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2.design Standards For Low Volume Roads Part-B, PDF
2.design Standards For Low Volume Roads Part-B, PDF
Introduction
Design parameters
Pavement design
Drainage and
erosion control
B TABLE OF CONTENTS
B. TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... B.iii
B. LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... B.V
B. LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................B.Vii
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................B.1
2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS ...........................................................................B.2
2.1 Legal Framework ............................................................................................................B.2
2.2 Road Safety .....................................................................................................................B.3
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS......................................................................................................B.4
3.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................B.4
3.2 Terrain ..............................................................................................................................B.5
3.3 Demographics .................................................................................................................B.5
4RAFC ...............................................................................................................................B.5
6EHICLECLASSICATION .........................................................................................B.5
4RAFCVOLUMES ..................................................................................................B.6
4RAFCGROWTH ....................................................................................................B.6
3.4.4 Geometric design .............................................................................................B.6
3.4.5 Structural design ...............................................................................................B.6
3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class ......................................................B.7
4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS ..................................................................................B.9
4RAFCCOMPOSITION .......................................................................................................B.10
4.2 Roadside Population and non-motorised vehicles ........................................................B.10
4.3 Geometric Design Standards for LVRs...........................................................................B.11
4.4 Design-by-eye ...............................................................................................................B.17
4.5 Typical Cross Sections ..................................................................................................B.17
5. MATERIALS .....................................................................................................................B.30
5.1 Subgrades ....................................................................................................................B.30
5.1.1 Specifying the design subgrade class ............................................................B.30
5.1.2 Material depth ...............................................................................................B.31
5.1.3 Improved subgrade layers ..............................................................................B.32
5.1.4 Dealing with poor subgrade soils ...................................................................B.32
5.2 Pavement Materials .......................................................................................................B.32
5.2.1 Materials requirements for roadbase ..............................................................B.34
5.2.2 Material requirements for sub-base ................................................................B.37
5.2.3 Material requirements for gravel wearing course ...........................................B.37
5.2.4 Material Improvement ....................................................................................B.40
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN........................................................................................................B.41
$ESIGNTRAFCCLASSES ....................................................................................................B.41
6.2 Engineered natural surfaces ..........................................................................................B.41
6.3 Natural gravel roads .....................................................................................................B.42
6.3.1 Major gravel roads .........................................................................................B.42
6.3.2 Minor gravel roads ..........................................................................................B.44
6.4 Surfacing options and design standards for paved roads ............................................B.45
6.4.1 Bituminous surfaced roads ............................................................................B.45
6.4.2 Non bituminous surfaced roads .....................................................................B.46
7. DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL ..........................................................................B.53
7.1 Size of watercourse .......................................................................................................B.52
B LIST OF TABLES
4ABLE" C
'RAVELBASETHICKNESSFORMAJORGRAVELROADSqWEAKGRAVEL '
..............................B.43
Table B.6.4: Typical gravel loss ........................................................................................................B.44
Table B.6.5: Design Chart for minor gravel roads ............................................................................B.45
Table B.6.6: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 1 ........................................................................B.46
Table B.6.7: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 2 ........................................................................B.46
Table B.6.8: Non-bituminous pavement surfacing options ..............................................................B.47
Table B.6.9: Substitution of pavement layer material ......................................................................B.47
Table B.6.10: Thickness designs for WBM pavements.......................................................................B.48
4ABLE" 4HICKNESSESDESIGNSFOR(AND0ACKED3TONE (03
PAVEMENT MM
...........................B.49
4ABLE" 4HICKNESSESDESIGNSFORVARIOUSDISCRETEELEMENTSURFACINGS MM
.............................B.50
4ABLE" 4HICKNESSES MM
.ON2EINFORCED#ONCRETE0AVEMENT .2#
..................................B.51
4ABLE" 5LTRA4HIN2EINFORCED#ONCRETE0AVEMENT 542#0
$ESIGN .......................................B.52
4ABLE" 2UNOFFCOEFCIENT(UMIDCATCHMENT ...........................................................................B.53
4ABLE" 2UNOFFCOEFCIENTSEMIARIDCATCHMENT .......................................................................B.54
4ABLE" 3TORMDESIGNRETURNPERIOD YEARS
..............................................................................B.55
4ABLE" 3TORMDESIGNRETURNPERIOD YEARS
FORSEVERERISKSITUATIONS .......................................B.55
Table B.7.5: Hydrological characteristic soil groups ........................................................................B.57
4ABLE" 2UNOFF#URVE.UMBERS #.
........................................................................................B.58
Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions .................B.59
4ABLE" NTECEDENTMOISTURECONDITIONS ..................................................................................B.59
4ABLE" -ANNINGmSROUGHNESSCOEFCIENTSFORSHEETOW..........................................................B.60
4ABLE" 2OUGHNESSCOEFCIENT N
FORDRAINS .............................................................................B.68
4ABLE" 0ERMISSIBLEOWVELOCITIES MSEC
INEXCAVATEDDITCHDRAINS ......................................B.69
Table B.7.12: Spacing between scour checks ....................................................................................B.70
Table B.7.13: Maximum spacing of mitre drains ................................................................................B.70
Table B.7.14: Common cut-slope ratios for LVRs. ..............................................................................B.72
4ABLE" #OMMONLLSLOPEBATTERSFOR,62S .............................................................................B.72
Table B.9.1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves ................................................................................B.75
B LIST OF FIGURES
1. INTRODUCTION
,OW6OLUME2OADSAREDENEDASTHOSEROADSCARRYING
Up to about 300 vehicles per day; and
Less than about 1 million equivalent standard axles.
&OR GEOMETRIC DESIGNS
ROADS CARRYING AN EXCESS OF VPD SHOULD BE DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH
THE 'EOMETRIC $ESIGN -ANUAL &OR ROADS CARRYING IN EXCESS OF VPD
BUT WITH A TOTAL TRAFC
LOADINGOFLESSTHAN-ESA
THESTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGNSHOULDBECARRIEDOUTINACCORDANCEWITHTHE
standards in this document.
&ORSTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGN
ROADSCARRYINGINEXCESSOF-ESASHOULDBEDESIGNEDINACCORDANCE
WITHTHE0AVEMENT$ESIGN-ANUAL&ORROADSCARRYINGINEXCESSOF-ESA
BUTWITHATRAFCVOLUME
OFLESSTHANVPD
THEGEOMETRICDESIGNSHOULDBECARRIEDOUTINACCORDANCEWITHTHESTANDARDSINTHIS
document.
,OW6OLUME2OADSFALLUNDERTHERESPONSIBILITYOFSEVERALAUTHORITIESINCLUDINGCOMMUNITYCOOPERATIVE
STRUCTURES
KEBELE AND WEREDA ADMINISTRATIONS
AND THE REGIONAL AND FEDERAL ROAD AUTHORITIES 4HIS
manual provides the requirements for the design of low volume roads under the responsibility of these
authorities. The standards provide an appropriate level of service for each class of road.
4HE CUSTODIAN OF DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ALL ROADS
INCLUDING THE ASSOCIATED SPECICATIONS AND STANDARD
DRAWINGS
ISTHE%THIOPIAN2OADSUTHORITY %2
4HEREAREFOURCLASSESOF,62KNOWNAS$#TO$#BASEDONTRAFCLEVELS
WITHEACHCLASSBEINGDENED
BYAPPROPRIATEGEOMETRICDESIGNSTANDARDS 0ART
&IGURE
/NCETHEGEOMETRICSTANDARDSARE
XED
THEDESIGNAPPROACHFOR,62SREQUIRESTHESELECTIONOFASURFACINGTECHNOLOGY
PAVEMENTDESIGN
and drainage appropriate to the road environment.
%2mS 'ENERAL 4ECHNICAL 3PECICATIONS CONTAIN THE DETAILED ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS SUPPORTING
THE DESIGN 4HESE MAY BE MODIED AND ADDED TO IN EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES DEPENDING ON THE
REQUIREMENTSOFTHESPECICPROJECTORROADENVIRONMENT
4HE DESIGN OPTIONS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS
DRAINAGE AND RETAINING STRUCTURES
ASSUME THAT ADEQUATE
maintenance is carried out on the road.
'OVERNMENT POLICY
NATIONAL LEGISLATION AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING DICTATE THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
OFLOWVOLUMEROADDESIGN4HISINCLUDES
FOREXAMPLE
ENVIRONMENTALCONTROLS
ROADSAFETYLEGISLATION
promotion of the use of labour or application of intermediate equipment based technologies to encourage
LOCALPARTICIPATIONAND3-%DEVELOPMENTUTHORITIESMAYCHOOSETOPUTEMPHASISON#OMPLEMENTARY
)NTERVENTIONS
ASSETOUTIN0ART#
The requirements of existing environmental legislation and related government proclamations are
summarised in Table B.2.1.
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS
3.1 Climate
The climatic descriptor which is used for the pavement design catalogues is the Weinert N value
7EINERT
4HISINDEXISCALCULATEDASFOLLOWS
where:
Ej = evaporation for the warmest month
Pa = total annual precipitation
The climatic zones demarcated by the N-values are macro-climates and it should be kept in mind that
different micro-climates may occur within these regions. This is particularly important where such local
MICROCLIMATES CAN PLAY A SIGNICANT ROLE IN DETERMINING THE INSITU MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE VARIOUS
pavement layers; a factor which needs to be considered in the choice of N-Value or the subgrade class
used for design purposes.
3.2 Terrain
Terrain class is determined by the number of 5-metre contours crossed by a straight line connecting the
TWOENDSOFTHEROADSECTIONINQUESTIONACCORDINGTOTHEFOLLOWINGDENITIONS
TOVEMETRECONTOURSPERKM4HENATURALGROUNDSLOPESPERPENDICULARTO
Flat
the ground contours are generally below 3%.
TOVEMETRECONTOURSPERKM4HENATURALGROUNDSLOPESPERPENDICULARTO
Rolling
the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.
TOVEMETRECONTOURSPERKM4HENATURALGROUNDSLOPESPERPENDICULARTO
Mountainous
the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric standards
Escarpment because of the engineering risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than
those encountered in mountainous terrain.
It should be noted that it is not dependent on the alignment chosen for the road.
3.3 Demographics
PPROPRIATEDESIGNAPPROACHESMUSTBEINTRODUCEDINPOPULOUSAREASTOMITIGATETHEEFFECTSOFDUSTAND
IMPROVETHESAFETYOFROADUSERS ADDITIONALROADWIDTHS
PARKING
BUSLAYBYS
ANDAPPROPRIATEDRAINAGE
systems.
3.4 4RAFC
4HEUSEOFTRAFCDATAVARIESDEPENDINGONWHETHERITISBEINGUSEDFORGEOMETRICDESIGNORPAVEMENT
STRUCTURALDESIGN4RAFCGROWTHNEEDSTOBETAKENINTOACCOUNTINTHEDESIGNPROCESS
3.4.1 6EHICLECLASSICATION
4ABLE"SHOWSTHEVEHICLECLASSICATION
4ABLE"6EHICLE#LASSICATION
For geometric design purposes it is also necessary to count non-motorised and intermediate means of
TRANSPORTINCLUDINGPEDESTRIANS
BICYCLES
ANIMALTRANSPORT
MOTORCYCLES
TRACTORSANDTRAILERS
3.4.2 4RAFCVOLUMES
4HE NNUAL
VERAGE$AILY4RAFC $4
ISDENEDASTHETOTALANNUALTRAFCSUMMEDFORBOTHDIRECTIONS
ANDDIVIDEDBY)TISUSUALLYOBTAINEDBYRECORDINGACTUALTRAFCVOLUMESOVERAMUCHSHORTERPERIOD
FROMWHICHTHE$4ISTHENESTIMATED
7HERETHEREISNOEXISTINGROADOFANYSORT
THEEXISTINGPEDESTRIANTRAFCCANBEUSEDTOESTIMATETHE
LIKELYVEHICULARTRAFCAFTERTHEROADISCONSTRUCTEDLTERNATIVELY
TRAFCINFORMATIONMIGHTBEAVAILABLE
FROMANECONOMICEVALUATIONCARRIEDOUTTOJUSTIFYTHEROADINTHERSTPLACE)NTHEUNLIKELYEVENTTHAT
THEREISNOINFORMATIONAVAILABLE
THELOWESTCLASSOFENGINEEREDROAD $#
SHOULDBEPROVIDED
3.4.3 4RAFCGROWTH
&UTURETRAFCFALLSINTOTHEFOLLOWINGTHREECATEGORIES
.ORMALTRAFC4RAFCWHICHWOULDPASSALONGTHEEXISTINGROADORTRACKEVENIFNONEWPAVEMENT
were provided.
'ENERATEDTRAFCDDITIONALTRAFCWHICHOCCURSINRESPONSETOTHEPROVISIONORIMPROVEMENTOF
the road.
$IVERTEDTRAFC4RAFCTHATCHANGESFROMANOTHERROUTE ORMODEOFTRANSPORT
TOTHEPROJECTROAD
BECAUSEOFTHEIMPROVEDPAVEMENT
BUTSTILLTRAVELSBETWEENTHESAMEORIGINANDDESTINATION
4HE$4INBOTHDIRECTIONSINTHERSTYEAROFANALYSISCONSISTSOFTHECURRENTTRAFCPLUSANESTIMATEOF
THEDIVERTEDTRAFC)FTHETOTALTRAFCISDENOTEDBY$4ANDTHEGENERALGROWTHRATEISIPERCENTPER
ANNUM
THENTHETRAFCINANYSUBSEQUENTYEAR
X
ISGIVENBYTHEFOLLOWINGEQUATION
'EOMETRICDESIGNALSOREQUIRESTHETRAFCLEVELOFPEDESTRIANS
NONMOTORIZEDANDINTERMEDIATEFORMSOF
TRAFCANDTHISISCALCULATEDINTHESAMEWAYUSING%QUATION"
&ORSTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGNTHECUMULATIVETRAFCLOADINGOFEACHOFTHEMOTORISEDVEHICLECLASSES
OVERTHEDESIGNLIFEOFTHEROADINONEDIRECTIONISREQUIRED&ORAGIVENCLASS
M
THISISGIVENBYTHE
following equation:
4 M
XX$4 M
0; I
.q= I
Equation B.3.2
Where
4 M
THECUMULATIVETRAFCOFTRAFCCLASSM
$4 M
0 4HE$4OFTRAFCCLASSMINTHERSTYEAR
N = the design period in years
I THEANNUALGROWTHRATEOFTRAFCINPERCENT
4HECUMULATIVETRAFCFOREACHCLASSOFVEHICLEISMULTIPLIEDBYTHEAVERAGENUMBEROFEQUIVALENTSTANDARD
axles of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of equivalent standard axles over
the life of the road.
4HENUMBEROFEQUIVALENTSTANDARDAXLES EF
OFANAXLEISRELATEDTOTHEAXLELOADASFOLLOWS
EF 0
n FORLOADSINKG
Equation B.3.3
OR EF 0
n FORLOADSINK.
Equation B.3.4
Where:
EF NUMBEROFEQUIVALENTSTANDARDAXLES ESAS
The sum of the individual ef values for each axle of the vehicle gives the equivalence factor for the
VEHICLEASAWHOLE
%& M
'UIDANCEONTHELIKELYAVERAGE%& M
FORDIFFERENTVEHICLECLASSESDERIVEDFROM
HISTORICALDATAISGIVENIN4ABLE"(OWEVER
DATAFROMANYRECENTAXLELOADSURVEYONTHEROADIN
question or a similar road in the vicinity is better than using countrywide averages.
4HECUMULATIVEESASOVERTHEDESIGNPERIODFOREACHVEHICLECLASSISOBTAINEDBYMULTIPLYING%& M
BY
THECUMULATIVETRAFC
4 M
4HETOTALNUMBEROFCUMULATIVESTANDARDAXLESFORALLVEHICLECLASSESISTHEN
OBTAINEDBYADDINGTOGETHERTHEVALUESOF%& M
X4 M
FORALLTHECLASSES
In some cases there will be distinct differences in each direction and separate vehicle damage factors for
each direction should be derived. The higher of the two directional values should be used for design.
/NNARROWROADSTHETRAFCTENDSTOBEMORECHANNELISEDTHANONWIDERTWOLANEROADS)NSUCHCASES
THEEFFECTIVETRAFCLOADINGISGREATERTHANTHATFORAWIDERROADANDTHEDESIGNTRAFCLOADING ESAS
IS
calculated using the relationships given in Table B.3.3.
4ABLE"&ACTORSFORDESIGNTRAFCLOADING
#ONSTRUCTIONTRAFCCANALSOBEASIGNICANTPROPORTIONOFTOTALTRAFCON,62S SOMETIMESqOF
TOTALTRAFC
ANDSHOULDBETAKENINTOACCOUNTINTHEDESIGNOFTHEPAVEMENT
4HEOWDIAGRAMIN&IGURE"SHOWSTHEPROCESSFORTHEGEOMETRICDESIGNOFLOWVOLUMEROADS4HIS
is followed by Tables of key data. Further details of the geometric design process is provided in Chapter
4 of Part D.
Step 1 Step 1
$ETERMINE$4OFMOTORISED $ETERMINE$4OFHEAVY
TRAFC TRUCKS AXLESORMORE
Step 2 Step 4
Step 3
Determine daily PCUs of non Determine nature of roadside
Determine terrain class
MOTORISEDTRAFC population
Step 5
Select Road Type or Types
Step 6
Select widths of
carriageway & shoulders
4.1 4RAFCCOMPOSITION
4HEPROPORTIONOFHEAVYVEHICLESINTHETRAFCSTREAMON,62SISOFTENQUITEHIGH4HE'EOMETRIC$ESIGN
STANDARDSFOR$#
$#AND$#INCLUDEAMODICATIONTOCATERFORTHIS
)NORDERTOQUANTIFYTRAFCFORNORMALCAPACITYDESIGNTHECONCEPTOFEQUIVALENT0#5SISUSED4HE0#5
values are shown Table B.4.1.
7HEN PASSING THROUGH A +EBELE SEAT A M PAVED SHOULDER IS SPECIED BUT NO ADDITIONAL FOOTPATH
though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.
)FTHEROADISPASSINGTHROUGHA7EREDASEATORALARGERPOPULATEDAREA
ANEXTRACARRIAGEWAYOFM
width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath
ISALSOSPECIED4HELATTERISESSENTIALLYTHEROADSHOULDER 4ABLES"AND"
)NADDITION
THEMAIN
running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.
7HEN PASSING THROUGH A +EBELE SEAT A M PAVED SHOULDER IS SPECIED BUT NO ADDITIONAL FOOTPATH
though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.
DDITIONAL SHOULDER WIDTHS ARE ALSO PROVIDED IF THERE IS A HIGH NUMBER OF 0#5S OF NONMOTORISED
VEHICLES
DENEDASMORETHAN0#5SPERDAYONAVERAGE 4ABLES"AND"
Table B.4.2: Increased shoulder widths (each side) for unpaved LVRs
DC1
Notes
1. DC2 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for PCUs.
DC1
2.0
Notes
1. Paved sections are single carriageway resulting in a wider shoulder.
2. DC2 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for high PCUs.
Sometime there will be cases where it is impossible to meet any of the standards mainly due to severe
terrain conditions. Under such circumstances the standards must be relaxed and suitable permanent
signage used to warn road users.
Table B.4.4: Geometric design standards for paved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 70 60 50 25 50
Width of running
m 6.5
6.5
6.5 6.5 6.5
surface
Width of shoulders m 1.25
1.25
0.5 0.5 1.25
Table B.4.5: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)
% 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 80 large vehicles then DC5 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. If the number of large vehicles >40 then this should be increased to 7.5m.
4. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
5. #ROSSFALLCANBEREDUCEDTOWHEREWARRANTED EGPOORGRAVEL FORSAFETY
LOWRAINFALL
Table B.4.6: Geometric design standards for paved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)
12
6
Min crest vertical curve K 21 12 7 2 7
Normal cross-fall % 4 4 4 4 4
Minimum sag vertical
m 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 30 large vehicles then DC4 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
4. ,ENGTHNOTTOEXCEEDMANDRELIEFGRADIENTSREQUIRED FORMINIMUMOFM
5. 5 If the number of large vehicles <20 this can be increased to 15%.
Table B.4.7: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)
Table B.4.8: Geometric design standards for DC2 paved(1) (AADT 25-75)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 60 50 40 20 50
Width of running surface m 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
Width of shoulders m 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5
15
6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 12 7 4 2 7
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
4. ,ENGTHNOTTOEXCEEDMANDRELIEFGRADIENTSREQUIRED FORMINIMUMOFM
Table B.4.9: Geometric design standards for DC2 (1, 2) unpaved (AADT 25-75)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 60 50 40 20 50
Road width
m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
110
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 6 9 9 9 6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 19 11 6 3 11
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles is >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is <10 then DC1 may be used
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
5. 2OAD WIDTHS MAY BE REDUCED AT THE DISCRETION OF THE ENGINEER AND APPROVAL OF THE CLIENT TO ADDRESS SPECIC LOCAL
CONDITIONS
ESPECIALLYINMOUNTAINOUSAREAS
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Desirable speed KMHR 50 40 30 20 40
Road width m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
Min stopping sight distance m 70 55 35 18 50
Min horizontal radius m 110 70 35 15
70
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 12
12
12
12
6
Min crest vertical curve K 11 6 3 2 6
Minimum sag vertical curve K 2.2 1.3 0.7 0.5 1.3
Normal cross-fall % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOM
2. ,ENGTHNOTTOEXCEEDMANDRELIEFGRADIENTREQUIRED FORMINIMUMOFM
For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only approach.
For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum absolute standards must
be applied. These are summarised in Table B.4.10.
&ORCLASSESOFROADWITHTHEHIGHERDESIGNSPEEDS
ADVERSECROSSFALLSHOULDBEREMOVEDFORCURVESWITH
low radii as indicated in Table B.4.12.
Table B.4.12: Adverse cross-fall to be removed if radii are less than shown
)NSITUATIONSWHERELOWRADIIOFCURVATUREARENECESSARY
THECURVESMUSTBEWIDENEDONTHEINSIDEAS
indicated in Table B.4.14.
4.4 Design-by-eye
The design-by-eye method is best suited to rehabilitation or upgrading projects where a road alignment
already exists and is the preferred method for developing a design for a track or undesignated road under
a community roads programme where a walking track is being improved to enable it to carry occasional
VEHICLES.EVERTHELESS
CONSIDERABLEEXPERIENCEANDSKILLISNEEDEDTOCARRYOUTTHEDESIGNBYEYEMETHOD
and the approach should only be used under the guidance and supervision of an experienced engineer.
Slope dimensions for the various conditions are summarised in Table B.4.15.
4HEDETAILEDCROSSSECTIONSTOSCALEAREGIVENINTHE3TANDARD$ETAIL$RAWINGS
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M
Varies
H #ROWNHEIGHT M
0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
J #LEAREDWIDTH M
15 20 20 20
Notes:
1 1-3,1'
2
4. 2ECTANGULARDRAINSNEEDTOBELINEDWITHROCK
BRICKSTONEMASONRYORCONCRETETOMAINTAINTHEIRSHAPE
5. -OREDETAILONSIDEDRAINSISPROVIDEDIN0ART$
3ECTION
0
F $EPTHOFSIDEDITCH M
Varies
Figure B.4.4: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Rolling Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGEWIDTH M
3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDERWIDTH M
0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C -IN#ROSSFALL#AMBER
4 4 4 4
D "ACKSLOPEOFDITCH VHRATIO
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M
Varies
G 3IDESLOPE VHRATIO
See Table B.4.15
0
#
/+3
/+5
0+/
5;
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M
0.35
G 3IDESLOPE VHRATIO
See Table B.4.15
J #LEAREDWIDTH M
15 20 20 20
L $ITCHWIDTH M
Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.
"
#
/+3
/+5
0+/
5;
0
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M
0.5
G 3IDESLOPE VHRATIO
See Table B.4.15
J #LEAREDWIDTH M
20 20 20
L $ITCHWIDTH M
Varies
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 23
/+3
"#
/+5
$
%$ !
$"%$%"
0+/
"
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M
Min 0.35
J #LEAREDWIDTH M
15 20 20 20
L $ITCHWIDTH M
Varies
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale;
/+3
"#
/+5
$
%$ !
$"%$%"
0+/
0
"
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M
Min 0.5
J #LEAREDWIDTH M
20 20 20
L $ITCHWIDTH M
Varies
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 25
$1
0+/ $0
/+14 /+4
0 0
3 3
$0
K'>
K'> &
'
Figure B 4.12: Typical cross section, DC14, at terrain, expansive soils, unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m) 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B Shoulder width (m) 0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
$
#
Figure B.4.13: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Paved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGEWIDTH M
MINIMUM 3.3 6.0 6.5
B 3HOULDERWIDTH M
1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 3HOULDER#ROSSFALL
6 6 6
C #ROSSFALL#AMBER
3 3 3
D "ACKSLOPEOFDITCH VHRATIO
F $EPTHOFSIDEDITCH M
Varies
5. MATERIALS
&ORMATERIALSSPECICATIONSSEE0ART$ 3ECTION
5.1 Subgrades
3UBGRADESARECLASSIEDONTHEBASISOFTHELABORATORYSOAKED#"2TESTSONSAMPLESCOMPACTEDTO
3(4/4COMPACTION3AMPLESARESOAKEDFORFOURDAYSORUNTILZEROSWELLISRECORDED4HESUBGRADE
STRENGTHFORDESIGNISASSIGNEDTOONEOFSIXSTRENGTHCLASSESREECTINGTHESENSITIVITYOFTHICKNESSDESIGN
TOSUBGRADESTRENGTH4HECLASSESAREDENEDIN4ABLE"
Subgrade Class
Design CBR S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Range % 3-4 5-8 9 - 14 15 - 29
.O ALLOWANCE FOR #"2S BELOW HAS BEEN MADE BECAUSE
FROM BOTH A TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC
PERSPECTIVE
ITWOULDNORMALLYBEINAPPROPRIATETOLAYAPAVEMENTONSOILSOFSUCHPOORBEARINGCAPACITY
&ORSUCHMATERIALS
SPECIALTREATMENTISREQUIRED SEE3ECTION$
The use of Class S2 soils as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as much as possible.
7HEREVERPRACTICABLE
SUCHRELATIVELYPOORSOILSSHOULDBEEXCAVATEDANDREPLACED
ORCOVEREDWITHAN
improved subgrade.
Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a soaked CBR greater than 30 and which comply with the
PLASTICITYREQUIREMENTSFORNATURALSUBBASE)NSUCHCASES
NOSUBBASEISREQUIRED
The CBR results obtained from the subgrade soils testing are used to determine which subgrade class
SHOULDBESPECIEDFORDESIGNPURPOSESINACCORDANCEWITH4ABLE"4HEVARIATIONINRESULTSMAYMAKE
SELECTIONUNCLEAR)NSUCHCASESITISRECOMMENDEDTHAT
RSTLY
THELABORATORYTESTPROCESSISCHECKEDTO
ENSURE UNIFORMITY TO MINIMISE INHERENT VARIATION ARISING FROM
FOR EXAMPLE
INCONSISTENT DRYING OUT OF
SPECIMENS
3ECONDLY
MORESAMPLESSHOULDBETESTEDTOBUILDUPAMORERELIABLEBASISFORSELECTION
0LOTTINGTHESERESULTSASACUMULATIVEDISTRIBUTIONCURVE 3CURVE
INWHICHTHEYAXISISTHEPERCENTAGE
OFSAMPLESLESSTHANAGIVEN#"2VALUE XAXIS
PROVIDESAMETHODOFDETERMININGADESIGN#"2VALUE
&IGURE"
4HEACTUALSUBGRADE#"2VALUESUSEDFORDESIGNDEPENDSONTHETRAFCCLASSASSHOWNIN4ABLE"&OR
EXAMPLE
ASINDICATEDINTHE4ABLE
FORADESIGNTRAFCCLASSOF,6THEDESIGN#"2VALUESHOULDBETHE
LOWERTHPERCENTILE IETHEVALUEEXCEEDEDBYOFTHE#"2MEASUREMENTS
4ABLE"$EPENDENCEOFDESIGNSUBGRADEONDESIGNTRAFCCLASS
4HECONCEPTOFnMATERIALDEPTHoISUSEDTODENOTETHEDEPTHBELOWTHENISHEDLEVELOFTHEROADTO
WHICH SOIL CHARACTERISTICS HAVE A SIGNICANT EFFECT ON PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND THROUGHOUT WHICH THE
nominal subgrade strength selected for design should be maintained.
4ABLE"SPECIESTYPICALMATERIALDEPTHSUSEDFORDETERMININGTHEDESIGN#"2OFTHESUBGRADE.OTE
THAT THIS DEPTH MAY BE INSUFCIENT IN CERTAIN SPECIAL CASES WHERE nPROBLEMo SOILS OCCUR 3EE 0ART $
3ECTION
The minimum depths indicated in the Table are not depths to which re-compaction and reworking is
NECESSARILYREQUIRED2ATHER
THEYARETHEDEPTHSTOWHICHTHE%NGINEERSHOULDCONRMTHATTHENOMINAL
SUBGRADESTRENGTHISAVAILABLE)NGENERAL
UNNECESSARYWORKINGOFTHESUBGRADESHOULDBEAVOIDEDAND
limited to rolling prior to constructing overlying layers
)TISRECOMMENDEDTHATTHE$YNAMIC#ONE0ENETROMETER $#0
BEUSEDDURINGCONSTRUCTIONTOMONITOR
the uniformity of subgrade support to the recommended minimum depths given in Table B.5.3.
There are many advantages to improving the CBR strength of the in situ subgrade to a minimum of
3UBGRADE #LASS 3
BY CONSTRUCTING ONE OR MORE IMPROVED LAYERS WHERE NECESSARY )N PRINCIPLE
WHEREASUFCIENTTHICKNESSOFIMPROVEDSUBGRADEISPLACED
THEOVERALLSUBGRADEBEARINGSTRENGTHIS
increased to that of a higher class and the sub-base thickness may be reduced accordingly. This is often
ANECONOMICADVANTAGEASSUBBASEQUALITYMATERIALSAREGENERALLYMOREEXPENSIVETHANLLMATERIALS
HENCETHEDECISIONWHETHERORNOTTOCONSIDERTHEUSEOFANIMPROVEDSUBGRADELAYER S
WILLGENERALLY
depend on the respective costs of sub-base and improved subgrade materials.
Methods of design and treatment for problem soils are described in Part D Section 6.19.
4ABLE"0AVEMENTMATERIALTYPESANDABBREVIATEDNOMINALSPECICATIONS
used in the paved and unpaved catalogue of designs
-IN#"2!3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G80 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM
GRADINGASSPECIED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G65 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM
GRADINGASSPECIED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G55 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM
GRADINGASSPECIED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G45 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM
GRADINGASSPECIED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G30 Natural gravel -AX3WELL!3(4/4
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMMORLAYERTHICKNESS
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G25 Natural gravel -AX3WELL!3(4/4
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIXEMMORLAYERTHICKNESS
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G15 'RAVELSOIL -AX3WELL!3(4/4
-AX3IZEOFLAYERTHICKNESS
0)OR'-ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G7 'RAVELSOIL -AX3WELL!3(4/4
-AX3IZELAYERTHICKNESS
0)OR'-ORASOTHERWISESPECIED MATERIALSPECIC
-IN#"2!3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G3 'RAVELSOIL
-AX3WELL.
-AX3IZELAYERTHICKNESS
Note:
4WO ALTERNATIVE MINIMUM LEVELS OF COMPACTION ARE SPECIED 7HERE THE HIGHER DENSITIES CAN BE REALISTICALLY ATTAINED IN
THEELD FROMELDMEASUREMENTSONSIMILARMATERIALSOROTHERESTABLISHEDINFORMATION
THEYSHOULDBESPECIEDBYTHE
Engineer.
Particle size distribution: The grading envelopes to be used for road base are shown in Table B.5.6.
%NVELOPEVARIESDEPENDINGWHETHERTHENOMINALMAXIMUMPARTICLESIZEISMM
MMORMM
REQUIREMENTOFVETOTENPERCENTRETAINEDONSUCCESSIVESIEVESMAYBESPECIEDATHIGHERTRAFC
MESA
TOPREVENTEXCESSIVELOSSINSTABILITY%NVELOPE#EXTENDSTHEUPPERLIMITOFENVELOPE"TOALLOW
THEUSEOFSANDYMATERIALS
BUTITSUSEISNOTPERMITTEDINWETCLIMATES%NVELOPE$ISSIMILARTOAGRAVEL
WEARINGCOURSESPECICATION
ANDISUSEDFORVERYLOWTRAFCVOLUMES4HEGRADINGISSPECIEDONLYIN
TERMSOFTHEGRADINGMODULUS '-
ANDCANBEUSEDINBOTHWETANDDRYCLIMATES
Strength and plasticity: 4HE STRENGTH REQUIREMENT VARIES DEPENDING ON THE TRAFC LEVEL AND CLIMATE
AS OUTLINED IN THE #ATALOGUE OF 3TRUCTURES #HAPTER "
4HE SOAKED #"2 TEST IS USED TO SPECIFY THE
minimum road base material strength.
4HEPLASTICITYREQUIREMENTALSOVARIESDEPENDINGONTHETRAFCLEVELANDCLIMATEASSHOWNIN4ABLES"
AND"MAXIMUMPLASTICITYINDEXOFHASBEENRETAINEDFORHIGHERTRAFCLEVELSANDALSOONWEAKER
SUBGRADES&ORDESIGNSINDRYENVIRONMENTSTHEPLASTICITYMODULUSFOREACHTRAFCANDSUBGRADECLASS
can be increased depending on the crown height and whether unsealed or sealed shoulders are used as
DESCRIBEDIN0ART$
3ECTIONAND&IGURE$
Table B.5.6: Plasticity requirements for natural gravel road base materials
4RAFCCLASS -ESAS
Subgrade
Property
class4
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Lateritic road base gravels: The requirements for selection and use of lateritic gravels for bases are
SLIGHTLYDIFFERENTTOTHOSEGIVENFOROTHERNATURALGRAVELS4HESEAREPRESENTEDIN4ABLE"MAXIMUM
PLASTICITYINDEXOFHASBEENSPECIEDFORHIGHERTRAFCLEVELSANDWEAKSUBGRADES&ORDESIGNTRAFC
LEVELSGREATERTHANMESA
AREQUIREMENTISSETTHATTHELIQUIDLIMITSHOULDBELESSTHAN"ELOWTHIS
TRAFCLEVEL
THISREQUIREMENTISRELAXEDTOALIQUIDLIMITOFLESSTHAN7HERESEALEDSHOULDERSOVERONE
METREWIDEARESPECIEDINTHEDESIGN
THEMAXIMUMPLASTICITYMODULUSMAYBEINCREASEDBYPERCENT
MINIMUMELDCOMPACTEDDRYDENSITYOF-GMISREQUIREDFORTHESEMATERIALS
Table B.5.7: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel road base materials
4RAFCCLASS -ESAS
Subgrade
Property
class <0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Notes:
1. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
2. 5NSEALEDSHOULDERSAREASSUMED&URTHERMODICATIONTOTHELIMITSCANBEMADEIFTHESHOULDERSARESEALED
3. 4HECOMPACTIONREQUIREMENTFORTHESOAKED#"2TESTTODENETHESUBGRADECLASSESIS-OD3(4/WITHA
minimum soaking time of 4 days or until zero swell is recorded. This is a relaxation of the soaked CBR requirement for
natural gravel base materials given in the catalogues.
Basic igneous rock (including basaltic and doleritic gravels): These materials occur extensively in
%THIOPIAANDTHEIRMOREWIDESPREADUSECOULDRESULTINSIGNICANTSAVINGSPROVIDEDTHECHARACTERISTICS
of the material are good enough to serve as a road base material.. The following indicative limits can
contribute to successful use of the material in road bases:
-AXIMUMSECONDARYMINERALCONTENTOFPERCENT DETERMINEDFROMPETROGRAPHICANALYSIS
Maximum loss of 12 or 20 per cent after 5 cycles in the sodium or magnesium sulphate soundness
TESTS
RESPECTIVELY
Clay index of less than 3 in the dye absorption test;
)NCREASEINMODIEDGLYCOLSOAKED)6FROMTHEWETMODIED)6SHOULDBEUNITS
Durability mill index of less than 125.
%NGINEERSNEEDTOUSECONSIDERABLEJUDGEMENT
EXPERIENCEANDINFORMATIONFROMOTHERROADSINTHEAREA
TOUTILISETHESEMATERIALSSUCCESSFULLY2ISKSMUSTBEIDENTIEDANDCONTROLLED
Cinder gravels: Cinder gravels have been used successfully as road base on experimental sections
CONSTRUCTEDINTHELATES 42,
&ROMTHESETRIALSITWASCONCLUDEDTHATWITHCAREFULSELECTION
CINDERGRAVELSCANBEUSEDFORLIGHTLYTRAFCKEDPAVEDROADSINACCORDANCEWITHTHEREQUIREMENTSOFTHE
PAVEMENTDESIGNCHART 4ABLE"
Strength requirements:MINIMUM#"2OFISREQUIREDATTHEHIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURECONTENT
WHEN COMPACTED TO THE SPECIED ELD DENSITY
USUALLY A MINIMUM OF PREFERABLY WHERE
PRACTICABLE
3(4/4COMPACTION
5NDERCONDITIONSOFGOODDRAINAGEANDWHENTHEWATERTABLEISNOTNEARTHEGROUNDSURFACE
THEELD
moisture content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture content
INTHE3(4/4COMPACTIONTEST)NSUCHCONDITIONS
THESUBBASEMATERIALSHOULDBETESTEDINTHE
laboratory in an unsaturated state.
)FTHEROADBASEALLOWSWATERTODRAININTOTHELOWERLAYERS
ASMAYOCCURWITHUNSEALEDSHOULDERSAND
UNDERCONDITIONSOFPOORSURFACEMAINTENANCEWHERETHEROADBASEISPERVIOUS
SATURATIONOFTHESUB
base is likely. In these circumstances the bearing capacity should be determined on samples soaked in
water for a period of four days. The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the density and
MOISTURECONTENTLIKELYTOBEACHIEVEDINTHEELD
3EASONALLYWETTROPICAL .
< 45 < 12 <6
RIDANDSEMIARID .
<55 < 20 <10
4HESPECICATIONSIDENTIFYTHEMOSTSUITABLEMATERIALSINTERMSOFTWOBASICSOILPARAMETERSq3HRINKAGE
0RODUCT AND 'RADING #OEFCIENT q WHICH ARE DETERMINED FROM PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND LINEAR
shrinkage as shown in Figure B.5.2.
NALTERNATIVETOUSINGLINEARSHRINKAGEANDTHESHRINKAGEPRODUCTISTOUSETHEPLASTICITYINDEXANDTHE
ASSOCIATEDPLASTICITYPRODUCT&ORTHERANGEOFMATERIALSLIKELYTOBEUSEDFORGRAVELWEARINGCOURSE
THE
PLASTICITYINDEXCANBEASSUMEDTOBEXLINEARSHRINKAGE4HELINEARSHRINKAGE SHRINKAGEPRODUCT
IS
recommended as it is based on one relatively simple test which has good precision limits in the shrinkage
ranges of acceptable gravel wearing course material.
Gravel loss: Gravel loss is the single most important reason why gravel roads are expensive in whole
LIFECOSTTERMSANDOFTENUNSUSTAINABLE
ESPECIALLYWHENTRAFCLEVELSINCREASE2EDUCINGGRAVELLOSSBY
selecting better quality gravels or modifying the properties of poorer quality materials is one way of
REDUCINGLONGTERMCOSTS'RAVELLOSSES GRAVELLOSSINMMYEARVPD
AREDETERMINEDINRELATIONTO
THEQUALITYOFTHEGRAVELWEARINGCOURSE 4ABLE"
4HEGRAVELLOSSESSHOWNIN4ABLE"PROBABLYHOLDONLYFORTHERSTPHASEOFTHEDETERIORATIONCYCLE
LASTINGPOSSIBLYTWOORTHREEYEARS"EYONDTHATPERIOD
ASTHEWEARINGCOURSEISREDUCEDINTHICKNESS
OTHERDEVELOPMENTS
SUCHASTHEFORMATIONOFRUTS
WILLALSOAFFECTTHELOSSOFGRAVELMATERIAL(OWEVER
the rates of gravel loss given in the Table can be used as an aid to the planning for regravelling in the
FUTUREMOREACCURATEINDICATIONOFGRAVELLOSSFORAPARTICULARSECTIONOFROADCANBEOBTAINEDFROM
periodic measurement of the gravel layer thickness.
-ATERIALREQUIREMENTSFORGRAVELROADSINRURALAREAS4ABLE"SHOWSTHERECOMMENDEDSPECICATIONS
for materials for unsealed rural roads
-AXIMUMSIZE MM
37.5
/VERSIZEINDEX )o
a d5%
3HRINKAGEPRODUCT 3p
B
MAXOFPREFERABLE
'RADINGCOEFCIENT 'c
C
16 - 34
3OAKED#"2 ATPERCENT-OD3(4/
t 15 %
4RETONIMPACTVALUE
q
a Io /VERSIZEINDEX PERCENTRETAINEDONMMSIEVE
b Sp = Linear shrinkage x percent passing 0.425 mm sieve
c Gc 0ERCENTAGEPASSINGMMPERCENTAGEPASSINGMM
XPERCENTAGEPASSING
MM
Notes:
1. 3PECICATIONSSHOULDBEAPPLICABLEafter placement and compaction
2. 4HE'RADING#OEFCIENTAND3HRINKAGE0RODUCTMUSTBEBASEDONACONVENTIONALPARTICLESIZEDISTRIBUTIONDETERMINATION
which must be normalised for 100% passing the 37.5 mm screen.
3. /NLYREPRESENTATIVEMATERIALSAMPLESARETOBETESTED
4. 4HE4RETON)MPACT6ALUE 4)6
LIMITSEXCLUDETHOSEMATERIALSTHATARETOOHARDTOBEBROKENWITHAGRIDROLLER 4)6
ORTOOSOFTTORESISTEXCESSIVECRUSHINGUNDERTRAFC 4)6
Material requirements for gravel roads in urban areas: 4HE SPECICATIONS IN 4ABLE " ARE
RECOMMENDED FOR UNSEALED ROADS IN AREAS WHERE THERE IS A SIGNICANT NUMBER OF DWELLINGS AND LOCAL
BUSINESSES)NCOMPARISONWITHTHELIMITSFORRURALROADS
THELIMITSFORTHEOVERSIZEINDEXHAVEBEENREDUCED
to eliminate stones whilst the shrinkage product has been reduced to a maximum of 240 to reduce the
dust as far as practically possible. This lower limit reduces the probability of having unacceptable dust
from about 70% to 40%.
4ABLE"2ECOMMENDEDMATERIALSPECICATIONSFORUNSEALEDlURBANmROADS
-AXIMUMSIZE MM
37.5
/VERSIZEINDEX )o
0
3HRINKAGEPRODUCT 3p
100 - 240
'RADINGCOEFCIENT 'c
16 - 34
3OAKED#"2 ATPERCENT-OD3(4/
t 15 %
4RETONIMPACTVALUE
q
/BTAINING MATERIALS THAT COMPLY WITH THE NECESSARY GRADING AND PLASTICITY SPECICATIONS FOR A GRAVEL
WEARINGCOURSECANBEDIFCULT-ANYOFTHENATURALGRAVELSTENDTOBECOARSELYGRADEDANDRELATIVELYNON
plastic and the use of such materials results in very high roughness levels and high rates of gravel loss in
SERVICEAND
INTHENALANALYSIS
VERYHIGHLIFECYCLECOSTS
)NORDERTOACHIEVESUITABLEWEARINGCOURSEPROPERTIESASUITABLE0ARTICLE3IZE$ISTRIBUTION 03$
CANBE
OBTAINEDBYBREAKINGDOWNOVERSIZEDMATERIALTOAMAXIMUMSIZEOFMMORSMALLERTTERBERGLIMITS
MAY BE MODIED BY GRANULARMECHANICAL STABILISATION BLENDING
WITH OTHER MATERIALS 4HESE MATERIAL
IMPROVEMENTMEASURESAREDISCUSSEDIN0ART$
3ECTION
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN
6.1 $ESIGNTRAFCCLASSES
&ORSTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGN
VETRAFCCLASSESHAVEBEENDENEDASSHOWNIN4ABLE")FTHE
ESTIMATEOFCUMULATIVETRAFCISCLOSETOTHEBOUNDARIESOFATRAFCCLASS
THENTHEBASICTRAFCDATAAND
FORECASTSSHOULDBEREEVALUATEDANDSENSITIVITYANALYSESCARRIEDOUTTOENSURETHATTHECHOICEOFTRAFC
CLASSISAPPROPRIATE)FTHEREISANYDOUBTABOUTTHEACCURACYOFTHETRAFCESTIMATESTHENEXTHIGHERTRAFC
class should be selected for the design.
4ABLE"4RAFCCLASSESFOREXIBLEPAVEMENTDESIGN
,64ISTHETRANSITIONTRAFCZONEBETWEENLOWVOLUMEANDHIGHVOLUMEROADSWITHTHEFORMERTRAFC
CLASS ,6
APPLYINGTOTHELOWERBOUNDARYOFTHETRAFCRANGEANDTHELATTERTRAFCCLASS 4
APPLYINGTO
the upper boundary.
The crown height of the earth road should be at least 35 cm above the bed of the drain.
7HERETHETOPOGRAPHYALLOWS
WIDE
SHALLOWLONGITUDINALDRAINAGEFOREARTHROADSAREPREFERRED
4HEYMINIMISEEROSION
ANDWILLNOTBLOCKASEASILYASNARROWDITCHES4HEDITCHESGRASSOVERIN
TIME
BINDINGTHESOILSURFACEANDFURTHERSLOWINGDOWNTHESPEEDOFWATER
BOTHOFWHICHACTTO
prevent or reduce erosion.
The surface of earth roads should be graded and compacted to provide a durable and level
RUNNINGSURFACEFORTRAFCANDTHEROADSURFACESHOULDHAVEAMINIMUMCAMBEROFTOENSURE
water runs off the surface and into the side drains.
REAS WHERE THERE ARE SPECIC PROBLEMS USUALLY DUE TO WATER OR TO THE POOR CONDITION OF THE
SUBGRADE
MAYBETREATEDINISOLATIONBYLOCALISEDREPLACEMENTOFSUBGRADE
GRAVELLING
INSTALLATION
OFCULVERTS
RAISINGTHEROADWAYORBYINSTALLINGOTHERDRAINAGEMEASURES4HISISTHEBASISOFAnSPOT
improvement approach.
7ATERSHOULDBEDRAINEDAWAYFROMTHECARRIAGEWAYSIDEDRAINSBYINSTALLINGLEADOFF MITRE
DRAINS
TODIVERTTHEOWINTOOPENSPACE
4OACHIEVEADEQUATEEXTERNALDRAINAGE
THEROADMUSTALSOBERAISEDABOVETHELEVELOFEXISTINGGROUND
SUCHTHATTHECROWNOFTHEROADISMAINTAINEDATAMINIMUMHEIGHT HMIN
ABOVETHETABLEDRAININVERTS
#ROSSSECTIONSARESHOWNINDETAILIN#HAPTER"ANDSHOWNHERESCHEMATICALLYFORCONVENIENCE &IGURE
"
&IGURE"q4YPICALGRAVELROADCROSSSECTIONINATTERRAIN
The minimum height is dependent on the climate and road design class as shown in Table B.6.2.
Climate
Road Class Wet (N < 4) Dry (N > 4)
hmin (mm) hmin (mm)
DC-1 350 250
DC-2 400 450
DC-3 500 300
DC-4 350 400
Gravel roads are divided into two broad categories for design purposes namely major and minor gravel
ROADS'RAVELROADSINCLASSES$#AND$#AREDENEDASMAJORGRAVELROADS
MINORGRAVELROADSARE
CLASSES $# AND $#
EXCEPT WHERE THE NUMBER OF HEAVY VEHICLES EXCEEDS ABOUT PER DAY -AJOR
GRAVELROADSAREENGINEEREDTOAHIGHERSPECICATION
Major gravel roads are likely to incur high maintenance costs in some circumstances namely;
When the quality of the gravel is poor.
Where no sources of gravel are available within a reasonable haul distance.
/NROADGRADIENTSGREATERTHANABOUT
In areas of high and intense rainfall.
Table B.6.3 (a): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads strong gravel (G45)
Table B.6.3 (b): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads medium gravel (G30)
Table B.6.3 (c): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads weak gravel (G15)
&OREFFECTIVECOMPACTIONOFTHEGRAVELLAYER
ITISNECESSARYTORESTRICTTHELOOSETHICKNESSOFGRAVELTOA
MAXIMUMLIFTOFABOUTMM4HUS
ANYOFTHEGRAVELLAYERSTHATREQUIREACOMPACTEDTHICKNESSOFMORE
than 150 mm must be compacted in more than one 200 mm lift.
Determination of wearing course thickness: The wearing course thickness depends on the annual gravel
loss and the number of years between re-gravelling operations. The predicted annual gravel loss is given
in Table B.6.4.
4HERATESOFGRAVELLOSSINCREASESIGNICANTLYONGRADIENTSGREATERTHANABOUTANDINAREASOFHIGHAND
INTENSERAINFALL/NSOMEGRADIENTS
THEINCREASECOULDBEGREATERTHANDEPENDINGONTHESTEEPNESS
of the gradient and material quality. Spot improvements should be considered on these sections.
2EGRAVELLINGSHOULDTAKEPLACEBEFORETHESUBBASEISEXPOSED4HEREGRAVELLINGFREQUENCY
2
ISTYPICALLY
INTHERANGEYEARS4HISDECREASESCONSIDERABLYIFPOORQUALITYGRAVELSHAVETOBEUSED&OREXAMPLE
IFTHEGRAVELQUALITYISINZONES"OR#
THELOSSRATEWILLBEMMPERYEARPERVPD4HEREFOREACLASS
DC4 gravel road carrying 200vpd will lose 90mm per year and require re-gravelling every two years
$RAINAGE
BUT NOT NECESSARILY GEOMETRY
IS UPGRADED TO ACCEPTABLE MINIMUM LEVELS DURING
CONSTRUCTIONSFOR#LASS$#AND$#ROADS
THISCANBEACHIEVEDBYBUILDINGUPTHEFORMATION
to an appropriate height to achieve the hmin requirements given in Table B.6.2.
The recommended sub-base thicknesses and wearing course material strengths for different sub-
GRADEANDTRAFCCONDITIONSARESHOWNIN4ABLE"
4RAFC#LASSES $4
Subgrade Strength
Class CBR (%) DC1/DC2(1)
(< 75)
150 WC
3
'
33
150 WC
3
Earth Road
Notes:
1. )FMORETHANHEAVYVEHICLESPERDAY
DESIGNASAMAJORGRAVELROAD
2. If a G30 material is available the thickness can be reduced to 150 mm
4HE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR PAVED ROADS WITH A BITUMINOUS SURFACE ASSUME A EXIBLE PAVEMENT WITH A
GRANULARBASESUBBASE4ABLE"SHOWSTHEMATERIALTYPESFORTHEVARIOUSSTRUCTURALLAYERSUSEDINTHE
CATALOGUES&ORSUBBASES
'AND'MATERIALSAREBOTHSUITABLEBUT'ISPREFERRED
The design charts for roads with bituminous road surfaces are shown in Tables B.6.6 and B.6.7. The use
of the charts is described as follows.
/NCETHEQUALITYOFTHEAVAILABLEMATERIALSANDHAULDISTANCESAREKNOWN
THEOWCHARTSHOWNIN&IGURE
D.6.22 of Part D and the design charts can be used to review the most economical cross-section and
PAVEMENT THIS INVOLVES ASSESSMENT OF DESIGN TRAFC CLASS
DESIGN PERIOD
CROSSSECTION AND OTHER
environmental and design considerations.
7HENTHEPROJECTISLOCATEDCLOSETOTHEBORDERBETWEENTHETWOCLIMATICZONES
THELOWER.VALUESHOULD
be used to reduce risks.
7HENTHEDESIGNISCLOSETOTHEBORDERLINEBETWEENTWOTRAFCDESIGNCLASSES
ANDINTHEABSENCEOFMORE
RELIABLEDATA
THENEXTHIGHESTDESIGNCLASSSHOULDBEUSED
It may be more economical to use a wider cross-section in the seasonal tropical and wet climate zone and
then use Pavement Design Chart 2 rather than to design a narrow cross-section and a pavement using
Pavement Design Chart 1.
4HEDESIGNCHARTSDONOTCATERFORWEAKSUBGRADES #"2
ANDOTHERPROBLEMSOILS$ESIGNGUIDANCE
FORTHESECONDITIONSISGIVENIN0ART$
3ECTION
125 G15 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30 250 G30
150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 175 G55 175 G65
3
4ABLE"LISTSTHENONBITUMINOUSPAVEMENT ."0
OPTIONSWITHTHEIRRESPECTIVEDESIGNCHARTS
WBM is suitable for labour based construction and should provide a relatively high quality surface layer
SIMILARTOAGOODQUALITYNATURALGRAVELSURFACE(OWEVER
LIKEGRAVEL
ITISWORNAWAYBYTRAFCANDRAINFALL
and therefore requires similar maintenance.
The structural designs for WBM are similar to those required for a gravel road as shown in Table B.6.10
WITH THE 7"- ITSELF ACTING AS THE WEARING COURSE CAPPING LAYERS AND A SUBBASE ARE REQUIRED AS
indicated but thicknesses can be reduced if stronger material is available.
2. /NSUBGRADE
THEMATERIALSHOULDBESCARIEDANDRECOMPACTEDTOENSURETHEDEPTHOFMATERIALOFINSITU#"2
>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Figure D.6.7 and Table D.6.7.
4HE (03 IS NORMALLY BEDDED ON A THIN LAYER OF SAND 3",
N EDGE RESTRAINT OR KERB CONSTRUCTED
FOR
EXAMPLE
OFLARGEORMORTAREDSTONESIMPROVESDURABILITYANDLATERALSTABILITY
Table B.6.11: Thicknesses designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) pavement (mm)
2. /NSUBGRADES
THEMATERIALSHOULDBESCARIEDANDRECOMPACTEDTOENSURETHEDEPTHOFMATERIALOFINSITU#"2
>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3
Table B.6.12: Thicknesses designs for various discrete element surfacings (mm)
150 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
150 G30 200 G30 200 G30 225 G30
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3
125 G65 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3
The thickness designs are given in Table B.6.12 except that the thickness of the cobblestone is generally
150mm instead of 100mm shown in the Table.
Mortared options
)NSOMECIRCUMSTANCES EGONSLOPESINHIGHRAINFALLAREASANDVOLUMESUSCEPTIBLESUBGRADE
ITMAYBE
ADVANTAGEOUSTOUSEMORTAREDOPTIONS4HISCANBEDONEWITH(ANDPACKED3TONE
3TONE3ETTS OR0AV
#OBBLESTONE OR$RESSED3TONE
AND&IRED#LAY"RICKPAVEMENTS4HECONSTRUCTIONPROCEDUREISLARGELY
the same as for the un-mortared options except that cement mortar is used instead of sand for bedding
ANDJOINTLLING4HEBEHAVIOUROFMORTAREDPAVEMENTSISDIFFERENTTOTHATOFSANDBEDDEDPAVEMENTS
ANDISMOREANALOGOUSTOARIGIDPAVEMENTTHANAEXIBLEONE4HEREIS
HOWEVER
LITTLEFORMALGUIDANCE
ONMORTAREDOPTION
ALTHOUGHEMPIRICALEVIDENCEINDICATESTHATINTERBLOCKCRACKINGMAYOCCUR&ORTHIS
REASONTHEOPTIONISCURRENTLYONLYRECOMMENDEDFORTHELIGHTESTTRAFCDIVISIONSUPTO,6 4ABLES"
until further locally relevant evidence is available.
150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 NRC 160 NRC 165 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
3
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30
150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
3
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
3
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
3
150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
Notes:
1. Cube strength = 30 MPa at 28 days
2. /NSUBGRADES
THEMATERIALSHOULDBESCARIEDANDRECOMPACTEDTOENSURETHEDEPTHOFMATERIALOFINSITU#"2
>30% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3
It should be emphasised that the formal design approach for this option is still under development and
that its use within an Ethiopian LVR road environment should be undertaken with caution.
REASWHERETHEUSEOF542#0CANBECONSIDEREDINCLUDE
3URFACINGOFANEWROADORTHEREHABILITATIONUPGRADINGOFANEXISTINGROAD
LLTRAFCANDROADCLASSESFROMLOWVOLUMEURBANSTREETSTOINLAYS
TOnPROVINCIALoROADSWHERE
TYPICALTRAFCVOLUMESAREBELOWVEHICLESPERDAYWITHLESSTHANHEAVYVEHICLES ATTHIS
STAGE
REASOFSTEEPGRADESANDSTOPSTARTHEAVYTRAFC
REASWHEREREGULARMAINTENANCEISUNLIKELY
The concrete is only 50mm thick and therefore tolerances are critical. The success of the UTRCP process is
THEREFOREDEPENDENTONATTENTIONTODETAIL4HISAPPLIESNOTONLYTOTHECONCRETELAYER CONCRETESTRENGTH
THICKNESS
PLACING
CURING
BUTALSOTOTHEPLACING
SUPPORTINGANDJOININGOFTHESTEELMESHPANELS
AS
well as the tolerances of the layer supporting the UTRCP. The need for meticulous monitoring and control
during construction cannot be over-emphasised. Competent site staff must be intensively involved in all
the processes associated with and control of all the construction activities.
4RAFC(2)
SG CBR%
Low Medium High
50 RC
50 RC 50 RC
3
150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
200 G30 250 G30 350 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3
150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 150 G30 200 G30
50 RC 50 RC
50 RC
3
150 G80 150 G80
150 G80
100G30 150 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3
4HEMAXIMUMWATEROWINAWATERCOURSECANBEESTIMATEDUSINGTHEFOLLOWINGMETHODS
$IRECTOBSERVATIONOFTHESIZEOFWATERCOURSE
EROSIONANDDEBRISONTHEBANKS
HISTORYANDLOCAL
knowledge;
The Rational Method.
4HE3#3METHOD 533OILS#ONSERVATION3ERVICES
42
COMBINATIONOFTHESEMETHODSSHOULDBEUSEDTOPROVIDETHEMAXIMUMLEVELOFRELIABILITY
Q X#X)X MS
Equation B.7.1
Where:
# THECATCHMENTRUNOFFCOEFCIENT
) THEINTENSITYOFTHERAINFALL MMHOUR
7.2.1 #ATCHMENTRUNOFFCOEFCIENT #
4ABLE"2UNOFFCOEFCIENT(UMIDCATCHMENT
Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.75 0.55 0.35 0.20
Rolling 4-10% 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30
Steep >10% 0.95 0.75 0.55 0.40
4ABLE"2UNOFFCOEFCIENT3EMIARIDCATCHMENT
Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.75 0.40 0.05 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.85 0.55 0.20 0.05
Rolling 4-10% 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.05
Steep >10% 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.10
4HEINTENSITYOFRAINFALL )
ISOBTAINEDFROMTHE)NTENSITY$URATION&REQUENCYCHARTSINNNEX4HESTORM
DURATIONISEQUALTOTHE4IMEOF#ONCENTRATION 4C
4CISTHETIMETAKENFORWATERTOOWFROMTHEFARTHEST
extremity of the catchment to the crossing site.
4C$ISTANCEFROMFARTHESTEXTREMITY M
6ELOCITYOFOW MS
Equation B.7.2
4HE VELOCITY OF OW DEPENDS ON THE CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND SLOPE OF THE WATERCOURSE )T IS
estimated from Figure B.7.1.
4HESTORMDESIGNRETURNPERIODISTAKENFROM4ABLE")FTHEROUTEISOFSTRATEGICIMPORTANCE
ORIF
the alternative route in the event of a drainage failure is more than an additional 75km or if there is no
ALTERNATIVEROUTE
4ABLE"SHOULDBEUSED
&IGURE"6ELOCITYOFOW
Table B.7.4: Storm design return period (years) for severe risk situations
The area of the drainage catchment should be estimated from a map or an aerial photograph.
In the Rational Method it is assumed that the intensity of the rainfall is the same over the entire catchment
AREA4HECONSEQUENCEOFAPPLYINGTHEMETHODTOLARGECATCHMENTSISANOVERESTIMATEOFTHEOWAND
therefore a conservative design.
SIMPLEMODICATIONCANBEMADETOTAKEINTOACCOUNTTHESPATIALVARIATIONOFRAINFALLINTENSITYACROSSA
larger catchment. The effective area of the catchment is reduced by multiplying by the areal reduction
FACTOR 2,
GIVENBYTHEFOLLOWINGEQUATION
7HERE
t = storm duration in hours
CATCHMENTAREAINKM
4HECATCHMENTAREAISDETERMINEDFROMTOPOGRAPHICMAPSANDELDSURVEYS&ORLARGECATCHMENTAREAS
it might be necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land use changes.
7.3.2 Rainfall
4HE3#3METHODISBASEDONAHOURSTORMEVENT4HECHARACTERISTICSOFSTORMSAREDENEDINTERMS
of the relationship between the percentage of the total storm rainfall that has fallen as a function of
TIME4HREEBASICTYPESOFSTORMAREDENEDFORTHREELEVELSOFMAXIMUMINTENSITY
4YPE)BEINGTHELEAST
INTENSEAND4YPE)))BEINGTHEMOSTINTENSE)N%THIOPIAA4YPE))DISTRIBUTIONISUSED SEE%2mS$RAINAGE
$ESIGN-ANUALqORTHEREVISEDVERSIONWHENAVAILABLE
RELATIONSHIPBETWEENACCUMULATEDRAINFALLANDACCUMULATEDRUNOFFWASDERIVEDBY3#3FORNUMEROUS
hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions. The storm data included total amount of rainfall in a calendar
day but not its distribution with respect to time. The SCS runoff equation is therefore a method of
estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm rainfall.
3 IS RELATED TO THE SOIL AND COVER CONDITIONS OF THE CATCHMENT AREA THROUGH THE #URVE .UMBERS
#.
described below.
3 #.q
Equation B.7.6
The relationship between Ia and S was found to be;
Ia 3 #.
Equation B.7.7
3UBSTITUTINGINTO%QUATION"
1 ;0q #.
=;0 #.
= Equation B.7.8
4HEPHYSICALCATCHMENTAREACHARACTERISTICSAFFECTINGTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENRAINFALLANDRUNOFF IETHE
#.VALUES
ARELANDUSE
LANDTREATMENT
SOILTYPES
ANDLANDSLOPE
,AND USE IS THE CATCHMENT AREA COVER AND IT INCLUDES AGRICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
TYPE OF VEGETATION
WATERSURFACES
ROADSANDROOFS,ANDTREATMENTAPPLIESMAINLYTOAGRICULTURALLANDUSE
ANDITINCLUDES
mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as rotation of
crops. The SCS method uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use to assign a runoff factor to
ANAREA4HESERUNOFFFACTORSORCURVENUMBERS #.
INDICATETHERUNOFFPOTENTIALOFANAREA4HEHIGHER
THE#.
THEHIGHERISTHERUNOFFPOTENTIAL
3OILS ARE DIVIDED SOILS INTO FOUR HYDROLOGIC GROUPS 'ROUPS
"
#
AND $
BASED ON INLTRATION RATES
4ABLE"
4HESEGROUPSAREDESCRIBEDINDETAILINTHE%2$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL
2UNOFFCURVENUMBERSALSOVARYWITHTHEANTECEDENTSOILMOISTURECONDITIONS
DENEDASTHEAMOUNTOF
RAINFALLOCCURRINGINASELECTEDPERIODPRECEDINGAGIVENSTORM)NGENERAL
THEGREATERTHEANTECEDENT
RAINFALL
THEMOREDIRECTRUNOFFTHEREISFROMAGIVENSTORMVEDAYPERIODISUSEDASTHEMINIMUMFOR
estimating antecedent moisture conditions.
4ABLE"GIVESRUNOFFCURVENUMBERSFORVARIOUSLANDUSES ."-ORECOMPREHENSIVETABLESAREGIVEN
INTHE%2$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL
4HIS4ABLEISBASEDONANAVERAGEANTECEDENTMOISTURECONDITION
IESOILSTHATARENEITHERVERYWETNORVERYDRYWHENTHEDESIGNSTORMBEGINS
4ABLE"GIVESCONVERSION
factors to convert average curve numbers to wet and dry curve numbers. The recommended antecedent
MOISTURECONDITIONS -#
IN%THIOPIAARESHOWNIN4ABLE"
Land use A B C D
Without conservation treatment 72 81 88 91
Cultivated land
With conservation treatment 62 71 78 81
Pasture land Poor condition 68 79 86 89
Good condition 39 61 74 80
Meadow 30 58 71 78
4HINSTAND
POORCOVER
NOMULCH 45 66 77 83
Wood or forest
Good cover 25 55 70 77
'OODCONDITION
GRASSCOVEROF
/PENSPACES
LAWNS
39 61 74 80
area
parks
&AIRCONDITION
GRASSON 49 69 79 84
#OMMERCIALANDBUSINESSAREAS
89 92 94 95
Urban districts impervious
)NDUSTRIALDISTRICTS
IMPERVIOUS 81 88 91 93
VERAGELOTSIZE VERAGEIMPERVIOUS
< 0.05 hectares 65 77 85 90
0.1 hectares 38 61 75 83
Residential
0.2 hectares 25 54 70 80
0.4 hectares 20 51 68 79
0.8 hectares 12 46 65 77
0AVEDROADSWITHCURBSANDSTORMDRAINS
PAVEDPARKINGAREAS
ROOFS 98 98 98 98
Gravel roads 76 85 89 91
Earth roads 72 82 87 89
/PENWATER 0 0 0 0
Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions
CN values
Average conditions Dry Wet
95 87 98
90 78 96
85 70 94
80 63 91
75 57 88
70 51 85
65 45 82
60 40 78
55 35 74
50 31 70
45 26 65
40 22 60
35 18 55
30 15 50
The next step in the SCS Method is to determine the Time of Concentration. This is the time it takes water
TOOWFROMTHEEDGEOFTHECATCHMENTAREATOTHEPOINTOFINTEREST)TISACOMBINATIONOFTHREEVALUES
SHEETOW
" SHALLOWCONCENTRATEDOW
AND
# OPENCHANNELOW
4HETYPETHATOCCURSISAFUNCTIONOFTHECONVEYANCESYSTEMANDISDETERMINEDBYELDINSPECTION)TIS
often a combination of these so that the total travel time is the sum of the time taken for the water to pass
through all of the segments of the catchment.
4RAVELTIMEISTHERATIOOFOWLENGTHTOOWVELOCITY
4 , 6
Equation B.7.9
Where:
4 TRAVELTIME
HR
, OWLENGTH
M
6 AVERAGEVELOCITY
MS
3600 = conversion factor from seconds to hours.
3HEETOW
3HEETOWISOWOVERPLANESURFACES)TUSUALLYOCCURSINTHEHEADWATEROFSTREAMS7ITHSHEETOW
THEFRICTIONVALUE -ANNINGmSN
ISANEFFECTIVEROUGHNESSCOEFCIENTTHATINCLUDESTHEEFFECTOFRAINDROP
IMPACT DRAG OVER THE PLANE SURFACE OBSTACLES SUCH AS LITTER
CROP RIDGES
AND ROCKS AND EROSION AND
TRANSPORTATIONOFSEDIMENT4HESENVALUESAREFORVERYSHALLOWOWDEPTHSOFABOUTMORSO4ABLE
"GIVES-ANNINGmSNVALUESFORSHEETOWFORVARIOUSSURFACECONDITIONS
4ABLE"-ANNINGmSROUGHNESSCOEFCIENTSFORSHEETOW
Surface n1
3MOOTHSURFACESCONCRETE
ASPHALT
GRAVELORBARESOIL 0.011
&ALLOW NORESIDUE
0.05
Cultivated soils
Residue cover < 20% 0.06
Residue cover > 20% 0.17
Grasses
Short grass 0.15
Dense grass 0.24
Range 0.13
Woods
&ORSHEETOWOFLESSTHANMETRES-ANNINGmSKINEMATICSOLUTIONSHOULDBEUSEDTOCOMPUTETHETRAVEL
TIME4
4 ; N,
0?
3= Equation B.7.10
Where:
4 TRAVELTIME
HR
N -ANNINGmSROUGHNESSCOEFCIENT 4ABLE"
, OWLENGTH
M
P2 YEAR
HOURRAINFALL
MM
3 SLOPEOFHYDRAULICGRADELINE LANDSLOPE
MM
FTERDETERMININGAVERAGEVELOCITY
THETRAVELTIMEFORTHESHALLOWCONCENTRATEDOWSEGMENTISCALCULATED
from Equation B.7.9.
/PEN#HANNELOW
/PEN CHANNELS ARE ASSUMED TO BEGIN WHERE SURVEYED CROSS SECTION INFORMATION HAS BEEN OBTAINED
WHERE CHANNELS ARE VISIBLE ON AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
OR WHERE BLUE LINES INDICATING STREAMS
APPEAR ON
%THIOPIAN-APPINGUTHORITYTOPOGRAPHICMAPS
VERAGEOWVELOCITYISUSUALLYDETERMINED
FORBANKFULLELEVATION-ANNINGmSEQUATIONORWATERSURFACEPROLEINFORMATIONCANBEUSEDTOESTIMATE
AVERAGEOWVELOCITY7HENTHECHANNELSECTIONANDROUGHNESSCOEFCIENT -ANNINGmSN
AREAVAILABLE
then the velocity can be computed using the Manning Equation.
6 2 S
N Equation B.7.11
Where:
6 AVERAGEVELOCITY
MS
2 HYDRAULICRADIUS
M EQUALTOA0w
A CROSSSECTIONALOWAREA
M2
Pw WETTEDPERIMETER
M
3 SLOPEOFTHEHYDRAULICGRADELINE
MM
N -ANNINGmSROUGHNESSCOEFCIENT 4ABLE"
FTERTHEAVERAGEVELOCITYISCOMPUTED
THETRAVELTIMEFORTHESEGMENTCANBECALCULATEDUSING%QUATION
B.7.9.
Reservoir or Lake
Sometimes it is necessary to compute a time of concentration for a catchment area having a relatively
LARGEBODYOFWATERINTHEOWPATH4HETRAVELTIMEISCOMPUTEDUSINGTHEEQUATION
Vw G$m
Equation B.7.12
Where:
Vw THEWAVEVELOCITYACROSSTHEWATER
Ms
G MS
Dm MEANDEPTHOFLAKEORRESERVOIR
M
4HISEQUATIONONLYDEALSWITHTHETRAVELTIMEACROSSTHELAKE
NOTTHETIMEATTHEINOWOROUTOWCHANNELS
The times for these are generally very much longer and must be added to the travel time across the lake
SEE%2S$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL
%QUATION"CANBEUSEDFORSWAMPSWITHMUCHOPENWATER
BUT
WHERETHEVEGETATIONORDEBRISISRELATIVELYTHICK LESSTHANABOUTOPENWATER
-ANNINGmSEQUATION
is more appropriate.
0qTHEDESIGNSTORMPRECIPITATION STEP
1qTHEACCUMULATEDDIRECTRUNOFF STEP
TcqTHE4IMEOF#ONCENTRATION STEP
7HERE1ISINMMANDISINUNITSOFHECTARES
The required size of a culvert opening is estimated using the nomographs in Figure B.7.5 to Figure B.7.7.
4HESEGURESAPPLYTOCULVERTSWITHINLETCONTROLWHERETHEREISNORESTRICTIONTOTHEDOWNSTREAMOWOF
the water.
If a high proportion of structures along a road or in a region have been in operation for a number of years
WITHOUTOVERTOPPING
ITISREASONABLETOASSUMETHATTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENCATCHMENTAREA
CATCHMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
RAINFALLINTENSITYANDMAXIMUMWATEROWUSEDINTHEIRDESIGNISVALID4HEDESIGNOFNEW
culverts can be based on simply the catchment area using the same relationships.
$RIFTSANDFORDSAREDESIGNEDFORWATERTOOWOVERTHERUNNINGSURFACE)TISNOTEXPECTEDTHATVEHICLES
can use them at all times. The following criteria should be considered when designing drifts:
The level of the drift should be as close as possible to the existing river bed level.
4HENORMALDEPTHOFWATERSHOULDBEAMAXIMUMOFMMANDTHEMAXIMUMYEAROWSHOULD
be 6m3SECONDONTHEDRIFTTOALLOWTRAFCTOPASS
PPROACHRAMPSSHOULDHAVEAMAXIMUMGRADIENTOF FORROADSWITHLARGENUMBERSOF
HEAVYTRUCKS
Those parts of the natural slope drainage system that experience increased run-off as a result of road
construction should be strengthened through:
Control of road surface drainage;
$ESIGNOFCULVERTSORDRIFTSTHATCONVEYWATERANDDEBRISLOADEFCIENTLY
/PTIMISEDFREQUENCYOFDRAINAGECROSSINGSTOPREVENTEXCESSCONCENTRATIONOFOW
Protection of drainage structures and stream channels for as far downstream as is necessary to
ensure their safety and to prevent erosion of land adjacent to the water course;
0LANTINGOFVEGETATIONONALLNEWSLOPESANDPOORLYVEGETATEDAREAS
AROUNDTHEEDGESOFDRAINAGE
structures and appropriately along stream courses.
Side drains serve two main functions: collection and removal of surface water from the road and the
IMMEDIATEVICINITYOFTHEROAD
ANDPREVENTIONOFSUBSURFACEWATERFROMADVERSELYAFFECTINGTHEROAD
PAVEMENTSTRUCTURE3IDEDRAINSCANBECONSTRUCTEDINTHREEFORMS6SHAPED
RECTANGULARORTRAPEZOIDAL
4HETRAPEZOIDALCROSSSECTIONFACILITATESMAINTENANCEANDIMPROVEDTRAFCSAFETY4RAPEZOIDALDRAINSCAN
BECONSTRUCTEDANDMAINTAINEDBYHAND)NATTERRAINANDREASONABLESOILSITMAYBEBESTTOUSEWIDE
UNLINEDDRAINSWITHHIGHCAPACITYYETLOWOWVELOCITY4HEMINIMUMRECOMMENDEDWIDTHOFTHESIDE
drain is 500mm.
Design volumes of run-off in side drains and other channels are estimated using the Rational Method.
4HECROSSSECTIONALAREAOFTHEDRAINMUSTBESUFCIENTTOACCOMMODATETHEEXPECTEDOWOFWATER
1
where:
1 6
6VELOCITYINMS
2HYDRAULICDEPTH THEAREAFORTHESTREAM
OWDIVIDEDBYTHEWETTEDPERIMETER
3HYDRAULICGRADIENT THESLOPEOFTHE
river bed over a reasonable distance either
SIDEOFTHECROSSINGPOINT
NROUGHNESSCOEFCIENT SEE4ABLE"
$ENITIONOFHYDRAULICDEPTH
Figure B.7.6: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe
culverts with inlet control (Adapted from FHWA, 1998)
4ABLE"2OUGHNESSCOEFCIENT N
FORDRAINS
3IDEDRAINS ASWELLASTHEROADITSELF
SHOULDHAVEAMINIMUMLONGITUDINALGRADIENTOF
EXCEPTON
crest and sag curves. Reduction of the side drain gradient in the lower reaches of a long length of drain
should be avoided in order to prevent siltation.
,IMITINGVALUESFORTHEVELOCITYOFOWTOPREVENTSCOURINEXCAVATEDDRAINSAREGIVENIN4ABLE"
4ABLE"0ERMISSIBLEOWVELOCITIES MSEC
INEXCAVATEDDITCHDRAINS
LLUVIALSILTS
1.15 1.50 0.9
COLLOIDAL
Scour checks reduce the speed of water and help prevent it from eroding the road structure. The scour
CHECKACTSASASMALLDAM7HENTHESCOURCHECKISNATURALLYSILTEDUPONTHEUPSTREAMSIDE
ITEFFECTIVELY
REDUCESTHEGRADIENTOFTHEDRAINONTHATSIDE
ANDTHEREFORETHEVELOCITYOFTHEWATER4HEREMUSTBE
SUFCIENTCROSSSECTIONALAREAINTHEDRAINABOVETHESCOURCHECK IEWHERETHEWATERHASBEENSLOWED
DOWN
TOACCOMMODATETHEMAXIMUMDESIGNOW
The distance between scour checks depends on the road gradient and the erosion potential of the soils.
4ABLE"SHOWSRECOMMENDEDVALUES4HESESHOULDBEMODIEDFORERODIBLESOILS
When constructing a channel lining it is important to reproduce or exceed the dimensions of the original
CHANNELCURVEDSHAPEDCROSSSECTIONTOTHELININGISPREFERABLETOARECTANGULARCROSSSECTION-EASURES
must be taken to control erosion downstream of the drain outlet.
$RYSTONEPITCHINGFORDRAINLININGISUSUALLYONLYSUITABLEWHERETHEDISCHARGEISLOWERTHANMSECPER
METREWIDTH
ANDWHERESEDIMENTLOADISRELATIVELYNEGRAINED
Water from the side drains should be discharged as frequently as possible. If the water can be discharged
ONTHESAMESIDEOFTHEROADASTHEDRAIN
ATURNOUTORMITREDRAINISUSEDTOLEADTHEWATERONTOADJACENT
LAND,OWVOLUMESOFOWANDLOWVELOCITIESSHOULDBEACHIEVEDATEACHDISCHARGEPOINTTOMINIMISE
erosion. Table B.7.13 shows the maximum spacing of mitre drains related to gradient.
6 150
4 200
2 80
<2 50
Notes:
1. MAXIMUMOFMISPREFERREDBUTNOTESSENTIAL
2. TLOWGRADIENTSSILTINGBECOMESAPROBLEM
BLOCKOFFISREQUIREDTOENSURETHATWATEROWSOUTOFTHESIDEDRAININTOTHEMITREDRAIN4HEANGLE
BETWEENTHEMITREDRAINANDTHESIDEDRAINSHOULDPREFERABLYBEDEGREES
BUTNOTGREATERTHAN
degrees.
The desirable slope of the mitre drains is 2%. The gradient should not exceed 5% otherwise there may
be erosion in the drain or on the land where the water is discharged. The drain should lead gradually
ACROSSTHELAND
GETTINGSHALLOWERANDSHALLOWER3TONESMAYNEEDTOBELAIDATTHEENDOFTHEDRAINTO
help prevent erosion.
3PECIALDRAINAGEORCONSTRUCTIONMETHODSARENEEDEDIFWETAREASMUSTBECROSSEDNEMBANKMENTIS
normally required. The embankment should include multiple drainage pipes or coarse permeable rock-
LLTOKEEPTHEOWDISPERSED3UBGRADEREINFORCEMENTWITHCOARSEPERMEABLEROCK
LTERLAYERSAND
GEOTEXTILESMAYALSOBEREQUIRED4HEOBJECTIVEISTOMAINTAINTHENATURALGROUNDWATERLEVELANDOW
PATTERNDISPERSEDACROSSTHEWETLANDAND
ATTHESAMETIME
PROVIDEASTABLE
DRYROADWAYSURFACE
Longitudinal subsoil drains can be used to locally lower a water table. They normally consist of porous
CONCRETE
OPENJOINTEDORPERFORATEDPIPELAIDINATRENCHANDBACKLLEDWITHAFREEDRAININGMATERIALSUCH
as graded crushed stone or gravel. The pipe size should not be less than 15cm internal diameter. The
trench should be at least 60cm wide and 1.5m deeper than the formation level of the road.
7.5.7 Filters
LTERISASATRANSITIONALLAYEROFSMALLGRAVELORGEOTEXTILEPLACEDBETWEENASTRUCTURE
SUCHASRIPRAP
ORGABIONS
ANDTHEUNDERLYINGSOIL)TSPURPOSEISTOPREVENTTHEMOVEMENTOFSOILBEHINDTHESTRUCTURE
ORINTOUNDERDRAINS&ILTERSALLOWGROUNDWATERTODRAINFROMTHESOILWITHOUTBUILDINGUPPRESSURE
SANDORGRAVELLTERLAYERISTYPICALLYABOUTTOMMTHICK)NSOMEAPPLICATIONS
TWOLTERLAYERS
MAYBENEEDEDBETWEENNESOILANDVERYLARGEROCK'EOTEXTILESARECOMMONLYUSEDTOPROVIDELTER
ZONESBETWEENMATERIALSOFDIFFERENTSIZEANDGRADATION4HEGEOTEXTILECANBEAWOVENMONOLAMENT
ORANEEDLEPUNCHEDNONWOVENGEOTEXTILE
BUTITMUSTBEPERMEABLE4HEGEOTEXTILESHOULDHAVEAN
APPARENTOPENINGSIZEOFTOMMGMNEEDLEPUNCHEDNONWOVENGEOTEXTILEISCOMMONLY
USEDFORSOILLTRATIONANDSEPARATIONAPPLICATIONS
4HESEDRAINSARECONSTRUCTEDTOPREVENTWATEROWINGINTOVULNERABLELOCATIONSBYlINTERCEPTINGm
lCUTTING
OFFmORlCATCHINGmTHEWATEROWANDDIVERTINGITTOASAFEPOINTOFDISCHARGE
USUALLYANATURALWATERCOURSE
Interceptor drains above cut faces should have a gradient of 2% on their full length and should be at least
3 to 5 m from the cut face. If steeper gradients in the drain are unavoidable then scour checks should be
installed or the drain should be lined. The drain should also be lined where seepage will weaken the cut
SLOPELTERNATIVELYTHEDRAINSHOULDBEREPLACEDBYAVEGETATEDEARTHBUND
7.5.9 Chutes
#HUTES ARE STRUCTURES INTENDED TO CONVEY A CONCENTRATION OF WATER DOWN A SLOPE THAT
WITHOUT SUCH
PROTECTION
WOULD BE SUBJECT TO SCOUR 3INCE OW VELOCITIES ARE VERY HIGH
STILLING BASINS ARE REQUIRED
to prevent downstream erosion. The entrance of the chute needs to be designed to ensure that water
IS DEECTED FROM THE SIDE DRAIN INTO THE CHUTE
PARTICULARLY WHERE THE ROAD IS ON A STEEP GRADE /N
embankments it may be necessary to lead water to the top of chutes using kerbing.
2ECOMMENDEDCUTANDLLSLOPESFOR,62STOAVOIDEXCESSIVEEROSIONAREGIVENIN4ABLE"AND4ABLE
B.7.15.
4ABLE"#OMMONLLSLOPEBATTERSFOR,62S
The design of water crossings and associated structures for low volume are covered in Part E Chapter 8 of
the manual. This Part of the manual includes bridges up to a span of 10m. For detailed design of bridges
WITHSPANSGREATERTHANM
THEDESIGNERSHOULDCONSULTTHE%2"RIDGE$ESIGN-ANUALq
4HE%2'EOMETRIC$ESIGN-ANUALPROVIDESTHEREQUIREMENTSFORROADFURNITUREANDSIGNAGE4HEMAIN
elements are:
4RAFCSIGNSPROVIDEESSENTIALINFORMATIONTODRIVERSFORTHEIRSAFEANDEFCIENTMANOEUVRINGON
the road;
Road markings to delineate the pavement centre line and edges to clarify the paths that vehicles
SHOULDFOLLOW PAVEDROADS
Marker posts to indicate the alignment of the road ahead.
9.1 4RAFC3IGNS
4RAFCSIGNSAREOFTHREEGENERALTYPES
2EGULATORY3IGNSINDICATELEGALREQUIREMENTSOFTRAFCMOVEMENTANDAREESSENTIALFORALLROADS
Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
Information Signs: convey information of use to the driver
7ARNINGSIGNSSHOULDBEPROVIDEDWHERETHEREAREUNEXPECTEDCHANGESINTHEDRIVINGCONDITIONS
FOR
example where:
The geometric standards for a particular class of road have been changed along a short section
OF ROAD
FOR EXAMPLE A SHARP BEND
A SUDDEN NARROWING OF THE ROAD
OR AN UNEXPECTEDLY STEEP
gradient;
BENDOCCURSAFTERALONGSECTIONOFSTRAIGHTROAD
There is an unexpected school crossing;
DRIFTOROTHERSTRUCTUREISNOTCLEARLYVISIBLEFROMASAFEDISTANCE
4HEDRIVERISAPPROACHINGTRAFCCALMINGMEASURESSUCHASSPEEDHUMPS
Hazard warnings that are done by means of road markings on paved roads must be done by means of
TRAFCSIGNSONUNPAVEDROADS
Information signs are less important on lower classes of road frequented primarily by local people.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes in shoulder
WIDTH
ABRUPTCHANGESINTHEALIGNMENT
APPROACHESTOSTRUCTURESETC&ORCHANGESINSHOULDERWIDTH
ANDAPPROACHESTOSTRUCTURES
GUIDEPOSTSSHOULDBEPLACEDATMINTERVALS
Kilometre posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads and are therefore only likely to be needed
on some roads of class DC4. Details are given in the section on Road Furniture and Markings in the
Geometric Design Manual-2011.
Rainfall Regions
Note:
2AINFALL DATA USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS GURE WAS COLLECTED FROM -INISTRY OF 7ATER 2ESOURCES
METEOROLOGYSTATIONSANDANALYSEDDURINGTHEPREPARATIONOFTHE%2$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL
4HEINFORMATIONISSUBJECTTOREVIEW
ANDFUTUREDATAMAYINDICATETHENEEDFORAFURTHERRENEMENTIN
both values and regional boundaries.