Shape-memory polymer

Shape-memory polymers (SMPs) are polymeric smart materials that have the ability to return from a deformed state (temporary
[1]
shape) to their original (permanent) shape induced by an external stimulus (trigger), such as temperature change.

Contents
1 Properties of shape-memory polymers
1.1 Triple-shape memory
2 Description of the thermally induced shape-memory effect
2.1 Thermodynamics of the shape-memory effect
2.2 Physically crosslinked SMPs
2.2.1 Linear block copolymers
2.2.2 Other thermoplastic polymers
2.3 Chemically crosslinked SMPs
2.3.1 Crosslinked polyurethane
2.3.2 PEO based crosslinked SMPs
2.3.3 Thermoplastic shape-memory

3 Light-induced SMPs
4 Electro-active SMPs
5 Shape-memory polymers vs. shape-memory alloys
6 Applications
6.1 Industrial applications
6.2 Medical applications
6.3 Potential medical applications
6.4 Potential industrial applications
6.5 Brand protection and anti-counterfeiting
7 See also
8 References

Properties of shape-memory polymers

SMPs can retain two or sometimes three shapes, and the transition between those is induced by temperature. In addition to
temperature change, the shape change of SMPs can also be triggered by an electric or magnetic field,[2] light[3] or solution.[4] As well
as polymers in general, SMPs also cover a wide property-range from stable to biodegradable, from soft to hard, and from elastic to
rigid, depending on the structural units that constitute the SMP. SMPs include thermoplastic and thermoset (covalently cross-linked)
polymeric materials. SMPs are known to be able to store up to three different shapes in memory.[5] SMPs have demonstrated
recoverable strains of above 800%.[6]

Two important quantities that are used to describe shape-memory effects are the strain recovery rate (Rr) and strain fixity rate (Rf).
The strain recovery rate describes the ability of the material to memorize its permanent shape, while the strain fixity rate describes the
ability of switching segments to fix the mechanical deformation.
 where N is the cycle number, m is the maximum strain
imposed on the material, and p(N) and p(N-1) are the
strains of the sample in two successive cycles in the stress-
free state before yield stress is applied.

Shape-memory effect can be described briefly as the

following mathematical model:[7]

Result of the cyclic thermomechanical test

where Eg is the glassy modulus, Er is the rubbery modulus,

fIR is viscous flow strain andf is strain for t >> tr.

Triple-shape memory
While most traditional shape-memory polymers can only hold a permanent and temporary shape, recent technological advances have
allowed the introduction of triple-shape-memory materials. Much as a traditional double-shape-memory polymer will change from a
temporary shape back to a permanent shape at a particular temperature, triple-shape-memory polymers will switch from one
temporary shape to another at the first transition temperature, and then back to the permanent shape at another, higher activation
temperature. This is usually achieved by combining two double-shape-memory polymers with different glass transition
temperatures[8] or when heating a programmed shape-memory polymer first above the glass transition temperature and then above
[9][10]
the melting transition temperature of the switching segment.

Description of the thermally induced shape-memory effect

Polymers exhibiting a shape-memory effect have
both a visible, current (temporary) form and a
stored (permanent) form. Once the latter has been
manufactured by conventional methods, the
material is changed into another, temporary form
by processing through heating, deformation, and A schematic representation of the shape-memory ef
fect
finally, cooling. The polymer maintains this
temporary shape until the shape change into the
permanent form is activated by a predetermined external stimulus. The secret behind these materials lies in their molecular network
structure, which contains at least two separate phases. The phase showing the highest thermal transition, Tperm , is the temperature
that must be exceeded to establish the physical crosslinks responsible for the permanent shape. The switching segments, on the other
hand, are the segments with the ability to soften past a certain transition temperature (Ttrans ) and are responsible for the temporary
shape. In some cases this is the glass transition temperature (Tg) and others the melting temperature (Tm). Exceeding Ttrans (while
remaining below Tperm ) activates the switching by softening these switching segments and thereby allowing the material to resume
its original (permanent) form. Below Ttrans , flexibility of the segments is at least partly limited. If Tm is chosen for programming the
SMP, strain-induced crystallization of the switching segment can be initiated when it is stretched above Tm and subsequently cooled
below Tm. These crystallites form covalent netpoints which prevent the polymer from reforming its usual coiled structure. The hard
to soft segment ratio is often between 5/95 and 95/5, but ideally this ratio is between 20/80 and 80/20.[11] The shape-memory
polymers are effectively viscoelastic and many models and analysis methods exist.

Thermodynamics of the shape-memory effect

In the amorphous state, polymer chains assume a completely random distribution within the matrix. W represents the probability of a
strongly coiled conformation, which is the conformation with maximum entropy, and is the most likely state for an amorphous linear
polymer chain. This relationship is represented mathematically by Boltzmann's entropy formula S = k ln W, where S is the entropy
and k is Boltzmann's constant.

In the transition from the glassy state to a rubber-elastic state by thermal activation, the rotations around segment bonds become
increasingly unimpeded. This allows chains to assume other possibly, energetically equivalent conformations with a small amount of
disentangling. As a result, the majority of SMPs will form compact, random coils because this conformation is entropically favored
over a stretched conformation.[1]

Polymers in this elastic state withnumber average molecular weightgreater than 20,000 stretch in the direction of an applied external
force. If the force is applied for a short time, the entanglement of polymer chains with their neighbors will prevent large movement of
the chain and the sample recovers its original conformation upon removal of the force. If the force is applied for a longer period of
time, however, a relaxation process takes place whereby a plastic, irreversible deformation of the sample takes place due to the
slipping and disentangling of the polymer chains.[1]

To prevent the slipping and flow of polymer chains, cross-linking can be used, both chemical andhysical.
p

Physically crosslinked SMPs

Linear block copolymers

Representative shape-memory polymers in this category are polyurethanes,[12][13] polyurethanes with ionic or mesogenic
components made by prepolymer method. Other block copolymers also show the shape-memory effect, such as, block copolymer of
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethyleneoxide (PEO), block copolymers containing polystyrene and poly(1,4-butadiene),
and an ABA triblock copolymer made from poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) and
polytetrahydrofuran.

Other thermoplastic polymers

A linear, amorphous polynorbornene (Norsorex, developed by CdF Chemie/Nippon Zeon) or organic-inorganic hybrid polymers
consisting of polynorbornene units that are partially substituted by polyhedral oligosilsesquioxane (POSS) also have shape-memory
effect.

Chemically crosslinked SMPs

The main limitation of physically crosslinked polymers for the shape-memory application is irreversible deformation during memory
programming due to the creep. The network polymer can be synthesized by either polymerization with multifunctional (3 or more)
crosslinker or by subsequent crosslinking of a linear or branched polymer. They form insoluble materials which swell in certain
solvents.[1]

Crosslinked polyurethane
This material can be made by using excess diisocyanate or by using a crosslinker such as glycerin, trimethylol propane. Introduction
.[14]
of covalent crosslinking improves in creep, increase in recovery temperature and recovery window

PEO based crosslinked SMPs

The PEO-PET block copolymers can be crosslinked by usingmaleic anhydride, glycerin or dimethyl 5-isophthalates as a crosslinking
agent. The addition of 1.5 wt% maleic anhydride increased in shape recovery from 35% to 65% and tensile strength from 3 to 5
MPa.[15]

Hard phase Crosslinker Tr (C) Rf(5)(%) Rf(5)(%)

PET Glycerol/dimethyl 5-sulfoisophthalate 1130 9095 6070

PET Maleic anhydride 813 9193 60
AA/MAA copolymer N,N'-methylene-bis-acrylamide 90 99
MAA/N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone Ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate 90 99
PMMA/N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone Ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate 45, 100 99

Thermoplastic shape-memory
While shape-memory effects are traditionally limited to thermosetting plastics, some thermoplastic polymers, most notably PEEK,
can be used as well.[16]

Light-induced SMPs
Light-activated shape-memory polymers (LASMP) use
processes of photo-crosslinking and photo-cleaving to
change Tg. Photo-crosslinking is achieved by using one
wavelength of light, while a second wavelength of light
reversibly cleaves the photo-crosslinked bonds. The effect
achieved is that the material may be reversibly switched
between an elastomer and a rigid polymer. Light does not
change the temperature, only the cross-linking density
within the material.[17] For example, it has been reported
that polymers containing cinnamic groups can be fixed into
predetermined shapes by UV light illumination (> 260 nm)
and then recover their original shape when exposed to UV
light of a different wavelength (< 260 nm).[17] Examples of
photoresponsive switches include cinnamic acid and
cinnamylidene acetic acid.

Electro-active SMPs A schematic representation of reversible LASMP

crosslinking
The use of electricity to activate the shape-memory effect of polymers is desirable for applications where it would not be possible to
use heat and is another active area of research. Some current efforts use conducting SMP composites with carbon nanotubes,[18] short
carbon fibers (SCFs),[19][20] carbon black,[21] or metallic Ni powder. These conducting SMPs are produced by chemically surface-
modifying multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) in a mixed solvent of nitric acid and sulfuric acid, with the purpose of
improving the interfacial bonding between the polymers and the conductive fillers. The shape-memory effect in these types of SMPs
have been shown to be dependent on the filler content and the degree of surface modification of the MWNTs, with the surface
modified versions exhibiting good energy conversion efficiency and improved mechanical properties.

Another technique being investigated involves the use of surface-modified super-paramagnetic nanoparticles. When introduced into
the polymer matrix, remote actuation of shape transitions is possible. An example of this involves the use of oligo (e-
caprolactone)dimethacrylate/butyl acrylate composite with between 2 and 12% magnetite nanoparticles. Nickel and hybrid fibers
have also been used with some degree of success.[19]

Shape-memory polymers vs. shape-memory alloys

Shape-memory polymers differ from shape memory alloys (SMAs) [23]
A summary of the major differences between SMPs
by their glass transition or melting transition from a hard to a soft phase and SMAs[22]
which is responsible for the shape-memory effect. In shape-memory
SMPs SMAs
alloys martensitic/austenitic transitions are responsible for the shape-
memory effect. There are numerous advantages that make SMPs more Density (g/cm3) 0.91.2 68

attractive than shape memory alloys. They have a high capacity for Extent of
up to 800% <8%
deformation
elastic deformation (up to 200% in most cases), much lower cost, lower
density, a broad range of application temperatures which can be tailored, Required stress
13 50200
for deformation (MPa)
easy processing, potential biocompatibility and biodegradability,[22] and
[24]
probably exhibit superior mechanical properties than SMAs. Stress generated
13 150300
upon recovery (MPa)
Transition
Applications temperatures (C)
10..100 10..100

1s
Recovery speed <1s
minutes
Industrial applications
<200 C >1000 C
Processing
One of the first conceived industrial applications was in robotics where low high
conditions
pressure pressure
shape-memory (SM) foams were used to provide initial soft pretension
in gripping.[25] These SM foams could be subsequently hardened by Costs <$10/lb ~$250/lb
cooling making a shape adaptive grip. Since this time the materials have
seen widespread usage in e.g. the building industry (foam which expands with warmth to seal window frames), sports wear (helmets,
judo and karate suits) and in some cases with thermochromic additives for ease of thermal profile observation.[26] Polyurethane
[27]
SMPs are also applied as an autochoke element for engines.

Medical applications
Most medical applications of SMP have yet to be developed, but devices with SMP are now beginning to hit the market. Recently,
this technology has expanded to applications inorthopedic surgery.[16]

Additionally, SMPs are now being used in various ophthalmic devices including punctal plugs, glaucoma shunts and introacular
lenses.

Potential medical applications

 [27] self-adjusting orthodontic wires and selectively
SMPs are smart materials with potential applications as, e.g., intravenous cannula,
pliable tools for small scale surgical procedures where currently metal-based shape-memory alloys such as Nitinol are widely used.
Another application of SMP in the medical field could be its use in implants: for example minimally invasive, through small incisions
or natural orifices, implantation of a device in its small temporary shape. Shape-memory technologies have shown great promise for
cardiovascular stents, since they allow a small stent to be inserted along a vein or artery and then expanded to prop it open.[28] After
activating the shape memory by temperature increase or mechanical stress, it would assume its permanent shape. Certain classes of
shape-memory polymers possess an additional property: biodegradability. This offers the option to develop temporary implants. In
the case of biodegradable polymers, after the implant has fulfilled its intended use, e.g. healing/tissue regeneration has occurred, the
material degrades into substances which can be eliminated by the body. Thus full functionality would be restored without the
necessity for a second surgery to remove the implant.[29] Examples of this development are vascular stents and surgical sutures.
When used in surgical sutures, the shape-memory property of SMPs enables wound closure with self-adjusting optimal tension,
[30]
which avoids tissue damage due to overtightened sutures and does support healing and regeneration.

Potential industrial applications

Further potential applications include self-repairing structural components, such as e.g. automobile fenders in which dents are
repaired by application of temperature.[31] After an undesired deformation, such as a dent in the fender, these materials "remember"
their original shape. Heating them activates their "memory." In the example of the dent, the fender could be repaired with a heat
source, such as a hair-dryer. The impact results in a temporary form, which changes back to the original form upon heatingin
effect, the plastic repairs itself. SMPs may also beuseful in the production of aircraft which would morph during flight. Currently
, the
[5]
Defense Advanced Research Projects AgencyDARPA is testing wings which would change shape by 150%.

The realization of a better control over the switching behavior of polymers is seen as key factor to implement new technical concepts.
For instance, an accurate setting of the onset temperature of shape recovering can be exploited to tune the release temperature of
information stored in a shape memory polymer. This may pave the way for the monitoring of temperature abuses of food or
pharmaceuticals.[32]

Recently, a new manufacturing process, Mnemosynation, was developed at Georgia Tech to enable mass production of crosslinked
SMP devices, which would otherwise be cost-prohibitive using traditional thermoset polymerization techniques.[33] Mnemosynation
was named for the Greek goddess of memory
, Mnemosyne and is the controlled imparting of memory on an amorphous thermoplastic
materials utilizing radiation-induced covalent crosslinking, much like Vulcanization imparts recoverable elastomeric behavior on
rubbers using sulfur crosslinks. Mnemosynation combines advances in ionizing radiation and tuning the mechanical properties of
SMPs to enable traditional plastics processing (extrusion, blow molding, injection molding, resin transfer molding, etc.) and allows
thermoset SMPs in complex geometries. The customizable mechanical properties of traditional SMPs are achievable with high
throughput plastics processing techniques to enable mass producible plastic products with thermosetting shape-memory properties:
low residual strains, tunable recoverable force and adjustable glass transition temperatures.

Brand protection and anti-counterfeiting

Shape memory polymers may serve as technology platform for a safe way of information storage and release.[34] Multifunctional
labels may even make counterfeiting increasingly difficult.[35][36] Shape memory polymers have already been made into shape
memory film by extruder machine, with covert and overt 3D embossed pattern internally, and 3D pattern will be released to be
embossed or disappeared in just seconds irreversibly as soon as it is heated; Shape memory film can be used as label substrates or
face stock for anti-counterfeiting, brand protection, tamper
-evident seals, anti-pilferage seals, etc.

See also
Smart material
Shape-memory alloy
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