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    Libro SAMUEL DOUGHTY Mechanics of Machines1

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    Libro de Análisis y Síntesis de Mecanismos

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    Libro SAMUEL DOUGHTY Mechanics of Machines1

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    Mechanics of Machines *> on” Samuel Doughty~~ . Professor of Methanical Engineering - University of Wisconsin—Platteville ow ¥ « Pimgand 1.P.N BIBLIOTECA. SEP I ' John Wiley & Sons, Inc. WILEY | | | \ | New York * Chichester + Brisbane + Toronto + Singapore - ~. Copyright © 1988, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada, Reproduction or translation of any patt of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the 1976 United:States, Copyright ‘Act without the permission of the copyright ‘owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further in: "mation should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Doughty, Samuel. Mechanics of machines. Bibliography: p. 1. Mechanical engineering. 1. Title. ‘TY170.D68 1987 621.8 87-23042 ISBN 0-471-84276-1 Printed in the United States of America 1098765432 ‘ms pu,» To Ann Elizabeth and St Preface ? oe LPN BIBLIOTECA S EPI A course in kinematics of mechanisms, with or without additional work in statics and dynamics of machines, has long been a staple item in mechani- cal engineering curricula. This course is often considered the first of the professional courses in the mechanics stem, and traditionally deals with mechanisms significantly more kinematically complex than those consid- ered in the introductory courses in statics and dynamics. This book is intended to serve as a modern, computer-oriented text for this critical course. The book provides more than enough. material for a three-credit, one-semester, junior-level course, allowing the instructor some freedom to select from among its topics. Because of the emphasis on analytical formu- lations and computer solutions, this text will be of interest as well to prac- ticing engineers in the area of machine design. The book begins with a chapter describing the computer-oriented viewpoint and introduces the idea of degrees of freedom. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with kinematics of single and multidegree of freedom mechanisms. The first part of Chapter 4 is concerned with the analytical design of cams, and the second part of the chapter considers the analysis of specified cam systems, including the special case of circular cams. The kinematics of involute gear teeth is considered in the beginning of Chapter 5, followed by a look at gear train analysis and design. The statics of mechanisms is discussed in Chapter’6, with emphasis on the principle of virtual work. Chapter 7 considers the dynamics of single degree of freedom machines using Eksergian’s equation, and describes the numerical simulation of such systems. The dynamics of multidegree of freedom systems is addressed by way of the Lagrange equation in Chapter 8, with a further presentation on numerical simulation. The analysis of reactions and internal forces is taken viii Preface up in Chapter 9, comparing static, kinetostatic, and dynamic approaches to the problem. The appendices provide supplementary and review material on matrices, numerical methods, and other topics in mechanics and mathe- matics From the very beginning, the book is thoroughly computer-oriented. The student is encouraged to look at all problems—whether examples in the text or homework problems—from the standpoint of preparing them for a computer solution. In some cases, the student will actually carry the solution all the way through to a computer solution; in other cases, the student will only formulate the problem in a manner appropriate for com- puter solution. (There are also many problems to be solved completely in closed form for practice without the need to have a computer available.) Although computers have been around for many years, the last decade has seen a real revolution in computing with the development of microcompu- ters. It is reasonable to think that every engineer has or shortly will have free access to a computer of some sort, and that to be computer is most likely a microcomputer. Most microcomputers today have the capacity to solve the kinds of problems encountered in the mechanics of machines. It goes without saying that any modern mainframe computer is sufficient as well, so the choice of whether to use a mainframe or a microcomputer is mainly dependent on what is available. In terms of programming languages, virtu- ally all microcomputers support some form of BASIC, and some support other languages such as FORTRAN and Pascal as well. The universality of BASIC makes it a useful language for the examples in this text, but there is nothing about the methods of analysis that is tied to BASIC. Any of the methods presented here can be performed satisfactorily using any high- level programming language. Most of the programs presented in BASIC in the body’ of the text are also given in FORTRAN in Appendix A10. This textbook takes the position vector loop approach to position anal- ysis, in which the configuration of the mechanism is described in terms of closed position vector loops. Scalar components of these vector equations are used because these are solved more easily for the required information using numerical techniques. The derivatives of these same position vector loops provide the velocity and acceleration descriptions for the mecha- nism. The numerical techniques required to solve these systems of equa- tions are discussed where required, as well as in detailed presentations in Appendices 1 and 2. Position-dependent velocity coefficient functions are defined, relating the secondary velocities to the primary velocity. Both the velocity coefficients and the velocity coefficient derivatives are required to express the accelerations. The velocity coefficients and the velocity coeffi- cient derivatives are used to connect the kinematics to the later work in Kinetics. In the area of kinetics, a major objective of this book has been to provide an energy-based approach, appropriate to the course level. In Chapter 8, multidegree of freedom dynamics is presented using the well- known Lagrange equation as the basis. The presentation is directed toward ems mom Preface ix application of the Lagrange equation to machine systems, so the derivation is deferred to Appendix A9. For single degree of freedom mechanisms (Chapter 7), the less well-known Eksergian’s equation is presented. It pro- vides a powerful tool that offers useful insight into the way various param- eters affect the motion. Chapter 6 presents statics from the viewpoint of the Principle of Virtual Work. This method is valuable in its own right and also as preparation for the dynamics presentations of Chapters 7 and 8. The discussion on cams is approached first from the standpoint of design, by looking at some length into the problem of analytical design of a cam profile to generate a prescribed follower response. The required de- sign decisions are identified, and their effects on size, state of stress, and other matters are considered. The later part of Chapter 4 deals with the analysis of prescribed cam and follower systems. The typical machine design textbook contains quite a bit of discussion on the design of gears, often including material on involute kinematics, gear tooth strength, and train ratio calculations. An important kinematic design question that is missing from most textbooks on kinematics or ma- chine design is the matter of how to determine workable combinations of gear tooth numbers to achieve a specified train ratio. Design approaches to this problem are included in the discussion on gears and gear trains in Chapter 5. There are several ways to organize a course using this book. There is certainly more material included than can be covered in a one-semester course. At the University of Wisconsin—Platteville the course is usually taught using Chapters 1 through 3 for kiriematics, part of Chapter 4 on cams, Chapter 5 on gears, Chapter 6 for virtual work, and dynamics using Chapter 7. If cams and gears are covered elsewhere, a very satisfactory course can be constructed using Chapters 1 through 3 for kinematics, and Chapters 6 through 9 for kinetics and analysis of forces. Another variation is to focus on single degree of freedom systems using Chapters 1 and 2 for kinematics, Chapter 4 dealing with cams, gears in Chapter 5 (excluding planetary systems), and Chapters 6 and 7 for kinetics. The main consider- ations in structuring a course are to be sure to get the necessary material regarding position analysis, velocity coefficients, and velocity coefficient derivatives—presented in Chapters 2 and 3—that are required for all of the work in kinetics, Chapters 6 through 9. . Most of the problems at the end of each chapter ask the student to prepare the description for an eventual computer solution. One of the early steps on such preparation is the choice of appropriate variables to describe the problem. In most cases, there are several possible choices. For some problems all correct choices are equally useful, whereas for other problems one choice is definitely better than the others. The ability to choose a workable set of variables, preferably the best set, is a skill that is only learned by practice. Consequently, the need to avoid guiding the choice of variables makes it virtually impossible to tabulate answers to the problems. Complete solutions are, however, available in the Instructor's Manual. It is sue x Preface also important for students to develop an ability to validat. their own mathematical descriptions; this is rarely ever done when a student is work- ing toward an answer tabulated in the back of a textbook. The mathematical level of the book is appropriate to junior-level engi- neering students who are well grounded in calculus. A firm grasp of differ- ential calculus is absolutely essential to understanding and applying the methods developed in the text, and integral calculus is essential for under- standing many of the derivations. Matrix notation is used extensively, but only a very modest level of knowledge is required in this area. The review of matrix methods provided in Appendix Al covers all of the topics re- quired for use here. Many of the examples and homework problems are drawn from my own industrial experience and consulting assignments. From a teaching viewpoint, my experience has been that students are attracted to problem descriptions that resemble real machines. I believe that anyone teaching this material and wishing to draw on personal industrial experience will find this book complementary to that effort. Comments and suggestions from those using the book will be welcome so that it may be improved in the future. Samuel Doughty Contents CHAPTER1 Introduction 1.1 General Introductory Comments 1.2 Degrees of Freedom 1.3 Use of Matrix Notation 1.4 Computer-Aided Problem Solving 1.5 Computer Languages 1.6 Conclusion Problem Set CHAPTER 2 Single Degree of Freedom Linkages 2.1 An Overview of the Process 2.2 Kinematics of the Slider-Crank Mechanism 2.3 Kinematics of the Four-Bar Linkage 2.4 Constraints 2.5 Multiloop Single Degree of Freedom Mechanisms 2.6 General Kinematic Analysis for Single Degree of Freedom Mechanisms 2.7. Conclusion Problem Set CHAPTER 3 Multidegree of Freedom Linkages 3.1 Kinematic Analysis in Closed Form 3.2 Kinematic Analysis with Numerical Solution NN OGUEH 14 4 31 41 55 59 85 sa xii Contents 3.3. Numerical Solution for Multiloop Mechanisms 3.4 General Analysis for Multidegree of Freedom Mechanisms 3.5 Conclusion Problem Set CHAPTER4 Cam Systems 4.1. Introduction Part I Cam Design 4.2. Displacement Functions auvci Graphical Cam Designs 4.3 A Kinematic Theorem for Rigid Bodies 4.4 Analytical Design of a Cam with a Flat-Faced, Translating Follower 4.5 Analytical Design of a Cam with an Offset, Translating Roller Follower 4.6 Analytical Design of a Cam with a Pivoted, Flat-Faced Follower 4.7 Analytical Design of a Cam with a Pivoted, Roller Follower Part If Cam Mechanism Kinematics 4.8 Eccentric Circle Cam 4.9 Angle Between Radius and Normal 4.10 Follower Response for Arbitrary Cam Profile 4.11 Conclusion Problem Set CHAPTERS Gears 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Velocity Ratio 5.3 Conjugate Profiles 5.4 Properties of the Involute 5.5 Involute as a Gear Tooth 5.6 AGMA Standards and Tooth Proportions 5.7. Contact Ratio, Interference, and Undercutting 5.8 Simple and Compound Gear Trains 5.9 Planetary Gear Trains 5.10 Gear Train Design 5.11 Conclusion Problem Set 95 102 105 106 117 117 127 174 174 175 179 180 183 187 188 191 195 200 210 Contents CHAPTER6 Statics and the Principle of Virtual Work 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 65 General Comments Principle of Virtual Work Applications of the Principle of Virtual Work Another Look at Virtual Work Conclusion Problem Set CHAPTERZ Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Machines: Eksergian’s Equation of Motion 71 7.2 Kinetic Energy of a System of Rigid Bodies Generalized Forces 7.3~ Eksergian’s Equation of Motion 74 75 7.6 77 Potential Energy Representation of Conservative Forces Mechanism Simulation Mechanism Simulation Examples Conclusion Problem Set CHAPTER 8 Dynamics of Multidegree of Freedom Machines: The Lagrange Equation of Motion 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 CHAPTERS Reactions and Internal Forces 91 9.2 93 94 95 Kinetic Energy for a Multidegree of Freedom Machine First General Form for the Lagrange Equation Second General Form for the Lagrange Equation Applications of the Lagrange Equation Multidegree of Freedom Simulation Examples An Alternate Approach to First-Order Equations of Motion for Multidegree of Freedom Systems Conclusion Problem Set General Comments Three Approaches to the Problem Example Slider~Crank Force Analysis Calculation of Reactions Alone Conclusion Problem Set xiii 216 216 217 231 236 237 278 291 291 293 296 296 i xiv Contents APPENDICES ! Al ' | Matrices and Linear Algebraic Equations 361 1 | Al.1 Matrix Notation 361 | | Al.2. Matrix Addition and Subtraction 362 ' ‘A1.3. Matrix Multiplication 363 ! | Al4 Matrix Inversion and Solution of Linear Algebraic ! | Equations 364 | ALS Analytical Inverse for a (2 x 2) Matrix and the Solution of | Two Simultaneous Linear Equations 367 | A1.6 Matrix Operations Package and Verification Program 368 i A2 Newton-Raphson Solution for Simultaneous Nonlinear | ~ Equations 375 | | A3 | Numerical Solution of Differential Equations 381 | A3.1_ The Marching Solution 381 i ~| 3.2. Single Second-Order Differential Equation 383 | \ A3.3. Systems of Differential Equations 383 | A4 ti Two Argument Arctangent Function » 386 | 4 A5 | Interpolation 388 i A5.1 Quadratic Interpolation to Unevenly Spaced Data 388 j 5.2. Cubic Approximation to Evenly Spaced Data 390 | 5.3 Interpolation for Functions of Two Variables 391 i ‘A5.4_ General Comments on Interpolation 395 Ab Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body 396 : | AT Geometric Calculations for Irregular Planar Areas 399 A8 | Computer Graphics 405 ' | A8.1 BASIC Language Graphics Commands 405 i | A8.2_ Plotting Without Graphics Commands 406 : Ag Derivation of the Lagrange Equation AlO Example Programs in FORTRAN Index Contents xv 41 415 CHAPTERI Introduction 1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS. The term “mechanics of machines” is understood to include the kine- matics, statics, and dynamics of mechanical systems of the type commonly found in machinery. Introductory courses in statics and dynamics usually include relatively little information about this area primarily because of kinematic complexity and, with regard to dynamics, the complications associated with varying effective inertia for mechanisms. In this text, these problems are addressed directly. This subject has a long history extending back to pre-Christian times, and has been of increasing importance since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Although electronics have now replaced some complicated mechanisms, as in the case of computing mechanisms, there will always be a need for mechanisms and machines as long as physical products are produced. Until recently, the analysis of mechanisms has been almost completely dependent on graphical techniques. The advent of high-speed digital com- putation has changed most aspects of engineering analysis and design, and has opened many new options in the analysis of machines. Conse- quently, the methods presented here rely heavily on digital computation instead of on graphical constructions. This text will discuss numerical methods of solving various classes of equations along with the physics of the situations that give rise to these equations. Four major physical concepts underlie all of the topics discussed in this book. Each of these concepts has been known for many years, but their individual utility has been limited. The application of these concepts to- 1 2 Introduction gether, and implementation of the resulting descriptions via the digital computer, is a relatively recent synthesis. In using this book, it is well to be prepared to recognize these four concepts whenever they appear. For this purpose, they are introduced here. Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the forces in- volved in the motion. In the area of kinematics, the first of the four major concepts is the use of Position Vector Loop Equations. In typical machinery systems, the components form closed loops that change shape as the com- ponents move, but remain closed; each loop can be described as a vector sum identically zero at all times. If enough information has been specified to determine the mechanism configuration uniquely, these vector equa- tions, or their scalar equivalents, can be solved for all the remaining posi- tion variables. The details of this process will be discussed at length later, but for the present, it is important to remember that the position vector loop equations provide a means for determining all required position infor- mation. ‘The use of Velocity. Coefficients and Velocity Coefficient Derivatives is the second major concept, again originating in the general subject area of kinematics. Many readers will be familiar with the fact that for two pulleys connected with a taut belt, the rotation rate of the drive pulley and that of the driven pulley have a fixed ratio; this is a consequence of the invariant geometry of the system. The actual value of the speed ratio is fixed by the particular geometry of the system, in this case the pulley radii. In a system where the geometry varies as the system moves, such as a slider-crank assembly, the ratio of the output to input speeds is variable, depending on the instantaneous position of the system. The key point here is that the speed or velocity ratio is dependent on the position but is independent of the actual speed. Thus, the speeds of all points can be expressed as appropriate position-dependent, velocity coefficient functions multiplying a common reference speed. The situation regarding accelerations is somewhat more complicated, but it will be shown that for many systems the acceleration is the sum of two terms. One term involves the acceleration of the reference point and the position-dependent velocity coefficient, and another term involves the derivative of the velocity coefficient and the square of the reference speed. Therefore, all speeds and accelerations are rather simply related to the speed and acceleration of a reference point through the use of the position-dependent velocity coefficients and velocity coefficient deriva- tives. The third concept, usually associated with the area of statics, is called the Principle of Virtual Work. It is one of the oldest energy principles of mechanics, and describes the conditions for equilibrium in a manner fully equivalent to the more familiar statements regarding the vanishing of the force and moment sums on a body. When force and moment sums are computed for a body such as a dam or a tower, there is no difficulty in that application because the position of the body is specified. In many machinery | |

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