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Chapter 3 - Equipment Design Part 5 (R-102)
Chapter 3 - Equipment Design Part 5 (R-102)
STUDENTS NAME:
NOOR AMILIA BINTI KHOSIM
2014231358
SUPERVISOR:
MS CHRISTINA VARGIS
3.5.1.1 Introduction
Based on Figure 3.1, the streams and the reactor involved in the production of PTFE
from TFE and water is shown. The conversion of TFE to PTFE is 80%.
Water
TFE
PTFE
Figure 3.1: The streams and the reactor involved in the production of PTFE.
388
The reaction between TFE and water is illustrated as below. The reaction needed
an initiator in order for the polymerization reaction to occur. The initiator chosen for this
process is benzoyl peroxide. Initiator is commonly mistaken as catalyst. The difference
between initiator and catalyst is initiator is consumed completely whereas catalyst has
the same amount after process has completed.
()
C2F4 (l) + H2O (l) (C2F4)100 (s)
()
TFE + Water PTFE
389
1. 2.
3.
Determination Determination
Determination
of Initial of Volume of
of Space TIme
Concentration Reactor
6. 5. 4.
Determination Determination Determination
of Jacketed of Reactor of Rate of
Vessel Design Dimension Reaction
The R-102 is designed to produce 80% yield of PTFE. Table 3.1 shows the collected
data from mass balance calculation and Table 3.2 displays the initial concentration
calculated.
( )
, = ( )
3
( )
390
B
13.66 ( )
= 1000 ( 3 ) = 55.47
3
246.24 ( )
C = 0 ( )
The volume of CSTR can be expressed as a function of F AO, X and rA. In a CSTR, the
composition, temperature and conversion of the effluent stream are the same as the fluid
within the reactor because perfect mixing is assumed. The volume of reactor was
decided to be 5.5 m 3 or 5500 L.
, =
( )
0.0304 (0.8)
= = 0.00442 3
5.5 3 .
1 106
0.00442 = 1.2283
3 . 3600 3 .
A+BC
The limiting and excess reagent is calculated beforehand. By assuming the initial
amount of TFE and water are 100 g each, the calculations are made as follows.
1 1 2 18.02 2
100 = 0.18 2
100.02 100 1 2
The calculation revealed that 0.18 g of the original 100 g of water will react before
the limiting reagent is expanded. Thus, the excess reagent is water and 99.82 g of water
will remain when the reaction reaches completion.
391
The rate of reaction is r = -kCACB and it is assumed as the first-order reaction.
Water is in excess and the CB can be cancelled out. Hence, the rate of reaction is r = -
kCA. In order to proceed with the calculation process, the reaction rate constant, k must
first be determined.
() = /
Kinetic calculation:
2 1 1
ln = ( )
1 1 2
2 80500 1 1
ln = ( )
4.7 1018 1.97822 773.15 323.15
2 = 6.9359 1014 1
However, the k value is too small to be used as it will result in a high volume of reactor.
Another alternative is chosen to calculate k.
A FAO = (1 ) = (1 )
392
B FBO
( ) = ( ) = ( )
C FCO ( ) = ( + ) = ( + )
Table 3.5: Final concentrations calculations using stoichiometric table for flow system.
Species Initially Change (mol) Remaining (mol/h) Concentration
(kmol/m3)
A FAO = (1 ) = (1 )
= (30.39)(0.8) = 30.39(1 0.8) = 22.66(1 0.8)
= 24.31 = 6.078 = 4.532
B FBO
= ( ) = ( )
where,
55.47 3
= = = = 2.44
22.66
3
0
= = = 3 =0
22.66
3
= 1 ( )
6
1.2283 10 3 .
= =
4.532
3
= 2.7103 107 1
393
Step 4: Determination of Space Time
Space time is the duration necessary to produce one reactor volume of fluid based on
the inlet conditions. It is also known as mean residence time or holding time. Space time
is obtained by dividing reactor volume by the volumetric flow rate entering the reactor.
3094 246.24 3
= + = 0.000459
2200 3 1000 3
5.5 3
= = 11982.57 = 3.33
3
0.000459
The space time for the production of PTFE in a 5.5 m 3 of vessel is found to be
3.33 hours. The space time calculated is accepted as it falls within the allowable range
as mentioned in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Typical space time for industrial reactors (Fogler, 2014).
Reactor type Mean residence time range Production capacity
Batch 15 min to 20 h Few kg/day to 100,000
tons/yr
CSTR 10 min to 4 h 10 to 3,000,000 tons/yr
Tubular 0.5 s to 1 h 50 to 5,000,000 tons/yr
L:D = 10:1
10
= = 10
1
= 0.1
394
2
, =
4
(0.1)2
=
4
0.013
=
4
0.013
5.5 =
4
3 5.5 4
= = 8.88
100
D = 0.88 m
L = 8.88 m
Jacketed vessels are used for heating or cooling a batch of liquid or for
evaporating the liquid for concentrating and for solid separation by evaporation. The
395
vessel can either be closed or opened to the atmosphere. The jacket functioning as
circulation of cooling medium or provide hot water or steam for heating purpose. The gap
between the jacket and the vessel is usually uniform and can be ranging from 20 to 50
mm width.
For R-102, steam is used as heating medium with 25C entering as hot water as
its inlet temperature and 100C as steam as outlet temperature to increase the
temperature within the reactor. Due to the high pressure present in the reactor which is
2900 kPa and heat transfer from jacket to the surface of the reactor is required, the
half-pipe jacket is chosen. Half-pipe jackets are formed by welding sections of pipe, cut
396
in half along the longitudinal axis to the vessel wall. The pipe is usually wound round the
vessel in a helix.
(a) (b)
The pitch of the coils and the area covered can be selected to provide the heat
transfer area required. Standard pipe sizes are used; ranging from 60 to 120 mm outside
diameter. The half-pipe construction makes a strong jacket capable of withstanding
pressure better than the conventional jacket design.
Number of spiral:
397
0.62
= = 3.1 3
0.20
Length of channel, L:
, =
, = 3 0.88 = 8.29
4
=
4 0.004
= = 0.0364
2(0.20 + 0.02)
50324400
= = = 34597.42 = 9.61
4.178(348.15)
According to the steam table obtained from the Elementary Principles of Chemical
Processes by Felder and Rousseau (1986) , the physical properties of water at mean
temperature of 32.5C are as follow:
, =
398
9.61
= = 2.40
999 0.004
999(2.40)(0.0364)
= = 114926.17
7.5938 104
440.81(0.62104)
= = 7520.89 2
0.0364 .
2
, = 8 ( )
2
0.62 (2.40)2
= 8(3.2 103 ) ( ) (999) = 1254.55 2
0.0364 2
The dimension of reactor and the arrangement of baffles and impellers play an important
role as they influenced the mixing process in the reactor. Baffles are flat vertical strips
located radially along the tank inner wall to produce higher mixing and horizontal liquid
surface. Baffles are normally used for improving the mixing and reduce problems from
vortex formation.
399
area between two immiscible fluid phases and to maintain divided solid in suspension in
a fluid phase. Figure 3.7 and 3.8 shows types of impeller uses in the mixing operation.
400
Figure 3.9: Agitator arrangements and flow patterns.
Mixing vessels fitted with some form of agitator is a must for equipment for
blending liquids and preparing solutions. A typical arrangement of the agitator and
baffles in a stirred tank and the flow pattern generated is shown in Figure 3.9. The most
appropriate agitator for a certain application will depend on the type of mixing required,
the capacity of the vessel and the fluid properties, mainly the viscosity.
For turbine agitator, impeller to tank diameter ratios of up to 0.6 are used with the
depth of liquid equal to the tank diameter. Once the length of the impeller is found, other
dimensions can be determined.
= 0.60
= 0.60
= 0.60
401
= 0.60
0.88
= 0.53
Figure 3.10: Dimension of stirred tank, impeller and baffles for turbine agitator.
3 1 1
=1 = = =
4 3 4
1 1 1
= = =1 =
10 5 5
402
3.5.1.2.2 Summary of Chemical Design
The common information needed in order to design a pressure vessel or reactor is listed
as below.
1. Vessel function.
2. Process materials and services.
3. Operating and design temperature and pressure.
4. Materials of construction.
5. Vessels dimensions and orientation.
6. Type of vessel heads to be used.
7. Openings and connections required.
8. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
9. Type of agitator.
10. Specification of internal fittings.
403
A vessel must be able to withstand a maximum pressure that could occur in
operation. Pressure at a relief device is set as the design pressure for vessels under
internal pressure which is usually at the range of 5 to 10% above the normal working
pressure. Meanwhile, vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist
the maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur. These vessels must be
designed for a full negative pressure of 1 bar unless they are fitted with an effective
vacuum breaker (Sinnott, 2005).
Commonly, reactors are made from plain carbon steels, low and high alloy steels,
other alloys, clad plate and reinforced plastics. Selection of a suitable material must be
taken into consideration for fabrication as well as the compatibility of the material with the
working environment.
Formal stress analysis is to determine the effect of the subsidiary loads is only
required in the codes and standards where it is not possible to demonstrate the
adequacy of the proposed design by other means. All the loads mentioned above will not
be subject simultaneously. Figure 3.11 shows the process flow path in designing a
typical vessel or a reactor.
404
2. Determination 3. Determination 5. Determination
1. Determination 4. Determination
of design of material of of corrosion
of design pressure of design stress
temperature construction allowance
8. Determination 6. Determination
7. Determination
10. Determination 9. Determination of vessel design of minimum
of head and
of vessel support of stress analysis subject to practical wall
closure suitability
combine loading thickness
11. Dtermination
12. Determination 13. Determination
of base ring and
of nozzle pipe size of manhole
anchor.
As the reactor is under internal pressure, a safety precaution is applied in this step by
increasing the operating pressure by 10% from the normal operating pressure as
suggested by American Petroleum Institute, API RP 520. This step is to avoid spurious
operation of the relief valve during minor process upsets. The operating pressure for
R-102 is 2900 kPa or 29 bar. The calculations for design pressure are as below.
10
2900 = 290
100
0.001
, = 3190 2 = 3.19 /2
1
The operating temperature for R-102 is 50C. However, this temperature cannot be used
as any uncertainty may be occurring during process. In order to avoid this situation, the
operating temperature is increased by 10% and is taken as the design temperature.
, = 50 1.1 = 55
405
Step 3: Determination of material of construction
Many criteria have to be considered when choosing engineering materials. However, for
chemical process plant, the main criterion is usually the ability to resist corrosion. The
most economical material that satisfies both process and mechanical requirements
should be selected as this material will gives the lowest cost over working life of the
plant, allowing for maintenance and replacement. The most important characteristics to
be taken into mind when choosing a material of construction are:
1. Mechanical properties
(a) Strength tensile strength
(b) Stiffness elastic modulus
(c) Toughness fracture resistance
(d) Hardness wear resistance
(e) Fatigue resistance
(f) Creep resistance
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required (thermal conductivity, electrical resistance,
magnetic properties)
5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding and casting
6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections and tubes
7. Cost
Table 3.10: A guide to the fabrication properties of common metals and alloys.
406
Table 3.11: Mechanical properties of common metals and alloys (typical values at room
temperature)
There are several materials that can be used as the material of constructions
such as iron and steel, stainless steel, nickel, monel, Inconel, copper and copper alloys,
aluminium and its alloys, lead, titanium, tantalum, zirconium, silver, gold and platinum.
The most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry are
stainless steels. Nickel is added into stainless steel to improve the corrosion resistance
in non-oxidising environments. Stainless steel is divided according to their microstructure
into three categories:
There are several types of stainless steel and are listed in table below.
407
Stabilized with titanium to prevent carbide precipitation during
welding
Slightly higher strength than 304L
Suitable for high temperature use
347 Stabilized with niobium
316 Molybdenum is added to improve corrosion resistance in reducing
conditions
316L A low C version of type 316
309/310 Alloys with high Cr content
Give greater resistance to oxidation at high temperatures
Carbon steel is an alloy made from iron and carbon. Other elements such as
manganese, silicon and copper also can be found in the carbon steel in a low
percentage of 1.65%, 0.60% and 0.60%. Carbon steel can be divided into four groups
based on their compositions.
408
Step 4: Determination of design stress
Design stress, :
50 55 135
=
50 100 135 125
= = 134 /2
Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for material lost
by corrosion and erosion or scaling. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel, ASME BPV
Code Sec. VIII D.1 states that the vessel user shall specify corrosion allowances (Part
UG-25).
409
For carbon and low-alloy steels, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be used
as severe corrosion is not expected. Meanwhile, for more severe condition, it should be
increased to 4.0 mm. For this production of PTFE, 2.0 mm is chosen as the corrosion
allowance.
A minimum wall thickness is required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to
withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. Table 3.15 shows a general guide of
wall thickness of any vessel.
As calculated in the Section 3.5.2.1, Step 5, the diameter of the reactor, R-102 is
0.88 m 1 m. Hence, the minimum thickness of wall is 5 mm. However, to be more
accurate, the minimum thickness of the wall also can be calculated by using the formula
below.
, = +
2 1.2
Where,
Pi : Design pressure. N/mm 2
Di : Internal diameter of reactor, m
S : Typical design stress, N/mm 2
CA : corrosion allowance, mm
3.19(880)
, = + 2 = 12.63
2(134)(1) 1.2(3.19)
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The principal
types used are:
410
1. Flat plates and formed flat heads
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads
4. Torispherical heads
1. Hemispherical head:
=
4 0.4
3.19(880)
= = 5.25
4(134)(1) 0.4(3.19)
2. Ellipsoidal head:
=
2 0.2
411
3.19(880)
= = 10.50
2(134)(1) 0.2(3.19)
3. Torispherical head:
0.885
=
0.1
0.885(3.19)(880)
= = 18.58
(134)(1) 0.1(3.19)
Including the CA of 2 mm,
18.58 + 2.0 = 20.58 mm
412
Weight of cylindrical vessel with domed closure or dead weight, W v:
, = ( + 0.8 )
The column is divided into five sections with the thickness increasing by 2 mm
per section such as 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 mm. Thus, the weight of cylindrical vessel is
determined by using the average thickness which is 14 mm.
Weight of insulation, W i:
Insulation is needed to prevent heat loss. For the production of PTFE, fiberglass is
chosen as the insulator as it can withstand temperature ranging from -30C to 540C.
The design temperature, 55C is in the range. The insulation is assumed to be
approximately 75 mm.
, = ( 103 )
, =
= 2 0.3434 = 0.69
413
Total weight, Wt:
= +
Wind load:
2
=
2
Where,
= 0.05 2 = 1280 /2
Where,
= 1280(1.058) = 1354.24 /
Thus,
1354.24(8.882 )
= = 53393.89
2
414
Earthquake loading
The movement of the earths surface during an earthquake produces horizontal shear
forces on tall self-supported vessels, the magnitude of which increases from the base
upward. The total shear force on the vessel will be given by
= ( )
where,
ae = the acceleration of the vessel due to the earthquake (for vertical vessel = 0.6,
for horizontal vessel = 0.7)
33.41
= 0.7 ( ) = 2.38
9.81
=
4
2.90(880)
= = 45.57 /2
4(14)
=
2
2.90(880)
= = 91.14 /2
2(14)
=
( + )
34.10 103
= = 0.8672 /2
(880 + 14)14
415
Bending stress,
= ( + )
2
= ( 4 4 )
64
= + 2
= (9084 8804 ) = 3.9292 109 4
64
Principal stress:
= +
Therefore,
51.06
38.34
91.14 91.14
The greatest difference between the principle stresses will be on the downwind side.
= ,
416
= 91.14 40.08 = 51.06 2 < 134
2
= 2 104 ( )
14
= 2 104 ( ) = 308.37 /2
908
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure,
The design is satisfactory as the value is below the critical buckling stress.
Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddles supports. The supports must be
designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents and any superimposed loads
such as wind loads. Supports will impose localized loads on the vessel wall and the
design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below the
maximum allowable stress design stress.
417
Table 3.15: Standard steel saddles (adapted from Bhattacharyya, 1976) for vessel up to
1.2 m.
The diameter of the vessel is 0.88 m. Hence, the nearest diameter chosen is
0.90 m in Table 3.18, the dimension for the saddles. The contact angle between saddles
and the vessel is 120 as it should not be less than 120 but not more than 150.
418
The skirt thickness must be able to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure. The
resultant stresses in the skirt will be
() =
() = +
where bs = bending stress in the skirt and ws = dead weight stress in the skirt.
4
=
( + )
=
( + )
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and
dead-weight loading the following design criteria are not exceeded:
() < sin
() < 0.125 ( ) sin
The skirt chosen is a straight cylindrical skirt ( = 90) of plain carbon steel with
maximum allowable stress of 89 N/mm 2 and Youngs modulus 200 000 N/mm 2 at
ambient temperature. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the
vessel is full of water.
= ( (0.88)2 8.88 ) 1000 9.81 = 52983.07 = 52.98
4
, = 33.41
= 1354.24 = 1.3542
419
(0.88 + 0.62)2
, = 1.3542 = 1.5234
2
86.39 103
() = = 66.42 /2
(5 + 18)18
33.41 103
() = = 25.68 /2
(5 + 18)18
The test condition is with the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test. In
estimating total weight, the weight of liquid on the vessel has been counted twice. The
weight has not been adjusted to allow for this as the error is small and on the safe side.
() < sin
() < 0.125 ( ) sin
18
98.83 < 0.125 (20 0000)( ) sin 90
5
Both criteria are satisfied and adding 2 mm of corrosion allowance gives a design
thickness of 20 mm.
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base
ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by the wind and other lateral loads will tend
420
to overturn the vessel. A variety of base ring designs is used with skirt supports. The
simplest types suitable for small vessels are rolled angle and plain flange rings as shown
in Figure 3.16 (a) and (b).
Figure 3.16: Flange ring designs (a) Rolled-angle (b) Single plate with guesset
421
Figure 3.18: Anchor bolt chair design.
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt
area required is given by:
1 4
= [ ]
where
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm 2; typical design value 125 N/mm 2
422
Approximate pitch circle:
() = + 2( + )
= 2000
2000
= = 10.47 11
600
1 4
= [ ]
()
1 4(1523400)
= [ 86390] = 2153.03 2
11(125) 2
Based on Figure 3.19, it can be estimated that the conventional bolt size is M24
bolts with 353 mm2 of root area.
2153.03 4
= = 52.36
4
= 2 +
2
4(1523400) 86390
= + = 86.23 103 /
(5)2 2(5)
423
Minimum width of base ring, Lb:
1
= 3
10
where
fc = maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation pad, which will
depend on the mix, used and will typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm 2 (500 to 1000 psi).
Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm 2,
86.23 103
= = 17.25
5 103
= + + 50
= 76 + 14 + 50 = 140
86.23 103
= = = 615.93
140 2
3
=
where
Lr = distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm
3(615.93)
= 76 = 276.11 = 0.28
140
424
Step 12: Determination of nozzle pipe size
=
20 +
where
G = 0.8594 kg/s
2.9(15.95)
= = 0.0172
20(134) + 2.9
, = + = 0.0172 + 2 = 2.0172
G = 0.06833 kg/s
2.9(5.48)
= = 0.0059
20(134) + 2.9
, = + = 0.0059 + 2 = 2.0059
425
Product PTFE outlet, Stream 17
2.9(19.99)
= = 0.0216
20(134) + 2.9
, = + = 0.0216 + 2 = 2.0216
2.9(83.45)
= 293(11.62)0.53 (1000)0.37 = 83.45 = = 0.0902
20(134) + 2.9
= + = 0.0902 + 2 = 2.0902
Standard flanges are available in a range of types, sizes and materials; and are
used extensively for pipes, nozzles and other attachments to pressure vessels. The
proportions of standard flanges are set out in various codes and standards. A typical
standard flange design is shown in Figure 3.17. The European standard BS EN 1092 is
also specified in BS 1560. Standard flanges are designated by class numbers or rating
numbers which correspond to the primary service (pressure) rating of the flange at room
temperature.
426
Table 3.19: Nozzle pipe size for each stream.
Stream Nom. Pipe Flange Raised Bolti- Drilling Neck
size o.d. face ng
d1 D b h1 d4 f No d2 k d3 h2 r
15 10 17.2 90 16 35 40 2 M12 4 14 60 28 6 4
16 10 17.2 90 16 35 40 2 M12 4 14 60 28 6 4
17 15 21.3 95 16 38 45 2 M12 4 14 65 32 6 4
Jacket 10 17.2 90 16 35 40 2 M12 4 14 60 28 6 4
Figure 3.19: Typical standard flanges and their codes and standards.
427
Step 12: Determination of manhole design
= + 2
428
3.5.1.3.2 Summary of Mechanical Design
429
REFERENCES
430