

C.V.% 1.42 Pred R-Square 0.9992
PRESS 1 .782E+007 Adeq Precision 170.087

The Pred R-Squared of 0.9992 is in reasonable agreement with the Adj R-Squared of 0.9996.
Adeq Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable. Your ratio of 170.087 indicates an adequate signal. This
model can be used to navigate the design space

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NEWSMAKERS
TOP STORIES
SEA-LAND CHEMICAL ANNOUNCES
PARTNERSHIP WITH LOCKHART
CHEMICAL
Westlake, Ohio-based, Sea-Land Chemi-
cal Co. announces it is now an autho-
rized distributor for Lockhart Chemical
Co. and its line of branded products
in North America. Under this agree-
ment, Sea-Land will represent the EZ
Mulz, Counter Rust, Lubristay,
Cuprisan and Coolsurf brands of
additives and surface protection tech-
nologies to the lubricants market.
We are excited about the oppor-
tunity to represent Lockhart Chemical
Co. in North America, says STLE-
member Joe Clayton, president of Sea-
Land Chemical Co. Lockhart manu-
facturers a full line of high-quality
additives, packages and surface protec-
tion technologies for the lubricant in-
dustry. We look forward to the oppor-
tunity to offer these high-performance
products to our customers.
74 When the U.S. could ignore his ideas no longer, Deming launched the Total Quality Management movement in corporate America.
The distribution partnership be-
tween the two companies will cover
most of the U.S., along with all territo-
ries within Canada and Mexico.
Sea-Lands focus on the lubricant
and metalworking additives market
with their technically trained sellers
makes them the perfect channel to mar-
ket to help us grow our business, says
STLE-member Raj Minhas, president
and CEO of Lockhart Chemical Co. It
is clear to us that they are very familiar
with our product range and are ready
to hit the ground running.
SPECTRO SCIENTIFIC WINS
RELIABILITY AND RESILIENCE
INNOVATION COMPETITION
Chelmsford, Mass.-based, Spectro Sci-
entic announces a joint rst place
nish with Airbus Helicopters in a
vote ranking contestants at the 2017
HeliOffshore Conference and Annual
General Meeting in Budapest, Hungary,
on May 14, 2017.
This years Shark Tank Innovation
competition focused on solutions for
reliability and resilience in the offshore
helicopter industry. Spectro Scientic
presented its Q5800 Expeditionary Flu-
id Analysis System (EFAS), a 33-pound,
battery-operated, man-portable lubri-
cation analysis lab that provides com-
prehensive results in 10 minutes on a
ight line or in a maintenance shop.
Spectro Scientic originally devel-
oped the Q5800 under contract with
the U.S. Military to analyze lubrication
oil and hydraulic uids for mainte-
nance and reliability improvements in
aerospace, ground vehicles and auxil-
iary equipment. The Q5800 provides
detection capability for early stage me-
chanical failure in oil-wetted systems.
The system is typically operated by a
line mechanic, delivering test results
and maintenance recommendations in
fewer than 10 minutes via a computer-
ized expert system.
Our technology has successfully
improved reliability and reduced main-
tenance costs in military applications
 over the past several years, says Bob
Wopperer, vice president of business
development for Spectro Scientific.
We are pleased to bring the benets
of this advanced technology to the
commercial aerospace market where it
can help improve reliability and safety
across the eet.

SONGWONS NEW PILOT PLANT

Ulsan, South Korea-based, SONGWON
Industrial Co., Ltd., announces its new
pilot plant in Panoli (Gujarat), India,
has come on stream, thereby strength-
ening the organizations overall special-
ty chemicals development capability.
Built on SONGWONs Indian site
with all the necessary main unit opera-
tions, the new plant is equipped with
the most up-to-date technologies and
materials to produce a wide range of
chemicals for a broad spectrum of ap-
plicationsfrom one kilo up to several
hundred kilo samples. To reinforce the
organizations position in existing ar-
eas of business and enhance its ability
to enter new areas, the new pilot plant
will be supported by the SONGWONs
strong local R&D team in Panoli, as
well as its central Technology Innova-
tion Center located in Maeam, Korea.
Technology and product inno-
vation is at the core of SONGWONs
business strategy. With our high-qual-
ity manufacturing expertise and strong
R&D, we have already earned a solid
reputation in the industry, says Gia-
como Sasselli, leader operations. This
new facility will play an important
SONGWON plans to meet key industry needs with its new pilot plant. (Photo courtesy of
SONGWON Industrial Co., Ltd.)
role in ensuring that SONGWON can
continue developing new industrial
technologies to meet evolving market
needs and make it possible for us to
reliably supply customers with innova-
tive products for testing and approval.
SCHAEFFLER EXPANDS
S.C. PLANT, PARTNERS WITH
AUDI ON POWERTRAINS
The Schaefer Group, based in Herzoge-
naurach, Germany, celebrates the ex-
pansion of its Fort Mill plant in South
Carolina.
At the same time, a new ofce build-
ing was opened that has been adapted
to the new working environments of
Schaefflers New Work initiative.
Maria-Elisabeth Schaefer-Thumann,
family shareholder, attended the open-
ing ceremony together with Georg F.
W. Schaefer, chairman of the Super-
visory Board, and Klaus Rosenfeld,
CEO of Schaefer. The globally active
automotive and industrial supplier has
created over 100 new jobs at the Fort
Mill location.
Schaeffler has invested around
$36.5 million (approximately 32.5 mil-
lion euros) to expand the production
capacities of one of its two Fort Mill
plants. Moreover, a new, multi-func-
tional administration building has been
set up, as well as a new plant entrance

Deming was hired as a consultant by Ford, GM, Dow Chemical, Hughes Aircraft and others. Jack Welch implemented Demings strategies at GE. 75
 tive markets, says Rosenfeld.
Expanding the plants production
space by around 3,250 square meters
has increased capacities in the areas of
stamping, heat treatment and mount-
ing of axial bearings. The new admin-
istration building offers around 6,000
square meters of space for modern
ofce work places and, in addition to
that, a multimedia conference center
and a company restaurant.
Also, Schaefer and Audi agreed on
an extensive cooperation in the devel-
opment of the powertrain for the next
three generations of the Formula E race
The expansion of Schaefers Fort Mill plant in South Carolina. From left: Jrgen
car. Schaefer chief technology ofcer
Thumann; Klaus Rosenfeld, CEO of Schaefer AG; Georg F. W. Schaefer, chairman of
professor Peter Gutzmer and Peter
the Supervisory Board; Henry McMaster, governor of South Carolina; Maria-Elisabeth
Schaefer-Thumann, deputy chairperson of the Supervisory Board; Dr. Peter Wittig, Mertens, member of the Board of Man-
ambassador of the Federal Republic of Germany to the U.S.; and Bruce Warmbold, CEO agement, Technical Development AUDI
Americas at Schaefer. (Photo courtesy of Schaefer.) AG, signed a three-year agreement in
Berlin-Tempelhof.
Schaefer has been involved in the
that has been adjusted to accommodate we are committed to further grow our innovative electric racing series from
the locations enlargement and increas- business in the Americas and to invest Day One and designing, developing
ing trafc. We want to deliver long- in the U.S. in capital and in the people and building the powertrain for the only
term value as a true partner. Therefore both in the industrial and the automo- German Formula E race car in the inter-

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national eld in a highly committed and
successful partnership with Team ABT.
The partnership will include joint work
on the electric motor, suspension and
power electronics for the powertrain.
The basic concept for the next-
generation powertrain of the Formula
E race car has been nalized, and some
of its components are already being
tested. Behind the scenes, Schaefer
and Audi had worked together in For-
mula E in some areas. Now the ofcial
signing of the agreement elevates this
existing active partnership to a higher
level with a long-term focus. We are
delighted to now have sealed for the
next three years this increasingly closer
partnership that we have been actively
engaged in with Audi in Formula E for
quite some time. Just like we have been
innovatively cooperating with Audi
for many decades both in motorsport
and, of course, in the development
and manufacturing of components for
production cars, I am sure that both
partners are going to give their best to
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this joint effort and will continue the
success story of ABT Schaefer Audi
Sport, which is already an impressive
one, says Gutzmer.
TIMKEN TO ACQUIRE
GROENEVELD GROUP
North Canton, Ohio-based, The Tim-
ken Co., a global leader in engineered
bearings and mechanical power
transmission products, announces it
has reached an agreement to acquire
Groeneveld Group, a leading provider of
automatic lubrication solutions used in
on- and off-highway applications, for
approximately $280 million.
For the 12 months ending May 31,
2017, Groeneveld Group sales were ap-
proximately $105 million. The trans-
action is expected to be accretive to
adjusted earnings per share in 2017.
Additionally, Groeneveld Group has a
strong margin prole, which is expect-
ed to be accretive to Timkens EBITDA
margin and to be further enhanced as
a result of synergies.
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
The acquisition of Groeneveld will
further expand our presence in the
automatic lubrication systems space,
which we entered in 2013 with our
acquisition of Interlube, says Richard
G. Kyle, Timken president and chief
executive officer. Groeneveld will
bring a strong brand and management
team, a global customer base and an
industry-leading product portfolio that
has an attractive market position in off-
highway equipment and heavy trucks.
Groeneveld Group is headquartered
in Gorinchem, Netherlands, with man-
ufacturing facilities in Italy. Automatic
lubrication delivery systems, which
enhance vehicle and machine uptime
through automated maintenance and
safety support, represent the predomi-
nance of the companys offering.
As part of the transaction, Henk
Groeneveld, sole shareholder and
non-executive president, will be re-
tiring from the company. Henk led
Groeneveld for four decades and made
it the company it is today, and he has
AUGUST 2017 77
 put in place a great leadership team,
says Kyle. We wish Henk and his fam-
ily well in retirement.
ASTM INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE
PRESENTS TOP ANNUAL AWARD
West Conshohocken, Pa.-based, ASTM
Internationals committee on Petroleum
Products, Liquid Fuels, and Lubricants
presents its top annual honorthe
Award of Meritto Dr. Andy L. Pickard,
consultant in Qualicum Beach, British
Columbia, Canada. The prestigious
award, which includes the accompa-
nying title of Fellow, is ASTMs highest
recognition for individual contribu-
tions to developing standards.
The committee is honoring Pickard
for his dedication and knowledge of
standard specications, classications
and test methods within committee
D02. He has been a member of ASTM
International since 1983 and has won
the Frank W. Reinhart Award (2015),
the Eagle Award (2014), the Award of
Excellence (2011-2013), the George
V. Dyroff Award of Honorary Commit-
tee D02 Membership (2009) and the
Award of Appreciation (2006), all pre-
sented by committee D02.
Previously Pickard was a senior
fuels specialist of Petro-Canada until
2003. Aside from ASTM, he is a mem-
ber of the Canadian Society for Chem-
istry, Association of the Chemical Pro-
fession of British Columbia and Society
of Automotive Engineers International.

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North Charleston, S.C.-based, Ingevity
announces the selection of IMCD, N.V., as
the distributor for its portfolio of lubri-
cant products in Brazil. The agreement,
effective May 2017, includes the distri-
bution of Ingevitys Altapyne, Diacid
and AltaLUB product lines.
We want to continuously improve
our customers experiences, says Sha-
na McCabe, Ingevitys global business
manager, lubricants and metalworking
uid additives. We see this partner-
ship with IMCD as a way to broaden
our territory to better service our cus-
tomers in the lubricants market.
We are thrilled to start this part-
nership with Ingevity, says Mauricio
Lopes, managing director for IMCD
INCREASED EFFICIENCY ENERGIZED BY
Brazil. Through this partnership, we
will be able to increase our portfolio of
LANXESS delivers effective, economical biocides and fungicides for specialties and expand our lubricants
OGVCNYQTMKPIWKFURNWU6GEJPKECN5WRRQTV5GTXKEGUTGCF[VQJGNR[QW business in Brazil.
QRVKOK\GRTQFWEVNGXGNUHQT[QWTURGEKECRRNKECVKQP1WTPreventol, IMCD is a global leader in the sales,
Biochek and Veriguard products are registered, reliable and available marketing and distribution of specialty
KPUQNWVKQPFKURGTUKQPRGNNGVUQTCMGUwww.mpp.us.lanxess.com chemicals, food ingredients and a com-
prehensive range of excipients and ac-
tive pharmaceutical.

EXXONMOBIL CONTINUES WORK ON

ROTTERDAM REFINERY
Preventol CMK Preservative and Preventol CMK 40 are approved by the FDA, EPA and NSF (HX-1) as
Following ExxonMobils latest update
antimicrobial preservative for lubricants with incidental food contact. The approved use is up to 1% active on the successful heavy lift of the reac-
ingredient (p-chloro-m-cresol). PREVENTOL is a registered trademark of LANXESS Deutschland GmbH.
BIOCHEK and VERIGUARD are registered trademarks of LANXESS Corporation. tors and vacuum fractionation tower,
the pre-assembled racks (PARs) for the
new hydrocracker have been installed

78 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

ZSCHIMMER & SCHWARZ
 at the Rotterdam renery. Manufactured in Spain, the PARs
were shipped by water to the Rotterdam renery during mid-
May this year.
Often referred to as the spine of the hydrocracker, to-
gether the PARs weigh roughly 2,200 tons. The heaviest PAR
weighed an impressive 500 tons and its installation marked
the completion of the heavy lift portion of the construction
campaign. Now that the onsite PARs have been installed, fur-
ther piping and instrumentation work can commence. How long will your
uid last?
Extend the life of your metalworking
uids with Synergex multifunctional
amine additives. This range of lower-
odor, lower-volatility products from
Eastman offers excellent buffering
and pH stability.

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Construction of the ExxonMobil Rotterdam renery.

PROMOTIONS & TRANSITIONS

ACME-HARDESTY WELCOMES NEW TEAM MEMBERS

Blue Bell, Pa.-based, Acme-Hardesty, a division of Jacob Stern
& Sons and an industry leader in
oleochemicals and biobased specialty
ingredients, has hired two new team
members.
As inventory planning coordina-
tor, Erik Tkacs will assist in managing
relationships with third-party storage,
service and transportation providers
for bulk and packaged products. He
also will execute day-to-day inventory Erik Tkacs
management tasks to ensure the high-
est level of inventory accuracy, lowest
inventory carrying costs and high levels
of customer service.
Previously Tkacs worked as an area
manager in the receiving department at
one of Walmarts eCommerce Fulll-
ment Centers. He graduated from York
College of Pennsylvania in 2015 with
a bachelors degree in supply chain and
Deanna Mulicka
operations management.
As inside sales and marketing spe-

80 Demings teachings were the starting point for Six Sigma, a set of management techniques to greatly reduce the probability that an error or defect will occur.
 *VU[HJ[\Z[VYLX\LZ[H
-9,,*(;(36.

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 PU<:VUS`;LS! -H_! 
,THPS!ZHSLZ'RVLOSLYPUZ[Y\TLU[JVT^^^RVLOSLYPUZ[Y\TLU[JVT
 cialist, Deanna Mulicka will grow and manage customer rela- try in the center of Moscow, and after
tionships with a focus on the personal care and food markets. having established strategic customer
She also will handle sales force back-up coverage, lead man- contacts, Schaefer has continued to
agement and inside marketing activities. consistently implement the strategy to
Prior to joining Acme-Hardesty, Mulicka worked for three strengthen its position on the Russian
years at Brenntag Solutions Group in Bethlehem, Pa., where market and develop new market op-
she was an industry representative. In this role she developed portunities by appointing a CEO Russia.
new sales opportunities and identied market share using cus- We are delighted to welcome Mr.
tomer relationships, technical knowledge and CRM databases. Shakhov to Schaeffler and believe
that he will successfully represent the Maxim Shakhov
SCHAEFFLER APPOINTS CEO RUSSIA Schaefer Groups automotive and in-
Maxim Shakhov has assumed the position of CEO Russia for dustrial divisions as well as cross-regional topics in the coun-
the Schaefer Group, based in Herzogenaurach, Germany, and tries of the Eurasian Economic Union, says Lindner.
will be based in Moscow. In this function, he will report di-
rectly to Prof. Dr. Rainer Lindner, CEO of Central & Eastern PILOT CHEMICAL NAMES
Europe and Middle East & Africa. EHS MANAGER
Following a successful career at DuPont and Vaillant in Jason Denlinger has been named Pilot Chemical Co.s (based in
Germany and Russia, Shakhov took over as CEO at the Bi- Cincinnati, Ohio) new corporate environmental, health and
onovatic Group, a Russian start-up company that specializes safety (EHS) manager. He will oversee the development and
in biotechnology, in 2016. With an engineering degree, a implementation of health and safety programs and maintain
masters of business administration and many years of ex- Pilots commitment to reducing the en-
perience on the Russian and German markets, he meets all vironmental impact of its operations.
the requirements to further develop the Schaefer Group for Denlinger brings more than 20
the future in Russia. years of experience in managing EHS
After moving its ofces into the House of German Indus- programs and most recently served
as director of EHS at AGC Glass Co.
North America in Cincinnati. He
earned his bachelors degree in geol-
ogy from Wright State University in
Dayton, Ohio. Jason Denlinger

Turning Your
Ideas Into Reality

With a prowess for processing

feedstocks into high-quality
TLT T R I B O LO G Y &
LU B R I C AT I O N
T E C H N O LO G Y

specialty hydrocarbon products,

Calumet is your partner for
customized base stocks,
process oils, specialty oils, Want to be recognized in TLT?
solvents and waxes. TLT is interested in hearing from our readers. Let us know
whats happening in your company. If you have news about a
new employee or if someone in your company has been rec-
ognized with an award or any other interesting items, let us
know. Please send us your news releases and photos for pub-
lication in Newsmakers to TLT Magazine, Attn: Rachel Fowler,
www.clmt.com 840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068, rfowler@stle.org.
2017 Calumet Specialty Products Partners, L.P.

82 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 everyday
Other companies call their solutions New.
We call them Everyday.
For more than 60 years, we have manufactured chemicals and
lubricant components tailored to meet our customers exact
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customer-centric approach have made El the responsive,
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Our history of customer-focused collaboration and innovative

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2017 El Corporation
SOUNDING BOARD
Which lubricant component will be most
critical to meeting future challenges for
your main lubricant applications?
Base stock was the overwhelming choice
among those TLT readers responding to
this months survey. The primary reason,
as most respondents noted, is that base
stock accounts for more than 50% of the
nished lubricant and is critical to all of its
functions. Base stocks also are the focus of
ever-evolving environmental regulations.
Plus, as one reader said, Improving base
stock reduces the need for so many
84 Deming was nally recognized for his contributions in the U.S. in 1987 when he received a special award, the National Medal of Technology, at the White House. The
Can Stock Photo Inc. / AJT
additives. After base stocks, the broad
category of additives came next in the
following order: antioxidants, viscosity
modiers, antiwear, EP, friction modiers,
corrosion inhibitors and, for those in the
metalworking industry, antimicrobials and
lubricity additives. Fifty-one percent of
survey respondents anticipate replacing
their base oil in the near future to meet
OEM, API or other specications.
 Base stock because it improves the
life of the lubricant.
Viscosity modier.
Base stock due to the increasing
demand of lower-viscosity grade oil
requirements driven mainly by fuel
efciency and environmental
regulations.
Effective additives that also are
eco-friendly to meet the ever
changing requirements of environ-
mental regulation.
Base stockviscosity and solvency.
PAG high-temp and polar properties.
I believe that oxidation controls will
be paramount in the future due to
our constant battle to extend oil
change intervals while still protect-
ing the equipment.
Antioxidants.
PAGs. Their oxidation and thermal
stability with better friction coef-
cient, high VI and inability to form
varnish make it a no brainer. If the
so-called Big Oil know-it-alls would
learn more about these products and
stop publishing complete untruths
about these lubricants, they might
realize the fact that PAGs are pretty
amazing. These uids seem to offer
superior all-around performance to
any other base stocks and offer many
other advantages. With PAGs
available in oil soluble, oil insoluble
and water soluble, the potential is
enormous. Dialectic strength for
water soluble and oil insoluble is the
only disadvantage.
Sulfur-phosphorus auto gear oil
additive package.
Base stock based on the uptick in
the use of synthetics in the automo-
tive industry.
award was in recognition of his determined support of statistical methodology, his contributions to sampling theory and his advocacy of these methods to corporations. 8 5
Lubricity additives to enhance
lubricity for the lower-viscosity,
less-polar base stocks. There is a
demand to reduce internal friction,
and the base stocks are becoming
more rened and less polar. The
demand for lubricity additives will
increase.
D you
Do ou foresee
f esee having
h ing to
change/upgrade your
lubric
lubricant
ca t base
bas
se stock in
i the
near future to meet new OEM,
API or other specications?
Yes
No
Maybe
Based on responses sent to 13,000 TLT readers.
Base stock. In gas engines there will
be a tendency to change from Group
I to Group II in base stock to reach
more hours in use.
Base stock, but it is a difcult
question to answer. All components
work together in a good formulation.
Viscosity modier.
Antimicrobials, because they have a
signicant inuence on metalwork-
ing uid longevity.
Synthetic base stocks.
Base stock.
Lubricity additives. In metalworking
tool life, it is one of the key elements
for cost reduction.
For industrial applications such as
gears and bearings, additives in
general as efciency becomes more
important and designs leave less
room for errors.
Base stock. Viscosities are constantly
decreasing.
Its different in each industry.
However, we reach the performance
limits of antioxidants more often
than other components. Improving
antioxidant technologies will be an
important challenge to meet.
Base oils, because of stricter envi-
ronmental requirements.
Fluoro-silicone oils.
Chlorine-free lubricant additives for
difcult operations.
51%
51%
22% Viscocity modier, because they will
dene the fuel economy.
27%
Base stocks are likely to be the most
important component. There is still
uncertainty around the availability of
certain base stocks, feedstock
constraints, gas-to-liquid technology,
alternative sources and meeting
required specications.
Antiwear. Smaller reservoirs and
greater power through put.
Base stocks and VII as they form
foundation of lubricants. Additive
technology is becoming a critical ele-
ment as base oil technology changes.
Better base stocks. Improving base
stock reduces the need for so many
additives.
Base stock. Because of the high VI
levels and percent of saturates.
Base stock because it forms more
than 50% of the nished products.
Base stock, antioxidant and antiwear
will be the most critical component
for the fuel economy requirement
impacted on the weight, size of
power train and transmission system
to be smaller and heavy duty.
 Friction modier. It needs to
provide reduced friction in a very
complex system of components and
uids. Not a simple thing when
many of those components compete
for the surface as well.
I think base stock is always the most
important, whether it is line ush,
Group I, Group II, Group III or any
variety of synthetic. You can custom-
ize it to your equipments needs. A
sealed-for-life bearing should have a
synthetic lubricant while a basic,
leaky, hydraulic cylinder will do ne
with line ush.
Extreme pressure additive that is
REACH compliant.
Base stock. The majority of every
lubricant is base stock. It must be the
optimum for the application. Addi-
tives merely enhance the base stock.
Additives in general.
Additives. The range of base oil/
stocks are limited, but additives play
a big role in varying the performance
parameters of the nished product.
You do not need such rened
products for current applications.
Remember, the more rened the
more expensive.
VI improver.
High-performance additives.
Group II and III base stocks.
Oddly enough, Group I. It seems to
be important to blend it in with
Groups II and III for overall perfor-
mance. Note: This is a users/
speciers perspective, not a sup-
pliers perspective.
Base stock since it is the major
component and all other compo-
nents must be compatible with it.
86 AUGUST 2017
Which synthetic base stock
Group III, IV or Vis likely to
meett your
you future
tu lubricant
l b cant
needs?
Group III
Group IV
Group V
Based on responses sent to 13,000 TLT readers.
(1.) Antioxidant for engine oil to
minimize engine oil oxidation and
deposit formation and (2.) friction
modiers for transmission oils for
anti-shudder and smooth shifts.
Base stock solubility. Antioxidants
are critical to prevent varnish-like
deposits.
Antioxidants to give the greases
longer life.
Base stock. With the anticipated cost
increase, we want to have quality and
still be able to have a prot margin.
(1.) Base stock (less of it), (2.)
viscosity modier (more extreme
viscosity requirements), (3.) anti-
wear additives (increased design
dependence on reliability in bound-
ary lubrication).
With increasing pressure and load
(hydraulics, engine, etc.), I believe
VII will need to be more and more
shear stable.
Base stock max operating temperature.
Viscosity modier. Compatibility
when mixing greases.
Performance additives and friction-
reducing additives are likely to be
most important in meeting efcien-
cy requirements and power dense
applications.
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
Corrosion inhibitors will play an
increasing part in our product line as
more and more of our lubricants are
used in harsh environments.
Base stock improvements will play
4 %
47% the most critical role as I meet future
34%
34% challenges.
19% Base stocks. Prices need to decrease
in order for the high performance/
specialty segment to remain viable in
this increasingly frugal market.
Multifunctional polymeric additives.
Base stock due to where the supply
is coming from. I see that Group I is
on the decline; Group II and higher
is on the rise. The higher the quality
the more demand it will see in the
overall trend. Additive technology is
always changing and fast. There will
always be a more efcient additive in
the future as tech allows us more
options. Base stock is the volume
and bulk and sets the standard for
the quality lubricant. If anyone can
produce a base stock in the greatest
volume synthetically, that is the
keystone.
Viscosity modier.
BHT because of its environmental
classication.
Biocide/preservative to successfully
replace formaldehyde donors.
Antioxidants: longer service drains,
more severe service in both indus-
trial and transportation.
EP additives such as chlorinated
parafns due to EPA regulations.
Group III and PAO, for endurance.
A key to driving down cost is base
stock selection. I see a bigger drive
to Group II+ and Group III+ to
replace PAO.
W W W. ST L E .O RG
Chemical solutions for
lubricants & metalworking

Sasol Performance Chemicals

Sasol offers high quality products for

Anticorrosion
Emulsication
Viscosity improvement
Cleaning and lubrication

Our product portfolio includes

A wide variety of unique Sasol alcohols
Highly efcient surfactants
Solvents with excellent solubility and low VOC
Effective boric acid replacements
Low foaming ether carboxylates
Heavy sulfonates to prevent corrosion in engine oil

Contact
David Pack
Market Development Sales Manager - North America
Tel +1 281-588-3435
E-mail David.Pack@us.sasol.com www.Sasolnorthamerica.com
 The base oil is the base of the
lubricant. The more properties we
can improve in the base oil, the
fewer additives we need, or we can
stretch the application further.
Friction modiers. With the expected
reduction in the use of zinc, phos-
phorus and other metals, especially in
PCMO, friction modiers will need to
be developed to replace them.
In my companys case, it will be the
urea grease thickener, which can
replace lithium soap and lithium
complex thickeners that are rising in
cost due to the demand for lithium
outpacing its supply.
By far base stock selection. So many
applications are depending on the
oils ability to stay in grade in
adverse operating conditions. This is
particularly true in automotive
engine applications.
Base stock is a critical function that
needs to be met in our applications.
Our company has seen problems
with base stock that is too dark in
color or has been re-rened and
contains an odor that is not pleasing
to the end-user.
Detergent/dispersants because of
high soot contamination in new
engines.
We predominantly make metalwork-
ing uids, not lubricants. Having
said that, the base stock is most
important because if the incorrect
base stock is selected, additive
solubility issues can result.
EP additives. Restrictions on
chlorine and phosphorus are
looming and processes are getting
more demanding.
Additive components.
Friction modiers in low-viscosity
engine oils (for large engines).
Pressure-viscosity modiers.

Editors Note: Sounding Board is based on an email survey of 13,000 TLT readers. Views expressed are those of the respondents and do not reect the opinions
of the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers. STLE does not vouch for the technical accuracy of opinions expressed in Sounding Board, nor does inclu-
sion of a comment represent an endorsement of the technology by STLE.

88 AUGUST 2017 T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG

 CALL FOR PRESENTATIONS
73rd STLE Annual Meeting & Exhibition
May 20-24, 2018
Minneapolis Convention Center
Minneapolis, Minnesota (USA)

STLEs Annual Meeting & Exhibition is the industrys most respected

venue for technical information, professional development and
international networking opportunities. Each year STLEs conference
showcases some 500 technical presentations, application-based
case studies, best practice reports and discussion panels on technical
or market trends.

Education courses support professional development and prepare

qualied individuals for STLEs three certication programs: Certied
Lubrication Specialist, Oil Monitoring Analyst (I&II) and Certied
Metalworking Fluids Specialist. Our annual trade show and popular
Commercial Marketing Forum spotlight the latest products and
services of interest to lubrication professionals. STLEs conference is
a truly international event, with some 1,600 professionals from
around the world attending.

2018 presentations are being sought in the following areas:

Biotribology Nanotribology
Condition Monitoring Nonferrous Metals
Engine & Drivetrain Power Generation
Environmentally Friendly Fluids Rolling Element Bearings
Fluid Film Bearings Seals
Gears Surface Engineering
Grease Synthetic and Hydraulic
Lubrication Fundamentals Lubricants
Materials Tribology (includes Tribotesting
Ceramics and Composites) Wear
Metalworking Fluids Wind Turbine Tribology

Abstract Submission
If you are interested in presenting at STLEs 2018 Annual Meeting
& Exhibition, submit a 100-150-word abstract at www.stle.org.
Abstracts are due Oct. 1, 2017. Notication of acceptance will be sent
in December 2017. While you do not need to prepare a full manuscript
to be included on the meeting technical program, you are invited
and encouraged to submit a manuscript for review and possible
publication in STLEs peer-reviewed journal, Tribology Transactions.

For more information, please contact:

Merle Hedland mhedland@stle.org 630-428-3400

Follow us on #STLE2018

Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, 840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068, info@stle.org, www.stle.org.
 TLT ADVERTISERS INDEX
AUGUST 2017 VOL. 73, NO. 8
Company Page
Acme-Hardesty Co. 19
BASF OBC
Calumet Specialty Products Partners, L.P. 82
Cannon Instrument Co. 26
Colonial Chemical 70

Want to Dover Chemical Corp.

Ducom Instruments
27
73

Heighten
Eastman Chemical Co. 80
El Corp. 83
Emery Oleochemicals 31

Your Evonik Oil Additives

Fluid Line Products
61
75

Industry F&L Asia Ltd.

Huntsman Petrochemical Corp.
IBC
65

Prole? Ingevity
Invista
J.A.M. Distributing Co.
IFC
3
30
Kao Chemicals 25
Can Stock Photo Inc. / Enjoylife

King Industries, Inc. 21

Include TLT in your Koehler Instrument Co., Inc. 81

marketing strategy. LANXESS Corp. 71, 78

Lexolube Div. Zschimmer & Schwarz 79
Your ad message Napoleon Engineering Services (NES) 88
will reach 13,000 Palmer Holland, Inc. 76, 77
PerkinElmer 49
lubricant-industry
Pilot Chemical 74
decision makers in its PolyOne Corp. 35
print and digital editions. Royal Manufacturing 95
Sasol North America 87
For information on how to customize Shanghai Starry Chemical Co. 9
a multimedia marketing program that Soltex, Inc. 39
ts your budget, contact:
STLE 2018 Call for Papers 89
National Sales Manager STLE Membership 93
Tracy Nicholas VanEe STLE 2018 Tribology Frontiers Conference 91
(630) 922-3459 The Elco Corp. 36
tnicholas@stle.org
United Color Manufacturing 7
Vanderbilt Chemicals, LLC 43

90 Deming continued to teach his business philosophy until his death in 1993.
 Mark Your Calendar!

And learn about the technical,

2018 STLE environmental and social issues that
Tribology will most impact tribology research
in the 21st Century.
Frontiers For the fourth year STLE is convening an
Conference international community to share tribologys
most cutting-edge research. Come join us for
four information-packed days with tribologys top
mindsyoull leave with a better understanding
of how your companys products will fit into an
The Drake Hotel Chicago ever-evolving technical future.
Oct. 28-31, 2018 Visit www.stle.org for program updates,
online registration and hotel reservations.
TFC registration opens following
the 73rd STLE Annual Meeting &
Exhibition, May 20-24, 2018, in
Minneapolis.
See you in Chicago!
Cutting-edge tribology research
Networking
Industry recognition
Leadership opportunities
Invited speakers
International community
Idea sharing

Co-sponsored by ASME Tribology Division.

Can Stock Photo / malajski

Places of Interest The Art Institute of Chicago Museum of Science and Industry Follow us on:
Field Museum Shedd Aquarium Willis Tower Lincoln Park Zoo
John Hancock Building Navy Pier Millennium Park Michigan Avenue shopping

Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, 840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068 info@stle.org www.stle.org 847-825-5536
RESOURCES
TECHNICAL BOOKS
AN INTRODUCTION TO POLYSACCHARIDE
BIOTECHNOLOGY, SECOND EDITION
Authors: Stephen E. Harding, Michael P. Tombs, Gary G.
Adams, Berit Smestad Paulsen, Kari Tvete Inngjerdingen
and Hilde Barsett
Publisher: CRC Press
Polysaccharides and related high
molecular weight glycans are
hugely diverse with wide applica-
tion in biotechnology and great
opportunities for further exploita-
tion. An Introduction to Polysac-
charide Biotechnologya second
edition of the popular original text
by Tombs and Hardingintroduc-
es students, researchers, clinicians
and industrialists to the properties
of some of the key materials in-
volved, how these are applied, some of the economic factors
concerning their production and how they are characterized
for regulatory purposes. Available at www.crcpress.com. List
Price: $129.95 (USD), hardcover.
STLE LOCAL SECTION
MEETING CALENDAR
Events listed here are local section
programs. For further details and a full
listing of other upcoming section events
in your area, visit www.stle.org.
Meeting announcements can be sent
to TLT Magazine, Attn: Rachel Fowler,
rfowler@stle.org.
AUGUST 2017
STLE Cleveland Section Golf
Outing, August 14, 10:30 a.m.
to 7 p.m. The format will
be a four-person scramble.
Schedule includes a putting
content, cookout lunch,
modied shotgun start and
dinner. Shale Creed Golf
Club, 5420 Wolff Rd., Me-
dina, Ohio. Contact: Buck
Evans at buck.evans@sealand-
chem.com or Tyler Kuchta at
Tyler.Kuchta@Lubrizol.com.
92 AUGUST 2017
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY: AN ANALYTICAL
APPROACH
Author: Kenneth S. Overway
Publisher: Wiley
Environmental Chemistry: An
Analytical Approach covers the
essentials of environmental
chemistry and focuses on mea-
surements that can be made in a
typical undergraduate laboratory.
It provides a review of general
chemistry nestled in the story of
the Big Bang and the formation of
the Earth and includes a primer
on measurement statistics and
quantitative methods to equip
students to make measurements in lab. This book encapsu-
lates environmental chemistry in three chapters on the atmo-
sphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. It also describes many
instruments and methods used to make common environ-
mental measurements. Available at www.wiley.com. List Price:
$79.95 (USD), hardcover.
STLE CERTIFICATION EXAMS
STLE is offering a certication exam in August. Here is the information on the exam:
August 24 from 8:30-11:30 a.m. at Lubrication Engineers Inc., 1919 Tulsa St. E,
Wichita, Kans.
For the online registration form, go to www.stle.org; click on the professional devel-
opment tab at the top. Then go to certication, then registration. Online registration
closes two weeks prior to the exam date. Onsite registration may be available on a
rst come, rst serve basis. For more information and for other methods of register-
ing, you may contact STLE headquarters by emailing certication@stle.org or calling
(847) 825-5536.
WORLD TRIBOLOGY CONGRESS
The Sixth World Tribology Congress (WTC 2017) is in Beijing, China, on Sept. 17-22,
2017. WTC 2017 aims to highlight recent important progress in all aspects of tribol-
ogy and strengthen the links between academia and industry.
Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the political, cultural
and educational center. It is a modernized historic city, now endowed with world-
class convention centers, advanced facilities and beautiful hotels and resorts.
WTC 2017 is organized by the Chinese Tribology Institute (CTI). It is expected
that more than 800 oral presentations including plenary, keynote and invited talks,
will be given in nine technical tracks. Around 200 poster presentations also are
expected. For more information, visit www.wtc2017.org/en.
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY W W W. ST L E .O RG
 You work in a
technical world.
Should you belong to
a technical society?
Keeping current with technical changes in the lubricants
eld is a daunting task.
More than 3,000 of your peers have solved this problem by
joining the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers.
STLE is the premier technical organization representing lubrication
professionals and tribology researchers. Professionals from
industry, academia and government join STLE because they know
no organization offers a more complete look at the eld of tribology.
STLE provides the lubricant industrys highest level of technical
training and professional development. But the benets of membership
dont stop there.
STLE membership is a mark of distinction. It confers the seal
of authority on you and your organization and afliates
you with the worlds leading experts in lubrication.
You work in a technical world. You belong
in a technical society. You belong in STLE.
Learn more about the benets of
STLE membership and how to join at
www.stle.org.

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Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, 840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068 847-825-5536 info@stle.org www.stle.org
CUTTING EDGE
Drs. Wilfred T. Tysoe &
Nicholas D. Spencer
Zeroing in on ZDDP tribolm growth
Models for the stress-activated growth of tribolms from ZDDP
were modied to include wear.
TWO RECENT CUTTING EDGE ARTICLES re-
ported on work that showed the growth rates
of tribolms from ZDDP were accelerated by
contact stress1 or interfacial shear2 under con-
ditions in which the temperature rise caused
by rubbing was negligible. In both cases, the
lm growth rate was found to increase with
contact pressure,1 or shear stress,2 in accor-
dance with a model for force-activated chemi-
cal reactivity rst described nearly 40 year
ago to understand cell adhesion,3 commonly
known as the Bell model. This predicts that
the reaction rate should increase exponen-
tially with shear stress, with a rate of increase
being dependent on a constant known as the
activation volume.
The experimental results for the growth
of tribofilms from ZDDP showed such an
exponential increase but only up to some
maximum growth rate, at which point growth
ceased! It was suggested that this was the re-
sult of an increase in the wear rate that then
balanced the growth rate, but this raises the
Figure 2 | (a) Comparison of simulation and experimental data [5]. (b) Evolution of the wear rate with temperature. (Published with permis-
sion from Ref [4].)
94 AUGUST 2017
Figure 1 | Simulation and experimental
data for tribolm formation from ZDDP
at a 600 nN load measured in an AFM.
(Published with permission from Ref. [4].)
question as to whether wear also occurred
during earlier stages of lm growth to inu-
ence the results at lower stress.
To address this issue, Dr. Rob Bosman,
T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY
with graduate student Aydar Akchurin of the
University of Twente in the Netherlands, de-
veloped a model in which the growth kinetics
were described by the Bell model but also in-
corporated wear. Previous measurements had
shown that the hardness of ZDDP tribolms
decreased almost linearly with lm thickness,
so a simple wear model was adopted in which
the wear rate was taken to be proportional
to the lm thickness, with the proportion-
ality constant being taken as an adjustable
parameter. All of this information was inte-
grated into a simulation program, which is
freely available.4
They rst used their model to t the data
without including wear, by adjusting the val-
ues of the reaction activation energy and the
activation volume, and were able to reproduce
the initial lm growth rates. Wear was then
included and the simulation yielded very good
agreement with the growth kinetics measured
after the completion of an initial induction pe-
riod (see Figure 1).
W W W. ST L E .O RG
 Bosman and Akchurin then used their
model to study ZDDP lm growth in a mac-
roscale steel-on-steel contact using recently
published data from the University of Leeds.5
They used the experimental parameters from
that work by again tting the activation ener-
gy, activation volume and the proportionality
constant in the wear formula. The results are
displayed in Figure 2a, where there is again
excellent agreement between the simulations
and experiment. Here, the simulations also
were able to accurately reproduce the growth
kinetics for different uid temperatures.
Figure 2b shows the corresponding wear
rates, which increase as the lm becomes
thicker, eventually becoming equal to the
growth rate, to provide a self-limiting lm
thickness. Importantly the values of reaction
activation energy (between 65 and 75 kJ/mol),
activation volume (30 to 85 3) and the con-
stant in the wear equation (3 to 7x10-4) were
essentially the same for both nanoscale and
macroscale contacts.
As the authors point out, the values of
reaction activation energy and activation
volume are likely to depend on the nature Eddy Tysoe (left) is a distinguished professor of
of the ZDDP. This simple analysis, and the physical chemistry at the University of Wisconsin-
free availability of the code, will allow the Milwaukee. You can reach him at wtt@uwm.edu.
model to be applied to measurements of the
Nic Spencer (right) is professor of surface science
growth of lms from a variety of additives and technology at the ETH Zurich, Switzerland, and
to further understand the physical origins editor-in-chief of STLE-afliated Tribology Letters
of these parameters. journal. You can reach him at nspencer@ethz.ch.

FURTHER READING
1. Tysoe, W.T. and Spencer, N.D. (2015), Reaction to rubbing, TLT, 71 (8), pp. 84-86.
2. Tysoe, W.T. and Spencer, N.D. (2016), The shear truth about ZDDP, TLT, 72 (10), pp. 102-104.
3. Bell, G.I. (2017), Models for the specic adhesion of cells to cells, Science, 200, pp. 618-627.
4. Akchurin, A. and Bosman, R. (2017), A deterministic stress-activated model for tribo-lm growth and wear simulation, Tribology Letters, 65, p. 59.
5. Ghanbarzadeh, A., Parsaeian, P., Morina, A., Wilson, M.C.T., van Eijk, M.C.P., Nedelcu, I., Dowson, D. and Neville, A. (2015), A semi-deterministic wear model
considering the effect of zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate tribolm, Tribology Letters, 61, pp. 1-15.

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W W W. ST L E .O RG T R I B O LO GY & LU B R I CAT I O N T EC H N O LO GY AUGUST 2017 95

AUTOMOTIVE TRIBOLOGY
Dr. Edward P. Becker

The future of ying is near

Materials engineering and tribology are two big factors
when considering ying cars.

FLYING CARS ARE BACK IN THE NEWS. Aero-

Mobil1 is exhibiting a production model and
claims it will soon begin taking pre-orders for
the vehicle. Before you place a deposit,
though, consider a couple of other recent
statements from AeroMobil:
The vehicle is expected to go into full pro-
duction in the upcoming years with the rst
deliveries being made to customers by 2020
and The production of AeroMobils rst vehicle
will be limited to a maximum of 500 units and
is priced between 1.2 million1.5 million Euro
depending on nal customer specications.
Now consider some performance speci-
fications for the AeroMobil: top ground
speed of 99.4 mph (160 kph), cruising air
speed of 161 mph (259 kph), maximum aero
range of 466 miles (750 km), carrying capac-
ity of two passengers and maximum useable
load of 529 pounds (240 kg). While those
numbers might be acceptable to most cus-
tomers for a small car or a small propeller-
driven aircraft, some would note that one
can purchase both a higher-performance car
and aircraft for less money.
To be fair, a practical ying car is quite an
engineering feat. Two major players in achiev-
ing an acceptable power-to-weight ratio are
materials engineering and tribology. Light-
weight, high-strength materials for vehicle
structures are necessary to maximize pay-
load. Carbon ber composites are used exten-
sively for body and interior assemblies. High
strength-to-weight ratio metal alloys (alumi-
num, magnesium and titanium) are used for
critically stressed components in the suspen-
sion and powertrain where possible.
The power plant for the AeroMobil is a
conventional two liter, turbocharged four-
cylinder, horizontally opposed, internal com-
bustion engine paired with twin electric front-
wheel motors. This hybrid conguration is
increasingly popular in automotive applica-
Materials and tribology are among the biggest challenges in achieving an acceptable
power-to-weight ratio in a ying car.
tions. However, the AeroMobil does not appear
to incorporate a large battery pack, probably
because of weight restrictions. The engine
directly powers a generator that provides
electricity to the wheel motors.
One measure of specic output of an
internal combustion engine is the power-to-
displacement ratio. In 2015 the average au-
tomobile engine in the U.S. produced 64.1
kW/l.2 The AeroMobil engine produces 112
kW/l, nearly twice the specic output of the
typical automobile.
Turbocharging provides the additional
oxygen to the cylinders to burn sufcient
gasoline to generate such high power, but
also important are the use of wear-resistant,
low-friction materials in the engine compo-
nents and the use of advanced, low-friction
lubricants in the engine and transmission.
Even today, as much as 13% of fuel burned
goes to overcome mechanical friction in the
engine, with the piston and piston rings to the
cylinder bore interface contributing over 50%
of that amount.3 There is still plenty of op-
portunity for the engine tribologist!
REFERENCES
1. From www.aeromobil.com.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Report EPA-
420-R-16-010, Light Duty
Automotive Technology, Carbon
Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel
Economy Trends: 1975-2016,
November, 2016.
3. Kenneth Holmberg, K., Andersson,
P. and Erdemir, A. (2012),
Global energy consumption due
to friction in passenger cars,
Tribology International, 47, pp.
221-234. DOI: 10.1016/j.
triboint.2011.11.022.
Ed Becker is an STLE Fellow and
past president. He is president
of Friction & Wear Solutions,
LLC in Brighton, Mich., and
can be reached through his
website at www.frictionandwearsolutions.com.

96 Deming once said: 3% of the problems have gures. 97% of the problems do not.
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