TIIS PHYSIOLOGICAL ERRORS AND THE

RESHAPING OF PIANO TECHNIQUE

B'l F. A. STEINHAUSEN:
A TRANSLATION)AND STUDY

Presented by

Donald Vern Rupert

To fulfill the thesis requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

Department of Performance and Pedagogy

Thesis Director: Dr. Eugene Selhorst

Eastman School of Music

of the
University of Rochester

June, 1963
\ 813()60
 PREFACE

The principal part of this thesis will consist of a trans-

lation from the German of ~ Physiologischen Fehler und die
Umgestaltung der Klaviertechnik by Dr. F. A. Steinhausen.
This work has not appeared in English, although its influence
has been widely felt in pedagogical circles. The edition
which will be used for the translation is that of 1913, pub-
.lished by Breitkopf und Haertel and containing commentary by
Dr. Ludwig Riemann. The Riemann commentary will be translated
only where its importance or pertinence seems necessary to
supplement or to clarify the original text.
The importance of the book is partly historical and partly
a consequence of the novel approach to the subject. The work
is historically important because it represents one of the
first clear breaks with the traditional technical schools .
Th~ emphasis is on what has come to be called the "weight" or
"relaxation" school of piano playing, as developed subsequently
by Breithaupt and Matthay. The new approach toward the subject
stems undoubtedly from the profession of the writer: he was a
medical doctor. The scientific training in his profession
acco~~ts, perhaps, for a certain rationality and clearsighted-
ness--qua~ities which are often most regrettably lacking in
books in this field.
ii
 The schools of Breithaupt and ~fatthay owe much to the
groundwork done by Steinhausen. Breithaupt, perhaps the
best-known exponent of the weight school, gives credit to
Steinhausen for his discoveries and utilizes most of the
technical terminology developed by the latter.
The value of the Steinhausen book lies in its objective,
revolutionary approach which refutes, explains and compares
the new with the old--in contrast to Breithaupt, who, when
the spade-work was done, was free to apply this approach in
a practical way to specific pianistic problems. Steinhausen
is quite aware also of the musical side of the pianist's art,
and in trying to find the most effective means to the pian-
ist's end, merely attempts to free him from much of the error
of tenaciously held pedantic strictures in order to allow
more attention to be concentrated on the interpretive role.
Moreover, Steinhausen's book is written for pianists, in lan-
guage that can be understood by individuals not familiar with
anatomical terminology. Failure to limit the extent of such
terminology has made many later works of a similar nature
.incomprehensible to those for whom they were.intended.
Supplementing the translation itself, the author will
attempt to synthesize in a succeeding chapter the most im-
portant points developed by Dr. Steinhausen, discussing their
significance and, to some extent, evaluating them. Reference
will be made to several other works on piano technique chosen
iii
especially for. comparison with Steinhausen's views. Stein-
hausens position in the history of the field will thus be
more clearly apparent and his pioneer work more readily
evident.
Titles appearing in footnotes in the translation have
been retained in German, there being in most cases no English
translation available. Steinhausen's ordering of them is
also retained. The section numbers appearing in the left-
hand margin are those in the original text. References
within the translation will be made using these numbers,
according to Steinhausen's practice. Certain details of
Steinhausen's punctuation, especially in rega~i to enumer-
ation, have also been retained in the interests of faithful-
ness of translation.
The author wishes to express special gratitude to
Dr. Eugene Selhorst for his careful reading of the text,
to Dr. Ernest Livingstone for his invaluable aid in the
translation, and to Mrs. Cecile Genhart without whose self-
less and inspiring teaching over a period of many years this
work would not have come into being.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ....................... ii
CHAPTER I. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ERRORS AND THE RESHAPING
OF PI&~O.TECHNIQUE BY F. A. STEINHAUS&~:
A .TRANSLATION . .. . . . 1
Section I. General Foreword ...... 2

Section II. False Conceptions about the

Formation of Piano Tone . 17
Section III. The Misunderstanding of Physio-
logical Practice, the Founda-
tion of Technique ...... 39
Section IV. The Erroneous Application of
Gymnastics of Muscles and
Joints in Piano Technique . 64
Section V. The Misconception of Funda-
mental Forces and Forms of
Motion in Previous Technical
Systems . 98
Section VI. The Basic Physiological Form
for the Attacking Motion 131
CHAPTER II. A SYNTHESIS AND AN EVALUATION ...... 166
CHAPTER III. SOME COMPARISONS WITH OTHER METHODS . 192
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . ...................
~ 239

v
 CHAPTER I
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ERRORS AND THE .RESHAPING
OF PIANO TECHNIQUE BY F. A. STEINHAUSEN:
A TRAJ.~SLATION
 SECTION I
GENERAL FOREWORD

1. In looking through the literature about piano tech-

nique, about the methods of attack and of practicing, about
the use of hands and fingers, one encounters a startling lack
of agreement between teaching and practice. Artists, espe-
cially the most important, play quite differently from what
the teaching methods declare to be correct. They employ,
contrary to all pedantic strictures, the full power and free-
dom of movement of the whole arm from the sr;Julder down.
The results achieved can not be obtained by traditional meth-
ods because without exception these methods limit themselves
in tone production more or less strictly to finger technique
and to an attack with isolated finger movement. They seek
to make the parts of the arm--and even more the shoulder--
rigid. Clearly, the question of who is right, the artists or
the school tradition, must be answered completely in favor of
the former. The artists have advanced; the schools have
stood still.
In Kullak 1 s Aesthetics ~f the Piano he says, "Many
virtuosi play freely with the arm; this should on no account
be imitated by students."
2. Why does this paradox linger on so tenaciously? If the
artists are in possession of the correct technique, then it
2
 3

nust be that they a~e not equip?ed co tra~s=it it to the

younger ge~eraticn.

almost as many as thera are artists--a~d n8ne c~n be advanced

as generally va:id.

'1 . ,_ ... '

t h.e pup1~ co~t~nues ~o ue c~recteG

master also had to tread--the path of artistic i~tuition,

Hhich pays little heed to the natul.~e of technique ri'l1e art-

. t d~ocs not .~now ,now 'ne pLays

1s ~ ]-.~ecause cne
., a b'l''
~ 1ty to inves-

:'.s a :..~l.ll.'- ~1e lad::s the sense

that

ition. :-:i.s c:rt takes on a ce:.tz.:.::-:.. :Zo::rt! for hio ir:. his bodily

motion~ basis he

This
... 't'
1n~u1 1ve d'1reccness
' b. . , ~' t -F_recucm
~r~nzs w1tn " o~- rnovesen t --ot:
technique--without ~.Verry c~bout its la;s. Nonetheless, it obeys

these lm\7 s, unconscious oE their necessity. The active organ-

ism of the finished player is therefore the sou::ce fro-.n \vhich
a 1 :_ en11gnc...er. .mc:nt about L1e
~ 4 , .. 1
essc:r~ce o:c~ h
tec~.n~que
.
must Coine.

Physiology makes the body tte object of its study. In

the analysis of artistic

the object of attention~

 4

finished execution and from this derive the underlying laws

of technique. For the artist unconscious!:Y. seelcs out the
best and most purposeful movements in order to express his
inner ideal. This naive directness needs no methodical in-
struction. It accomplishes what is right of itself. It
makes every movement with model correctness. In this in-
stance the body is actually the organ of the artistically
creative spirit. Any technique which attempts to dictate to
the body from any other source becomes unnatural and breaks
down. Thus we come to the only possible and logical point
of view: we can teach the body nothing; we can only learn
from it. If the artist cannot clearly differentiate between
his art and its means, then who but the physiologist can be
called upon to do it for him?
The motion in piano attack is a motion like anv other
and obeys the ~ laws. By applying the experience of
present-day physiological knowledge to discover the lmvs of
instrumental technique we shall certainly come closer to the
essence of technique and be able to distinguish true from
false, remove errors which have crept in, and achieve real
progress. The correct understanding of the essence of tech-
nique will lead necessarily to a healthy relationship between
technique and art.
3. In the last three decades several attempts have been made
to further piano technique with the help of physiology. As
late as the seventies in the preceding century such an attempt
 5

would have had slight chance of success. It was only later

that the mechanics of our organism were scientifically and
thoroughly worked out. Since then 0. Fischer 1 and Braune,
Hering, du Bois Reymond2 and others have done the necessary
path-breaking work. Today this work is so far advanced that
the analysis of a synchronized, complicated motion has become
possible--that is, to an extent that it can help manual tech-
nique. Standing, walking, running, jumping and so forth have
been the subjects of precise physiological investigations.
Applied motions, however, have not as yet been studied. 3
Until now, only musicians--naturally of few physiologi-
cal pretensions--have interested themselves ir. the motions
involved in playing the piano. In my opinion the credit of
a first scientific attempt belongs to the American, F. Clark-
Steiniger, a pupil of Deppe.
Deppe and his pupils strove to produce a beautiful tone.
Significantly they found themselves up against physiological
questions continually. The natural movements of a gifted
player are the natural movements of the normal organism.
These movements not only point out the fundamental rules and
laws of technique but also satisfy the aesthetic demands, the

lThe founder of modern physiological mechanics. "Physiolog-

ische M~chanik oder Bewegungslehre" in the Enzz~1.5eedie der
math. ~~ssensch. IV. Bd., 8. Hef;. Leipzig 190 , Teubner
. 2Who gives us the first compilation of.our present-day
knowledge in this field in his Muskelphysiolo&ie oder
Bewegungslehre (Berlin 1903). -----
3In 1911 Dr. Rit~chl's Die Anschlagsbeweg~nge~ beim Klavier-
spiel appeared.
 6

claims of beauty and richness of sound. Other musicians

have made studies with physiological interest, but un-
fortunately with more or less insufficient understanding.
Some of these studies, several of which are older than
those of Deppe's school, should be mentioned: for example
8
those of Koehler, 4 Kullak, 5 Ehrlich, 6 h''erkenthin, 7 Knorr,
Germer,9 Stoewe,lO Klindworth,ll Jae11, 12 Bree, 13 Unschuld
von Melasfeld,l 4 and others. Special mention is due

4 Loui s Koehler, yyte~'ltische h~l:lrr:!~th~de f'-!.~~ Kt~Y..ier~P!_e_h

~? tf'-!.~ik. Vol. I. pie J.vfe:__~ha:_ni~ ~ls G~!!dl_age cler Technil~.
~ra ed. by H. Riemann. Leipzig, lBffg, Breitkopf und Haertel.
5A. Kullak. Di~ J:._ehre yom ~schlag_ and .Qi~ P~2:-~_thetik_ des
Klavierspiel~. (ed. Bischo!t. Leipzig, 188"6 ~91).
6Ehrlich. Wie uebt man Klavier. Berlin, 187(;.
7 \<Jerkenthin. Die Lehre vom Klavierspiel. Berlin, 1889.
Vols. I and I I-.-werken.th:ln is cerfainly the most pedantic
of those authors who regulate everything, even to the small-
est detail. His system leaves the player no independence at
all and inhibits every free impulse. From this vie"tvpoint
the natural movements of beginners appear objectionable and
are to be eradicated.
8 Knorr. Method. Leitfaden fuer Klavierlehrer. 2nd ed.
Leipzig, Breitkopf und Haerte~
9Germer. Lehrbuch der Tonbildung beim Klavierspiel. 4th ed.
Leipzig, 1"8"90. - - --
lOstoewe. Die Klaviertechntk als physiologische-mechanische
Bew~ungslenre. Berlin, 1~~.
llKlindworth. Elementar-Klavierschule. Mainz, 1902.
12M. Jaell. Der ~nschlag. A new course of piano study
built.on physiological principles. Vol. I. Leipzig,
Breitkopf und Haertel.
13Bree. Die Grundlage der Methode Leschet~. Mainz, Schott.
14unschuld von Melasfeld. Die Hand des Pianisten. Leipzig,
1901. Breitkopf und Haerter:- -.--- ---
 7

Breithauptl5 and Bandmann who have advanced farthest in the

physiological penetration of piano technique, although they
are quite different in approach. I will come back several
times to some of the authors mentioned.
4. The characteristic common to all except the tvJo last
mentioned authors is the inability to rid themselves of
finger technique, even though they have cast it out in
principle. There can no longer be any doubt that finger
technique is the basic error under which piano playing has
suffered until now. The most recent efforts demonstrate
this clearly and in full agreement 'tvith physiological
science. Although a large number of piano te<:,chers still
adhere to an isolated finger attack, the more perceptive
are endeavoring seriously to cultivate a more reasonable
form of attack.
Up to the present the success of this endeavor could
only be rather modest because of insufficient physiological
knowledge. The way back to nature out of the arid atmos-
phere of stiff and basically anti-musical school training
had only been partially discovered. True, the emphasis on
fingers had been relaxed to the point vJhere a hand, even a
limited forearm attack was allowed. The "free fall 11
not
'
15The following writings by Rudolf Maria Breithaupt have
~ppeared: Die Natuerliche !fla_Y-~er~e.:_chnik . Leipzig, 1912
.)rd ed.; Die GrLindlagen der K!-_avie~t:_ecJ:mi~. Practical
Edition. Leipzig, 1907 .QJavi?;_~stika, an essay on modern
piano technique in Die ~rusik, 1903, No. 22. uModern Pian-
ists" in Die Musik, f9oz;-;-No. 8 and 11 Gloss_~ ~ur Gewichts-
technik11 Rhein. Theater- u. Musikzeitung XI, 1910.
 8

only of the fingers but also of the hand and forearm, had
~-lready been introduced. The meaning of \veight in the move-
ment of mass was sensed, but nothing had been proposed which
involved more than the forearm. A characteristic statement
by 0. Bie (Das Klavier und seine Heister, Muenchen, 1898,
. .
p. 20) reads, "Piano technique has proceeded slowly from
tapping fingertips to the present suppleness, which involves
the arm up to the elbow." Why not further? On what account
should the boundary of the "present suppleness" be drawn
precisely at L . e elbow?
The fall of the finger or of the hand was grasped as
a physical occurrence, whereas it is really a physiological
occurrence and a swinging movement (64, 69). One can sur-
mise from many revealing examples how difficult it is for
musicians to find their way in the simplest things of natural
science. It is remarkable hm..r often one finds true and false
juxtaposed. Next to appropriate observations one finds the
most elementary lack of knowledge. A good example is the
confusion of swinging power and elasticity by one of the most
recent authors, Breithaupt. On p. 277 of "Claviristica" he
says, "Isn't rather swinging po'tJ'er, elasticity, the source
of all technique." Page 278: "Technique is rather to be com-
prehended as a moment of elasticity, from the standpoint of
a healthy swinging power." Perhaps the' following place vJ'ill
resolve any doubt about his identifying the two forces
(p. 283): "The hand is thrown back freely. It falls of
 9

its mvn weight on the key and bounds back like a rubber ball.
The movement is analagous to the swinging motion used by chil-
dren when they bounce a rubber tire. 11 The following sentence
is to be found in one of the latest competent writings
(Zuschneid, Methodischer Leitfaden fuer de~ Klavierunter-
richt. Berlin-Lichterfelde, 1904, p. 3). It may well serve
as a model of lack of clarity. "Mechanical practice reaches
its peak in the complete detachment of the arm and all
participating li:nbs from the playing mechanism."
5. In my opinion help can only come from the physiologist.
It is impossible to clarify this confusion of opinions vJith-
out technical knowledge of physiology. One ccnnot reasonably
expect the physiologist to be more than a mus~cal dilettante;
one can not be a specialist in both fields. Musicians have
displayed great zeal in attempting to achieve their goal--
but in vain. In vie\v of this the wish to help and to steer
all the otherwise futile \vork into the right channel is vigor-
ously stimulated. The path is unmistakably indicated, and
the present work will try to point it out step by step.
6. The physical power and tonal fullness of the attack have
not kept pace with the high perfection of piano manufacture
(14). Until now the school method has not been able to rid
itself of a tradition originating with the predecessors of
the piano, the spinet and the clavichord (see Section II).
In addition, technique suffers even today from the continuing
influence of gymnastics which is based one-sidedly on the
 10

motive apparatus (see Sections III and IV). Both influences,

the one from the instrument and the one from gy@Lastics,
point to the same conclusion: replacement of the inadequate
and even harmful finger technique by a more powerful form of
movement, better suited to the construction of the instrument
and of our bodies.
The player should command all of the tonal resources
of the instrument--this demand is often heard. The issue
would not be so frequently raised if finger technique really
produced tone corresponding to the perfection of the instru-
ment and if it made legato playing--the proper task of piano
technique--possible. For the quality of sound, singing tone,
volume and carrying power are dependent upon a certain
strength of the individual tones--subject, of course, to
the inherent tonal characteristics of the instrument and its
sustaining power. It will be demonstrated that finger tech-
nique does not provide the necessary power and that the
binding of tones to one another is thereby made difficulc.
If sustained tone, on which a sonorous legato depends, re-
quires relatively great force, then the degree of strength
and legato belong together, physically as well as musically.
This is the "tvhole secret of a correct attack.
7. One cannot improve technique until he is clear about
its essence. Technique--as the sum of all of the varied, co-
ordinated motions in the attack--must be observed from the
same standpoint as all other co-ordinated motions. Although
 ll

technique can and should be only a means towards musical per-

formance, it does take on a certain independence \lhen one
begins to pay special attention to the natural mechanical and
psycho-physical laws governing it. All artistic activity must
yi '__ d to these natural laws. If one neglects them, he may
fall into error or expend needless effort. As long as one
sees the technique of attack in finger motion alone and per-
mits at most only a limited participation of the hand and
forearm, he opposes these laws shortsightedly and arbitrarily.
It is not surprising if progress then ceases and stagnates.
8. Technique means unlimited obedience, strict dependence
of the executing organs on the will and artistic intention.
Movement and will appear as one in a perfected technique. To
reach this ultimate goal the individual movements must be
drilled and frequently repeated. Technique without practice
is unthinkable. Technique might be defined as the working
out of the unity of will and action, or the adaptation of the
actions most suited to the instrument for the artistic purpose.
If one wants to understand the real meaning of technique, he
must know the essence of physiological exercise. Until nmv,
the necessary background material for such an understanding
was not available. In 1881 I had the privilege of hearing E.
du Bois Reymond give his famous speech about practice. The
occasion was the celebration of the endowment of the Berlin
Academy for Hilitary Medicine, whc:_e I was a student. This
speech is unfortunateiy much too littie known in musicians'
circles. One finds individual phrases from the speech cited
frequently, but understanding of the essence of practice
(see Section III) is almost nonexistent. The fourth and
fifth sections will be devoted to clearing up errors grmving
out of a misunderstanding of exercise as a psycho-physical
occurrence. All of the errors attempt to replace intcllec-
tually governed movements by witless gymnastics of the muscles
and joints and to draw practicing down to a purely mechanical
proceeding. This detaches technique from art and makes it an
end in itself. Obviously one completely loses sight of the
real goal of all art.
9. Technique and practice are so closely related that an
error in one necessarily affects the other. To understand
the essence of technique every pianist must make a basic
knowledge of physiology and psychology a part of his fund
of general information. The idea that muscles and joints
must be observed in their workings from the standpoint of
mechanics needs to become more prevalent among pianists and
pedagogues. This recognition has doubtlessly begun, and the
present work will go on from there. The attainment of certain
physiological knowledge and of fundamental physiological con-
ceptions has become indispensable for the musician, since we
now have a physiology of exercise and a science of the mechan-
ics of muscles and joints. This knowledge has become indis-
pensable because the organs of mo~-lon and their orderly ar-
rangement are his tools for bringing sound alive. He ~;ho does
 13

not knmv his tools cal}_ not._ .E..Q_~i bl v ~1ak~ E.?P2~ use of them
and still less offer instruction in thei~ ~ In this no
more is demanded of the musician than has always been neces-
sary for painters and sculptors. The pictorial artist needs
anatomical knowledge because he must know the form of the body
to be pictured; the musician needs physiological knowledge
because he must know the movement of his own body.
If the player would know the construction and function
of his arm exactly, then let him be guided in his search by
the physiologist. Let him accept instruction from the phys-
iologist, recognizing the undeniable fact that the musician
is certainly a layman and remains at best a dilettante in
these matters. Specifically in the present work, which at-
tempts to assist the pianist, precise evaluation instead of
premature negative judgment should prevail. No one will be
more grateful than the author for well-founded arguments and
pertinent objections. Unfortunately one cannot expect that
all of the arguments t~ll be factual. Instead, preconceived
opinions and the stubborn complacency of school tradition
will-for a large number of professional musicians--hinder
the quiet consideration which leaves room for doubt--the kind
of consideration which asks if the "new" might really be
right and does not see the mere idle observations of a pale
theoretician. Granted, this requires an intellectual flex-
ibility which does not refuse te~aciously to put itself into
a world of foreign ideas.
 14

10. The study of mechanics and the movement of joints is

chiefly methodical learning by seeing, the open-eyed observa-
tion of every, even the smallest, movement of the arm in-
volved. This should be done with oneself and with others
and, if possible, t-1ith the arm bare. The study from one
joint to the next provides the only real understanding of
the inner connection of the movements of the joints with one
another. No writer can relieve us of this work; one has to
wrestle with it himself.
One might protest that most of the following material
has already been covered by others on various occasions and
even by musicians in their theoretical wor:<s. However, it
only seems so. On closer observation the great difference
between occasionally appropriate statements and a systematic,
physiological re-working of the entire material becomes ap-
parent. t~ile something good and correct has been said here
and there, until now there has been nothing on several points:
. 2rr the very necessary condemnation of gymnastics,
on the understanding of the ~Yhic nature of true
technique,
on the understanding of t~~ fundamental physiological
pccurren~ ~n piano playing--forea~ rotatio~ and
the ~~vingi11_g r.:1ovement.
The conscious use of these two elements rrorearm rota-
tion and swinging movemen!7; the realization that artists
have always and will alw~ys apply ther.:1 in practice, even if
 15

unconsciously; the necessary consequences arising from this

recognition--all this must lead back to and into the natural,
so that one ~oves his hands in piano playing in a manner as
simple, straightforward and natural as in all other more or
less artistic occupations (26, 38). Then we shall learn only
that which is natural to the body and thus appropriate to the
original unity of art and technique. In this way we shall
succeed in preventing many beginners from ruining their
health and irritating nerves and muscles as a result of in-
correct practice habits.
11. The present work ought then to arouse protest, ought to
awaken the piano-playing world to serious criticism and ne'ii7
efforts. w~ere there is no criticism, there is necessarily
intellectual stagnation. The present work takes two lines
of approach simultaneously.
The one line attacks the still widespread errors of fin-
ger technique with all their regrettable consequences, the many
contradictions between artistic playing and school methods,
and the outdated, old-fashioned but still reigning technique.
The other line addresses itself toward the relatively
progressive works. Their authors are hailed partly as com-
rades in the struggle against the outmoded technique. vfuile
recognizing their good and rewarding efforts, we must, hmJever,
also oppose them. They must be content to accept whatever tech-
nical instruction and pertinent criticism is appropriate. 16

16The meaning of this passage is not entirely clear. In Ger-

man: "Das andre Gesicht ist den nc;uer" 'u2:ceits verhaeltnisr,1aes-
 16

12. All criticism should have a ncH and better end in vietv.
Therefore, in the final section, the author proposes certain
fundamental -~onns of .9:. 2:-~siolq_gi~~l movem~nt;. o~. _?.t~~~l~.

One should not expect a new method. I -v1ish expressly to keep

away from that. Only the joint efforts of the musician and
physiologist will create a ne-v1 method. Before this common
work can get under way the musical specialist must have first
tried out the new concepts. This is an indispensable condi-
tion, and any discussion tvrithout first meeting it is out of
the question. First, it should be stressed continually that
the "new" is not netv at all. ~-Je have it already. It is only
a question of separating true from false. The t..rorking out of
a method is something for the music specialist and the piano
pedagogue. Indeed, the working out of an appropriate school
method is not even to be thought of at first--that is, before
the whole extensive ~e2a~atory work is done by musical spe-
cialists. They must re-adjust themselves intellectually to
the unaccustomed demands, find their way within a new set of
ideas, and put the theoretically new into a practical, use-
ful form. Only fundamental c9n~~~~rati~~~ can be set forth
here. The ways by means of which error may be avoided and
the return to the natural achieved can only be suggested.

---------------- ---------------------
 SZCTION II
FALSS CO~CZPTIONS ABOUT THE FOX~~TION OF PIANO TONS

13. Before we embark on a discussion of the physiological

errors, He must first correct several -.;vide spread vic\vS about
the nature of the piano. The physiological-technical errr~s

a~1d the physical-acoustical er::c. . . ,~ ..,_;:;: :,-:est closely related

and dependent upon each other. One miRht supoose that the
.._;; ...

piano, as a mechanical and basically simple instrument, ~J'Ould

certainly not be misunderstood. This is, hmvever, the case.

Needless to say, the piano remains v;hat it is however many
fantastic notions about the production of tone may exist in
the minds of the players. TI1e consequences of these notions
are noticed, hov1ever, in the instruction about attack and tone
production as well as in the physiological conception of tech-
nique. These consequc~ces must be recognized so that they can
be dispelled.
All of our musical instruments, in their form and construc-
tion, are adapted most precisely to our organs of motion. An
organic natural law lies at the root of the gradual development
of the instruments, from imperfect beginnings to fo~1s satis-
fying the most exacting aural demands. As yet there has been
no survey of this development in the history of keyboard instru-
ments from the physiological point of view--beginning with the
17
 18

beating of the organ ~,rith fists and elbmvs in the thirteenth

centurJ to the refined technique of the present-day grand
piano. Piano manufac~urers have wor~ed tirelessly on the
further devclop:nent of the piano unt:.:;_ most r:2cent tir.1cs.
By using strings of ever greater strength, they vJere obliged
to reinforce the sounding board correspondingly. The limita-
tions of our muscular power stood as a counterbalance to their
~~~arts. This made an easy key action a natural cond:::~n

for the practical use of the instrument. As mentioned before,

the highly developed art of piano construction, assisted by
modern machinery, has generally been ~.Jell to the fore. Only
a fevl artists have forccd piano construction to still more
brilliant achieve2cnts. As an example, the development of
the piano o-v;cs its last and highest staze to the truly great
virtuoso, Liszt. It appears that we have now arrived at the
limit of \vhat it is possible to achieve. Reinforcement of
materials can no longer be combined with greater playing ease.
14. In any case the development of the modern pianoforte from
the clavichord and spinet demands a quite substantially greater
expenditure of energy for the attack. Daintiness with nealiryi-
o 0

ble po\ver was the characteristic of performance on the fore~

runners of present-day instruments. No great outlay of muscu-

lar strength was required. The attack could be accomplished
without the slightest exertion by the pressure of the fingers
gliding over the keys and resting on them without even being
 19

raised.l Even the German or Viennese mechanism demanded only

slight effort from the finger muscles, since the hammers tvere
still set in motion by a simple mechanism. The tvay of playing
tvas changed and greater energy der::anded only by the general
introduction of the repetition mechanism tvhich allmvcd the
hammer to assume the striking position tvithout a release of
the key. However, schools and tradition anxiously held fast
:_, :::1e former method of attack. And so it is tod.:y. ~Jhat

was once a natural result of mechanical conditions--namely

the rather slight movements, light application of finger
strength, and a barely perceptible hand motion--became now
a binding rule, an enforced torture which excluded all natural-
ness. t1odern pianists sensed that piano technique now required
a completely different physiological fo~1dation. They adapted
themselves unconsciously to the grotnng demands of piano con-
struction and began to utilize a netv technique free of pedantry.
As a matter of course, tone power and beauty of performance
pointed out the way.
Finger strength could no longer accomplish the task. A
new E1-_acement of the source of po'iver became inevitable. At
first it tvas moved anxiously and cautiously to the hand and

lrt is we:C.l known that J. S. Bach was the first to introduce

the normal use of the thumb and little finoer into piano tech-
nique. Instead of the previous practice of placing the fin~ers
outstretched, the hand position had to be altered to allot-1
curved fingers as a consequence of the relation of the thumb
to the other fingers.
 20

forearm and, unconsciously, certainly still higher to the

upper arm and shoulder. Indeed, \vhen an artist tries to draw
out all the tonal richness which lies in today's perfected
instruments, he uses the great ffi'.lscular force of the shoulder,
unknowingly and entirely as a matter of course. Cowmon sense
tells him that the relatively weak finger muscles and their
small, angular, paltry motions are insufficient for a power-
iul attack. The fact t~~t this new placement of power is in-
evitable must be grasped consciously by every pianist and be-
come his intellectual property.
15. The resul~ of historical observation must coincide v:ith
the resu}.t Q.I l?_hysiolo2ical observation, for the body and its
parts are the common origins of the instrumental mechanism
and the playing technique. Unfortunately the piano playing
world has mistaken and misunderstood the acoustical and physi-
- cal foundation of technique. Physical cause and psychic effect
have been confused, similar to the confusion in the field of
physiology. One might suppose the notion that piano tone could
be influenced after the occurrence of the attack would have
. been recognized as erroneous long ago and have been abandoned.
Such is not, however, the case. The fundamental error still
prevails today that one can produce different tone colors from
the piano strings by varying the method of attack. It is ap-
parent that such an idea would influence the cultivation of
the attack. There has arisen a collection of the most curious
ideas about tone production on the piano (23).
 21

15. The vibration of the elastically strung piano string is

activated by the elastic impact of the padded hammer. Every
part of the key mechanism is made of elastic material. The
elasticity of each part, as well as its size, weight, and the
best tvay of padding the hammer, have become fairly uniform
throughout the piano indus try, small differences betvJeen the
products of various factories or even instruments made by the
~~me factory notwithstanding. Piano manufacturers ~~ve been
guided quite reliably by t,,.;;i.~., finely cultivated ears--as the
scientific investigations of Helmholtz have since confirmed (17).
The most fantastic notions about the effect of the elastic
powers within the key mechanism reign in the world of musicians.
Obviously the conception of "elastic attack" (60) is construed
from a lack of clarity about the way in 'tvhich these elastic
powers act. No matter how many pianists one questions, none
can speak of this conception with any precision. The count-
less elastic powers in the piano are used only for the elastic
impact against the string, for its vibration and the vibration
of the resonating board--that is, for the acoustical task.
Elasticity which works in a mechanical way can not be ascer-
tained from without. Some (Breithaupt and Germer, for example)
imagine an elastic effect of the key mechanism on the attacking
finger, as if a ricocheting force ran back to the key from
the striking hammer and lifted the hand from the keys. This
idea has no foundation in fact. The springing back of the
key after the release of pressure is so minimal that it cannot
 22

be ac~mm.,rled:;ed as an aid to the motion of c.ttack. As proof

of this, a light object (a match, for instance) might be placed
on the de pres sed key. It will not be throvm U? at all or only
very slightly by the uptvard return o: the kev
., to =h:::: oosition .;.

turn of the key vJOuld be a definite error fror:t the s tancpoint

of piano construction. One cannot speak then of a rebound
-.:: the hand. It will be shown else~vhere (62) that the fir'"'er-
tips do not have this elasticit; either, that one cannot speak
about the elastic contact of fingers on the keys, and that
the elasticity of ~uscles, tendons, joints, etc. is used for
the in~er physiological function of the a~n motion itself.
17. h7e k.noH that the hammer mechanism is so constructed that
the hammer always strUces the string at exactly the same point.
The so-called English mechanism owes its victory over the older
German to its greater precision in regard to the point of at-
tack. Thus any alteration of tone color on the piano by chang-
ing the point of attack is ruled out, in contrast to the other
string instruments. Helmholtz points out that the ear of the
piano manufacturer picked out the best from the great number
of possible striking points producing the most varied tone
colors--so precisely that the most exact calculation could
not have done it better. In addition the weight of every in-
dividual part of the key mechanism, especially the hammer,
is constant and unalterable. Consequently the same moving
mass always strikes the string. A Hell-known law of mechanics
 23

states that work output equals the product of the mass and
th .... velocity of the movement. It follmvs that velocity is
the only remaining factor which can alter the strength of the
blow of the hammer on the string. The task of the I(ey-lever
mechanism is to.propel the hammer mass asainst the string.
Thus the vital power which sets the key in motion determines
the velocity of the hammer and thereby the loudness of sound.
According to Helmholtz the tone color is given to~ .. ~tring

once and for all by the form and elasticity of the mechanism
and the unchanging point of attack. One can not insist upon
this fact strongly enou3h. With this realization all foolish
ideas of influencing the tone-color or piano sound--of tone
formation--fall apart of their own accord. One can scarcely
imagine how many illusions have been indulged in this con-
nection (23).
18. The stroke of the hammer against the string is limited
to a single moment. Once accomplished, further influence on
the string is at an end. One must be clear on this point.
Although the fact in itself is well known, pianists respect
it very little. The consequences arising fromthis situation
are correspondingly distorted. Do we still imagine that the
"tone formation" can be influenced after the moment of attack
by prolonged key pressure, as is reported of l'lendelssohn? 2

2schneider (0usi~, ~l~vier und ~~~vie~3piel: Leipzig, 1884,

p. 3) says that Mendelssohn 1 s ability to modify the tone after
the attack by a push or pressure of the finger enchanted his
admirers: a prime example of the best sort of auto- and mass-
suggestion. Schneider is himself of the opinion that a great
deal of fantasy was evident in Mendelssohn's case.
 24

If I should allow the key to remain depressed after the moment

of the hammer attack, nothing further will occur nor can occur
except that the string'~ vibration will continue unimpeded
until it becomes inaudible. There is no otl~ .:::: in.Zl.uence on
piano tone than the mom en ta~y blotv .-:gc::ins t tl-.e string. It
is the most conspicuous short-coming of the piano as a musical
instrument. Christiani3 stresses the fixed nature of piano
.:0~-:e. 11
The pianist cannoi: :'lter a tone once struck. --~~-

that mo22nt he can never enter the lists with other musicians
as regards expression.'' The expressive means offered to the

pianist are only accent, rhythm and varying dynamic degrees

of attack. Although the advantages and deficiencies of the
piano as a musical instr~ment are found variously juxtaposed
in the literature, any mention of the most conspicuous defi-
ciency is almost always missing--that is, the impossibility
of influencing tone color by the manner of attack. At the
same time the limited duration of the tone as well as the im-
possibility of increasing or diminishing it are properly men-
tioned. Hennig finds the piano deficient only in its lack
of ability to crescendo~ In several places Schneider warns
against illusions as to the piano's weaknesses, the most con-
spicuous of which he sees correctly as the 11 glaring lack of

3christiani, pa~ Verstaendnis ~~ Klavier~el, Leipzig; Breit-

kopf und Haertel, 1880; p. 14.
4 Hennig, El:_!!_fuehrung in den Beruf des Klavierlehrers.
Leipzirr0 ,
1903, p. 182.
 25

the possibility of modulation" of single tones. "The tone

is struck and then reverberates, becoming weaker every second
and soon disappearing entirely. The pianist cannot do the
slightest thing to prevent this natural phenomenon; he must
be content with it. ~ot the individual tone, but the perform-
ance as a whole is modified by the attack." ~.Jh.at musician
of today tells himself that?
The prolongation of the once excited vibration ~un still
be musically utilized to a certain extent to achieve the good
connection of tones--the legato (6, 22). The highest art of
piano performance is properly viewed as the greatest possible
cultivation of legato and the correct use of the pedal.
19. From what has been said above we can conclude that the
only influence on the tone which we possess consists exclu-
sively of the possibility of giving it varying intensity.
''Pianoforte" is therefore the most appropriate designation
for the instrument. The intensity of the sound corresponds
directly to the strength of the blow on the string, to the
energy of the key-attack, or to the vital power which comes
into contact with the key. ~.Jith this all possibilities of
influencing the tone are exhausted. Alteration of tone color
in the strict sense is not accomplished by alteration of the
intensity of sound. One may concede, however, that every de-
gree of intensity produces its own very limited tonal shading
which can be used in the musical performance. In this we can
 26

easily fall into the danger of succumbing to gross illusions

about the variability of tone color--as experience has taught
us. One thing is certain: that a singing piano tone is a rc-
sult of a certain minimum degree o:Z ton-2."!.. lo,-:dncss. The di-
ameter of the string, which has about reach2d its limit, and
the strength of the sounding board--i.e., the present-day
material constituents--demand a relatively great strength of
: ':~ack. Although good instru::.ents speak easily wit!-1 , 'tJeak
attack, the tone has something damped, thin ar.d non-singing
about it--an effect that may be musically desirable at times.
However, the manifold gradations of intensity are sufficient
to provide an inexhaustible resource for music making, in spite
of the imperfections of the piano.
20. Up to now it has been the general error that no one has
insisted on a clear distinction between physical and psycho-
musical elements in piano tone formation. As long as this
point is not clear, any exolanation is i~ossible, any dis-
~~ion ~ele~. At the piano the relationship of the player
to tone formation is quite different from this relationship
on a string or wind instrument or in singing. The attempt
to separate the purely physical tone production from the musi-
cal expression (even from the simplest psychic element) on
a string or wind instrument would be in vain. One would have
'
to move the bow in a machine-like manner or blow a wind instru-
ment in the manner of an organ with its wind apparatus. In
 27

this regard it stands on the lmves t plane of instruments.

In order to isolate the purely physical element at th2
piano, we must limit outselves to constant tone intensity on
a single key. In so doing the physical element in the attack
can actually be exposed. 5
21. The fundamental question to be answered can be rather
simply formulated as follows: Can the tone be varied and made
to sound different when the strength of attack 0:-1 :.:::..:.:. :::-:;me
key remains constant, by modifying the form of attack (i.e.,
through strength of finger contraction or through the fall
of hand or arm weight onto the finger--through player A or
artist B)? The majority of pianists believe this to be true.
One has only to inquire and he will hear the question answered
affirmatively every time--after an initial hesitation. This
prejudice rests unshakably secure and deep, although it is
only mass suggestion. Actually the question can only be an-
swered negatively owing to the whole construction and the
properties of the piano. We must admit that there can be no
talk of a healthy relationship between art and the exercise
of art at the piano until fearless criticism sweeps out the
piled-up debris of self-deception with an iron broom.

5In order to prevent a misunderstanding, let it be emphasized

that the purely physical attack (in contrast to what is used
in performance) sheuld be clearly distinguished from the physi-
ological "movement of attack." The purely physical-mechanical
attack is in itself only a part of the movement of attack.
1be movement of attack, on the other hand, is a psycho-physical
proceeding which includes the element of performance.
 28

How can this widespread illusion be explained? Only by

the failure to separate the physical element, the attack, from
the musical, the performance, and consequently confusing the
physical 'tvith the aesthetic concepts in w:-..ich a::tists have
always been steeped. Unfortunately, even those among musicians
who have been concerned with physiological questions--most
notably Deppe--have not kept these concepts sufficiently sep-
arated. It would certainly mak2 an amusing collection, if
one wanted to take the time to gather together from the litera-
ture all the countless expressions and effusions about the in-
fluence of the attack on tone. T.-Je will mention here only a
few of the more recent authors. Deppe (according to Klose):
we must go back to the production of a single tone. The tone--
which is produced, as he directs, by the unconscious free fall--
is not only more noble, but also fuller, and has more carrying
power than that produced by hitting. Furthermore, this uncon-
scious, this spiritual quality can be perceived aurally, while
the ordinary attack, in its sober reality, lacks this genuinely
pleasurable sound--an artistic delight in its own right. He
explains this by saying that the hammer in the "fall" contacts
the string softly yet energetically, 'tvhile in hitting, the
string is struck roughly. A footnote says naively (p. 5):
"a scientific explanation of the effect of the free fall would
certainly be easy for the physicist." Deppe attributes quite
remarkable characteristics to the fingertips--an indication
 29

of his uncritical view of tone formation, arising from thor-

oughly subjective self-deception . 1nrough the free fall using
weight, the tone is supposed to receive very special charac-
teristics of tone color (see 5 above{si7). The fingers seem
to draw the tone out, the player appears to magnetize the
strings, etc. Soechting, too, thinks he finds the basis for
beautiful and ugly tone, mellow and harsh attack, in the r.,.:;ay
the hands and fingers are moved toward the keys.
Deppe's precedent. A simple pressing down of the l<eys is very
different from artistically formed tone. Tne ordinary attack
is a demonstration of power; artistic tone formation is exactly
the opposite--an exercise of will, a quiet pose of the hand
and arm at the moment of tone formation: the origins of the
free fall. Herkenthin (2. ~it., p. 66) even grants various
touches such as legato, staccato, etc. the property of giving
the tone various colors. Similarly Breithaupt, when he speaks
of a way of attack which makes the tone grainy, or metallically
bright and hard. He says elsewhere: playing with the finger-
tips is cold, pointed and dry; playing with the finger cushions,
warm and mellow, round and sonorous.
22. T.Je defined the purely physical attack above. The physical
attack was isolated and made distinct from the conception of
performance. The element of performance at the piano can only
be excluded when one is concerned with a single tone, without
any reference to other tones. (We do not need to be concerned
 30

here with the intentional, purely physical sounding of several

tones simultaneously or consecutively.) Only when there is
a succession or simultaneous,sounding of tones can there be
differences of intensity, aspiring more or less toward an ex-
pression which reproduces a spiritual impulse. A musical per-
son i~~ediately relates two tones to each other, and this re-
lation is the beginning of a performance, the first germ of
a musical thought. Indeed, the relation of two tones can be
extremely varied and becomes infinitely complex when the
duration--this means only after-vibration6 on the piano--the
countless shades of intensity, repetition, and retrogression
are also considered.
The continuing vibration of the string is too often con-
\

fused with prolongation of tone. Only a comparison with string

and wind instruments can prevent this confusion. Any attempt
to manipulate the key after (as well as before) the moment
of the hammer stroke is a vain and senseless undertaking.
The many ways of gliding and wiping, inner pressure and tender
stroking of the key which have been thought up in the course
of time--all of these manipulations have worth only in so far
as they regulate the strength of attack in some special way
or keep the fingers on the key. Kalkbrenner and de Kontski,
for example, are especially given to caressing or stroking

6steinhausen uses the word Nachdoner, that is, the natural

period of vibration after the attack until the tone is no
longer audible. The translator.
 31

the keys by drawing the fingertips inward. This is, according

to 0. Bie (QQ. cit., p. 235), a sensuous, charming method of
attack--in truth, like Logier's specialty of holding the fingers
in continual contact with the keys, a pleasant self-deception,
doubtless left over from clavichord mannerisms. According
to Caland, Deppe also directed that the keys be "fondled."
Although stroking and wiping may make good s~nse on the clavi-
chord, their application to the pianoforte is worthless.
There are no other purely mechanical foundations than
those mentioned above. One should bear in mind that allowing
/

the key to remain depressed is only an external means to pre-

vent damping of the string. To await the right moment for
the application of the dampers, that is of the release of the
dampers, is the chief task of good, equalized legato playing
and is properly a psychic and not a mechanical thing. Choice

.
of the strength and the duration of single tones is, therefore,
the only means which the piano puts at the disposal of the
player for musical expression.
23. Since the physical element of attack was not clearly and
definitely separated from the musical element of performance,
there arose inevitably a fundamental confusion of te~s. Tone,
tone formation and attack have been indiscriminately confused
in discussion, as if they all meant approximately the same
thing. In the figurative sense used here, tone means something
quite other than it does in acoustics. The language of music
 32

understands by the term a specific quality for an artist, for

an approach in teaching, for an artistic conception--in any
case, an intellectual product, even a creative element. This
creative element is expressed even TDore in the term, "tone
formation. 11 The artist forms, it is said, tl1c tone offcr~d

by the instrument according to his artistic intention and in-

clination. He can put his soul into even a single tone. Even
a single tone radiates this incorporated spiritunl ~~lity,

affects one as noble, warm, intimate or whatever the other

expressions are. That is all good and unassailable when it
concerns an instrument which, according to its whole physical
construction, allows the artist to form the sound individually.
Such is the case with string instruments where the bowing point,
length of the tone, increase and decrease of intensity and
change of the moving mass exciting the string serve as means
for spiritual expression. And if one makes a comparative ob-
servation about the means offered to the pianist? The hammer
alone excites the vibration of the string, forced by the mech-
anism to strike the string always at the same point and with ,
the same moving mass. This excitement is always limited to
the moment of striking. The unchangeable length of the strings
excludes fine alterations of pitch. In short, a mechanism
and nothing but a mechanism which, cold and dead, always re-
sponds to equally strong excitement with exactly the same sound,
no matter what the form and manner of the power which contacts
 33

the keys may be (assuming equal intensity).

Since the situation regarding "tone formation" with a
single key was never accurately summarized, the aural effect
of an artist's performance, while accurately heard, was in-
correctly interpreted as being due to his "tone" or his attack.
It is wrong to speak of a soulful, temperamental, spirited
attack. This lack of clarity has led' in the end to the singu-
lar delusion that tone formation lies in the manner of : ':tack.
The full, round, warm, carrying, mellow, large tone, etc., is
supposedly produced only by the proper method--differently
presented by everyone, of cours~. Fortunately, however, the
piano manufacturer delivers all these qualities ready-made.
He manages to create them for us with the most refined and
perfect manufacturing techniques in an abundance which was
hardly suspected. What a self-deception it is for a pianist
to talk of dry, brittle, cold, colorful, blossoming or poetic
"tone formation"--qualities which all stem, without doubt,
either from the instrument or from the spiritual side of the
art of performance, but which have no meaning in reference
to formation and cultivation of "tone" on this most mechanical

of all instruments. The term, "tone," is generally misunder-

stood because of a transference of the characteristics of the
performance or of the instrument to a single tone. It is worth
mentioning that there is no chapter about "tone formation" on
the piano to be found in H. Riemann.7 Elsewhere one can see

7Theoretisch prakt. Klavierschule, 3rd edition, Leipzig, 1901.

 34

most any of the usual remarks about the misunderstood term,

tone formation, in any of countless catechisms, instruction
manuals, etc. According to my experience, piano manufacturers--
who, as technicians, ought to be better informed than others--
are unclear over the question whether method of attack has
any influence on tone produced on one and the same key. This
is because even they do not differentiate between physical
attack and musical performance. If the string could be acti-
vated in different ways by the attack, ~he hammer-key mechanism
would have to be capable of being put in motion in various
ways. It would have to respond, on its part, to the variety
of key attacks, if it were to pass them on. If one questions
a piano manufacturer about this, he will spring energetically
to his own defense and point to the absolute regularity of
.
the mechanism. Only intensity (or velocity) remains, then,
of all the supposed differences. The representatives of the
idea of piano "tone formation" usually refer to a well-known
place in Helmholtz which they thoroughly misunderstand. This
passage is wrongly construed to mean that the player can de-
termine tone color through the attack. The passage reads:
"No-other instrument has such a broad variability of tone color
available as the piano; on no other can the musical ear, there-
fore, select so freely the sound which corresponds to its re-
quirements."8 Helmholtz did not conceive of anything else

8The Riemann edition says here, "the sound shadings of the

bass, middle and high registers are meant." (The translator)
 35

and certainly did not propose the whole question of whether

the player can affect piano tone formation.
It is not difficult to imagine how hard it is for the
musician--for whom the present thoughts about attack, tone
color and tone formation are new and unfamiliar--to orient
himself. The heaps of conflicting notions--acquired by train-
ing and all sorts of artistic influences, most of all by the
~~critical acceptance of these influences and through uncer-
tainty in physical and acoustical matters--burdens him like
a heavy lead weight. ~fuenever the musician makes a good start
towards getting used to these ideas, doubt and hesitation enter
again through the back door. The all too ingrained subjective
feeling that one can exercise an influence on the individual
tone in spite of everything--science simply has not yet dis-
covered the reason--negates all progress once more. Some of
this may be due to the nature and special constitution of the
artist. A part of it, however, is certainly acquired through
training for which the following admonition is intended. Every-
thing should be worked out on its own with sharp and critical
observation. At the same time, the artist clearly needs guid-
ance in the precise discipline of the natural sciences.
24. What the consequences of fostering these sorts of sugges-
tions and ideas are, what kinds of ridiculous qualities are
heard in the "tone," one can learn best from music reviev1s
and concert critiques in the daily press. How far these il-
lusions go can be inferred from the teaching of tone formation
 36

as upheld by Germer, which can serve as a typical example of

the views widespread in the music world. Germer stands rather
high, perhaps, as a practical pedagogue, but not as a scien-
tific one. His proposals would not draw special attention
if his ~ay of speaking of tone formation and of tone excita-
tion through the activity of the nervous system and the brain
were not so typical of the views of contemporary professional
musicians in general. Germer believes quite seriously that
the awakening of harmonic overtones, and therefore the specific
tone color, is dependent to a large extent upon continued key
pressure. The hammer comes into contac4 with the string in
a different way when the pressure principle is applied than
when the normal attack is used. Earlier he speaks of learning
to produce a "longer tone. 11 An instructor who knows the in-
strument as does Germer has no business speaking of the pro-
duction of a longer piano tone. His characteristic argument
comes to a climax in the sentence, "the brain is the A/Ipha7
and O/mega7 for each single tone.'' This sounds very well,
if somewhat mysterious. It would have a certain meaning for
a string instrument; it has no meaning, however, for the piano.
How does the brain accomplish its effect,. considering the dead
mechanism inserted between the fingertip and the string? Germer
thinks 1) the emotional intensity, the inner nervous partici-
pation of the player, 2) the fine nervous sense of the finger-
tips can be considered sufficient to bridge th::..._ cap. He be-
lieves quite seriously in the influence on string excitation
 37

by these means. No less strange is Germer's insistence that

singing piano sound is called forth by a special manner of
tone excitation, the pressing principle. And hm.,r does he prove
it? With bold poetic license, he takes the comprehensive dis-
cussion of Helmholtz on the origin of overtones according to
the point of attack chosen ~ the piano manufacturer as a proof
of the influence on the string in his own meaning. Throu~h

~~is he arrives at the fantastic idea that the origi~ of over-

tones can be determined by the player's method of attack. I
cite Germer's words: "The scientific observations of Helmholtz
are calculated to clear up much which the thoughtful pianist
has perhaps already found out for himself by chance in an em-
pirical, practical way or has at least instinctively put into
practice, guided by his natural impulses."
It would be interesting to know if anyone else has ever

been taken aback by this sort of highly subjective reasoning,

plucked out of thin air.
The danger for technique, for natural execution and honest
skill lies obviously in the fact that by making subtle or coarse
self-deception possible the pianist prepares the ground for
dishonest seeking after originality--the ground in which not
only obscurity and self-complacency thrive, but in which all
sorts of subjective, uncritical teaching systems spring up.
An inevitable consequence is the over-estimation of the creative
capacity of the artist and an under-estimation of strict sci-
entific discipline of thought. Unfortunately, artists have
 38

always found the latter a burdensome fetter. To sum up the

previous observations: 1) the strength of attack as the ex-
clusive influence on piano tone, and 2) the momentary char-

acter of tone formation, are the points which are not cor-
rectly understood. The instrument requires, therefore, a
motion of attack which
1) is adapted to the momentary effect on the key,

t~.~=eby expending no useless energy on longer downward pres-

sure,
2) exploits all possible degrees of intensity from
the minimum to the maximum artistically permissible.
 SECTION III
THE MISUNDERSTANDING OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PRACTICE,
TilE FOUNDATION OF TECHNIQUE

26. We have acknowledged and established that technique

without practice is unthinkable (8). Until now technique
cculd not be correctly understood in its true meanin~ because
the physiology of motion while practicing remained something
foreign to piano playing theory. Although it is quite a
simple matter to show that the movements of the hands and
fingers in piano playing can not be any different from those
in other pursuits, this apparently obvious idea has been ig-
nored and even turned around into its opposite (38). One
often hears that special, entirely new and individual artis-
tic movements have to be acquired and created for piano plAy-
ing. Werkenthin, in his instruction manual of piano playing
(Berlin 1889, 22 ci~.), says, "The independent movement of,
individual fingers, as demanded in piano playing, is an en-
tirely unaccustomed and in a certain sense unnatural, arti-
ficial one for man. On this account its acquisition causes
the greatest difficulty." Werkenthin is doubtless correct
concerning the difficulties. The typical fundamental error
of Werkenthin, and of many others, is that they regard the
usual, natural, simple attack as false and differentiate it
from the artificial, spiritually vital, psycho-physical--or
39
 40

whatever the other expressions may be--as the only true one.
All authors are in agreement in so far as they insist they are
building on "fundamental laws," and that they are supported by
a "natural and coherently founded system. 11 All this is more
or less clearly put forth in the preface or introduction.
Afterwards, however, they identify technical movements as
"artificial." They picture these rnovements as different from
the natural ones of beginners--movements which must be sup-
pressed. Has no one become aware of this contradiction? New
"artistic movements" are continually being discovered. Hmv-

ever, the movements here are actually the same as elsewhere,

in spite of their special final purpose. Because it is only a
matter of a different final purpose, that which differentiates
the movements in piano technique from others cannot be sought
in the fingers, hands and arms. The difference is to be locat-
ed in the brain, as the organ of the spirit. Practicing is es-
sentially intellectual work, an intellectual learning process.
27. When practice is separated from its spiritual and essen-
tial content, technique is taken out of its organic context.
It descends then to the level of one-sided gymnastics of the
muscles and joints. The end result is a lifeless, one-sided
virtuosity of the most superficial kind. All technique is
normally nothing but a means to a specific end; in art the
end is controlled and determined by the intellect.
28. In brief, practice is an adaptation (or rather a whole
complex of adaptive phenomena of a physical and psychic nature)
 41

for a specific purpose and involves every cell of the body

in varying degrees. Since all movement originates in the
central organ, practice concerns primarily the central organ,
the brain and the spinal marrow. Accordingly, practice is
predominantly a process of the mind, intellectual labor, a
storing up of experience gleaned from the body itself--memory. 1
This memory is of such absolute faithfulness that it gives the
impression of being almost mechanical and seems, to the casual
observer, to have nothing of a spiritual content. A fatal
mistake, for adaptation assumes a procedure planned and pur-
poseful. It does not become less intellectual because we are
not ordinarily consciously aware of it. It seems that the
apparently purely mechanical process--and we call these things
mechanical only in an imaginative or figurative sense--has
given rise to many false notions in the minds of laymen when
the same motions are practiced over and over again. Breit-
haupt's conception is therefore particularly significant.
According to him, the control of the brain, if it descends
to an automatic function like that of the ordinary memory
process, "would be reduced to a minimum participation of the
brain!' (Natuerliche I<laviertechnik, 3rd edition, p. 247).
Apparently brain and consciousness are simply interchangeable
expressions. The pianist reading this is naturally confirmed

lsemi Meyer, Uebung und Gedaechtn~s. Wiesbaden, 1904. Pam-

phlet No. 30 or-the series of aiscussions in the field of the
life of the psyche and nerves.
 42

in the false idea that the activity of the brain in practicing

is ultimately minimal and that everything is a question of
muscle gymnastics. This idea is just exactly the one which
must be combatted.
The practice of bodily motions comprises a whole scale
of adaptations. These begin on the lowest level with bones,
joints, tendons, muscles and so forth--that is, with the me-
chanical part of the motive apparatus. They extend further
to the organs of sense perception--skin, eyes and ears--and
ascend on the ultimate and highest level to the intellectual
center for movement and the senses--to the seat of the will,
the conscious psyche. The kind, degree and extent of adapta-
tion is determined by the nature of the work and its purpose.
It is one thing for rough physical work, another for fine
artistic activity. It enlists the directed mechanical appa-
ratus and the directing psychic organism in varying degrees.
Neither operates alone without the controlling center.
29. Even the simplest procedure involving motion presumes a
many-sided adaptation in advance. Although even the simplest
movement always involves more than a single muscle, we shall,
for reasons of simplicity, first observe the effect of an
isolated muscle on a joint.
The form of the muscles and the joint construction are
already placed by nature in a certain co-ordinated relation-
ship. In addition ~he organic contracting power of the muscle
is adapted from the earliest development of the body to the
 43

inorganic forces of weight, elasticity, function, etc. This

is true for every degree of muscular effort, the maximum as
well as the minimum. Each of the countless mental impulses
which, in the course of the body's growth, has caused a muscle
to contract for a certain specific purpose has contributed in
putting muscles, bones and joints into a certain reciprocal,
interdependent relationship in regard to strength and form.
Our whole organism carries, therefore, the imprint of an
infinitely varied process of adaptation to nature and its
powers, as well as to its own members. A large part of this
adaptation is obviously inborn as inherited property; the rest
is acquired by development. It can be seen how practice and
adaptation comprise our whole life and being.
30. It is, therefore, at the very least inaccurate if (as is
-usual) one begins the observation of technical motion phenomena
with the impulse of the will and disregards the whole sum of
preceding instances of adaptation, whether received by the
organism as a native inheritance or whether acquired through
experience or training. Technique is that which is acquired.
It is the most important part because it has been won through
practice and collected experience, from childhood on. Every
occurrence of movement is supported by experience acquired
long before. The individual impulse of motion would have no
sense if it were not most exactly tailored through countless
earlier experiences to fit the proper angle of the two adjoin-
ing bones, the prope~ velocity and the proper strength. The

'
 44

most essential thing, then, is that which is already present:

the knowledge gained through experience of the mass and size
relationships involved in motion. This knowledge lies like
a guide in the brain, complete but continually becoming more
perfect, ready to be put into action at a moment's notice.
31. Here the first activities of the child--walking and
grasping--afford instructive examples. In acquiring these
most basic of all movements a wealth of experience and intel-
lectual preparatory work is accumulated. From this experience
all later movements--even the most artistic--are created.
In the first months the child tries to grasp completely
without co-ordination. He gropes around in the air and takes
months before he learns to grasp something with the hands.
Gradually he begins to see and grasp simultaneously and learns
still much later to grasp directly with the eye as a guide.
(Ziehen, according to Wundt.) The sum of what is learned in
'the first year of life is enormously great. The great con-
trast between the beginning and end of this first learning
period lies in the inner development of the brain and not in
the muscles. The child already had his fingers at the begin-
ning of this period and would have been able to grasp with
them had the brain only known what grasping was. The seat
of motion is, in the final and true analysis, the brain. This
is illustrated by certain brain diseases and adult injuries,
through which it can happen that the muscles, although they
are not in the leastdiseased, can no longer be put into motion.
 45

It is the same with learning to walk. With the body

correctly supported, walking must be tried, gauged and tried
again step by step. In short, a great deal must be learned
and experienced before a secure, perfect forward motion can
be accomplished. What is, however, still more remarkable is
the fact that this great mass of assembled knowledge and capa-
bility, learned through daily trial and error and whose acqui-
sition has demanded such a long time, practically vanishes from
the memory and consciousness. We are no longer aware of those
early ground-laying attempts. We feel ourselves capable of
grasping, walking and countless other movements involving every
limb correctly and purposefully, without having to pay constant
attention to them. We grasp and walk mechanically like auto-
matic machines. This automatic quality is, however, none the
less intellectual. It has its "seat" in the central organ
and not, as the layman is prone to believe, in the fingers,
muscles, skin or some other place in the purely mechnical part
of our organs of motion. The whole storehouse of experience
and drill lies customarily in the region of the subconscious,
not really in the unconscious, for at any moment we can bring
any individual proceeding of walking and grasping, which has
become mechanical, back out into full consciousness. We can
pursue and inspect every step in its smallest detail. Indeed,
we often do this involuntarily whenever the procedure which
has long become automatic suffers any sort of small inter-
ference--hitti~g an obstacle or missing an object because of
 ....!.- .....~;

its chan~ed
'-' .position.

other, needs r:o .::ct:_ve control, a:1d can be Zelle'::--:..:~ :.:o sin::
do-v,n once more into tl-:.s subcor:sc::..~.:.s.

.. ..
32. The surn tot&l of t:-.. :s is 1) ~ ..... :. :.:_::-.. c c..:....~~_.~. .,: ;, .L.C
,

of accu::;ulated expeTience precedes evc:.:::y 2)

the rnost fluent motion, however rnec~anical it appears to have

. .
b ecorne, i s ana remalns an
c~ o~r intc:lcct,

in
conscim..:.s112Ss.
and under this threshold
and in the mechanical fa::..~~fulness of the process. It :l.s a

piece of inner freedom \Jhose possession <J.j_id use in r::.akLc:g music

to . (J~r. \
we d o no ....
f- ,
\>vlS~'1 encu:.1oer Wl',
en. an unna 'cural~ ::ecn.n::.que
. , . u J.
One may become deceived about the mechanical nature of

long practiced motion due to

and control run back and forth contir.c:.ously betwe2n
center and the extremities, muscles and skin of the
a rapidity which has its well-!mo'im anaiogy in the celegraph
\vire.
takes place in an incomprehensibly small insta~t of tiDe.
The impulse of the will travels so quickly to the :::!Uscle ::hat
the desire to r::ove and the ::nove:::-:::r.c:: to c-~:_:

may account fqr the notion that t~e w~l: ..-,

c~
..............)'..-:--."
~ _.-~ '-~
.....
... .
 '-:-/

in r~nge~ itsel.: .. . ~~ --
;_, ..-..
__ ; "' f-

this not:~on, however. ...... . :...

'
illusio:1. On nc-

' . fc:c . .
o.s.s:..s ~-::. 0 ~,_- ~~-

place. i:1.spircd

only an ---------
j~:r\_~; t:.=-t_:_:~~-2;i_~ ~

..... v./" .-
')') -~. . ~ :' ......
.J.J.
' "

...... - ........ ~ ._ - - .... \.I

.._ ... .;.,.. -~

neous. ~,... ....

;-'--, .._
r.

" . ") .. ' ~ ... p' .

cials. The local officiels :._~...~ L.!.;.G ::... ....<~:_\/:..G.L:.tLi.. c~:..~.:~:\.:-~c

tl:e ce1:'"':.te::s of

..
ora~nar:..
. 1y

except v,:hen there disturbances or other special rensons.

out report3 /"- ....

v .. :.-
::. 'r~~:-::..s ,~

.-
. ...
"'" -:-. .., -~ r, " i,'"
~
-~. --~ -, .""":
~-' ,{.....)
~.,' - - ........ "-<~
 L:.s

.
con t r.nua 11 . - ' aoot:!.::
... y :i.nc:orrnea . . every ~-
<::~:... -ce:.:-2 ..
.::::..c,~-: 0:::-
f->OS:LCl.Ol-"1 of-

the limbs and about eve~ the s2cllcs~ sot~an.

cc:n-

ter, there c:nnol:nCe the conci tion 0 2 r::cvc::ne:;. t ar:.d :-:,:.::.e: po S S i-

ble uninterrupted control and co::::c:::;ct::..c:'l_ cc.n ;;c;: c:..\.:-idec into

the followin3 groups:

1. The senses of the skin, principally the e:: t:::e::nc ly

sensitive fingertips: touch, pressure, place and te~perature

senses.

2. r~

}.. ..:2 sense of tc~sion in ?.. ~-l 1-< '~ ::",~ ":".. ,
1-.o ~- ,_) ~.: \,....,.. '

.,... ~ ~ -~"-> ,.... '

l..-~\....-~ ,~ - ~-....::. '-" '!.1

etc.

as continu.::lly vc:rying t..:-:.._.,;io~'ls.

joints--'tlhich aids in pe:::ceivinz e?c::n the s::tallest angular

displacement of the joint 0 s sur:aces.

4. The sense of muscular the n~:r._2scle

which helps to keep the center :.;:-:.icl.-:-~:ed of the

ness in the muscle fibers.

34. ~
~upper t e d Dy a 1.,L +-'
~~e -'-
repor~s

in musical technique--hearing, the muscle ce~ter is enabled to

regulate the angle between the

direction, force, ro.te of speed~ etc.; that is, to adapt v}ith.

'tvhich strea:n in further,

 / '

"'SS
S U Cc <.:: 0.;:
J...
.,_he .,..en-,,lat'
'- b ~ J... 0'1
..._ 1 ~.,....d
ca. "O'"nt-....,."-.::
c. -~- ,
'-'-l ~ ' -" - - u,

ited in the "subconscious'' \vhere they can 'be b::o-:...:.;_);:: c1..:t .. ::..n
~ --
at some future time to continue the ada?tatio~ -:~ - - - .........
- - v...
-:""~ ~ c -( ........
. ............. ..,..,
"':"" ....
~-

was previously interrupted.

of adaptation.
the training is out of the roughest stages.
As we have bu~ c::11

leap out into full consciot:.snes s at any instant, i.e. , vlh "'':.ever

occurs. For i~stance, should we st::ike a false nc~c, scratch

apparatus again beco:nes i::-:,:1ediately m;.d conscicus3.y active.

The attention is directed tcv;rards the fault. The 1.1hole pro-

cedure is broun-ht
0
out of tl1e subconscious into cl2ar conscious-
ness. It is revised and not pe:.:\;:itted to sink do\m agai11 until
the whole detailed procedure has once again been adapted to
the purpose, the "ideal" {32).
35. Only
.i t ho
~
ao~l
u ......
,'-"'\
0~
__..:::::. ~he
~
rov~~~~~
.... .'. ...:..~.._;._~._ .. .._ ~ the intention or purpose,

is continually con::;c:::.c'-"s to us. \ie expe-r~d useless effort

-v;re tr".l to make vJhet is naturally c.:-: t:.ncor!scious procedure Lito
a conscious one.

all of the skin sensations in co~~acting the keys and tries

consciously to.utilize the~. Soc2 musicians attempt to train

the touch sensation in the fingertips consciously. M. Jaell,

 50

of ~veber' s touch circles) into the fou~c:ati.on oi a '\;>.ole sys-

tern. It reaches its peak in the se~te~ce (p. 18): :he ~usicnl

value of the playing stands in insoluble connection with culti-

vated key consciousness. 11
Tone co:c:::-'j is dc:Dendent upon sc::1.si-
tivity of touch. Can Jaell have confused the feeling of greater
weight on the fingertips--as occurs in the sw~nsi.ng moti.on when
the arm is passively carried by the fingers (rotation en the
finger, 88)--with a more intense touch sensation? In contrast
let it be stated once r.:o:::-e 'ivhat physiology teaches in this con-
nection.
1. ..,...h
1 e t , sense,
oucn wn~cn
' . ' has to do only 'i.vi th sensing
the outer surface of an object, plays a completely subordinate
role in the attack.
2. The sense of ~s the essential skin sense

involved in the attack~ It has nothing to do, hmvever, vlith

the touch sense.
3. The skin Eressure sens:;t:":..c::!s involved in the att.:ack
are and remain constantly unconsc~ous beca~se of their nature
and serve the central organ as control ~echanisns for all ~o-

tion. To desire to make them conscious ~s nonsense.

Frau Jaell provides an outstanding example of how far one
can work himself into a falsely grcuncecl system of tho,oht ~0 '

thereby removing all solid ground from under the feet. Her
whole .system is built up on a sort of nervous over-se~sibility

of the sense of touch in an over 2cute inner

excitement summoned up by muscul.:::::: .::.:;itation. ~,"~.c:: usc.::ess

 51

~.;ork has been e~<per:ccc

' . 0:1 it.
..
GO~Otl2SS
, ...,
qu~CKly
~ . ...,

give up the a~te~pt to pene~ra

.... t e Ja211
- -. ~
s ~
nur~y :.\s

on several other poin~s, Jaell

in regard to ~~e touch se~se.

to cultivate the touch sense.

technical perception. ,.,.,1ec.n~aue

h . ( aet~nc~
' ,... by ~i~ in the oost

varied ways) has to do ':Ji th the fi.ngc:,:ti.p :.1.e:.-ves.

apparatus shoul.d
technical perception to include the
of vleight, etc. l.S '1,",7~
'lo
~
r~~
...,._ ...........

"1 .. , "' 'I '

ty wnat tne
, 't '
re~atLonsn~~ oetween
a nd
1... consc~ous~~cs
..... -..;........, ic
-v:i r~?
c... .......... this
of all for t 1...." -~. n,.,.:;: ,._,-~_,"',..,...
t "-"- _v ........ ~-J..

should exert h~mself in order to ma~e all mot~ons clearly con-

scious or if he may allow his technique to descc~d to an auto-
matic function. Only one way can be correct.
physiological material vJhich Brc:ithaupt requil.c:s i:o be le.::;.:.:ned
contrasts sharply <;vith his ovm sentence "tIh::..ch says that pi.a:c1o
technique is based on simple natural move:nent. If it is r1.:::.tu-
ral movement as in walking and running, then hov7 can it con-
sist simultaneously of the conscious exact minute function-
--------' '
ing of a co~pletely controlled mechanism or in the tireless
practice for fluency and independence of
 52

Increasing the sensitivity of touch perception ~auld ~e

of use only if one wished to acquire more exact infc~~ation

about the surface form of an object, as the blind are forced

to cultivate their sense of touch. all
concerned with the touch sense, the by

all piano theoreticians. The surface c~ the ?ia~~ ~CJ ~s a

matter of complete indifference. Appare~t:y the sense or
pressure is intended; i.e., that capacity of our sk 1;s sense
sys ~em b y means o..:f.: 'tvfl.J..C;,
j- ' h .....
L.Cle ex t en t of Drcssure on ~he skin
is made knmvn to the central organ. I 'llSC: the te::,n, ' 1 central
organ," intentionally, for it is an excel)tio11
stimuli reach the conscious mind.
Fortunately for our ir1.1l.er ease and freedom of mind all
of these perceptions of pressure 't,lhich acco:T!pnny ocr n-:::::>vements
and are necess.:::ry to their gradation a:r:.d regulation occu:: to-
tally below the conscious level. T~e pressure se~se in the
attack is nothing very important. T::.c: r:.uscular positio:1 ~nd

motion senses (33) play a much g:rc:ater role.

possible to evaluate these senses because they are totally
unconscious. In any case, one-sided cultivation oi the skin's
senses 'tvhich proposes to nake the~ consciot:~ fails to .s.ckno-v.Jl-
edge the skin's real and most important activity--th2t is,
what happens unconsciously. This unconscious activity beco:r:es
ever more refined in its work bf control as the motion i:self

tions are as purposeless as they are unn2..turc:l. ::=:::-~ add:.c:::..on,

tions -vJOuld claim one's \.lhole attention and divert it f::o:7l
music into a field co~?!etely foreign to it. As ~s well

at a time.
arrangement mentioned above. It al~ows ~s to d~v~te cur-

selvas with all of our powers to the art object ~~d to cxecu~e

the mechanical-technical functions securely 2nd

the subconscious -v;here they may be left to ther:1sel ves. ~Je

should surrender ourselves without lirJitation to this su?eri-

or characteristic of our oody as r;:uch as He can, \.vithout try-
ing to improve and experinent Oi.1 it. He vdll thus sc.vc;; the

intellect from a useless burden.

36. In section 29 tve took the movement of a sin_:;le muscle
as an example because of its simplicity, even though this does
not correspond to a real situation. In reality only motions
involving several muscle1 occur, because the mechan:cal dis-
position of the joints, the effect of the muscles on the bones
"as on a one or tvlO armed lever" requires it. Eve::-1 the:: sim-

plest movement is a combination. For example, sicp:'..2 oencnng

<; , ..

or stretching of a limb is always executed by a grou? of :-:;us-

cles, working together or synergetically. In addition there
is the simultaneous activity of the opposing forces, the an-
tagonists. It is true that stretching and bending a~e opposed
and operate in tun1, but this opposition, this anta:;cnis:n,
serves also to limit, to gradate the movement, and to rr12.~-ce
it precise.
muscular structure, antagonism and syncrgisc--are inseparably
woven together.
The inner reciproc~l

more clearly if one considers

JO~n
t-
.... This influence cc~:-1. be cl-:.:::ractc:.:_zed c:s S\..:.~_.:.:::1 to the

purpose of the whole nove~ent--cc~Dletinq~

. ~ -,
porting it, but also resist-

One should note that all of the jo~nts S far as ~ .2 upper

part of the a~-r:1 are free to move in space, ti.-u::..t t>.e Hl-:.ol.e ar.:n
? ,_
.
~s d d Lrom
suspente ... h suou
t.e . ld er ana' cnesL
' .,_ JO~nLs
. . "- ( 5 -). ~or

this reason even the smallest r:1.ngcr

~
tr:ove:nen t has an effect
as far as this joint, \lhether one Hant:: it to or r-:o::.
'"~ne
'"" .
reclproca 1 rela
~ t ~ons
. h.~p
. ot- t'ne finser and hand r.1us-

actions. One would have no effect Hithout t!ie other; that is,
if the hand muscles did not hold the 'l.,n:ist firm in exactly
the right way, the pmler of the finger muscles would be lost
through the lack of steadiness. energy would ~ot succeed
in reaching the fingers themselves. The ess2nti~~ criterion

of all these nrocedures is that they are acco:cdin.;. co rule

and completely unconscious.
An example: Stretch out the hand and fingers so th2.t they
are in a strc:.i:J;h!: line Yl:"_::h the forea:cm.
and fingers quicldy 2.l1G' fist
 55

the hand is bent back in relation to the forea~-::1. 'l':1is dis-

cernible relationship vJith the other J"oints apoears
-' of course
in reverse, when the hand is opened. ~,mat is cor.cerned here

is unconscious antagonism and synergism, inde?e~dc~t of the

will and completely ada~) ted to the p'-lrposc. I 1: cs.n be o bsc::-vcd

in varying degrees of strength clar:..ty

movement of attack as well (51).

37. The more complex a motion is, the r:-:ore muscle groups take:
part. The synchronized, co-ordinated arrangement of the whole
motion, the exact fitting of each part of into the
right place at the right time beco~:1es all the rJore important.
A bending or stretching muscle can only bend or stretch.
can do nothing else. The question is, with how much effort
does it participate at a~y chosen instant in the co-ordinated
movement? That is the c:~::~.:;f poL-"t. Tb.is is vJhat is involved

in the delicate psychic work of c:!..s-::_ buti:1g the central im-

pulses and in practicing the whoLe nover.:.ent. Precise co-
ordination and delicate timing of simultaneous and successive
single actions are such obvious psychiq processes that the
meaning of the sentence, "Practice is psychic vmrk in its very
nature, 11 becomes immediately clear in the light of it. ..._._
T+-

might be helpful to observe a coarser co-ordinated ::r.otion,

such as lifting an object from the floor, jumping over an
obstacle, pulling on a boot or something similar and to in-
vestigate it exactly in detail -v:rhile executing it rcpec:;:eclly.
The piano attack is more delicate but no less complicated.
 -,-
)0

An extraordinarily exact and grad2d afte~-, oppos22-, and

sympathetic effect of all kinds of muscles travels c:Q'\,:':?1 ~::c:-:t

the torso and shoulder to the snall finger muscles.

33. It is a physiological lm.;r tha.c

in a co-ordinated movement v.rhich c.::"::.:

~t~h~i~nQg _a_t _a_l_l-_t_o _i_t--_ev__e~

__i_f the~

in a grou2. This se:"1tence can not be er:~phasized c::ou3h.

explains much in -muscular mechanics that is other:;ise incom-

prehensible. The selection of the approp:-iate ::.uscl.es or parts

of rnus cles occurs thoroughly unconscious to us, nol-:2theless

with absolute correctness and reliability. This s2lection

involves a rejection of all muscles u:1.ich ;E.. ::e ccc!trary to the

purpose and which atte-mpt to partici?ate involuntarily at

first. In the beginning there is al\vays excess--tne ceg1n-
, . .

ner's purposeless and extravagant expenditure of energy. That

this excess, as everyone l\.nmv-s :Eroi':1 experience, is reduced to

the correct amount, speaks for a lm.; of conservation of energy

followed conscientiously by our o~ganism. This conserv~tion

The lm.;r reads: _..secure, smooth ana"' oralnar1

., . . l y successUL
- ' save-
---- - ---
ment requires only iust __
~s rnuc~ ~Jscular ener~y as ;...;....:_ -- co~resoonds

in aesthetically satisfying appearance (86). ReguL:.::ly .s.ncl

according to experience all training proceeds fran t~c s&xinum,

f rom t ,ne was ...:...e d ener2:y anG' over-exert1.on
lo..J
. o::- t~"1e
- .Dc::::..nner.
.
.._... ~

the rough to the fine technique. rfhis is \Jell k:'lO'.n::..

 57

Perhaps
.. the best-knmvn part
. o:Z oracticinz
.. is the initi.c;.l
~

elimination of so-called svmoathet5_c ;~1otiCI"lS--that is, those

motions VJhich the members on the right side of the body r:1akc

involuntarily VJith those on the lc~~ a~6 vice versa. Actually

this is only the most obvious, crudest bc::;:...nr"1.rr2; s tc.ge. P:-qsio-
logically much more important and much c.::e

the accompanying motions--that is, the purposeless ~ovemcnts

of beginners mentioned before. Neighboring muscles and parts

of muscles arc drmv-:1. i:-:voluntarily i;:;.to t:w musculc:cr action
.
1nvo 1 ve d 1n
. '. . .
cne pr1nc1.pai~
mo t.1on.
companying motions gradually become smaller and weak2r and
eventually are entirely eliminated. T'ne mo:::e fc..:-:.i::..ia::: a mo-
tion is, the more accompanying motions are avoided. 7his ex-
plains the clumsy, angular and ungainly natu::e of unaccustomed
and unfamiliar motions.
Thus the body achieves its ends completely differently,
in exactly the opposite fashion from the Hay the honorable
music teachers believe to be cor::ect. They insist that r:~ove-

ments "totally new and previously unfamiliar to the body, 11

so-called artistic movements,must be drilled (26). Exactly
the opposite is the case. vfuen a nevl task appears the body
extracts and chooses the suitable motions fran the mass of
long known and familiar ones which the normal body has com-
manded from childhood. The body seeks, so to speak, to forget
and exclude those 'l:vhich are not sui table. This is tl1.e trick.
If we apply this correctly, our slogan vJould be: F:::eedom to
 58

the limbs, let go, do not hold back o~ fix for the

body left to itself finds its ovm r.?lay and 'l.vith such c-.:.bsolutc

security that it never lets itself wander or be div2rted from

its goal even through distortion and violence. \,k~ a:..-e 1:10t

speaking, of course, of unbridled license. This shoulcl not

be feared. The limitations of mechanical laws guard asainst

that. I hope to be spared this misunderstanding. I would

like, hmvever, to point out here hmv quickly certain people

are al-vmys ready with the rejoinder, "unbridled license."

This happens even when it does not enter into the question,

\vhen it is merely a matter of the body following its m:-r.n. laws.

Such people are sNayed by the fear that their o'i.vn "arb1..trary

limitations, 112 vJhich they have foolishly drmm up c.na' pro-

pounded as higher laws, vlill be punctured.

39. If practice really is essentially an intellectual process,

this should manifest itself in practical experience. Every

musician knmvs by personal observation how much more quickly

he masters a piece of music technically when he has heard the

piece previously than \vhen it is fully ne\v. One cc:n, so to

speak, practice mentally--"prepare the ground. 11 The pertinent

studies of 0. Raif are unfortunately too little knO\'ln in music

circles. In its critical objectivity, 0. Raif's s~all but
')
weighty work, "Ueber Fingerfertigkeit beim :<lavierspiel, 11 '-"'

2steinhausen makes a pun here between the vmrds sd-,::.:-c::;.~<:enlose

hlillkuer (unbridled license) c>...nd willku2rliche Sc!.~-:?2:1ken - - -
(arbitrary limitations). -----

3In Stumpf's essays in Akoustik und t1usikHis~:::nscL<c::r:) Vol. ::r,

p. 65.
 59

excels so many analagous scientific works by professional

musicians. The fundamental idea lies in Dointing to t~c fact
that the origin of finger dexterity is to be found 11ot in
fingers but in the central organ. This fact is certainly not
neT.v, but it is almost wholly unreco~nizcd by the rr:c::nbers of
his profession. Through experin:2nt, 1\:::L f '~2S

number of psychic influences on technique. Bec.::use: of their

interest a perusal of the book is recon:racnded. E~:.i. :Z e:npha-
sizes the facts only. The present Hork hopes to pl..-cvide the
explanation.
For example, Raif had students practice for a :ens ti~e

with only one hand. It happened that the other h21d, althouzh
not trained, had achieved almost the s&:ne; incre2.Ssd flexibility
as the hand \vhich had practiced. The phencr.1enon that one can
accomplish something later that he could not do earlier, with-
out practicing in the meantime, is, it is true, an ordinary
experience, but it is especially applicable to the inner
maturing process, to the quiet progress in mastering technical
difficulties on a musical instJ..'"U:-Jent.
A phrase in psycho-physiology gives a general formulation
for it: The energy of movement is deteJ..tnined by the intensity
of the conception which unleashes it. The imagin:::d concept
is revealed, as far as possible, in this movement. With an
artist, the intensity of his artistic ideal, of the vital
inner concept of the art object, is transformed into c.:::-ti.E:t::..c
activity. with a musician this r.::eans transfo::-m:d ir:to ti:..::.:
 60

technical movements -v;hich he is continu~lly adaptir~g to an

absolute form (34).
40. Because the most obvious ~~d l~sti~3 e~fcct o~ )=acticc

has always been thought to be the esc-:;ential thing i:1 ')!",':":C-

tieing, although it is really only secondary. This error is

still quite generally widespread among ffiusicians. Certainly
the close connection in the muscles betHeen -v;o:::!( output,
burning of energy and nourishment is most obvio~sly pronounced.
A muscle, as a power machine, gains visibly in power and size
through labor. It cannot adapt itself to increased demands
in any other way than through increased size. ~ie adaptation
of bones and joints comes to light in the increase: in length,
size and firnmess, principally 'tvi th still-grmving organisms.
,
On the other hand we knm,l next to nothing of physical cnanges
in the brain as a consequence of practice and just as little
about such changes in the nerve fibres which, ho\vever, only
play the part of conducting cables. ~'Je knoH only from personal
experience that a lasting spacial disposition (r.-iundt) remains
in the mind after each repetition of motion 'tlhich makes every
ne'tv repetition easier. For the vlhole co'Utprehensive psychic
process of practice, however, this change in the brain, tJhich
can only be very slight in any case, is more sienificant than
the greates~ increase in muscular size. For a beginner on
the piano no amount of prev:':.ous muscular training vJill be of
 61

use to him, ho-v;rever zealously he may have pursued it. He must

first learn to ':.vork. mentally. He may have stronger muscles
and more supple joints than a good, experienced pianist. ~fuat

he lacks, however, is the network of brain channels, the psychic

property of technique, the sum of psycho-physicc:l experiences
and intellectually won automatic responses stored up irl the
brain.
41. For this reason it must be stressed that all of these
adaptations are directed specifically towards the motion to
be trained. Therefore one cannot ma:.<e the motive a~:x:u:atus

more fit for piano playing by means of other vlork, least of

..
all by rough Hork such as wood choryuing. '-'
The same 2;02S for
any kind of work, even for fine vmrl< in so fc.r as it is rough-
er than piano playing and thus b~~nss about 2 stroncer mechan-
ical influence on the motive apparatus and its material co~-

position. To formulate a general statement: one cannot prac-

tice movement A by movement B. ...,, . l
LnJ..s og~ca
. l conclusion must

be fearlessly recognized, however strange it may appear to

some, if mistakes are to be avoided.
It is an entirely different matter v~4en gymnastics are
practiced for reasons of health. The efforts are made con-
sciously one-sided in order to bring weak or crippled muscles
back to normal or increased capacity. This can be done through
mechanical resistance capable of being regulated and through
mechanical or localized electrical stimuli.
 62

Tumbling and all kinds of sport (45) belons to hygienic

muscular work. If the artist v1ishes to avoid fatigue or ev;:;n
exhaustion, he cannot dispense with such bodily exercise any
more than can other men. \-Jhere his limit is, just v1hat rou~h

muscular work may be pursued without danger or injury to his

fine manual technique, each individual must find out for him-
self. No general rule can be stated for this.
42. In tvhat follm7S we shall be speaking frequently of active
and passive movement. He need some explanation of these terms.
Activity is a condition of motion, passivity a co~dition of
relaxation or rest in the muscles. Active movements are gen-
erated (exclusively) by momentary or continuous musc~lar con-
traction ( 68). Passive motions, on the other ha.."1d, are gen-
erated by any of the other forces--i.e., by tveight and el.s.s-
ticity as well as by any sort of exterior pmYer or by the
muscular force of someone else. \lith this in mind doctors

practice passive movements with their patients. In this way

the patient learns, with considerable effort, to exclude all
active participation and to relax his limbs. The difficulty
is that the feeling of passivity, of relaxation, is unfamiliar
and unaccustomed for most people and has to be first acquired
and practiced. This is because the tendency toward active
and conscious intervention persists and is difficult to un-
learn. We are concerned here, in fact, with a process of un-
learning (38). Attention plays a large part in this, too. If
 63

the attention is diverted, a passive cor.dit:on or a condition

of rest occurs in the muscles of its o~~ acco~d. Difficulties
arise, then, 'tvhen the attention has to be directed tmJc:r-:is
practicing, as is inevitable at first 't:rhen technical :notions
are worked out. The process of un-1 :a.rning this alertness,
which interferes and controls unnecessarily, is 1 in reality,
an intellectual procedure. The greatest possible relaxation
to the point of passivity plays a ve~7 significant role in
piano technique (77).
 SZCTION IV

THE ER..q,QNEOUS APPLICATION OF G'.i.'X0!AST!CS OF ~iUSCLSS

AND JOINTS IN PIANO TS(JiEHQU2

43. As mentioned several times before, a cu~iously t&isc

basic view of the nature of practice as

muscles and joints has developed in the course of time. A
number of typical errors in piano technique find tl:.:c:ir ex-
planatio:-1 in this vier.v. All of the: errors ~vhich have so
arisen are closely related, although they seem to pursue very
different aims. ~..'hat they have in common is that all are:
limited to the mere physical \vorking of the org:.:ns ~ to the
mechanical motive apparatus (28), and they all wore or less
ignore the higher psychic elements.
The errors are expressed in the following list of aims:
1. to make the motive apparatus muscular,
2. to make it flexible,
3. to isolate the individual parts and make them inde-
pendent,
4. to equalize the differences in the five fingers.
44. The origin of gymnastic finger exercise--i.e., a n1ethod-
ical attempt to strengthen finger muscles--can be traced back
to the resuscitation of gymnastic bodily exercise at the end
of the eighteenth and the beginning of the ninetee:::th eel:.-
turies. It can be understood hmv the mechanical st::-'-".Ct:L::::-e

64
 65

of the piano fostered such efforts. According to H. Riemann,

the five-finger exercises of A. E. :vfueller (in their seventh
edition as early as 1818) are probably the oldest gymnastic
primer for the piano. Later, under the influence of Swedish
ort.opae . . . ' , f_lnger
' . tr-aining
h d ~c gymnast~cs, one-s~aea exe~cLse <ll1C1

became the universal panacea for musicians and dilettantes.

Germer, for example. (.Q.E. cit., p. 10), recommends vlhat co::1

only be termed violent stretching of the metacarpal joints--

of course, only to accommodate high lifting of fingers before
the attack. At the same time he himself warns of excess.
wbere and how the limits are found, hmvever, is not said.
Naturally, the poor, misguided beginner proceeds to \JOrk, at
the expense of health. According to Bi.e (on. cit., p. 166 ff.),
Czerny discovered the "great secret"--that no explanation of
fingering is of any practical assistance, hm1ever learned and
systematic, but that finger training must be based on purely
mechanical g~~astics. The statements of Bie (p. 275) are
also typical. In logical (?) extension of Czerny 1 s teaching,
the hands are to be prepared for piano playing by finger drills
and by stretching the joints, thus completing a larze part of
the gymnastic training before actual musical activity be3ins.
It would seem that Jackson 1 in the 1860's reached the high-
point of mechanical training divorced from music in his fi~3er

and wrist gymnastics. His brochure,which makes an unple.::.sant

1 Jackson, Die Finger und Handgyrr~astik.

effect by its ostentatious self-advertise~c=nt, recm:1mends the;
crudest forms of gymnastics. It would not deserve to be ncm-
tioned at all if it had not bec=n so Harr::ly reco~::::.-~e:nded for
general use by the most prominent rf:usical al!thori.ties of the
day. How much serious and permanent ::..njury r.:a:;' have been caused
by gymnastics of this kind--without even considc::i:r:3 tl:e cla:n2~3e

suffered by art! Unfortunately this nonsense still flourishes

today (57).
45. The development of strong, bulky muscles is the proper
aim of gymnastics, in sports of all kinds as vlell as in thera-
peutic gymnastics. In both instances the object of practicing
'tvith perserverance has less to do with refinement, gradation
and co-ordination of movements than with increase of so-called
brute strength. Gymnastics can strengthen muscles, said E.
du Bois-Reymond in his famous speech, but cannot make co-
ordinated motions natural. Musicians never cite this important
sentence, although they do cite much of lesser importance from
the same speech.
If strong muscles were necessary for instrumental playin3,
it would follow that the best player would be the one who pos-
sessed athletic arms and hands. On the contrary, o~e often
observes that even players with weak muscles produce powerful
tone. Is it not true that child prodigies often amaze by the
fullness of tone? One starts at exactly the wcong end if he
begins piano study with muscle training. Furthermore) this
 67

training has always been initiated with the training of those

muscles which, in their mechanical proficiency, are most lim-
ited and most specialized--the bending and stretching muscles
in the fingers, which can never do anything other than bend
or stretch. Ceaseless finger exercise is the slo~an. One
runs up against it ever~vhere.

gymnastics whose application is supposed to save a great deal

of time and even to refresh the body. ~.Ji th Hennig 2 the fun-
dar!lental conception is the "independence of fingers. 11 'L:e
same applies to Ehrlich. 3 The highest possible stroke is nee-
essary for a good attack. The Tausig-2hrlich "Daily Studies"
are recommended as a complete course of 11
piano gy::n:::'l.astics. 11
Jaell's precepts result in the same torturous finger exercise.
Observe the aggravatingly deformed position of the hands (fig.
28-40, p. 20 ff.). Caland has edited Deppe 1 s prized finger
exercises, thus numbering herself among the representatives
of isolated finger gymnastics, in contrast to her purported
goal of freedom. On pp. 16 and 17 (oo. cit.) she gives pre-
.t=
cise instruction for the active, individual exercise of .... :tn-

gers. vfuen she demands that the path from the brain should
be thoroughly studied--as if that were possible--vJhere is the
difference between her and the other finger technicians? :iovl

one can unite the conceptions of "free fall 11 and 1'playing with

2H enn~g.
. EinfuehrUng in den Beruf des Xlavierlchrers. Leipzig,
1903.
3Ehrlich. Wie uebt man Klavier? Berlin, 1897, p. 22
 68

wei0-ht 11 with fino-er exercises still remains unoxpL::incc.

Q 0 ~
One
asks in vain why Breithaupt, who 'tvas completely on the ri6ht
track towards freedom from finger gymnastics, describes the
most complicated finger motions (p. 27q), divided into five
temporal phases with fingers skippin,s nnd sJ?rinz;i:::-.s L~!ce little
. t aJ.n
h ammers. I maJ.n . th at J.t
. J.s
. J.mpossJ.o_e
. . . 1 r.or
,.. . . l t
a pl.&n::Ls:: o
derive any benefit from reading Breithaupt's studies. It is
impossible for him to know what he actually should do and what
he should avoid.
This is certainly sufficient proof to convince possible
doubters that the purely mechanical side of practice has been
the only one stressed. The attempt has been made to fix, and
thereby to exclude and to make ineffective, just those muscles
which in their unlimited power lend the hand great freedom
of motion in space. These muscles are those of the shoulder
and upper arm (51).
46. Connected with the over-estimation of muscle training
is an error which regularly introduces itself when musicians
occupy themselves with physiological questions. Tney are happy
if they can impress their comrades with detailed enumeration
of all muscles, even using Latin, anatomical nomenclature.
The individually named muscles are anatomical, but not physio-
logical units. 4 They resemble, in form, unified and limited
masses, it is true, but their function is not dependent on

4 R. du Bo~s-R1 eymond ( it
QE __, p. 245)
 69

this arrangement. As needed, a larger bundle of fibers is

selected from this muscle, a smaller from the other. This
is especially true of the shoulder and upper-arm muscles, and
less so the nearer we come to the fingers. Science has already
distinguished between form and function. Useless cnum2r.:-:::ion
of muscles in this way can be found in Stoe-:::c:, Cl::.::-k., C:::.lancl,
von der Hoya and others, as well as in Jael: 1 s illustrations.
There are still many gaps in the knowledge of muscular partici-
pation in a specific motion, 'b...1t vle have fortunc:tely cor:12 mvay
from the fixed-pattern approach, outmoded in many respects,
'tvhich sterns from Duchenne. 5 In a 'tmy v-Ihich for its tim::: \vas
exemplary and astonishingly accurate, Duchenne described the
effect of each individual muscle as an anatomical unit on the
basis of localized electrical stimulation. The error in the
method lies in the arbitrary excitation by the investigator,
whereas, in an actual movement, the organism makes a far dif-
ferent and much more comprehensive use of the musculature.
It is mandatory that this convenient fixed-pattern approach,
confusing in its consequences, be discarded; as yet it has
r:.
not been superseded, even in scientific circles. Caland 0
turns the principles of practice upside down, to the benefit
of her idea of inner muscular tension. ~~ereas common motions
become ever more unconscious, more automatic, she maintains

5 Duchenne
de B<;mlogne. Die P~iolog~ dE;_t: BeHegungen. German
trans. by Wern~cke. Kassei and-Leipz~g, 1885.
6Caland. "Klavierlehrer," 1904, p. 272.
 70

that it 11
is our duty to establish 'tvhich muscles we ought to
learn to use consciously, in order that the oti1cr muscles,
which work together with these natu::.ally, prodacc the intended
motion."
I maintain this to be a diiettD.ntish misconcept::..on which
would not have arisen at all with mature consideration, for
the anatomical designation of muscle groups often has very
little to do v;rith the kno-v;rledge of their function. This
designation is largely antiquated, wron~ and confusing. ~2

do not even know which muscle groups participate in a motion,

and, if vle did, we would never learn to execute a motion better
or more securely on that account. Fortunately, consciousness
of these procedures is vlithheld from us, ancl therefore we are
relieved of the responsibility of always applying the right
muscles. The body thus maintai-ns its straight-forward freedom
and naivete, and the teacher, as well as the student, is spared
the burden of remembering useless rubbish.
47. The attempt to make hand and fingers "more supple" can
be cited as a further error. Suppleness is neither a techni-
cally correct nor a clear and unequivocal concept. By it one
can just as 'tvell mean an unusual expansion or range of move-
ment in the joint as a certain increase of speed in a sequence
of movements. Both aims are pursued.
In order to enlarge the compass of the joints, one makes
the attempt to expand, to over-stretch and to bend t~-"em
 71

of shape. The great Jackson values a notched stick, a stretch-

ing board, for passive spreading of the fingers and attempts
to extend the metacarpal joint forcibly by means of cylinders
of varying diameters. Many still pursue this end in the same
or similar way. The so..;called "rubber r..en, 11
~:hose nc-,turc:.lly
inhibiting joint surfaces have been completely c:~ ';a:cd cy
premature expansion during childhood, are those who are supple
in the real sense of the word. It is, hm~7ever, just in these
inhibiting surfaces, in the limitations on the moveilicnt of
the joint, that the great perfection of the joint's activity
lies. It is well known what a disadvantage for violinists and
pianists overly flexible fingers can be, and Hhat a loss of
power they can cause. Such fingers are improperly considered
good "piano fingers" because of the "loose'' joints. This sort
of flexibility, which almost approaches a kind of 11
jointless-
ness," cannot possibly be a technically desirable goal. In
actual fact technique demands something quite different. It
focuses attention not on the joints themselves, but rather
on the muscles, because they either make the joint firm or
relax it.
It is a false conception that joints must first be made
"flexible" by use of a greater or lesser degree of force.
Every healthy joint is freely movable and loose and has its
natural compass. Certainly there are innumerable individual
differences. Also some hands have a more favorable const~~ction
 72

and form than others; it is chiefly a question of the very

important span or "spread." Unfortunately, the tc;::-:?tation
to give an unfavorably built hand a greater exoansive breadth
by passive stretching and over-extension of fingers is very
great. All such efforts must be discarded, however, for they
only lead to injury and stiffening of che joints. ~1echanical

exercises are only permissible in so far as they are limited

to the expansive power in the muscles of hands and fingers
themselves, without exterior force. The fundamental rule that
with normal hands technique can be improved exclusively by
natural, normal practice on the instrument itself--only this
fundamental rule has a physiological and psychological basis
(57).

48. Obviously a confusion of the function of muscles with

that of joints lies at the bottom of the popular term '' flexi-
bility." There is a failure to realize that it is the muscles
which fix and brace the joint or release it, relaxed and free,
to its own weight or to other forces. For example~ "C:Jhcn I
hold my hand stiff during piano attack by contracti~g the mus-
cles placed around the wrist, no change has occurred thereby
in the joint itself. The bones are only fixed in & certain
position. Thus it is not correct to speak of playing with
a "flexible" hand or a stiff wrist. However, one hears the
like thoughtlessly uttered every day. On the other hand, if
I wish to relax the wrist while playing, ~~t do not succeed
 73

in doing so immediately, I have used wrong muscular action,

contrary to my purpose. Stretching and bending of the poor
wrist is of no use. The error resides in the brain. It is
there that the cooperation of the many participatins muscles
is not yet familiar enough. An example: if I ball my hund
into a fist, the wrist is involuntarily made rigid. Bending
is clearly limited in comparison to the bending capacity 'tvhcn
the fingers are outstretched. For example, I would intention-
ally hold the wrist completely rigid if I -vmnted to execute
a powerful bloT.v with my fist. As pointed out before (36),
it is just this relationship between hand and finger muscles
which demonstrates so clearly hmv different muscular sroups
support each other for a co~~on task, group themselves tosether
and adapt momentarily to any purpose. The flexo::::- and extensor
muscles in the fingers, coming from the underarm and distributed
over all the joints in the hands, would not be able to accom-
plish any task with certainty if the shorter hand muscles sur-
rounding the wrist and affecting it did not lend this joint
the necessary stability or resistance. The continually demand-
ed "looseness" of the wrist is simply not compatible with this.
Looseness can be expected only in a condition of relaxation
but never in the moment of attack (83). The degree of resis-
tance which may be temporarily unnecessary and which is always
changing, must be learned in the most finely shaded gradations.
The technical difficulty is thus in giving in and letting go
 74

at the right point. The beginner is prone to stiffen all joints

by unnecessary muscular effort. Doing away vlith excessiv-2
muscular action is what the process of "making the joint flex-
ible" really is. This is, however, a purely psychic procedure.
Compare this to what has been said above in regard to the elimi-
nation of accompanying motions (38).
49. Suppleness is not used merely in the sense of spatially
extensive flexibility, but also in the sense of temporally
rapid flexibility. To be supple is to be able to repeat the
same motion in especially rapid succession and to be able to
perform different motions which follow one another rapidly.
Naturally, the increase in this sort of suppleness as well
was always sought through practice--however, without success
and only with delusion about its possibility.
Probably 0. Raif was the first to demonstrate that rapidity
of a succession of movements cannot be increased, no matter
how many times it is repeated. In actual fact, we have no
physiological basis for assuming that movements ought to fol-
low each other more rapidly through repetition. According
to S. Meyer, the only possible explanation for the increase
in speed through practice is the time saved by avoidance of
wasted effort caused at first by sympathetic motions contrary
to the purpose. Anything which can be achieved in the T..vay
of increased speed is achieved by lessening the initial wasted
effort caused by disturbing accompanying motions which interfere
 75

at some point with the purpose (38). Through Dractice ~

greater speed can be achieved beyon<! !!. ..E_ecific, innate

degree, which varies significantly wi~l} the indiyidual. .{aif' s
observation that educated persons have, in gener.:J.l, more dex-
terity than those of lower station is interesting. Ho-v;ever,
pianists are not in any way more dexterous than non-?~2nists.

Among the latter several were easily able to produce seven

attacks per second with the same finger, while a good nu~ber

of fine pianists were only able to produce five. The absolute

maximum is twelve separate motions per second. This limit
corresponds tot~ limit beyond which the ear is no longer
able to distinguish individual tones clearly. \Je possess,
however, even leaving out rotation, sufficient finger speed
to meet all artistic demands. A hand whose individual fingers
are only able to produce four attacks per second already has
at its command more motions than the tones we can distinguish

in the same time span (5 x 4 equals 20). Jaell's investiga-

tions with the d' Arsonval chronometer agree with Raif's con-
clusions in the most important point: experienced pianists
are in no way able to execute more rapid motions than inex-
perienced ones--rather, the reverse can happen. From this,
however, Jaell fails to draw the right physiological conclu-
sions. She attempts, rather, to increase the rapidity of at-
tack of each individual finger on its own by special methods,
chiefly with the help of increased muscular tension. On p. 2
 76

the following is said verbatim, "The inability to execute the

motion of attack quickly and energetically is the conseouence~

of complete muscular slackness." This lack of tension is said

to be remedied only if each moving organ has a non-movin3 one
as a point of support. Consequently muscular tension is to
be required from the fingers to the back. Thus exactly the
opposite of natural passivity, of mechanically necessary re-
laxation--evarywhere intentional, active interference and there-
fore a barrier to any free exploitation of weight and inertia,
the true fundamental factors of all movement. One can see,
in a new orm, the old antithesis between natural movement
and arbitrarily conceived and laboriously trained "artistic
movement."
50. Unfortunately, holding the upper ~ stiff and, in some
forms of attack, also the low~ arm and han2, is even today
a rather generally widespread error, in spite of the fact that
a more reasonable vie~ has occasionally gained ground. Appar-
ently, this error can be traced back to a whole chain of er-
roneous conceptions which have to be tested one after the
other.
First of all, the starting point has always been the idea
(which, with a certain superficiality of observation, would
be quite easy to conceive) that the fingers, on the one hand,
could be thoroughly trained only if they were individually
drilled, isolated from each other and made independent. On
 77

the other hand, the fingers could not b8 drilled at all unless
they were further isolated and made independent from the up-
per members, hand and arm; thus one could eliminate the hiE.;;hly
disadvantageous influence of the latter. Consequently the
point was reached where: 1) each finger ~vas practiced :..ndi-
vidually; and 2) all the upper parts of the arm T~lere fixed.
What was already said above (45) is conclusive in point-
ing out the worthless character of individual finger exercise.
The final consequence of conceiving all technique as gym-
mastics is that just those muscles are sought out for in-
cessant drill that can only execute the motions of bending
or stretching the fingers.
However, we have already seen that the expectation of
achieving greater rapidity in a succession of motions by the
same finger must come to naught (49).
~~at remains as the achievement of these efforts is the
increase in thickness and strength of the flexor and extensor
muscles. Certain~y, the pianist's forearm becomes more muscu-
lar, but this should not lead him to believe that this rela-
tively slight increase, distributed over each of the approxi-
mately two dozen forearm muscles, has brought him to his high
level of technical skill. Entirely different influences are
responsible.for that.
It seems to be generally accepted--in view of the reign-

ing confusion nothing can be maintained with certainty in these

 78

questions--that unpracticed fingers disturb and obstruct each

other, whereas isolated drill of individual fingers makes them
independent of each other. This is actually not true, because,
with the exception of the fourth finger, each has its owa sep-
arate tendon. In addition, each finger has an isolated nerve
system for the flexors and extensors up to the brain center.
Thus anatomical isolation of each finger extends up to the
highest initial stage of the motive mechanism. vT.'Iat alone
can be achieved by practice and what at the same time fostered
the illusion of making the fingers independent is the learning
of the temporal succession of finger motions, 'tvhich must be
precisely adapted to each musical figure in speed and rhythm.
This learning is intellectual and has nothing to do with the
degree of finger muscle development. The fact that frequent
use of muscles eventually affects them, makes them larger and
better nourished, is secondary for technique and has a profit-
able effect only f9r the economy of the body.
We will examine the worth of individual finger exercise
critically once again in the matter of equalization (56).
51. In order to make the fingers independent of the hand and
arm, and thus to submit them intensively and without inter-
ference to isolated exercise, it was believed that the whole
arm, including the hand up to the metacarpal joint, the knuckles,
must be fixed. Thus all the well-known, infuriating fixations
from hand to back were adopted--for example, the fixation of
 79

the upper arm by means of a book held fast betHeen it and the
ribs, etc. In musical circles still worse procedures were
talked about--tethering of the upper arm and even of the hand.
The "loose" wrist, unavoidable in some forms of attack, v7as
the first interruption in the system of fixation, already a
big step forward. In so far as one is ready to grant f::ecdom
to the forearm, he is decidedly progressing. 1--Io\vever, there
is still much to be done in the step-by-step battle to free
the body from all sorts of fixations--again, higher up to the
shoulder muscles, etc. Truth and falsehood are often fo'..lnd
directly side by side. Plaidy 7 says the elbow must stand free
of the body, and then demands exercises with a stationary ru1d
confined hand. In staccato exercises with hand motion, so
rules H. Riemann, 8 the arm should not participate at all in
the beginning, but may take part in the motion later. As if
this could be so simply decreed and settled without paying
any attention to mechanical laws! Even Calandg demands that
the elbow should be held as close to the body as possible in
the "free controlled fall." .How gravity can then be of any
effect in the "fall" is inexplicable. It is this sa::~e con-
fusion which pervades her whole fixation system. Caland ar-
rived finally at fixation up to the shoulder. With its active

7Plaidy, Der ~laY-ierlehrer. Leipzig, 1874.

82. it., p. 10.
9. cit., p. 25.
 80

lowering of the shoulder, this fixation produces, seen from

a physiological standpoint, nothing but a rather intense feel-
ing of tension in the muscles which pull the shoulder blades
down. This tension deceives one into feeling a lesscni~g of
the subjective weight of arm and hand. Actually, in lo'\Jc:rin[;
the arm toward the key with this tension, the power of the
arm cannot be objectively altered. Tension through arbitrary
lowering or fixing of the shoulder can accomplish absolutely
nothing mechanically for the motion of attack; at best, it
only interferes with and works against it. How "free fall 1'
is supposed to be reconciled to this tension and lowc::ring of
the arm on to the key, obviously a slow and very activ2, in-
hibited motion, remains a puzzle. Carrying the arm is a high~

ly active motion, in which the actual transfer of muscular

power from the shoulder onto the key becomes possible only
when carrying ceases. In any case, shoulder fixation and ex-
treme pronation are closely connected. Because it is so un-
natural, it is understandable why the typical Deppe pronated
position is so tiring. How useless this stiffness and waste
of strength is: to bring the forearm into a pronated position
with the express intention of causing the most extreme fixa-
tion, juxtaposing elbow and radius. It is already enough of
a disadvantage that considerable pronation is necessary because
of the horizontal position of the keyboard. But why fixation
in this position? A high artistic principle is supposed to
 81

be at the bottom of this continual return of the hand to the

Deppe position. If that were correct, then the nature of our
organism and art must be antipodes.
What Jaell calls "static activity" indicates about the
same thing as Caland's "inner fixation." The lowering of the
hand, says Jaell, should occur as if the hand were held back
by a counterweight above. The counterweight is supposed to
remove a certain part of the weight from the hand. Compare
this W -ith
Caland. 10 Th e wh o 1 e arm, as if ~n
a s~ng
1 c p~ece,

is firmly tensed to the fingertips. The power of the back
is used for the attack--in the end, both writers come close
together in writing about the action of the back muscles.
Jaell also describes lowering the shoulder and bringing the
shoulder blades nearer to the middle of the back--in a footnote
Caland warns expressly against the idea that stiff immobility
is meant by controlled tension. Then she ought not to cite
as signs of tension "as in a single piece," "steady, unchang-
ing muscle," "jointless lever," and so forth. She ought to
say in addition when relaxation has to occur, when i~ is r~ally

necessa~. That the condition should always be capable of a

momentary, "elastic" relaxation proves that a lasting condition
is meant, whereas in reality it is completely the opposite--
a matter of momentary tension and continuous relaxation. t,Jhat
Caland perhaps sees distantly is the swinging motion, for in

lOcaland. Technische Ratschl~eg~, pp. 7 and 10.

 82

this her ideas would be much more appropriate.

It seems to me that the whole attempt to fix the limbs
can be traced back chiefly to the fact that no one has ob-
served or even seen the manifold, fine arm movements with
his eyes open and without prejudice. Certainly no anatomical
knowledge of joint construction is necessary to observe joint
flexibility--for example, at the elbow, that the forearm can
bend and extend in only one direction (plane) in relation to
the upper arm, disregarding rotation. Another example: are
lateral motions of the hand over a distance of five or six
keys possible without turning the upper arm on its longitudi-
nal axis, that is, without participation of the shoulder joint?
Has no one noticed how clearly the forearm shar~ in the motion
when even one finger is alternately bent and extended, indeed
that it is physically impossible to hold the forearm really
still? There are countless similar examples.
Any energy expended on preventing this mechanical neces-
sity is, at the least, useless and such expenditure is hardly
ever negligible. It is an unfortunate cause-and-effect rela-
tionship, lying in the nature of things, that each bending
or extension of a finger produces a certain fixation which
extends not merely to the next higher joint, but still higher
up, counteracting the free movement of the whole arm mass.
Fixation is necessarily increased when the work of the finger
is limited to a narrowly restricted area, for example, to one
 83

key. The result is a vicious circle.

Any player who has seriously tried to carry through ex-
treme fixation of any limb whatever comes to the same conclu-
sion. At first he is driven to ever greater expenditure of
energy through the mechanical impossibility of fixation and
finally, when a certain degree of muscular tension is reached,
he is able to do nothing. It is impossible to hold perfectly
still. The whole arm goes along, even when one exerts himself
to the utmost to fix some part of it. Merely leaning back in
a chair inhibits free mobility. Attempts at fixation become
the more useless and objectionable the closer they are to the
free end of the extremities and the greater the force that is
applied.
For the pianist, the first firm point is afforded in the
support of the pelvis by the seat. From the fingertips to
this point every joint is flexible. Our organism has a com-
plete and unsurpassable arrangement, obeying of its own accord
the mechnical conditions in the whole joint construction. It
adapts itself so exactly to every kind of motion that we can
improve nothing, only make things worse by artificial aids.
The best and most purposeful arrangement of our body consists
in this: that it allows fixation to occur only as far as it
is necessary and just at the place where it is necessary to
realize the purpose of the specific motion as completely as
possible. If natural movement is so understood--and all truly
 84

artistic motion is natural movement--then it is obvious that

all motions which willfully oppose the body in any way are
all Q intentional and are not true artistic motions at all;
they are, instead, artificial and unnatural. The Jaell-Caland
back-arm fixation can be included among them. Its worth is
seen thus in the right light. Truly artistic technical motions
are native, intuitive and "unintentional." The expression
"artistic motion" is misleading and should not be used at all.
52. It is an old established law of mechanics that all limbs
up to the remote point of support take part in even the small-
est motion. Even a simple geometrical observation, as I em-
ployed for the bowing of string instruments,ll proves the nec-
essary participation of all limbs, in so far as they are movable.
The same holds true, of course, for the motion of attack. Every
member, from the nail joint on, is suspended at a point movable
in space, and the whole upper extremity hangs, as it were, in
the shoulder-chest joint. From this point down all bones are
surrounded only by yielding parts; none are fixed. Here every-
thing is movable; the slightest spatial displacement immediately
changes the center of gravity and the distribution of mass in
the entire system. All the parts must follow along in this
displacement. Each finger attack produces a ricocheting action
in the upper joints, first of all in the wrist. It is the more

11 Die Physiologie der Bogenfuehrung auf den Streichinstrumenten.

Leipzig, 1907, Breitkopf und Haertel-,---znd edition. -
 85

easily seen and felt the shorter and more powerful the finser
motion.
There should be no objection that this is construed on
a purely theoretical basis, that the participation of the
upper limbs is so slight as to be practically meaningless.
Here it really so slight, then flexibility ought at least -;:-;ot
be affected, and the body would not be hindered in the free-
dom and delicacy of its natural arrangement by intentional
opposition. Moreover, these motions are in no way negligible.
One needs only once to learn to see them and be filled \vith
wonder that he ever overlooked them before. One can actually
feel these motions in himself up to the point described on
the collar bone. The displacement of the collar bone can be
felt through the skin with every strong finger stroke, even
more, of course, with every wrist motion. One should not be
surprised that we are consistent in emphasizing even the
smallest finger motion. It is not a question of the absolute
extent of participation in the nearest joints but rather that
such participation is invariably present. wbether small or
great is in itself a matter of indifference. It is the im-
mutability of natural law that must be respected.
53. This participation is not a mere mechanical necessity
caused by shifting of the center of gravity and a ricocheting
action. From it our organism achieves the highest purposeful-
ness in that it allows the muscles of the shoulder ~~d of the
 86

vJhole arm to assist in a precisely adapted way \lith the motion

of even a finger joint. The physiological law mentioned be-
fore holds true here. All muscles--even though unconsciously
to us--assist if they at all to the
motion in question--unconscious and precisely a~~~ted muscular
activity upward from the torso and t~e fulc~u~ formed by the
pelvis, this with the bending of even a finger joint. This is
not altered by the fact that vJe are unconscious of these mo-
tions. One who is dubious about this in regard to a finger
joint should convince hir:~self by the exact wethod given belo\v
(82). To a certain extent the effect of a muscle over several
skeletal parts is comp~ehensible if one considers that most nus-
cles run over tv.;o, three or even more joints. There are, then,
at least three skeletal parts on Khich one muscle has a direct
effect. Indeed, according to 0. Fischer's brilliant discovery,
muscles affect joints over which they are not even strung.
This gives some approximate indication of how infinitely
many variations the contrary and alternating actions of
countless muscles are capable. Since in muscular motion we
feel only the stronger contraction accompanied by clearly
changed tension, and not the weaker, it is understandable
that no clear conception of the extent of muscle participa-
tion can be made on ones own body. A detour by way of sci-
entific experiment must be made.
54. In any powerful motion, participation of the shoulder
muscles is necessa~J in order to exploit the power of these
 87

large muscles. It ;;.;rould contrad:.ct ti.1e physiological la~v of

conservation of nmver if one tried to produce with one or a
'

few weak and thin muscles the s<:::-:e large

muscles produce 'l.vith only a fractio:-: of their stre::ngth.
Applied to the particular case of piano tec~nique: it

with ~he most extreme exertion of \veal~ fin~e~ ~~c:~~les ~he

co-operation ~f th~

through a sHinging motion of :~h~ \7hole limb E":l.~.ss.

It goes without saying that the vJOrk output increases

in proportion to the size of the physical mass of the portion
of the arm set in motion. The closer we come to the free
end of the extremity, the less is the mass set in motion
(63). Therefore, the little muscle \lhich bends the finger
in the attack must replace the deficiency in work output
which the small moving mass affords with all the greater
contractive force. Furthermore the fact is decisive that
the larger the total of co-operating muscles, the later
comes the moment of exhaustion, of the using up of energy
resources, since it is distributed over many muscles. A
single muscle group becomes exhausted quickly. Isolated
movement is tiring in a very short time.
It is easy to remonstrate that the large shoulder rnus-
cles cannot equal the refinement of finger motion. This is
an error. The broad shoulder muscles attached to the upper
 88

arm make it possible to move this Dart of the skeleton Hith

extraordinary precision in any direction and \lith any desired
force. This is due to the delicate capacity of adjustment of
the ball end of the upper arm in the shoulder socket. The
remonstrance above overlooks the fact that the movGments \vhich
our hands make in all directions round about in space, fine
and exact motions, come precisely from this shoulder joint.
Finger movements are only apparently more delicate and exact,
even if of lesser extent. In general, hmvever, they have en-
tirely different and more limited tasks. They are grasping
and clasping organs. The are disposed like
hooks and pincers and thereby s:1.m1 their natural purpose \..rith-
out ambiguity. They are not naturally created for and suited
to pi :ro technique. T::.ey must forego their original character
and become "pushing organs," spokes in a wheel and so forth.
Most important, there should be no hesitation in accepting the
fact that motion is acco;:nplished "t..rith the wh9le arm from the
shoulder joint. In order to convince oneself of the delicate
action in the upper arm, fasten a pencil on the elbow and ob-
serve how precisely and delicately writing and drm..ring can be
accomplished. All large-scale motions in dravnng, \-Jriting, etc.
are made involuntarily "from the shoulder." The finger joints
play a natural, relatively subordinated role in this, inasmuch
as they are used only to grasp and hold the drawing instrument.
55. 1be important objections to the kind of attack invaria-
bly practiced up to now lie in the function of arm joints and
 89

muscles. This attack, comprised of mere finzer ~otion, can

be characterized as a 11
of little
technique ------ ha:"'.1r:lc:rs. u This
hammer technique, completely cen~ered in ~~uckle exercise,
reaches the high point of mechanization in Zuscnneid's de-
II .....,h
scri p t
~on. 1 e root jo~n.:s o,- t'ne r::..ngers
~ r 1..,
suou~a
l , ' .
oe: v:::..m1e d

as a hinge (anatomically wrong!). A rigidly high finger po-

sition in the manner of a cocked bolt precedes the finger
attack, followed by a lightning-quick descent, 11 etc.
The most questionable extreme of "pose" is the finger
position, in 'tvhich the root joint is pulled back from the
hand, the other finger joints are curved and everything is
made rigid. It is thus a sort of claH hand. Quite similar
and almost as misshapen hand positions occur in Dree, Unschuld
von !~elasfeld and, above all, in Jacll. 26-.39) 11
A clmv-

like position of fingers 11 is 'tJhat \!erkenthin (0 -~j .

~
_:Lt., p. 61)

flatly demands. ~veak tone, a tinkly, choppy kind of perform-

ance--these are the general musical cha~acteristics produced.
Physiologically, the 'tvorst side is not merely that the flexor
muscles must exert themselves to the maximum in forte and
therefore tire and fail much too soon, but that the extensor
muscles, by nature much weaker, are endangered to a much
greater extent. They have an inordinately tiring task to
perform, considering their diameter, because, in harrmcr tech-
nique the height of fall must be first attained by the exten-
sors. For eve---v attack is preceded by the highest possible
elevation of the fingers in order to give the flexors the
 90

'tvidest possible arc. In this r.,,ray a completely distorted fin-

ger and hand position comes about. This is the reason Hhy
pianists complain about pains fror:1 over-exertion or over-
training--pains so often located in the back of the hand or
the extensor side of the forearm. H2 have a natur.::::.. pro-
tection against nerve and muscle injuries ~rr the character-
istic pain which accompanies exhaustion. Ho~;v often, though,

this regulatory warning goes unheeded, indeed is vie-v;red as

an irritating obstacle to be overcome.
56. 'l..11ere is no doubt that the peculiarity of the piano
with the unvarying uniformity of its keyboard mechanism is
just what has invited and fostered the hammer variety of play-
ing. Every finger is supposeG to become an attacking hammer.
This endeavor has led to the \'. vrst error that has ever crept
7

into piano practice, that of making the fingers the same, so-
called equalization, of systematic leveling-out of the dif-
ferences of strength in the fingers.
According to Germer--to cite one from the rna~ examples
in the literature--the thumb and fingers are to be so equal-
ized that they produce uniform effects in playing. The middle
finger as the strongest should serve as the norm. Besides
finger technique he recognizes the falling weight of hand and
forearm as potential striking por..;rer. There is no mention of
upper-arm motion. Of the new authors Deppe, too, still has
certain notions of equalization. According to the note on
p. 2 (Xlose, Q. ~ht.) the hand position is determine~ with
 91

consideration for the two weakest fingers (fourth and fifth).

that is clear. How is this equal amount of pov1er, ho~vever,

to be reconciled with the unequc.l r~2lat:_o::ships of mass ana'

weight in the fingers, if free 11
:0:s.ll'' ::..s rc.:c.lly the foe.mda-
tion of Deppe 1 s teaching? The c-:::cdit of f~.rst: ocposing the

idea of equalization doubtless belongs to 0. :lai:f, .,dho estab-

lished through his extensive experiments that the flexibility
of the individual finger remains unchanged in suite of all
exercise. The regulated distribution of weieht to the indi-
vidual fingers was the result of studies by Bandmann. Third-
ly, Breithaupt should be mentioned. In making use of this
idea he gave an excellent prese::1tation of the rolling of
weight from one finger to the other. Only the last link in
the chain is missing: the swinging, rotating motion of the
forearm, which puts an end at last to all isolated finger work.
It certainly requires no anatomical knowledge to see
through these aberrations. It is obvious that the fingers
are differently formed by nature. They are unequally long and
thick and unequally provided -v;ith muscles and tendons. ~Lost

importantly, they are different in mass. Despite the special

musculature in the ball of the little finger and its independ-
ent mobility, it will never, never reach the strength of the
second or third finger, regardless of the most strenuous la-
bors. The fourth finger is bound by tendons on the bac!c of
the hand to the extensors of the third and fifth. It is at
 92

such a disadvantage thereby, that it can never attain the

stretching ability of its neighbors. Fortunately the foolish
period \vhen the tendon connection was allowed to be severed
surgically is a thing of the past. Of course, gymnastics has
always promised to be able through its O\vn methods to make
the fourth finger as strong as the others. There has, how-
ever, g~~E been a handl2 which has come anywhere close to
being really equalized. In spite of this many pianists claim
to have achieved this goal. The grounds for this claim, how-
ever, lie elsewhere. The real bases for this achievement are
the ability to distribute arm \veight equally on any finger at
will and the anatomically equivalent position of fingers in
the forearm rotation movement (75, 83).
57. Replace-;nent of intellectual ~.10rk has become the mark of
the technique which no-v1 has assumed an independent position
in its o~~ right. The practical applications and the conse-
quences of this nonsense, however remarkable some of them are,
can no longer surprise. It is still thought today that the
aid of more or less clumsy apparatus cannot be dispensed ~Jith

in developing musical technique. It would be interesting, al-

though too digressive here, to collectall the little g~~nastic

12rt is very interesting to picture the hands of great key-

board artists (as Jaell does, for example) as a curiosity,
but of no value for piano technique. To attempt to read some-
thing characteristic of its possessor from his hand is to look
for the nature of an artist in the v7rong place, in what are
merely his tools. It leads back to a kind of chiromancy and
does not bring us a step fon.;ard.
 93

helps and methods recc:-:::1~2ncled in coun~J..css boo:cs ~nd school

texts. The mention of individual aids o this type has v&lue
for the purpose of the present work only insofar as it makes
clear how backward we still are in uncierst&~di~s t~e clcmc~~s
of psycho-physiolo~y. ~fucn Cal~nd rc;ports of Deppe that nc

suggested the use of a rub:::er ball for pr&ct~cc purposes

order to arouse consciousness in the fingertips, it shows a

complete confusion of fundamental concepts. The use of a pen-
,.
cil of specified length for silent practice o~ t:-:c octave GlS-
. ,- .. -
tance (Breithaupt) is on the same level. ~r 2&nloulatLons
~

of this sort do not produce direct injury, they are certainly

of no use and lead rather to round-about methods and mJay from
the simple, direct pa'ch. Liszt designated the Kal1(.brcnner
gy.ide-:m"!.~"!:. ironically as 11
guide-ane. alJ There has been no
lack of other voices raised a~ainst mechanical aids. Knorr
14

says ,na t h and. guL. d es an d c~Lng2r

. .
exercLse~s . . ' .De d Lscar
snouia . d-
t

ed. \.Jhere the player lacks the innate strength to play in aca-
demically correct fashion, enforced artificial aids c&~not pro-
vide it. One almost always finds a chapter in the teaching
methods in which artificial technical aids are valued as im-
portant and their help is considered indispensible. At the

13 c:r.
,. 'J
veL. t zmanr:., 9P.
. ....
~2.~., p. 2'~'?
7~. (''G . ' . II J..n
' uJ..ae-maLn d'J...cates
a hand guide used for acquiring feeling for interval Gis-
tances. 11 Guide-8.ne 11 means literally a t'guide for asses 11 or,
idiomatically, the sort of ruled paner used in training
students to write. The translator.)
l4l~'1.orr, Hethod. Lei::::2,c;.e:1 f:L1e-;: :c.av~:.e:::-le:y;:e. Leipzig,
1850, p. 10.
same tir.:1e warnino is usually ,:;:> :\o

~Jriter gives the lil:1i ts of their usc allo~Jable 'LTi thout injury,

seem necessnry.
than to have such ~alf-hc2rted a~vice.

training by means of relatively great

Jo~n~
fo
s t re t cn~ns
l b y means o f ou~s~ce,
.... . ,

All such H technical c.icis, 11

ev2n. the apna:::::::r:-:.:
0 .1""'8
l'-' :::::).;,4
1
d
~:..,ou J...l. 'b"'
"- CO"~nle"'"r.'
.. ~.1 L-L y t-hi""O'.,......
-~.."- ...,.,.l.i. 0'' ,_
L-0."-!- "'r-'-
J..I...._J .....
~ ~- ~-, 1y
t ....:..,;..,(..::..~.-

out si::mltaneous cultive:.t::..on of the ear ~c::d r.:usical sense, that

is to say, vlithQ.l:!.l:. m~si~, necessarily descends to c:.-ude and
meaningless gym:::1astics. .. big step back to nature would be
taken with the eliminatio-,1 of all such aids. l-Imvever surprising
it may seem to some professional ~xsicians, one of the most

questionable and misleading technical aids is the so-called

dumb piano, the silent keyboard (Virsil piano, etc.). The
idea of separating technique from Tousie appears here in its
most absurd form. ~fnat remains is the empty shell of a piano,
a key mechariisrn without life for the ear and spirit. It is
completely incomprehensible hm7 musicians Hho claim to b~::: .s2n-
sitive artists are capable of such confusion of ends and means.
One finds condemnation of the du~b piano enunciated ~2~e

there i11. the literature, but Hhat importance have t~-:.2se :C2v1
 95

voices in view of

The dumb piano is quite oddly recoz~2~dcd by

on the grounds that its use separates t~c ~~s1ca1 2rc~ t~e

technical. In that the player is ~ot i~r~~2tcd (!)

In opposition, it must be ernnhasizcd

'
without q11<1li ::::_ c& -~ion
1 -
that the source of eve17thing unr.atural and, rurc:n.er., o: ,.. t
1.!1-

J.;urious ) one-sided, over-exertion lies precisely in -l. "-

~:
::

sc1)ar<:.t io~1.

It produces an irrit&ti~3 ~olse.

music. It is ohysiolo~ically
.. wrc~2 ~o ~tte~nt to lc~1.:::1 l2 .?a to
.__., ....:.;~ ~

-------
'i..7ith the help of noises instead o::: :r~u.sicc.l sound.

focuses on noise ot:renJise tl1ar1 it clocs on n~:;.sicc1l scur;.C1s ar:.d

ClS

him back from usin3 such unr:lusic::l tools even in c .. ~c:..~;;c:ncic;s.

The tool is all too cleverly refi.::-.e:d.

can be controlled purely mechanically t:o a certc:dn extent oy

the clicks which occur on the dmmstroke as \lell as u;:on the
release of the key.
will. These "advantages have helped to encoura.ze 'i.vide: u32
 96

of the Virgil-technique: pi2no. It s~ould at least be: 80ntioncd

here that Bie values the dumb pla~o as a ~atural n~o=rcssion

., r
from Czerny's teaching.~~
53. Fundamentally it is the sa:.:2 ;:::::c::, c::.:!..y c.:;_fi:.:::::..-e:nt: in

degree, when one performs mechar-,icc.l ::::inger cxcrci::;cs c.:: the:

music. Artificially the piano beco:.-:es for t::.-.::; s,Y:__:l

piano. \!Jar must be declared unconditionally o::-1

separated from sound and art. intended by all such

practice? Certainly not the el.::vat:o~ of technical ability

and mechanical dexterity? ~ve "I:Ja::.:t ,,,-::sic and r:.ot finzer \.vork.

In observing the errors of r:.::;c:c::::-:"1-day tecb1ic;\.:C 1.-Jc find

of technical from spiritual ele?e~ts and the consequent tyr-

anny of what is non-intellectual ar:.cl mc:chc.nicc:l over \Jhat is

artistic and musical. ?ractice is concerned merely "tJith the

mechanical organs of motion, muscl::::s and joints. It cc:m not

lift itself from its deep desc::::nt i~to the mechanic2l up to

the regions of the intellect. The desire to make practicing

more convenient so t~1at there is no rr:ore need for thought is

all too human. \-:':.J.at an aberration is indicated l;Jhen sore:,;;; com-

pletely .co,_..e.;r-r'l"\
.1.. .1...o ... ~ intellectual occupation can be undertaken
vJhile practicing and even be recomrnended to students. In

this way "independence" turns into caricature.

16.21?. .cit., p. 27 5.
 97

The conclusion to be drawn statcscnts of this

:-.~r:~ :: ri-
r) ?::~---------
------ -- ---- -------------- -------------- -- -------- ~----

m.
tion. .Lhl.S rr:otio~ r~u~~t
 SSCTION V

THS MISCONCZPTIO>; 0? FuND.c\i~::.<'!:'.'::.:.. ?::: ~'S T .~~_,~.:.;::;~C).L FO~~CZS

AI~D. FOl~'{S OF :~,~01,IO~,T IN PL<.;~\7 I:.: u ~c:c;_._<:C.\L SYS'T2~:s

59. The follo\.ving section proposes to exaE1l.r:e critically

some further errors in oiano
. .
technioue evident in
the misconception of the following physiological forces and
motions:
1. elasticity ar.d
2. forces in
3. muscular contraction its durc:.tion
and intensity,
4. forearm rotation as the most important assisting
motion for the attack.
t.Je shall see hmv much confusion and contradictory opin-
ion is involved on all four points. He shall see that, -.;_
sidering the great importance of these factors for all bodily
motion and their misconception and ~vrong application, a natural
motion of attack has not been possible. Here as everyv;here
with previous authors far-advanced conceptions are found rep-
resented side- by-side \vith the most naive views imaginable.
60. Husicians are very inadequately informed on t:1e meaning
of elasth'=.:!:.!=..Y as a moving or assisting force in attack. The
demand that the attack should be elastic is often heard.
ever, no one has ever made it quite clear -v;here and how elastic
98
 99

' . 1
forces occur in the necna::1.sm.-

TI1e false notion ~hat an elastic effect goes fro8 the

key to the attacking fi~:2r has alre~dy bee~ indicated

(16). Another~ no less u~founded ~~2~ ~~s still ~ore follow-

ing: that the exccller:ce; of at t.:.cl( c:2p2::-lG.s o:;. tl~2 nc.lc:s tici ty::

of hand motion, etc., ~,.,,:-:c:e elastic po-v7e:. is ::-e;::;lly ::::.ctive.

No one has any cle.::.:: conception. Ger:ner spea:zs sev2::..-al tiDes

or,. e 1 a s~... 1.. c 1.~y

+- a t t'ne momen t o f a t ~""
-ac~' ( p. ?_o,
: -? 7',, "r:
u~ a""

clastic manner of playing (p. 21), of elasticity in the play-

ing mechanism (p. 18). The concep~ of elasticity thus means,

tr~e yielding

of certai~ joints in contrast to their rigid, hard stiffening

through ir:.co:crect use of r:-,uscles. Tl:is false concept::..on of

Germer vJas already rejected by H. ~ZierJarm (2_2. ci~., p. ll),

to be sure, \Ji thout a r.:.:al underst.:mdins of 1.vhere and hov1

bodily elasticity really takes olace. Comparisons with a

rubber ball or tire 1:7ould make no sense if one did not assume

an elastic propelling action on the key or on the hand or on

both. It cannot be naintained that these are only images 2nd

similes. Even if this -v;ere the case, such modes of exnression

lThe follmvinz definition of eL:sticity is '?iven bv H. :liemann

in his corru-nentary .:md is found ir1 ~Coppe~ s _Pliy_~_:p~, p.
67. 11
A
body is fully elastic Hhei.1. it resur,1es its fo::::ncr shape 1:-."ith
the same force with \Jhich it Has cor:r;Jressed or st:;_-etched.
Bodies -vlhic h have this characte!.istic, no matter hmv z:ceat
the force or change of fo:_-m, arc not to be found in nature.
On the other hand there are no co~pletely inelastic bodies.
All bodies have at least the tendency to resu~-:12 i:b:::il~ fo:cc-n.:.:r
uap e . '""1"ne 1.J..l.lTll
S 1-. t ~ 1 t.. ..~ ", --I"'" ~-,
S OI e .... c.S l.ClCY are CD_,::;::erenc \'ll.l.i~ Cl.i..l DOQJ...CS.
.. ,. ... '! -: ..

"" t - , , ' ~ - h . . b~
.l.ClUS s eel, ruoocr, v.rua1e cc:1e .ave cor1s :Leer a le s~rJ...n2~::_:1g
pm.;er; lead and clay, ve::.~y little."
 100

would be unclear and confusing in their erroneous fi~u~es of

speech and no less dese1-ving of rejection. Clarity must pre-
vail unquestionably in re~ard to the most i~portant natural
forces involved i:-1 the attack. ~Jhat is not sL:Jpose:d to be
elastic? .Sven the body posture is (:-1. D.ier:~::::::;., .:::~2 :::_~.t., p. 3):

turned neither toh.,a:.-ds the left nc:. the riz:.l.t. 11 ::::at is left
over then is "elastic. 11 ~:hat is r:.2ar:t is obviously nothinz
more th::m mental and phvsical
. "'
meaning o~ly in a figu~~t~ve sense.
"'Tl-':.2 hand n1ust be full of life

cit.)--this is a turn of speech as belovsd as ::...::: is !T,eaningless.

A certain, elastic tension is stressed as the best me&ns to
combat sluggish playing. Elastic has the same meaning h:::;re
as active muscular effort. A whol<~ bouquet of rr:eanings for
elasticity can be found in L. Koehler. "Elastic r:::e:ans about
the same as yielding and at the saQe time ready to strike.
It indicates the smooth operation of a mechanism ~~d is cited
as an attribute of steeled finger muscles, of flexible joints,
of the bounce of the hand, etc. 11 11
2lasticity is only possible
in the absence of any cour.::er-pressure. 11 The latter is the
best of the expressions. In the others m2aning
runs confusingly into the actual.
In spite of this, the "elastic attack'' figures in every
text, in all treatments of the sub~ect as a kind . '.
:..no.::..s-pen-
.J

sable academic term. Basically, nothing more is s:~::..d than

 101

that pliability and avoidance of stiffness c.::1cl of the inap-

propriate use of muscles are achieved. Obviously~ the 11
el<J.s-
tic attack 11 owes its origin to an u::1clear idea t:-:r. t the knmm
elastic forces active in arm tissues, tendons, ligr:r::ents, joints
and muscles produce a special effect on the key. :~las tic at-
tack is to be taken merely in a figurative, transfc~red sense

wherever it is found. It does not exist as all, understood

in its real sense. It is nothing but self-deception.
tone of ~n elas-
tically taut string beco~es more sonorous as the clastic ten-
sion increases, so~ething elastic, as it were, was heard in
the tone. The tone the a~tribute of elasticity,
and this was boldly transferred via sugges~ion or idca associ-
at ion to the mechanical sound produce::. ~ the at tac:z, as a
4

physical characteristic.
any elastic effect on the key. Lhat elastic pm-:e::s there are
in the arm, hand and finger cannot be v,'lried or applied at
vlill through some chosen forr.~ of movc::;r.1ent. 'ftle are :--:o mo:::-2
able to attack elastically than inelastically. :~ can iG?ute
to no one an inelastic technique~

61. h7hat is the situation, then, tvith respect to t:'1e el&stic

forces in our organism? It is established that the joint
ligaments, the cartilaginous joint covering, the te~dons and
muscles and even the bones are more or less elastic, most of
all the joint cartilage vlhich acts as a sort of 'o1..-,::::.s:r agc.:Lnst
 102

pressure and blows. Due to their resilience

protect the joints from excessive stretchins and bending and
permit a certain compensatory lenzt~er.inJ.

L, e
Th . ..1-
S1~uatLon

WLtn
, t-
respec~
t o "'
t~e
"'
c~c..s~~c~ty
4-
~oints

,....
muscles is different. .e.ver-J muscJ..e, r:::v;:::::y
~

out beyond its point of equilibrium. Zc..ch is :.n c. state of

elastic extension (or tautness), ~Jhich is still ?::e:s~nt in

a corpse, although significantly greater in a livin:J; organism.

Tendons snap back 'tvhen cut. The red muscle flesh co~~::::s apart.
The potential elastic enexgy of the:! large:: sody of r:.uscle in
a Hhole linb is considerable. C:.ffiOUl'lt--

and this must be firmly held in :-nind--is used exclt:.sively \lith-

in the musculature itself for the inner economy of its sotions.
All of the muscles located around in the same
condition of elastic tension. They maintain a reciprocal bal-
ance and hold the joint surfaces in continual contact. Should
an active muscle contraction now interfere with the balance
of elastic forces, the perpetual elastic tension pen-i'lits the
advantage that an immediate effect occurs v.7ithout stoos and
starts at the moment of contraction, and with the release of
contra...:::tion the muscle is imillediately drmvn back to its origi-
nal length. Elasticity also has a mechanical purpose in the
operation of single muscles, namely the highly purposeful
arrangement that it counteracts too poHerful a stretching of
th e muse 1es, as, f or examp 1e, Ln . ,.. t 1.ng
. 1 L::: . a 'h.... ea\lY OOJ<:;ct.
'
 103

can see from all this that the in~~te cl~stic forces in mus-
cles, tendons, etc. are designed for the sole pur?oae cf
balancing inner forces. From the outside the el~stic activ-
ity can be appraised only in the regularity and prec~sio~ of
movement. It is distributed in the finely calculated pl~y

'
of antagonistic and synergistic forces. This is excellently
illustrated, although in crude fo~~n, by the co2parison of
muscular elasticity t'lith the similar elasticity of a compressed
air column found in the air chaE1ber of a >;.;ate:: purc:r. t:erc
there no air chamber, with its elastic ar-1d self-ex.-aandin2; air,
the action of the pt:r:lp handle 'tvould force the water out in
spurts. it, w~tcr co~es out in ~n even flow.
62. ~USCle
~. el~cL.-~~~~V
Co...> .....,o..,;,;.._"' ig
- ~ost
,,, -.~~"..ui_~P(l,
.. _.._..
~ - T,J"_.t~.'' br_,_e~_r
1
0U~
- en.Pr-
--

getic contractions for purposes of a far-reaching throw or

arm swing. Even today, science has co:::le no nearer to knowing
tvhat happens in the inner :nuscle structure. He knmv that a
momentary, powerful stretching of a muscle can eve~ lead to
tearing it apart. In any case the S\vineing movemer:.t of mass
in the kinetic sense and high velocity coincide \vith a gr12at
taxing of muscular elasticity. Have the defenders of an 11
elas-
tic attack" the courage to maintain they had any suspicion of
this inner connection?
~<le can go on only if we decide to drop the term, "elastic
attack." If the pedagogue thinks he cannot do without expres-
sions such as suppleness, flexibility, yielding pose, etc.,
 10-4-

then he should at least bear in ~ind that s2v

___._ -nothin?:.....
ph ys~o . ll y and.
. l og~ca , . ,1
p<'1ys~ca.L.y ana., tnaL
, .... ',
c~1ey
.have .
no Lnns
~ bu t

a figurative connection \lith the ::c::-~.:, clc:sticity. In addition,

the remnants

s t rol<.e an d r e boun d , mu S ...'- be aba nL-on..::u

. : ~--=' (~"",_""-~
.,;-'--"'-"", ':>--~~ .... ,...,.,,,p._;'
:..-1.. ~.;.;.._ '-c~u. '-

1 e rea d er will h ave conv1nce

""h . d h.1mseLI
~ ,. huy now or '-nc
,.. ,_, J':
~ac t t'na t

any conclusion which is drawn from this sort of false concept

and \lhich does not keep strictly to scientific fact leads
necessarily to a mistaken method that quickly produces con-

f us~on. h f or examp 1 e, 1s
Suc, t.e
h ~cent1L1cat1on
c o='" e 1 as~..1C1-Y
+- r

and S'tvinging power (4).

It can be established by sir.1ple e:::perir;-;ent that the::e
is absolutely no outward indication of elastic power. If the
hand is allm...red to fall passively -;,;rith the fingertips striking
the edge of a table it sp::ings back no more than a non-springy
object \vould bounce back if it should fall on the fingertips
extended up\vard.
The conclusion from the v1hole observation is that \ve play
neither elastically nor inelastically, that it makes no sense
to demand an elastic attack that has no real existence except
as a figurative expression. We should learn from this further
that all errors in the attack that we lay at the feet of insuf-
ficient elasticity are to be blamed exclusively on technique
that lacks a physiological basis, on insufficient ~~~tur2l f~eedom
 105

of movement, a..."1d on artificial inh:.. bi tions ar..d fixations.

The frequency Hith r..1hich elasticity i.n the attack is de-
san d e d o.cr-
JO~nts,
,
musc.~...es,
-
posture, movement--1.n '
sr;.o:c t every-
where and continually--is sufficient proof tl~."'~t a continuous

war is being waged against unnatur~l, angular, rcstricced

movement, forced upon the player, however, throuzh i~correct

technique. :Because it is not kno\vn where the error lies and

because it is not suspected that the technique itself is in-
correct, no one is able to discover the appro?riate designa-
tion applicable to all the errors. He is then th:-o-:m back
' ' .
to using expressions that seem to say much but :.":':e:::.n nocn:t.ng,
such as 11
e:lastic 11 and 11
inelastic." It "tvill be concluded by
nmv that where such vague kinds of expressions are used,
there must be hidden a more profound error.
63. Recently the search and quest of professional musicians
.
h as b een wor1c~ng c 1ear 1y totvard a r:orm
,.. r-
0.1..
mot:ton
us:tng thlle

active, hElayy ~ass of the a~. To be sure, their :nu:,,ber is

small compared to the grec:t number of artists and pecagogues
who wrestle continuously vJith the old school tradition and
who seem to have no desire for anything better. It is surely
not merely a thirst for theoretical knowledge that motivates
the small flock. It is felt more or less clearly that the
traditional methods are not in harmony with natural laws of
motion and that these methods exercise an arbitrarJ and re-
stricting control. Thus it happens that these authors are
 106

united in the common goal of freeing themselves from finger

technique and of bringing into play forces independent of
muscular contraction and greater than those vJhich the flexors
can produce, especially in forte passages. In this effort
the pardonable error is committed of placing conscious weight
playing in direct contrast to the old technique, as if even
a single tone could ever have been played o~ the piano without

weight.
64. The first step towards getting rid of mere muscular action
was the attempt to strike the key with the help of the ''free
fall 11 of the fingers. This finger fall had already been de-
manded by A. Kullak. 2 The finger fall presumes a previous
finger lift and thus provides no opportunity to get rid of
the old finger technique. The fall of ha11d and forearm could
mean progress, but only the swing of the whole arm could lead
to full realization of the goal. Deppe and Caland would have
reached this goal if they had not fallen into the idea of fix-
ation of the whole arm. In contradiction to Depp2s fundamental
teaching Caland 3 maintains that it only appears that the finger
falls on the key and that tone production results from an "ap-
parently" free fall. Is it then a question of fall or only
its appearance? It is regrettable that the intrinsically

2:<ullak, Aesthetik des I(lavie~iels. Third edition by Bischoff,

1876, p. 135. - -
32. !!., pp. 16 and 31.
 107

fruitful idea of the free fall was robbed of its further de-
velopment by the addin3 on of all sorts of fixation, tension
and pronation. Soechting, in the second chapter o~ his bro-
chure,4 gives a treatis~ . motion--a short, popul&r ?hysiology,
, 1
tnat are correcc as as mucn
;'! .., .., ,

which contains some tn~ngs WCLL

.
t.h at ~s r.vrong. T'ne extensJ.. b"). 1J. ty, tne
' e_as
1 "'".
l.~C:l. c 1~g-
ty or.- t"h

a~cnts is supposed to effect a certain flexibility in the limbs.

The accompanying illustrations are an example of stiff, unnatu-
ral poses and attitudes which newer and better ;r:ethods have
already begun to eliminate. Arm and forearm are not differ-
entiated, consequently there is so:-;1e confusion. Paras1~aph 4
permits a single axis for arm motions. Lifting the hand at
the fingertips is declared wrong but is a necessary consequence
of a condition of relaxation and rest. It is interesting that
Soechting knows and tries to describe this condition of rest.
He is, however, still a long way from making it the real founda-
tion of technique. And when ought this necess~~J relaxed con-
dition of arm and finger muscles exist? In piano playing,
certainly. How is this, however, reconcilable with the holding
of the hand continuously in the 11
direction of the axis, 11 \vith
fingers consistently curled so that the first joint forms an
extension of the back of the hand, and with the slm..v liftin6
and dropping of fingers in the knuckle joint? And hou is such
an attack compatible with a "throw" or ''fall." Soechting sees,

4Lehre des freien Falles, Hagdeburg, n.-..

 103

besides the 'tveight of the arm and h,:n:d, a tone forrning factor
in the weight of the fingers. A slight lowering of the fin3er

after a preparatory lift is said to be Sllf~icicnt ~o depress

the key. Let there be no talk of "st::ikin.g 11 th.:::; key.
draws the inherently correct consequence from the attack using
hand 'tveight--that the fingers must assune an im:;1ovc.ble, taut
position. The hand, however, is already given a tense condi-
tion in the moment of preparation. Since this is possible
only by continuous muscular action, the effect of hand weight
is illusory. The attempt to specify a center of gravity (p. 21)
is curiously amusing.
There has never been clarity about the extent and meaning
of the free fall or about the correct concept of fall. t;nat
did Deppe, the teacher of free fall, not hope to achieve with
it in a subjective way and to hear from it in the tone produced!
Correctly understood, free fall means a purely physical procedure.
That it takes place, as is thought, without muscular assistance
is not correct tvith respect to tL; living body and is not even
true with respect to the conditions in a corpse. T.te whole
limb is so organically, so tightly joined to:::;ether by the joint-
muscle apparatus from shoulder to fingertips that a purely
physical action of weight in either a small or a large portion
of the limb mass is not possible--even at the free eni. We
could speak of free fall only in the case of a falling limb

52 ~
~., p. 19
 109

that had been amputated. As said before, wei2ht

.._.. action in a
living body without the organic forces of muscles and joir.ts
is not conceivable. Thus, on closer observation, the free
fall actually represents nothing more than a swinsing move-
ment of hand and finger, initiated by a light, brief i~pulse

of the flexor muscle. It is understandable that free fall

still implies action in the finger muscles. Thus, much is
demanded of the flexors (see Germer), since the elastic pro-
pelling force is dependent on the height. Tne free fall is
not enough for Germer (p. 32); he asks, rather, for a propelled
falling force that is reinforced by elastic muscular action.
It almost seems that a presenti~ent of the swingihg fonn of
motion betrays itself he~e. All sorts of experiments could
be brought forward as proof that the free fall must mean the
same thing as swinging motion. At the same time, these ex-
periments are instructive in regard to the much misunderstood
relationship between swing 6 and elasticity. If one lays the
hand lightly and relaxed, palm dow:~, on a table top, and lifts
up a finger with the other hand and immediately lets it go,
then the finger springs back the more noticeably the flatter
and more outstretched the position of hand and fingers. In
this hand position the flexor muscles are already someiilhat
passively extended and become more so with further passive
extension through outside assistance. However, if one executes

6The word 11 Sch'ivung 11 has been translated as swir;g. ~~o sin3le

English word takes in all meanings of this vJorc!. The vario;:.s
meanings will be clear, hmvever, in context. T:.:.e translato::.
 110

the lift of the same finger actively, the spn. n;l.r:z, propelling
effect is immediately lessened or even ceases. elasticity
and muscle contraction \, ork inti:nately tor;ether; they cannot
7

be separated. On the other hand, the extensors do not spring

at all. If one lays the hand on its back and tries to oroduce
a similar spring with the slightly curved fingers, he Hill not
succeed. The cause: elastic tension corresponds to the mus-
cular mass, which is much greater on the flexor side. In the
fully passive state of the fingers at rest v1hen the hand is
placed on its back, either a very miniwal elastic tension or
none occurs. Elastic tension is noticed only with passive
lifting through outside assistance. Hmvever, this does not
come into account in the attack. Even with this elastic ten-
sion mentioned, however, the springing force of the flexor
muscles is so slight that it cannot even make a key go down
or cause the hammer to strike.
It would be entirely impossible for the free finger fall
to achieve sufficient force to depress the key, considering

the shallow depth of fall and the slight potential mass of

the fingers. It can be accomplished only through the addition
of a swing, a brief contracting impulse. It is not surprising
that this muscle impulse is not felt and that the character
of the action is therefore misunderstood, for we are unable
to perceive brief, small muscle contractions, and a sensation
of relaxation in the musculature, of passivity, is connected
 111

with the free fall.

The free fall is thus a predominantly physiological
procedure and not a purely physicc-~1 one. ~everthelcss, the
correct conception of the assisting weight of the lir::b :Eo:L-r:-,s
its basis. In this sense, the free fall method can be viewed
as the necessary preliminary stage for a more muture physio-
logical conception and working-out of piano technique. It
vlOuld be difficult to establish 'tvhen and where the idea of
fall and of weight as a means of attack first appeared.
A. Kullak speaks of it as early as the ~ightee~ sixties.
Accordingly, the supposed priority of Deppe seems to me to
be doubtful.
In practice a separation of falling weight and swinging
motion is not possible. It was logical, then, that some
individuals would move ahead to the application of hand and
forearm weight--thus Germer, Breithaupt and others. These
authors get no further in their theories than forearm weight,
hardly mention the upper arm at all and in addition cling
obstinately to finger technique, a mechanically inexplicable
thing. One could hardly believe it possible that the same
Breithaupt who demonstrated such extraordinarily great compre-
hension of the weight of a freely swung arm in describing the
playing of Teresa Carreno could say elsewhere in the same is-
sue of Husik: "Technique is nothing else but the precisely
executed, physiologically correct, controlled action of
 112

certain muscles--the extensor muscles in the individual

fingers." I maintain that the pertinent criticism of the
playing of a great artist by a professional musician is an
unconscious and therefore all the more valuable witness, al-
though it is indeed in full contradiction to the theory pet
forth by him. I find my own observations fully confir..:-ted by
this, and I feel certain that only physiology is in a position
to resolve the conflict in respect to the incongruity of the
playing of an artist and the school tradition.
T. Bandmann,7 a pupil of Depoe, arrived at the correct,
physiological fundamental conceptions by an entirely different
route and therefore sped much ahead of the other authors.
Led on by her extremely acute self-observation and by an ex-
act study of her arm and shoulder motions, she found the throw
as the basic form of all attack. She has, in my opinion,
established the outlines of the correct norm in piano tech-
nique for the future. In her first publications forear~m ro-
tation as the real keystone of the system was still lacking.
65. All our movements are movements of a bodily mass in space,
influenced by weight or gravity. In every movement, even the
most strongly muscular, heaviness of mass plays a very defi-
nite role as weight or load. This v;reight must be overcome
when moving away from the ground and is used unconsciously
in movements going in the direction of the ground. T~us,

7Tony Bandmann, Die Gewichtstechnik des Kl__a_v_ ie_--rspi.el~. Lei0zi 0~.

1907. -- ---------- - - ' '
 113

this weight comes intQ_ effec!:_ in the att~ck ~~ \velJ:., ~nd

~~!:. pe eliminated for a ~en~. Formerly neglected, the
influence of gravity must henceforth be appreciated. The m~
sician ought not to believe that it is a matter of arbitr~~y
innovation. He may not suppose that he ever plays, even in
the softest attack, \vithout the effect of mass and gravity
(67), even when he fights it as something wrong, something
to be overcome. Characteristic statements illustrating the
ignorance of professional musicians are easy to find. Let
the following phrase, 8 contained in one of the most recent
works, be cited as a crude example: "Overcoming the laws of
gravity and inertia is the goal o mechanical practice." Sven
"the laws"--what anarchy!
66. All our limbs represent masses which, moving against each
other, have a definite mechanical effect on one another. These
reciprocal influences are the object of joint and muscle me-
chanics as a science. To say that all parts of the arm, shoul-
der, and torso up and down to the point of pelvis support take
part (52) in even the smallest movement in finger attack, even
if in an unconscious, imperceptible way, is no more than to
express the reciprocal influenc.e of these masses. Here the
highly intricate laws of whole and partial centers of gravity
in our organism come to light. If \ve move a limb as a mass
by muscular force, we perform mechanical work with the help

8zuschneid, cit., p. 4.
 114

of the mass and the velocity imparted to it. All movement,

even the most delicately technical, obeys the laws of wor~

output. 'A'a S s )
.L i so+-
"- l. ~n
..i- .. r-r--"on
LVL. ...:_ ... ce:... . tain ve:loci.ty, repre-

sents a definite cua~~~:v

. of . It

represents--in contrast to stat~c, notcntial forc2--a living

working pov1er ~ t1-:.e

force is determined, c:s 'i:.7e knO';-l~ c7 the product of ::-,ass and

velocity. If the force be f, the mass ~' the velocity ~' then

force i:.~icre.::..ses
. ,.
1.:: rJ o~- v o:: l."C

the sarJc, Ll.O':JCVer,

1 .

diminishes or if v increases a~~ ~ correspondingly diminishes,

This forr:mla

by a change in v (17).
"'! .. _, ,

This explal.ns atso r..-Jny \le can

produce all levels of energy and a.:.:e::c:.:;.in::; pmver only with
gradations of velocity, in view of the constant mass of the
ann.
67. In a movement such as the :C\:ey attack the tJhole mass of

the arm is alvJays rJoved. t~le. ca1.: t:evcr set a separat:e and

isolated hand or finger mass in motion for mechanical reasons

(52) because the v~1ole limb mass represents a freely movable

system, suspended at several points. \Je must simply reckon

with this fact and draw the conclusions from it >::Vithout ?rej-
udice. Thus every player in every attack has set t:l-:.:: :.::c: ; s
 115

of his \-J}lole arrn in motion countless tirr;,::s. He h-::ts never

purposefully exploited this motion in a

stiff.
in a mechanical-physiological s2nse i..: t-"e h:-'-c: a:lo:?ed the
body to be free, ollov1in3 natu:.:-c.i_ lmls. The v7~-:ole arm
Hould then

of itse:~ ~ave nroduced

'
the att&ck~nn
~
cf the
, .. , "l
action of c:::-.ly n::..s ooay

to =he ~oment o~ tone p~oduction, he vzc._:ld

have chanced upm~~ tb.e S\.v::..~:ging rc.ct::..c:.1 as a property already

acquired.

68. category the mis-

understanding of respect to its e:'{tent and

duration must be pointed out. ::ost layrnen imagine muscle

Cont --~~ct~on
~ .... as some~n~--
.. .... .1...l 0 ~o-co~
_ .~.. ..... ,.~ c~i~~
""l.-.L-, co~ru1s~vo
~" ~ .1. -=, an~
u
crude. pla:..:.si ble
grounds, of course, of the maxi':~:..::::t of muscular contraction.
At least certain vieHs found chiefly in more recent authors
are On ly
- ~0
~ D~
t: exnl~~~ca
l u.J..~~'-
3
~
.l.l t~~c
1 .... ..., i/Jay. In contrast to the free
fall as the self-styl2d totality of all possible advantages,

there is a fondness or co::1necting the idea of rauscle cc::1-

traction 'tvith rough, m.s.chine-like pm,Jer. Fe~ these a~~: =s

 116

it does not have

r:,70l.~~\.-?:.""oclucirl~~ tis s u.2

.
pany1ng . t.lens
assoc1a .
w~:~
J '
athlet:_cs.

laym::m lies in such confusion of t2::;::s.

pressions are almost invariably ve~Led by co~on secondary
In this category belong expressions
such as tendon, nerve, contraction, throw, swing, elasticity,
mass, wor~,
1 1 oaa,
' etc. ~-:us icia:.1D :-:.-:,.lS t. learn to beco:-:12 ac-

quainted '<;;rith the strict~ scienti_ c :nec.ni:ng of such te1:.:ts.

A r:-,uscle is cont::c~c ~io11 ~ from
a small fraction of a millimeter to a third of the total length
of its fibres. It is any
desired length of time, fro:n a s::;all f::action of a second to
the limit determined by fatigu.:::. Brief :~ rao~d
.i.. ...... '
delicate mo-

vJith a certain medium degree of strength, tl-:.e r:rllsculc-.Lr con-

traction will thus act in such a way as to impart a swinging
motion to a skeletal part
1 "l
'I;Jl11Cn :::.s
.. ,.... .-
:c:cee :r:rom . .,
t:ne influence
of other pmv-ers, even though this cont::-action is cf only :-:10-

mentary, fleeting duration. This motion p2rsists far beyond

the moment of imoulse
'
in conseouence of the force of inertia. .
If one sets a fl)T\vheel in motion ~;vith a very light touch, the
motion persists for a rather long time after the touch ba2ause
 117

of swinging or centrifugal force. The quicker we execute any

motion whatever, the closer the motion comes to being a S'i.ling.
Thus every player has used the swinging motion countless times
in any attack which, correspondins to the: .,_-~c:..t1.:;.::e of the instru-
ment, is or,. b r~et,
. - ~ornentary this 'i.vithout
thinking about it as soon as he lets hi~self go ~n a moment
of less anxious attention to finger technique. Indeed, even
in this ., . ., . . .., ... 1 ... t1 S\ling-
t ecnn~que ne ~s unconsc~ousLy Iorcec LO use ~e

ing motion.
69. cnat one:
.
occas~onnlLY
1 -
!~nas
1 1 expressions
t1e
throw and svrLnz in the lite::..-ature, but it can probably be said
for~ of motion is un-
known. Only T. an

exception. The irnporta:r~ce of t:1e S\.,Iing as the normal ~ physic-

logical foundation for the motion of attack will be presented
in Section VI.
In daily life 1:ve allm.v S\vingirlJ force to take over much
more vJOrk from the muscles than those imagine 'tJho think only
of unbending, persevering muscular contraction in connection
with the body' s expenditure o _,: energy. 9 The ruo s t obvious
example is the thrm.ving motion itself, the svlinging, far-
reaching arm motion when tossing a stone, for exawpls. The
relatively great and distantly realized Hork output and veloc-
ity is achieved by means of maximum muscle impulse limited to

9o. Fischer, Paul Richer.

 118

time span.
According to the la\v of inertia the moving mass con-
tinues in motion as long as it is ~ot ~~Deded or i~hibited

by an outside cause. A tossed stc::e o:..~ 2 shot tr<'t:nsfers its

~:-Jhole vital force with r;-;o::.~e or le~:;s viole:-~c: c:::::2::ct to the body
struck. If a vleight, S\vinging from a Doint of suspension falls
.,
on or a0ainst another 'oocy, the tvhole vital
Hhat lies beneath it at t:!e point of contact. Cc:tmec ted t.vi th
this is the fact that we have the feeling that the vital en-
ergy is fingertips vk1ere they
contact the key.
to recognize just-as-charac~eristic povJer loss
whenever the muscles actively e~gcga in disturbing the swing
(82). It is a matter of sensatio~ muscle
and skin pressure senses. However." le~ me ex~ressly.
.
warn

against the idea that this sens~tion should continuously be

controlled or consciously perfected during play (~5). If one
once becomes acquainted with th~s feeling, the organism func-
tions from then on fully unconsciously, although delicately
and precisely. In l .
t~1s 1"1gnt
' .
c~e ~
~eaGer w1. 1"'1 unaerstan
' d tne
,

fundamental difference bet~;.;een this and the conceptions indi-

cated above (35) as false--for 2XC.;"C-;ple, Jae11 e s.
70. Just as in bowing a string2d instrument,lO th2 importance

lOHere as Hell as th2re, the same basic error. '.::'c~is p~Y.l.: ~s to

the same source of error, namely a lack of abilit/ tc" ,~ :~nc:
observe.
 119

of the wrist in piano attack has always been misunderstood

and greatly overestimated. The most important movem2nt which

is, with the wrist motionless, has always been v~ewed as a

wrist motion. Although their efforts to make this matter clear
deserve every recognition, even those m1.1sicians vJho have oc-
cu?ied themselves in recent years v1ith studying the attack
physiologically have not come to the point of zrasping the

lead-
.c .1
~ng .Lrom ::ae elbow to the base of the hand. It is not a ques-
tion of ~,;hether the rotation move;:-:~ent is more or less exactly
described but solely a qt:estion of ~.;:-:ether the motion is
grasped in its physiological importance, l) as motion from
.,_ and
th, e e 1 bY.'l JO~nL., r. \
LJ .::s <cne
'
mosc' ,
L~g
h' 1
. c.!.y S\vinging motion
or~ a 1'L 'ooul
.:1"1 y movemenL.s.
A-
Genner mentions the turnin3 notion
and th2 rotation joint of the forearm. The latter is not
supposed to lie in the elbow joint, hm-vever, for Gc:.:r:-:1.er re-
serves this for flexing and extendin~ the forearr:1 (p. 7).
On p. 23 this raising and lowering is designated as a 11
vcr-
tical motion." On p. 24 he says: the radius and cubitus
participate in turning the wrist; this produces a shaking back
and forth of the hand. Although Ge1~1er knows far oore about
forearm rotation than most other authors, he is not clear,
however, about the relationship of this motion with t~e ~~~w
 120

joint--anatomically the

point--and \vith the mu::;cle struct',..Lce of the uppe1 arm.

Breithaupt and

turning motions by soyir:;::; that al:-.1cs:: (!) c::ll. de?2nd on

elbo\v. On p. 283 he s&ys of the forec-.rr.:1 t~1at it :Ls able; to

execute not only vertical but also horizont:c:l motions (both

completely false and misleading dc:sign~tions) 'l.bich are ex-

tre;.:ely important for 11

many 1Y rotc:.tion movemc:nts.

executed vJith immobile fin~ers by a quivering motion \vhich

extends from the forearm, over the fi:."'Zlly-held 'I.Jris t) to the

hand. Tr~L . 'b or1.nz

. "'1 s -vn. t'n ..... . wo ne1.gn . fi11.g2rs are played by

rocking the hand 'i:vith a relativc:ly passive forear:n." Herken-

thin calls it an "indirect raotion of attack."

E. Caland (Techn. Ratschlo.e'.!:~, pp. 17 and 25) r:1eans fore-

ar;a rotation by her "shaking motio:1. 11 of the hand. ..\lthou:;h

ttis is never clearly said, it can be deduced from the illus-

:::--a tions, p. 13. Cal and employs the '1 sl-:aking motion 11 only
for certain passages. -r=1
...__ x'"'d
c ' pronate:d arm and hand posi-

tion rules out general use of the rr:otion. :.:::eneral use should,

of course, be the case.

Jaell's precepts regarding rotation are as follows: Th2

rotation movement is performed only t~rough the infll cc:.c2 of

turning motions of the ha:1d (!). SlsJ.:~~::ion of the ::<'.:;; .. c

 121

the fifth-finger side is supposed to induce increas2d tension

in the elbow and in the arm and torso muscles.
't ..
muscular effort, noHhere a rotating S'iJing,
1

ac~ive vJ::l.l.C .1, 1.n-

deed, is rendered impossible by "static .s.ct::vi ty 11 and ir:di vid-

ual finger action.
,
Bosquet (QQ. cit.) speaKs
he seems to mean forear::1 rotation. ~c~2:::e c.::m 1>::: r.c doubt that
rotation has actually been used to a far greater excent than
one would assume from these teacbin-s
...... and that all the success
achieved is expressly d~e to it.
He vJho thin~.::s o:1ly about the >;n.ist mt:.st understc.nd that,
.
Ln 1
count.ess . .
manl.pulatl.ons, b ot1
~l not1.ons
. or,.. tne
, . '
wr1.sc, 1) .
_ ra1.s-
ing and lowering, 2) side\Iays ab- and c;.dduction, are combined
with forearm rotation. Indeed, every rapid, delicate, spirited
and graceful motion can be traced back to th2 co-operation of
rotation. The mechanical importance of rotation in piano
technique lies in the fact that rotation eliminates the wrist

tion. Rotation takes their place c.nd est,::blishc::s a connection

betHeen fingertips and elbmv, indeed beyond this point to the
shoulder along the entire muscular structure. Ue shall see
later that the wrist and finger joints assume a relatively
subordinate role (75, 91).
Rotation is represented in its purest form in the octave
tremolo. The ~ovrist does nothing in this action. In this
 122

rotation is well i<.:.'l.mvn to .,.-..~,

~
'! C' -~ ...... '1
.......... ~ - " - ....
..,~
.._~o..L
, ...
....J!) if not:

ognized as such, since it is, at least generally, ~r~ced back

to wrist motion. A few authors are better acs~ai~ted with
rotation; they knmv no one
has really understood the n:echanism of rote:.tion r:::ove:nen t:.

This knmvledge is, hmvever, indispe:-:sa:.::.le as :Lt .

'U2.S1.C

condition for a real understandin~

u of Di.ano
tcchniaue.

71.
~

Rotation is the only n-:otion \vhich provides freedom :crom

fi-3er technique. It function is to incorporate all finger
.
mo t :Lon, '
as suoor d":Lnate part..:La
..... 1 :r,ou:.on,
_,_. . to
:Ln .,
1::1e
. .r: d mo-
unJ...,:::te
tion as a vA~ole. Such freedom can only be achieved by rota-
tion. . . . ' 1.:Lsnea
I t was est..ao ., . , ,oerore
. ,-. . I :::,:..., )
\~~
"-'
~na
t

too, the turning of the upper a:.:.-:,: Oi'l a longitudinal or rota-

tional axis running from shoulder to elbow., cannot be elimi-
nated, when the hand is moved ov2r the keyboard in a purely
sidewise direction. On
be suppressed, if one absolutely so wishes, although, to be
,,..,. .c
sure, artificially and more or less forcibly. 1ne use OL a
hand guide (guide-main) is one of these unnatural mca.ns for
this, for in natural move3ents wrist and elbow joints are al-
"..vays linked together. 2very playe::., even the most rabid fin-
ger technician, has used the rotation movement coun.tless
times--of that there ca~ be no doubt. In broken chords, in
leaps of several octaves there is no other possibility. The
two functions of the elbow joint belong inseparably to:;2ther.
 123

Linked 'tvi th this is upper arm rotation, 'tvhich naturally ac-

cor.1panies forearm rotc:tion in many functions. The inner con-
nection of all these movenents will not escape precise and
attentive observation. This conn.;::ction is especially intimate
and unified in the swinging motion (74).
7 2. Forearr.1 rotation is distinguished mechanically by t'tvO
special characteristics.
1. The mov.-=ment takes place in an advantageously con-
structed turning mechanism, consistins of tHo joints combinGd:
above, in the elbow, an extraordinarily movable, flat ball
joint, and below, over the base of the hand, in a second joint
~ ~ ... ,.. of- ....... ,_,.
Just as :rree to rotate. .tvvo JO~nts r:or one ro1-aL~on-- ~.-n~s ~s

an exceptional occurrence in the body~ 'tJhich produces a special

mechanical effect--the secure and free operation of the rota-
tion s true ture. Rotation must be v21.7 closely observed in
the light of these mechanical peculiarities.
2. In addition, the hand, v1:..th its large and heavy mass
in proportion to the small diameter of the rotational joint,
is attached to the rotational axis like a flyv1heel ~ so to
speak, with a relatively large diameter. The dia~eter of this
flyv1heel becomes larger or smaller according to the extension
of the thumb and fifth finger. With full extension it is
relatively large. '1"". ,..
.1.ne:r-er:ore, . th
w~ . t'n~s
. 'nan d pos~v~on
. t- +-
ro~ac~on
'

is an especially light swing: for example, with the octaVQ

tremolo.
 Corresponding to its mechanically favorable arrangement,
forearm rotation is ahead of all other motions in velocity.
One can prove this to himself without complic&ted measuring
devices by counting 'tJith a metrono.-ne set at SO a~1.d comparin;s
rotation \vith other joint motions. riJhile the 1-:::..,hest
c...
number
of possible successive strokes of one finser va~ies between
five and at most eight per seco~d, the correspondins number
for rotation lies between nine and tw~lve. Accordingly,
pianists may judge for themselves how they have robbed them-
selves of mechanically superior motion by intentionally elim-
inating rotation.
The rotation movement consists of a rolling back and forth,
an inward rotation or pronation .s.:--. d an out"lard rotation or
supination. The direction of motion is most easily indicated
thus: from the player's view, supination takes place in his
right arm clockwise; in the left arm, of course, the reverse.
The ease of swing in rolling im1:1rd (pronation) is greater
than in rolling outward (supination) for definite physiological
reasons. This is the reverse of the situation in regard to
bowing. According to the anatomical muscle organiza~ion,

rotation is always easier in the direction which corresponds

to the curve of the forearm. In piano attack this is the op-
posite from what it is in bowing.
73. The individual motion of pronation or supination attains
great velocity through a relatively small m~scul.s.~ impulse
 125

due to its mechanically favorable :or~ and easy mobility.

If, in general, the swing is said to be mec~anically favored
by short muscles \vith a large diamete::;:-, by
ball-like joints

the favorable conditions a~e most

rotation. A slight impulse is sufficient fer each back-and-

forth swing and sufficient to propel the swinging mass, the

forearm and hand. Therefore, rotation is especially suited
to the swinging motion.
In addition, however, there is still a second point.
Due t o ..._,
~ne museu 1 ar .
organ~za
t.~on the upper arm and shoulder

every S'tvinging motion from the shoulc,:;;::- is linked easily and

directly with a swinging rotation. Thereby, rotation is in
itself designated to be the transnitter of impulses from the
shoulder muscles to the hand. From this a complete motion
of a very special kind results: n::r::::ely of a unity of origin
and execution which represents the exact opposite of all the
isolated, "independent, 11 separate motions of previous tech-
nique. It is thus the unity of the S'tvinging motim1 which makes
it so well suited, as the medium of true technique, to serve
as the direct expression of the will. How often in daily life
do we make use of this r..-;echanically and at the same time aes-
thetically superior characteristic of the swinging motion!
One might observe himself. Even 'tJalking is impossible \7i thout
 126

it and jumping, dancing~ running, etc. even more so. Every

pianist has uncou.scim:sly and necessarily utilized it count-
less times to the mockery of all finger technique and one-sided
gymnastics.
To put toget h er a h istory f=.
o~ p1ano tecnnlque
1' .r::
~rom t h.e
physiological vewpoint from the time of Diruta and ~1atheson,

from the influences of Bach through Liszt, would be a task

worthy of praise. Perhaps .it would reveal that the swin3ing
motion natural to the arm was already used 'i.Ji th the forerunners
of the piano even though entirely unconsciously. It can even
be said that hardly any other motion was possible, since this
was the most natural and purposeful motion and since distorting
influences such as hammer mechanics and gymnastics were not
as ye t preva 1en t ~,we1~zmann
~
c~~e1rrer h.er ) 11 rnenL10ns
~~ t -~~l e1sc -
the playing of the virginalists and gives a sixteenth century
illustration which pictures the easy, unrestricted hand posi-
tion of a \...roman playing Hl:ile the fourth and fifth fingers
even hang off the lteyboard. This position was sui ted to the
playing technique in any case, but it is designat~d in the
place cited as a "violation of a leading principle." For,
thinks Seiffert, the editor of one of the oldest manuals of
keyboard technique, Diruta, a pupil of Xerulo (1533-1604),
had already required that the fingers remain prepared in a

llceschich te der Klaviermusik. Leipzi 0r:.r, Brei tkon, f und Haertel,

ts9-9(var:-f->:-P. -o~-.- -
 127

,..
speciric ,nan d pos:t.tio:-1
. \.1over1.ng
. over t he .<.eys--:t.nc,J.ca
1 . ,. t'l.VC o f

the pedantic penchant for rules and precepts which has ah1ays
reigned. ;!.::-dght playir:.(;s muscular relaxation, must have; bcc;n
1

expressed at t hat
t~r:-e
4." ~~
...... t 1.~_,_s h~nd
- 1u o.~i~~o~.,
~ ---- . . un~
h ~ on
three

fingers.
vJi tn the use
position.
The development of recent piano technique proves \vi thout
doubt that rotation and exclusive.
No'~ a trace of rotation is to be found in the older -oure kinds

of finger technique of the seventies and eighties. At the

very time of their appearance, ho\vever, cane the first sug-
ges tions &.id at tempts to attack by r,1eans of \leis;ht. In all
respects mass weight and rotation prove their interdependence.
The unifying motion is also the 11
large" motion. It bears in
itself the imprint of unmistakable intellectual mastery in
comparison with the small, mechanized and spiritless finger
motion.
74. How is rotation to be exploited in technique? As we saw,
its motion form, favoring a light S\Jing, mal"-es it vJe.ll sui ted
first of all for co-operation with the swinging upper-arm motion
from the shoulder, for incorporation of the effect of the upper-
arm swing and for its transmission to the fingertips. The fur-
ther distribution of the swing is then accomplished through the
anatomical position of the fingers fo~ rotation (75). 'Chus
 128

apparently disparate elements of the 'I.Jhole S\vin.:;iu.::; r::.otio::.1.--

impulse from the shoulder, raising, low2rins ~nd ~ocation of
the forearm down to the fin~ertios--inte~r2te
._, ' ~
th.2c:1s2l ves in !:o
a mechanical unity (73).
In line 'l.vi th what has been said
intellectual
co-ordinating all individual actions together into a \vhole,
the swinging motion, involving all the muscles and joints of
the arm, represents a systematic, co-ordinated mechanism felt
as a single unit vlhich adapts itself in countless variations
of form, acceleration and range to the ever-changing demands
of musical performance. It can be understood how any muscle
action not adapted to the whole disturbs the swing, its free-
dom and its effect in terms of work, such disturbing muscle
actions being the individual raising and lowering of fingers
which fall outside of the frame of the complete action.
75. Rotation and the raising or lifting of fingers are mu-
tually exclusive. The manner of directing the attack is co:n-
pletely different in each: in the one, a swinging impulse from
above, in the other a fixation far up the arm. Of course,
the width of the keys demands the same finger spread in each
case and with it an active engagement of the small muscles
on the back of the hand. This engage~ent is undesirable, since
;t
... can be a source o-F
~ many e~_rors.
H ' 1 e f"1.nger tee h -
O'l.> ever, vJnl.
7

nique presumes a. ready position of the finge:. over 4

tl-:~: :<ey a:1d
 120

an unchanging pose, the swinging and rotating attack requires

,~1g
. h t SL1
..... ff enLnS
. ac t.1on 1n
. th e muse l es, necessary tor
~ t rans-
mitting the vital energy to the finzer tips, only in the mo-
ment of attack. The "stiffening" of the attaddng finger is
always a mom2ntary and, once again, a S\Jinging motion. It

because it is then engtiged in the far smaller suooortinba

.'
activ-
i ty of the finger muscles, to support the playing v1eight.
The chief point in this stiffening is that the impulse racing
down from the shoulder engages every muscle in turn, and that
the finger muscles take up the swing momentarily and transmit
it further. T:'"lus, they transfer not their O'l.vn small pm.;rer,
produced close to the key, but that of the large swinging force
from above. Hov1 incomparably smaller, however, is this momen-
tary swinging, tensing muscle action than maximum lift \.vi th
subsequent flexion. If one observes the anatomical position
of the five fingers (slightly extended) in relation to the
middle and base of the hand, the likeness to a wheel mechanism
when rotation is added comes involuntarily to mind. The fin-
gers form, as it were, the spokes of a wheel rotating on a
longitudinal axis which, running from the little finger over
the fourth, third and second to the thumb, effects pronation
and in the reverse direction supination. The curved, "arched"
hand moves approximately as if it held a ball in its arch and
executed a rolling motion with it. For this the uneqt::sl 1........ e~ot'n
..... 0
 130

of fingers--as if in scorn of all attempts at c~ualizntion--

is even of considerable advantage. Such a turning h"heel leads

t .ne ~
~~ngers as 1
soo~es over t,ne keys w;~L.h
~

which belongs to rotation. In this vJay perfor::-Jar.ce of the

most rapid succession of tones in both do~mvJard ar:d upv;c-.::-cl

directions is made possible, without any active effort ~rom

the extensors and flexors and with only the slight extension
demanded by the distances on the keys. In fact, the velocity
of such a succession of tones is never eve~ a~proxisntcly

reached by individual raising fingers i:vi th

a motionless hand, the characteristics of the old technique.
Nature provides us, through rotation, with sufficient speed
and does not enjoin the use of individual finger action. As
T. Bandmann has correctly pointed out, with the little-hammer
method each tone demands an extending (lift) and a flexing
(attack) motion, thus, for five tones up and do"tvn, eighteen
muscular actions. In contrast, by rolL.ng back and forth tHo
motions for the whole are sufficient. ___
The swinging ----- --
_._. motion is
thu_ Q._q_werful an<! ecol}_q__mical at the ~_?.me !_ime. Also in this,
the simplest imaginable kind of passage, lies the reason i:vhy
legato is so much easier and more natural with finger motions
controlled by rotation than with those consisting of raising
and lowering for each tone. It has already been demonstrated
that the connection of tones is also favored mechanically by
an arm resting in a passive condition.
 SECTION VI
THE BASIC PHYSIOLOGICAL FORH FOR THS ATTAC~CING tWTION

7 6. ~:hoever has followed the course of the preceding o bser-

vations attentively will have noticed
that the object is ever~vhere the swinging form of arm
motion in the attack,
that this form of motion has long been in use and cannot
be dismissed,
that this motion is employed 'tvhere professional musicians
have not even dreamed of it previously,
that it must be, simply, the motion of attack.
It fulfills the two basic conditions which are posed in
common by the construction of the instrument and the construc-
tion of our organism: 1) the momentaE,Y effect on the key, and
2) the utilization of that form of vit~l for~ in the arm which
is most suited to our musculature. One could almost say that
this form could be theoretically and logically deduced had
it not been known and used for a long time. The further con-
ditions required of a basic form of piano attack coincide with
the elimination of the errors pointed out in the previous sec-
tions. Tnese conditions are as follows:
1. elimination of isolated finger technique through the
131
 132

assistance of rotating r,~o-::ion,

2. participatio~ of all parts of the iimb a11a' elimina-

tion of all fixation,
,...
-._.;.1
~-. -{- '!-: -::':\ lar~e r::uscles or
3. exploitation of the po\:..:::r ~ .... ._

the limb.
4. freedom from dull, rnech~n~c _ excrc~sc,

5. conservation of power, th~s oreventinp

' ~
fc..ti~ue,
~

6. greatest possibility for srarlation of tonal intensity,

7. smallest expenditure OJ:: resting on the
key as string vibration conti'r:.ues.
,. 1
Accora~ng_y, .
c~e
'
oas~c
.
forr.1 in the rr.otion of attack can
be specified briefly as
of al.-cn

--- the shoulc:c:r

from --- ...
~----
do'tl'_"!
-----
~-----
i~1
-- \Jith a
coU..::boration -----
~--------------

isolated ---------
finger ----------
technique. The __
and naturalness of the
---- unitv ---- __...{_. -~------

v.7hole mot~ 2.'J2Si~t:_ p_eC~_C?=_lY_ in tl~is f<l.~'!:.

77. This question next comes to mind: can the swinging motion
be analysed precisely enough so tl~.at it can be explained and

taught? In my opinion, there is ~o plausible reason that c~n

 133

be cited in opposition. The initial difficulty of explaining

and teaching it should be no obstacle. It is, incidentally,
really difficult only for those '>vho have been brought up in
the generation of muscle gymnastics. :.Jith unspoiled and t.:::.l-

ented children no difficulty arises) accord:n8 to the expcri-

ence of T. Bandmann. ~. i'hen an artist
1J ..

ac~-i.J.2\7 2S rl:LE";

own via intuitive and creative intellectual effort, talent

alone discovers the v.my. No doubt it would be better if no
one Y.Jithout talent ever stuck a key. lIm,Jever, with the help
of indirect means, physiological mechanics, as vJell as forms
of technical motion perceived in an artist it is possible to
represent the inner organization of the attacking motion.
This train of thought, which is the basis of my v7hole '>lOrk,
is to be adopted here. It is highly probable that, via
pedagogy, the sense of the motion can be make sufficiently
clear, even to a child or youthful beginner.
It is clear that what differentiates the swinging motion
appreciably from other motions--apart from its outer form--
is found chiefly in the condi~ion of tensio~ in the musculature.
Accordingly, the first question to be answered is: \vhat is
this condition before, at the time of, and after the swing?
As has been said above (68), the muscular contraction
lasts only a short time. It gives only the impulse to the
motion and then leaves the mass to itself and its inertia.
Contraction and relaxation, activity and passivity (42) thus
alternate v;ith extreme rapidity. Before and after the impulse,
the same condition of passivity, relaxation, repose and lack
of contraction in all muscles must occur. If a sudden im-
pulse is intended to lead to motion, the mass to be moved must
be found in readiness and repose immediately beforehand. It
must not be influenced by the effects of other forces. Ap-
plied to the arm: if the driving force of some muscle group
is to be effective, all active muscles must first be brought
into a passive state. Any activity still present is an obstacle
to be removed first. Only the mere passive state or state of
repose of the whole musculature fulfills these conditions.
On the other hand: if the movement so initiated is to swing
freely then the effects of no other forces interrupting the
swing should influence or divert it after the impulse. This
condition too is fulfilled only by a condition of muscular
passivity.
78. A condition of muscular passivity is one which is ahmys
prepared (77, 84) and which is, at the same time, satisfied
with a minimum amount of muscular force. Passivity is possi-
ble in any situation o~ position of the arm, whether it is
suspended loosely, tvithout support, at the side of the body,
or v7hether it is supported somewhere from the shoulder dovm
to the fingertips. Accordingly, 1) passive suspension, and
2) passive position can be differentiated. In passive arm
suspension the muscular effort is obviously zero. One part
 135

is suspended from the other with no active effort of will,

held together solely by the organic structure of muscles,
tendons and ligaments. In contrast, "<-.rhen the fingertips are
placed on the ~eyboard as supports--a temporary concEtion i.\7 hich
occurs repeatedly in piano playing--a cert~in force is reqcircd
to sustain the weight of the arm on the fingertips (75). Both
forms of the passive state, passive suspension as i.vell as pas-
sive position, occur, the latter, of course, much more fre-
quently. The former interests us on special grounds: namely,
for use as a comparison "<lith the feeling of muscul.:;.r relaxa-
tion or repose occuring in various other positions. Corre-
sponding to what was said above (46), that we cannot sense
degrees of muscular contraction if they are not extreme or
differentiate their sensations consciously, the fact that we
cannot differentiate degrees of tension between passive sus-
pension and passive position through finger support is self-
explanatory. The important thing is: we have the feeling of
complete relaxation when the arm is weighted passively in spite
of the supporting effort of the finger muscles.
Everything depends on learning to know and, further, to
feel consciously this condition of passive weighting as de-
fined above. For this purpose I must ask the reader who de-
sires to become acquainted with this tool, the arm, to make
a slight digression.
lunong the infinite numbers of degrees of vleight 'i.,Ji th \Jhich
a finger can rest on the keyboard or some other obj c:c'- )f :upport
 136

three can be distinguished as extreme states [Grenzzustacnd7:

1. Haximum weighting.
~~bile seated, place the five fingers in a moderately
curved position on the edge of a table in front of the chair
and support the arm on the five fingers Hhile pressing it as
hard an possible. The fingers are nm;r carr~7 i!:[I; the r::.:::..::i:r:urJ
weight. It need scarcely be pointed out that r.1axir.1um \veight-
ing is out of the question in piano technique and is mentioned
here theoretically, solely as a way of clarifying the other
forms of weighting.

2. Zero weighting.
Place the fingers in the same position so that they just
touch the support (table top or keys).
Between these two extremes of 'tveighting there is an in-
finitely great number of intermediate levels. Of these, the
one mentioned above is of particular interest.

3. Passive weighting or weighting for playing.

It is difficult to convey an understanding of this be-
cause, as experience shows, the large majority of people,
especially those accustomed to exaggerated muscular effort
and gymnastics in piano playing, do not, as a rule, grasp and
learn it readily. An attempt will be made to define it as
exactly as possible, since it is the physiological basis of
piano technique and, unconsciously, always has been. Once
learned, such weighting for playing cannot be forgotten and
 137

is available at any time. People who know it can explain it

readily. Heighting for playing comes about \vhen the \veight
of the limb rests on the fingers (as in the position above).
79. Let us first compare these three forms of weighting in
order to become better acquainted with their characteristics.
Apart from slight errors, we can count the 'tveight of the arm
itself from the shoulder down as the same in all three cases.
If the weight mass remains the same, then the differences are
to be sought in the degree of rnusular activity. In maximum
weighting there is extreme action of all muscles which are
in any position to operate in a dm.m-vmrd direction, the action
in individual muscles being very unequal. In zero weighting
musular action is distributed over the whole arm as one part
carries the other, and the sum of the "t.vork performed is, of
course, equal to and opposed to the weight. By simple observa-
tion it is seen that zero weighting comprises all "positions"
and "poses" of the limb and its parts in the air, 'tvi thout
props or support. The work is distributed over the muscle
groups so that the smaller muscles of the fingers bear only
the fingers, the larger, the hand. Throughout, the extensor
muscles take care of bearing the weight, since the flexors
work \nth the weight and only the extensors against it. Tne
shoulder muscles carry the whole arm including the smaller
muscles, which, in turn, carry their loads. Zero \veigh ting
occurs continually ~ ~momentary, passing condition with all
nQg-swinging movements directed upward. It should nev'":r
 138

It is not to

be introduced into the swing, because, for that, muscular

relaxation alone must occur. L1 zero v;eizhting, the vJeight
is felt in the shoulder, i.n 'tJeighting for playing, on the
five fingers.
vrnat is the to r::i..:SCt.tlar activity in

\'leighting for playing?

80. The weight of the arm is carried by the :Zi.ve fingertips
resting on the keys, apart from air pressure ancl the elastic
carryin.s forces in the s::oulder joint .s.:.;.d arour:d The
passive condition with-

out having to \vork actively--thus a condition occurs opposite

extent by the elastically strung joints and ligaments, and

1 '- . . " The load is dis-
t ne musc_e
l
SLruccure ~s cnereoy reLlevea.
1 '-

tri buted to the other :-n'-!scles in the forearr:1 and hand so that
'
eacth muse 1 e nee d ex.er t on.Ly t"ne .
m::..r~lmum
, e:r,.. r:or
,- t requl.. re d ....t.O

carry the load. Part of the burden of the hand and finger
skeleton is carried in the hand. The finger joints are dis-
posed, slightly curved, to each other so that one leans on
the other, similar to .:m arch ':Jhe:re one stone carries the
other. Concernin:::; the do'lrll.wm::-d pull o:c the load, it has an
effect on the tendons and muscles on the extensor side of
the hand and fin9:ers as ;:.;rell as on the flexor side that is,
~ '
the supporti~3 effort is distributed equally to the flexors
and extenso;,:-s. This sort of distribution over many

 139

opposin::; muscles is only

f
_or p 1 ay~ng.
.

to this kind

one-sided engc1gerne11t of fctc.J rnuscles i:1 otl1e1.- fa::.T.s o~ tr2if:).1t-

ing. For it follmvs t~12.t: each r:1uscle exerts itself only

slightly, that the rc::c:i~)rocal activity anci e:l.::.s ..::ic tc,sion

of all muscles maintains the equilibriu~.

sensation which accompanies the relaxed condition of the

., , . .,
:r:usculature in Heighti:ng for playing is to oe cnarac~cr~zea

as a feeli~g of passivity or relaxation of all tension.

This is t::..-ue in spite of the muscular activity actually

1n1.s
..........,, "'
~s
~
as t..onJ..snl.ng enougn ana:1 can
1 .. ., ~
or~1.y
b a exp l a::..nec
. ' by

the fact that our conscious senses cannot perceive this slight
muscular activity, let alone ev<.:luc:.te it to any extent.

The passivity of the arm -r.-ruscles irJparts a very charac-

teristic feeling which one can o~ly lea~1 to sense more clear-
ly through frequent, attcr:ti ve observc.tion vvhile comparing

weighting for playing with zero weighting several times in

succession. In going fro:-:: one to tl1e other the load is felt
to glide up to the shoulder or t:"ie reverse. 1 This sensation

lThe reason for the curious illusion in Ja2ll and Caland

about the 1~~1ten~na
J... 0 L c~~ry~no
a--,- (._;;, a~~~cc 0~ ~ t~ns4o~ J..s ~~e~
....1.. ,...:,., C ...... J-\.-l..lo. s-~a
<.,.;..'-
J.. C.L ... .,_ l.L ...

- - s'n ou ld e r ~censJ..on
T'ne
lS ,.. ~ ' ...~o procuce
reLC ' a Slmllar ~ ' -
snJ..ZCJ..ng
of v7eight from the f:_~:._:J:ers up to the shoulder. One can e2.sily
convince himself o:E tr:is by ma:(ing the experiment. The ' 1m.::::<.-
.
J..ng ot- t'ne 'aanc' ~l~~~t: . ' as a reatner ,.. - ~~ ( ~aLana)
/""' 1 ' .
J..s a~ error J..n

reSO"'-Ct- t0 tJ-.:'"- -'0-'-.:--,,>,--"-C'

.t. _ _ c. ...
...... .._
~-C '-J...e
v1.. L."'"'
..._~ ... ,-:~!-j-.,,-.-;_-'-.r
... _l..:.o ''~0'--"or--.
z.. ..... '-..:;"'' t.-..:.... ~_;_,_._ i:~ a'}_c"'.-
r_.-~ .............. 4 ___ .... -- --

metrically ODDose:d .. to ;::-.e :free action of \.'s:: _,~::---:.t

_'-' for. vJlJ.ich 1>/e
are striving .
is so characteristic and so essential for the pianist's
understanding of playing weight and swinging motion that
it must be accurately inculcated. It must be noted, however,
that this inculcation by means of attentive observation
serves exclusively for the purpose of understanding the proc-
esses of motion. The feeling for the correct playing vJeight
becomes progressively more unconscious and ceases to be de-
liberate, according to the fundamental axioms of practice.
81. The study of weight teaches us to know the correct nat-
ural position which the fingers have to assume physiologically
and which they do actually assume of their mm accord in the
case of the greatest possible pressure as well as of a lesser
weight on the fingertips. This is a slightly curved position
of all finger-metacarpal joints and the \VI"ist so that a kind
of arch occurs which is able to counter the greatest pressure
with sufficient resistance. Even in weighting for playing
we are aware of a spontaneous natural inclination toward this
hand position which is thus the one indicated for the attack,
adequate for every load, and most reliable for transmitting
energy to the key from above.
Accordingly, the direction of the fingertips upon meeting
the key comes about of itself. The nail joint of the second
through fifth fingers does not stand vertically on the surface
of the keys but slightly inclined (65 to 70), an inclination
which is confirmed as the most appropriate by physioloz~cal
 141

observation of the tendons in the fingers. In contrast, the

thumb touches the key with the side surface of the nail joint
at about the same angle. Assuming equal weight on all finzcrs,
a line joining the nail joints of the fingcrtips (differently
formed, of course, according to the individual) forms an
approximately circular arc.
Not too much importance should be attributed, however,
to the size of the angle of attack. For, with the vital power
meeting the key in a specific direction, the position of the
fingers is rather unimportant for the effect because the key
does not represent a freely movable body. It must yield to
limiting restraints on its motion because it rotatcs on a
horizontal axis. Thus in piano playing the angle of attack
is determined less by the mechanics in the impact of the at-
tacking mass than by the position in which the individual
skeletal parts of the hand must appear at the moment of con-
tact.
It cannot be recommended strongly enough to the pianist
that he make the playing weight, given by nature to his hands
and fingers and so very frequently used, the object of thor-
ough study. It is the normal condition of the musculature,
to which the arm, of necessity, must ever again return between
any two movements, whatever they may be.
82. Weighting for playing is capable of exact mathematical
measurement. Weight measurement with a scale 't.vhich should
 142

not be so sensitive that it is disturbed by the countless,

s~all, involuntary oscillations in the initial contact is
best suited to this study. A spring scale with a level
weighing surface and a capacity of approximately 20.kilo-
grams is the most suitable. Measurement of maximu~ tveizht-
ing does not need to be considered at all.
Playing weight may be measured in the following way.
Place the scale at the same height as the keyboard. Let
the fingers rest on the scale in a passive condition, bear-
ing the arm weight. One learns what passivity is perhaps
most quickly in this way. Tnrough several weighings one
can arrive at a relatively exact reading from the average.
Fluctuations in individual cases will, of course, be con-
siderable. Once determined, one has in this measurement
of playing weight a reliable control apparatus for the most
delicate correct and incorrect muscular movements. The
shifting of the point of gravity is seen immediately, in
the torso by the fluctuations at each in- and exhalation
and the consequent raising and lowering o the shoulder.
Similarly, small, unconscious psychic excitation betrays
itself (the so-called ideo-motoric motions); but even the
slightest voluntary motion of the other hand, the head,
etc. causes a more or less sizable fluctuation.
If one extends a finger, a fluctuation occurs immediate-
ly, showing a positive increase in weight because a bending of
 143

the hand is produced, according to rule, by stretching the

finger. This increases the pressure on the scale in propor-
tion to the power of flexion. Immediately afterv;rard, hm1ever,
follows a negative fluctuation, a decrease in weight, because
stretching the finger brings about a slight stiffening of the
finger joints and wrist which lessens the load.
The same can be observed with very minimal, hardly per-
ceptible bending of the finger. A loss of weight occurs imme-
diately.
The loss of weight with the intrusion of any active muscle
work whatever is an important and characteristic phenomenon
for pianists. It is caused by the opposing action of muscular
effort against the passive, resting weight. Extension takes a
part of the burden of arm weight away. It somewhat stiffens
the joints previously permitted to be passive and assists,
therefore, in carrying the weight.
Thus this weight measurement shows us weight loss through
any muscular action intruding upon a condition of relaxation
in a more delicate way than is possible for the senses, which
can only be cultivated after prolonged self-observation. Exact
observation will aid the senses, however, and thus make the
learning process easier. As in the experiment, every lifting
or extension of an individual finger in the attack must always
bring with it a loss of power. The slightest independent finger-
lift partially arrests the condition of passivity. It will be
demonstrated (83) that the conditions of weighting for
playing apply also to the swinging motion and that, in this
motion too, every wrong musular action is a disturbance.
The weight resting on the fingertips when vJeighted for
playing ranges on the average between 500 and 1000 grams,
according to the size of the arm. If one secures pure play-
ing weight after several attempts, the scale shows this by
its relative constance. It is assumed that the arm main-
tains the same friction against clothing and chest, the same
slightly abducted position and an absolutely passive attitude
from the shoulder down. Further, the resting point of the
finger must remain unchanged.
83. If the playing weight is distributed equally on each of
the five fingers, one-fifth of the burden falls on each fin-
ger. It amounts to five times as much for the individual
finger when the weight rests on it alone. The weight can be
placed on each of the five fingers whereby even the weakest,
the fifth finger, carries the full burden.
The weight can also be transferred as fast as desired
from one finger to the other. From a state of passivity the
smallest impulse suffices to re-position the weight in the
fastest possible manner. Each re-positioning is brought about
by a small swinging motion with the assistance of forearm
rotation. The key to the explanation of balancing the fingers,
of equalization (56), which some think to be solely a matter
 145

of finger gymnastics, lies in this ability to distribute the

weight of the arm. The illusion of finger equalization is
very curious. Equalization can be shown and conveyed to a
reasonably intelligent beginner in the right way in a few
minutes. How much endless practicing, how much valuable time
has been squandered on this phantom of the imagination.
Still another phenomenon is clarified by playing \vcight.
The beginner is continually asked to hold his arm "loosely,"
and as a test the trick of unexpectedly lifting his arm is
used. H. Riemann (.QE.. cit.) says: ''The hand should not be
weighed down by the arm. The hand is carried by the support-
ing fingers. The teacher should check on this by suddenly
lifting the pupil's arm. The wrist must yield without the
slightest resistance."--No. The opposite is true. Passivity
occurs only when the weight of the whole arm rests on the
hand and fingers. This alone makes this test by the teacher
possible. It is impossible, however, when the arm carries
the hand. Jaell, too, cites this test as a control. Ho\'l,
with her precepts of continuous muscle tension, avoidance of
any stiffness and resistance in the joints is possible is
impossible for me at least to understand.
The demand for this test is very old, but one seeks an
explanation of how and why in vain. As one can convince him-
self by experiment, it is only in a relaxed state of all mus-
cles, with the arm weighted for playing, that a loose condition
of the musculature is possible, so that the joints obey every
pressure from without. There is no condition in piano play-
ing in which less muscular effort is used than when the arm
is weighted for playing. The arm behaves like a Joos_]. y
susQended chain, whereas active muscular effort would ma~<e

the chain tensed and fixed from one link to the next. On the
other hand, to demand looseness during the pov1erful sv1ing ~-.rould

run counter to all rules of mechanics. It must first be clear

to us where and when looseness, that is, relaxation, can be
demanded legitimately and that alternation betv1een tension
and relaxation of tension occurs continually. In the opinion
of E. Caland 2 active lowering of the shoulder becomes the
center of technique, of "artistic motion." The lov1ering is
erroneously ascribed solely to the broad back muscle, whereas
actually a number of other muscle segments participate. It
is a serious regression, however, that conscious fixation of
the shoulder, even of the rib cage, is demanded and, still
more serious, that the elbow and wrist are supposed to be
internally fixed and even the fingers rigidly tensed. This
is, then, what has happened to Deppe's "free fall. 11

The grounds which Caland cites for the necessity of using

the back muscles actively would scarcely be viewed as tenable
by anyone. The first reason, "because Deppe laid it down as
a principle," cannot be taken seriously. For the other reason,

2
rlavierlehrer, 1904.
 147

conservation of energy, no proof has been brought forth by

the writer, nor could it be.
84. In weighting for playing we have become acquainted with
a mere condition of rest, which occurs as such of~en, if more
or less temporarily, during playing. Permanent positions and
poses, which had to be pointed out as wrong and not permis-
sible with all other conditions of the musculature (79), are
exactly what is demanded of weighting for playing: it should
be the ever-recurring condition of rest and relaxation and,
indeed, as long as required or desired. All motions proceed
easily from this condition of rest. It is not necessary that
all attacking motions proceed solely from the condition of
weighting for playing. It is also possible to proceed from
other states of relaxation like the one of passive suspension.
The condition of rest in weighting for playing has shown
us much: the slight, active participation of the muscles sup-
porting the fingers, the passivity of all other muscles, the
effect of weighting for playing on hand and finger position.
In order to move the mass resting on the keyboard, whether
from a state of passive suspension or some other desired pas-
sive state, an impulse from the shoulder as the point of sus-
pension for the limb mass is required.
Although the breast bone-collar bone joint was given above
as the highest point of suspension for the limb, it is appro-
priate on practical grounds not to consider this point but,
instead, the shoulder joi~t 'as the actual point of suspension.

This is based on the fact that we cannot voluntarily move the

shoulder and especially the collar bones in sympathy with arm
motions. We are able, naturally, to move the shoulder volun-
tarily in such motions as lifting, lowering, etc. In arm mo-
tions, however, where the shoulder participates in a different,
purely mechanical way, shoulder movements ensue completely
without influence from the will. I first traced these mechan-

ical, involuntary motions in 1899 and published the findings

in the Archiv fuer Anatomie und Physiologie (supplementary
volume).
The fundamental importance of the passive co~dition lies
in the fact that the equilibrium of the muscles makes the
condition of weighting for playing admirably suited for obey-
ing the smallest impulse at any moment. Muscle contraction
is never more than just what is required to carry the load.
No muscle need ever be first brought into a condition of rest
from a state of activity. This lability and preparedness
represents the mechanically most important characteristic of
the weighted-for-playing state.
The same passive condition reigns before as well as after
the swinging attack. This fact is especially important. Piano
technique often requires in legato that the weight remain rest-
ing on the key, on one or more fingers. Thus a condition be-
tween two swings with no active muscular action, the least
 149

conceivable exertion and the slightest conceivable fatigue

is exploited in a practical way. The fingers carrying the
playing weight become, in a real sense, supporting fingers
(89).
How does the musculature act during the swinging mot~on?

This is taught most simply by comparing the natural motion

with which one tosses a stone with one that is incorrect and
not to the purpose, for example, one with an artificially ex-
tended or a stiffly and angularly held arm. In the latter
we see and feel immediately that a correct swing is impossible
and that no practical effect can be achieved. In a tossing
motion correctly introduced and taking place without inter-
ference, we sense clearly that the very considerable energy
applied only acts for a moment and only requires a momentarily
strong muscular action. We sense further that this strong
temporary action races through the arm from shoulder to hand,
that the muscles of the shoulder, upper arm, forearm, etc.
are clearly gripped in turn by the energy of the swing (69).
Immediately afterward, however, passivity occurs once again.
The more far-reaching the swing, the more energetic it
is. Therefore, the greatest velocity is reached when the
tossing motion is executed from a position with the arm sus-
pended next to the torso. The arm is thrown up to a certain
height above the key (falling height) and passes from an
ascending motion directly into a descending one while re-
t~ining the swing.
 150

85. Above (54), the objection that the swinging motion is

a rough, forcible action contrary to the nature of piano
playing was rejected. Whoever makes this objection cannot
be clear on how often he has utilized the swing himself in
everyday playing, and how often he still uses it. Tender-
hearted souls may not be able to rid themselves of a certain
prejudice against the "throw," but nothing justifies this
prejudice. The great:_ advantage of the ~Vi!.~ .is th. ex~ra

ordinari!.z delic~ capacit:( to gradat~ it~ actiqg and the

Q.Q.SSibilit!_~ of the mos~ extensive shadi!l8_ ~ to the passive
Qgditio~ { the ther ~~cles. We can check even the most
powerful blow of the fist in the last moment right over the
object to be struck. What is possible with such a crude action
can naturally be achieved much more easily with a delicate,
accurately evaluated movement, whose effect is known from the
beginning.
86. I should like here to refute the erroneous opinion that
in weighting for playing a new, very different and theoreti-
cally conceived condition of the arm is under consideration.
Weighting for playing only represents a special case, applied
to the piano, of a general, legitimate phenomenon of muscular
relaxation which has always been apparent to an attentive
observer in art and also in daily life wherever power and grace
are manifest. One becomes aware of the character of a movement
expressing grace or dignity as soon as he desires to imitate a
 151

graceful or dignified motion. To a high degree, the moving

limb is given over to weight during the entire duration of
the motion. Any active muscular contraction working against
the weight would alter the form of the motion, interrupt its
course and disturb the original expression.
Every rider, tumbler, fencer, etc. knows that "letting
go" is the "trick .. " If one has understood the nature of a
relaxed muscular condition, with the minimum of necessary
muscle action for the next motion, whatever it may be, with
continual readiness to follow every slightest impulse, he
will also grasp that all skillful, secure, technically per-
fect, finished, graceful, expressive, assured motions must
have relaxation and passive weighting as a prerequisite. We
have arrived here at a point where the areas of aesthetics
and physiological mechanics meet, where empirically discovered
standards for beauty find their explanation in muscle physi-
ology. For the common essence of these motions, accomplished
with the least expenditure of energy, is the participation of
just as few muscles as is absolutely necessary for accomplish-
ing the task.
As to the physiological-technical side of these motions,
it was already shown (38 and 48) that skill and its perfection
consist in the elimination of all superfluous and excessive
accompanying motions of the beginner and, on the other side,
the selection of purposeful muscular actions. Even if practice
 152

here as everywhere starts out from the maximum, from excess,

natural disposition permits talent to begin far below the
average maximum and relatively close to the level to be fi-
nally obtained only through adaptation and conservation of
energy. Movements in which excess power and muscular effort
have not yet been polished away and in which disrupting ac-
companying motions have not yet been eliminated give the
well-known angular, stiff, awkward, wooden, clumsy impression.
Purposefulness can be recognized immediately in skillful,
smooth, finished, polished motion. It has an effect just as
aesthetically perfect and harmonious as the motions themselves
are graceful.
Logically, finger technique at the piano must make an
aesthetically unsatisfactory, forced, angular impression--the
freely swinging way of playing, however, a pleasant, smooth
and s~illful one. The listener may judge according to his
own observation if this is the case. To use a convenient com-
parison, one can say that finger technique is related to the
natural attack as foot gymnastics of the ballerina is to the
actual dance.
Obeying natural laws, the body chooses of itself to use
weighting for playing, but performers have, from some extra-
neous motive, unfortunately always worked against it with
their muscles. Only great artistscan keep free of this ten-
dency. One must be fair and admit that the inadequacies of
 153

tl1e instrur:1e!1t bear ti:1~ chief bla~2 fo:: ~::.:..s.

key apparatus, consisting of endless, u~iform keys) favors

continual regression i:1.i:o the sa~ne e:.-rors, even r:i-:ou;::h these

errors seem to have been just elimin2ted.

Through the S\Jing hTe have at o~:.- disposal a much zreater
.. 'I!
difference between p:t.a:"~:L s s :.mo ana f C":.... tiS S i :'~~0

range of gradation than can be proc>..:cc;'-~ 'oy

We gain thereby a considerable inc::-eas2

as
an incomparably greater musical e.2fec::. The s:i..ngi<:g, full-
bocied quality of the playing is ac~ieved by greater tonal
intensity and oore gradation of
this intensity. Besides, an is~~oved, ~echanically favo~ed

.
l ega t o :t.s ac h.
L:t.evea. ,oy ~
~ne of
One of the most difficult proble~s o~ physiological
mechanics is to determine composite r::otions o Z the limb made
up of many stages and infinitely varied in respect to energy

and velocity. It is impossible to simple fonn~las for

gradations of power in the attack. T;Je must resort to :;encral
physiological considerations. Lhe player must proceed from
a condition of rest, as a more suitable object for observa-
tion, in order to make clear to himself the gradations of his
swinging attack. Only in this condition are the differences
capable of being investi3ated or perceived, T.Jhi.le, :.r:. co:.--:.trast,
 154

the processes in the musculature du~ing the swing escape pre-

cise observation. As regards the selection of applicable
degrees of strength in the attack, all levels fro~ zero to
playing weight come into conside~ation. The applicable desrees
of muscular contraction in the sw!nging attack lie only within
the limits of these t"vo v:eightings. :-~uscular action beyond
playing weight up to maxinmm vJeighting may occur only momen-
tarily. The path to maximum 'iveighting would inevitably lead
back to wrong technique because of the muscular effort in-
valved. attack are produced by in-
crease in velocity vJith the same \.Jeight (as in \.veigh::ing for
playing) and by increase in the arc, the extent of "reaching
Out ' fl of 1-'f--
-... .--:. SW~l.ue;,"'-
.,n-lncr
-:;; "'rr
.....
.., l''"SS
- , (C.r;)
u V

88. As far as the direction of the svJinging art::~ motion is

concerned, 1.vi th the delicate adj-Js tabili ty of the rounded heads
in the joint of the upper arm (54) and v:ith the characteristic
arrangement of the muscle fibres coiled around the upper arm
on all sides, the direction is, one might say, a ~atter of
complete indifference. The motion is accomplished 1.vith equal
ease in all directions, with eve17 angle and usually with
longitudinal rotation of the upper arm. Striking any desired
key with any desired finger can be achieved in the most accu-
rate and secure way, and finally without the control of the
sense of sight by practicing the distances. Motion in an
absolutely straight line does not occur at all; it will always
 155

take place in a curve, t:1e form and curvature being deter-

mined by the position and succession of the keys (89).
The upper ar>:n motion deterr:Jines, hovJever, only the basic
form of the curve described by the hand. As a moving, swing-
ing mass the arm is, in fact, a pendulum, and one compounded
by several interpolated pivots. If ue leave the suspension
of the shoulder structure on the breast bone out of considera-
tion, since the shoulder joint is not swoordinate to the will,
we have, beside second point of suspen-
sion and rotation in the elbow joint and still more such points
in the vrrist, metacarpal and fin2e~ joints.
89. A co~?licated curve forw arises from the several points

Or~ ro+-- t--io""''" o,...- susn'"ns.:;

'-c~~.._ ' i<:: ~ on r..:ol;::;_"":<_:
-~ ~-- - 1luc:t-rat"'s
i - - -- ~ as a "roundr=>d
~

motion 11 a ldnd of curve to-vmrd the keyboard (p. 24). She

neglects, however, to of~er us any explanation.
Hi-:::hout rotation, no curve. Those shmvn by Caland are
of another kind, explicable by fixation--but wrong. Clark's
cu::: ,:es are observed correctly but explained incorrectly, ac-
cording to physiology. The source of the curves is not the
torsion of all joints along the longitudinal axis of each
skeletal part, but rotation from the upper and especially the
forearm. Those traced from a point of the wrist, noted by
T. Bandmann (op. cit.) are correct on the whole. Tney are
executed by the wrist and have natural phrasing as the desired
effect.
 156

It is best to make the attac~ing curve clenr by means

of a com~onplace illustration. Perform an extensive stirring
motion in the air at approximately chest level and v1ith pmJer-
ful participation oi the whole arm and shoulder. This r.tove-
ment gives a picture of compound, complementary rotation in
the individual limbs. If one then performs the stirring mo-
tion with a supporting fingertip as a fi~ pivotal point
(turning finger or axis finger), he has the basic form of
attacking curve repeated in countless variations according
to the r::usical passage. The curves so originating are deter-
mined by the length of the arm, t~1e position of tl:.e key used
as the turning point c.:-:.d the distar-Lce of the out\,mrd reach
'
for tne .
S'i.ll.ng. The lines of the curves are described in the
air by a~y desired point of the ann. Those of the fingers
and hand can be imagined as the smallest arcs projected on
the keyboard. Through practice c:md adaptation the distance
becomes ever shorter, the curves SQaller, and energy and time
are spared. Thus a certain basic foru1 of curve can be ascer-
tained for every ann and for every passage. Intuition can
aid the learning process in this. One must, however, guard
against deriving new, restrictive rules from the curve forms
thus discovered. It should not be forgotten that in learning
technique the body does everything better and more correctly
by its own arrangement than any attempt at direction can pos-
sibly teach.
 157

The COn ti!1UOUS ::10 tion, the j Oi':1in[; 0 f c:1.e CU:CV2S, t.:J.~(CS

place through the rolling action of pronation or s~oination

on the -v;heel formed by the five fingers (72), throu~h the fall
from one finger to the next. The "supporting fingers 11 take
on a considerably different and more extensive kinetic import-
ance than before; they become typical rotating fingers or axis
fingers on which the arm mass momentarily rests and then swings
along further. The passive relaxed condition provides that,
in the continuous motion of the swing, a slitht impulse on
the labile arm mass suffices to throH the hand with a rolling
action from one finger to the next. The -----
active passing
- under
of the thumb becorr~cs not only superfluous, it is to be elirni-
nated as a disturbing muscle action. The sup()orting fingers
keep the key depressed for legato and tenuto with the slightest
tension conceivable. They are ready at any moment to change
from supporting fingers to rotating fi~gers. It can be said,
to sum up, that no curve is possible wit~out rotation.
90. Thus forearm rotation is the keystone, as it were, of
a system of motion constructed on physiologica~-- principles.
Always used unconsciously by good players, since no co-ordinated
motion of attack is conceivable without it, rotation is in a
position to suppress the unnatural technique vJhich trains fin-
gers to be individual hammers and to free the weak musculature
of the hand from enforced over-exertion, if only it is con-
sciously and systematically used and correctly taught. Prob-
ably the sharpest contrast to former opinion lies just in this
 158

It is here

that resistance of petrified trad~tion will persevere most

tenaciously.
The conclusion is this: no sto?ping or fixation at any
.. ,_
time; smooth, fluid motion always.
r-""1~

!~ere 1s no 1n~errup~1on,
~

no stands till, no 11
holding 11 in the a1.r.
.. ,.. .... i- ,
even 1r ~emporary, ~enas toward slug0ishness and implies a
cessation of motion. It is reprehensible to deceive students
about the essence of piano technique, about swinging, con-
tinuous motion by showin3 them static pictures and illustra-
tions of poses and positions. The only possible sethod of
representa tic:.-~ ':;o:1ld be: t~~e use of motion pictures.
91. T'ne
.... 7-:--:
T, c ,_
\ ..., - u \...) has nothing
more to this continuous motion than to adapt to the
current need. For individual types of attack, chiefly stac-
cato, hand mass has been used by many as a swung, tossed
weight, and correspondingly correctly taught. The transfer
of swinging motion also to the hand is more difficult than
the rotating motion, fo:= t:1e rcasor~s given above (72). ?or
some tasks of technique, ~owever, it is indispensable. Active

which more or less impairs a fre~ ~w~.

 159

'l r/b
. ~ rat~n.:; mo t~ons, , ''
r:;an~ea oy a~ elevated and character-
:tstic musical effect, fo:.. .::; a small but i::1?ortant part of the
motions in technique . .J .Z:-:o~-r~1 fo::- 2 long time in musical

language as vi!2_'f_ato, they a:ce not

correctly understood at all, as a glance at the D.p;J:Copriate
literature reveals. Up to now, they were difficult to teach
and to imitate for the simple reason that the mechanical laws
governing them "tvere not correctly zrasped.
''Vibration consists of the
of the same r:1otion. Tl1e r.umh21. of :C2[)2tit:Lons vari2s beti:Jeen
4

six and tHelvc: ?er second. There is no v2locity exceeding

t He 1 ve.
,... j- "' 1 . +-
_,_'1 , 1.
, .
, ,_
1~0~ e:.ve:ry nea ::ny man--p.s. ... no.;.og:tca-'- t..remo ~ng ~s no'-

considered here--is able to achieve this vibration with equal

ease. There are countless gradatio~s of innate disposition.
One person is never successful d2spite many attempts and much
practice in achieving t:;.e velocity and facility desired by
the musical ear. The other succeeds ,,,i thout difficulty on
the first attempt. Thus, assuming a certain disposition,
vibration is possible in all joints. However, the mechanical
structure of the joints is suited for it in very different
degrees. In this connection, joints disposed favorably or
less favorably to vibration can be distinguished according
to the construction of the J.:Oint and the muscles beloncrino
b 0

3 The following sta~ements on vibrating motion are taken from

an article of the same name by the author which appeared in
Mus il92.l~do..E._<?._g_:hs.s..b..~ll ~~~ e t_t:..'=..~~' 19 0 5. Those interested ':vi ll
find still further material there.
 160

to it and accor~in3 to size of tho One

c
cnn easily prove to ~imsclf that vibration of a .L.J..n~er--

diffe~e~t fin2e~s does not

rapid, successive motions of ---------- ......

belong to vibration--is ~uch more difficult and can be much

less rapidly executed than that of th2 h::ind or Hholc arrn.
The short parts of th2 finger 'tvhich are set in motion by long
tendons running over several joints are normally completely
incapable of rapid vibrating motions and especially of those
with sufficient speed and power to be of technical use. To
go through c:.ll ::he individual joir.ts liould lcc:;.d too far afield;
only those most i~r:-;:;or::2nt for inst:.:.1.::n2ntal tec:-.nicue will be
taken into consideration.
11
The hand reveals conditions incor:1parably more favorable
in comparison to the parts of tl:.e finger. Its relatively
heavy mass can easily ..: : placed in vibrating, alternately
flexing and extending motion. If one performs an experiment
in hand vibration and intensifies its power and extent, he
notices the inc~easing participation of the whole arm up to
the trunk. This observation is of zreat physiological impor-
tance. There is no isolated motion of a single joint. All
joints of the arm ahvays participate in every, even the small-
est, movement of a part. In the elbow, also, a vibrating,
alternately flexing and extencing motion can be achieved.
In the shoulder joint such a motion can be accomplished with
the whole arm; here too, all other joints between the shoulder
 161

and fingertips partici~ate. Therefore, the hand tremolo in

~~no Ql~l~ cannot be sharply differentiated from that of
the Hhole arm. Tl':.e di.::ferences are v:-'.ly quantitative and

determined solely ;:;y ::l;e ~;::..zc= of t::e: :-:..=:ss set in motion.

"Forea~ rota~i2n_, \lith the hand participating, has a

special capacity for swinging and a dis?osition for vibrating

motion. As is t-Jell kno\,m., this rotation consists of a turn-
ing of the radius on the ulna along a longitudinal or rota-
tional axis running from the cl bmJ to the wrist. The extra-

ordinarily easy mobility in forea1~ rotation is due to the

favorable mechanical arrangement of the joints and ~uscles

involved in it. .:\ltl'.ough it has ahvays had the misfortune

of being confused by musicians ui th \<7ris t :-r:.otion, \vi th which
it has nothing to do, every pianist presumably knows of it,
since he applies it often enouzh i:::1 its pure form as an octave
tremolo. The position of the ha::.-.d in relation to the forearm
is not important. It can be (reo~~ flexed or extended as de-
sired. This tremolo can naturally be= executed in intervals
other than the octave. Eany pianists use the E_g_ta~_ion !_rill
from the forearm with quiet fingers (thumb and middle finger,
for instance) in contrast to the t~;vo- finger trill in which
two fingers are alternately lifted (extended) and lmvered
( flexc=d).
"Another vibrating motion at the piano belongs more to
virtuoso technique and makes a brilliant effect, namely, rapid
 ,..?
10-

octave passages. These 'lightnin~ octaves' are outside of

the framework of ------ . because of the enor-
natural niano technicu.e
mous expenditure of ener2y required and the extreme and pro-
longed extended position of the fingers. The great expendi-
ture of energy can be supplied only from the shoulder joint
by means of the 'tvhole arm mass. It der.1ands, alone:u with the
extension of fingers, that the 'ivholc r::usculature of the arm
participate to the highest degree in t~e vibrating motion.
Although the tremolo Hith forearm rotation is easily under-
stood and can be taught and learned within the limits of the
individual natural disposition as soon as the separation of
the Yrrist from rotation is once graspeds the vibrating octave
passage can be learned only by gradual, appropriate, step-by-
step training. It must first be p~acticed 'in one spot,' on
one and the same pair of keys before soing on to consecutive
octaves. At first, only a fetv of these can be achieved and
gradually more, in longer passa5es.
"The inner process in vibrating r.1ove::-:ents is such that
muscular contractions following each other in rapid succession
allow no tine for relaxation. For this reason a kind of con-
vulsive stiffening arises. This shortcoming is tied up more
or less with every vibration and cannot be completely eliminated.
Hmvever, training which becomes more and more adapted to the
motion eliminates a large portion of the initially great stiff-
ness. With time and increased practice the muscle tension
 163

diminishes. But it always persists, to a certain degree,

because it reoresents
'
the essence ---
of -
-----~--
vibration.
- - - - ?rom all of
this can be deduced that the octave vibrato, fortunately for
the art of piano playing, represents ~othing more than an over-
ripe fruit of virtuosity and means, for piano technique, a
regression into the errors of the old gymnastics, unnatural
muscular tension, and stiffness.
"The ability to repeat one and the same motion in rapid
succession varies widely among ihdividuals. A certain innate
disposition toward it is required to execute quick vibrating
motions evenly. Vibrating, shaking motion is, in theory,
possible for every joint. The r:1ass of the part of the limb
to be moved, hot-Jever, and the structure of the joint and its
muscles cause variations similar to those occurring above in.
the S\vinging motion. Thus, the forearm is especially equipped
for vibrating motion (72); in second place is the wrist. Fin-
gers lack this capacity. The mo~ion is considerably more dif-
ficul t for the 'tvhole arm from the shoulder joint. Vibratino- c~

forearm flexing does not enter into consideration in piano

playing. Here, too, this proposition is valid: the less mus-
cular action that must be used, the freer and quicker the
vibrating, shaking motion."--
92. The physiological 'tvorking out of piano technique, attempted
here along only general lines and vrlthout further consideration
of technical details, promises tohave a certain influence on
 164

the future of pi.:::mo

progress in the instrument \Jill be r.:.:::.de considerably

easier th~c~~h ~t) it will act all t~2 ~ore li~e ~ thorn in
the side o: the player \vho h.8s
tics.

for the untalented. 'VJhat a mass of insuf:ici_e:ntly talcl-:te:d

pupils are dragged year after year through the: conservatories!

r,._JI1at a host of inadequately trained people (. :;dicate themselves

continually to t-'
wl~n
. , ,
pltlaote, you th -
ful beginners! If all the above elements of erroneous tech-
nique, \1:-:ich hang li:~e a lead \Jeigl':t on art as 1..Jell .:.~ on the

music profession, could be cast off, great progress \JOuld be

'!'"'\ , .. '1-, , .. - t
made. ~ouotless cue :ce:s~-:ap~ng o~ e.::nn:.que accora1.ng co pnys-
1 .. '

cont::~ b-wte
.. "'t "I
iological principles ';.'JJ..l..l.. co:1.siderably to frighten-

ing away the untalented. ?or it requires, to a far greater

extent than dull, mechanical practice, careful self-observa-
tion, inner participation and ge~uine artistic understanding

(58) of the norr.:1al relationship b2t\-:reen technique and ousic.

~.Je defined technique as an adaptatio:1 to art. It fol-

lows, then, of itself that true and prir,:a.ry technique is al-
ways that which obeys natural Ls:cvs, Hherc:as former technique
represents a system artificially, unn&turally and arbitrarily
constructed. vle must retur..'1 to the primary lm,7s; then all

arbitrary limitations will disappear of themselves.4

4compare Grunsky, "Klavier und musikalische :<uns t-

'tJart, Nos. 3 and 4 .
 165

Piano instructors and represent:1tives of ::-:;ymnastic

t;.::chnique at musical institutions ~lill raise strenuous ob-
jection to the physiological norms of piano playing in far
greater measure than the large nu:-::her of nlavers.
' J
nowever,
it is just these institutions v1hic~ should take: the lead.
tfnat conservatory administration o today is far-sighted
enough to include physiological instruction by a prof.::ssional
physiologist in the curriculum? If the piano-teachin3 pro-
fession desires to advance itself socially with full right,
then it must assume its responsibilities and prove to the
world that it desires to b.:: free of prejudice, to broaden its
technical knowledge and to beco~e better acquainted than
before with related fields of knowledge.
 CE. .~PTER II
A SYNTHESIS AND AN EVALUATION

Steinhausen's book is obviously not & nethod in the

sense that the older exercise books of Czerny, Gerner, Tausig
and others were. Its aim is not to suggest a series of prac-
tical studies but rather to get at t:1e roots of the technical
problem. It is not nearly so int2::.:2sted in doing something
as it is in finding out how it is done, or, better, how it
is done properly.
In reading Steinhaus en's bco:::~ o:1.e is struck immediately
with the novelty of this ne\v The old axiomatic in-
sistence on finger exercises ~.vhich ah..;ays resulted only in
the invention of new patterns is given up in favor of the more
relevant search for the bases of technique. Steinhausen him-
self suggests that a practical nethod, in the sense of the
well-known methods of the past, must yet be worked out, "tvith
his discoveries as a basis ( p. 16). He argues, and vvi th un-
doubted correctness, that all too much emphasis has been
placed on mechanical repetition of finger patterns, vJith
little regard for the manner of their execution. His approach
may be termed scientific in that it recognizes the need, first
of all, for a clear understanding of the nature of the ins::ru-
ment and, secondly, for a technique taking this nature in~o

166
 167

account. There can oe little question that this approach has

b:'m evident in every significant b~o:< on technique l.vritten
since Steinhause:::' s ~::o::..k.

The principal defect in Stei~~a~se:::'s boo~ is that it

is almost exclusively neg~tive. co::rp let ely

natural that this should be the C2.S2. r~:-:.e old st::::::_ctu::ces and
accepted principles obviously required a thorough overhauling,
and, as is often true in cases ., J
L~~e
. ,
~nLs,

sweep~ng ou t the
Old l llu.J-
m;t e; 11C,.,., e.;
......, ,,, - ..Lo ..ce~'">'1
J l..i. ....... J.. P~. cen
.W\.....o.J '
II as S ::cd.r:hausen says, is pref-
It is regrettable that
Steinhause:1 Has in no position musically to suggest a construe-
tive and practical approach to the problem. For this he offers
his 0~1 apologies (see above, p. 16). The musician reading
his book is apt to return. to the old methods merely because
Steinhausen offers him so little to do and so much to avoid.
It is better to do something, thin~~s the musician, than to
be paralyzed with endless prohibitions.
It is beyond question that Steinhausen's work and the
work of his contemporaries stimulated a totally net<.r examina-
tion of the very foundation of piano pedagogy. Reactions were
many but \vere now always accompanied by more-or-less scientific
verification. Some of these new approaches will be mentioned
in the following chapter. Gone 1.-vere the days of unsupported
theories--theories accepted and put into practice by countless
generations of pia~ists.
 On
wori( is that he recog~izcci,

musicians, that scienfif:Lc exao.in,c=;.::ic:'l CC',.n O';""li.Y go so f:::..r in

the vlorld of - _.;_
...
C:..l... l,.,... ir1to
.. :-Ii s ex.-
'
elaborate anato~~cal and physiolo c.:.:.. s c:_.~ 3 E: ::._c~:-~ s
.
pcr~er.ce
. . . ' ]. . ., . ' . .
as c. p~1.ys:..c_o3l.s~ nas 00\7:..... cusi.)' .:.cc: ~--..~-~-.1 ~co th2 con-
~ .

elusion that it is an impossible de~~nd to expect conscious

control over r:-n.1scles.

not

mus culc:r &ctic:.::.

. .
mo t ~on 1.s 1 ' ..
ae::el.t.t:Lnea. ..
b)r
.._..,
Ln.e
"
r~tus:_c2.l.
"l ..

~:ecesSJ...L.Y,
,.,_

aric .c.e pu t s
~ ~

primary ez:phasis on co::-.ce~1tratic:-. d .. re:c:cecl ::oHard the musical

object, ~~l'lile lettir1g tl1.e ~nusc~lt;.r c:ct::.c~i talce care of it-

self (see above, p. 11).

significant concepts in all
musicians ought to bear clearly i:::'i r::irrd. Technique cannot be
divorced
musical. It is corJfortit'Lc_,. for all _,
ryerfo!.-mers
L
to knoH that
they have been confirmed in this., their ohn intuitiv2 suppo-
sition, by or.c who is primarily a scientist.
...
Following is a summary of the most it:lpor::ant po2.n~.-s o.:...c
Steinhausen c s vlo:t~k.

Of Steinhausen 1 s statements in sc:::-ve

chiefly to outline the material, the following appear

in Pi~r:() fc rtc~
 169

significc.nt: 1) that r.:.usicians are not or have not bce:n sue-

cessful in establishing valid bc.ses for technique; and 2) that
the nature of le&~to is related to dynamics.
The first statement Steinhausen proves in a~ oblique
fashion. Obviously, great pianists of the past have been
brought up on traditional finger exercises. Docs this mean
that their excellence is due to such training? Steinhausen
answers, 11
No. u In itself this ans\ver is completely arbi-
trary, but Steinhausen points out that the playing of great
artists is not and never has been modeled on school tradi-
tion. He concludes, then, that the inherent 0o-reatncss of
individual artists has caused the~ to discard traditional
approaches and, consequen~ly, the restrictions vlhich hamper
the less gifted in their efforts. They have thus achieved
their playing technique in spite of, and not as a consequence
of, the old methods. Their success is proportional to the
degree to which they have refuted the principles of their
early training. The proof of this thesis is based mainly on
observation. To Steinhausen it is obvious that all great
pianists use the Hhole apparatus of the torso, shoulder and
arm. T\vO questions remain unansvJered, however. To Hhat ex-
tent are the fingers of artists, trained in the old methods,
useful or even indispensable tools in the larger motion?
To what extent is the co-operation of large muscles discern-
ible from without?
 170

. '
In answer to the first question r:nere can be no doubt
as to where Steinhausen stands. :-le is against isolated fin-

ger exercise. He thinks that any such study will necessarily

lose itself in detail and lead to inte~ference with the large
rr.otion. No reader of his book can escape this conclusion in
spite of the fact that Steinhausen says,

It is apparent that "slight" activity is not sufficient to

require special drill, but that it is a sort of natural out-
come of the proper use of larger r:mscles. The other use of
fingers, apart from this directing activity, is the 'l.vork of
supporting the weight of the arm. Steinhausen's concept is
that the weight rests passively on the fingertips when not
being swung to the next position. This is t".: ..::; condition to
which one returns "ever again." (See above, p. 141.) Now,
however true the feeling of passivity in this position may
be in the arm, the effort required of the fingers to support
such a weight is hardly minimal. To play with such arm tveight
resting continually on the fingers Hould require very strong
fingers indeed. Many teachers recommend such a playing con-
dition for strengthening finger muscles, especially the flexors.
Although Steinhausen is principally against the training of
 171

the extensor muscles, he is nonetheless also opposed to the

c .~rcising of flexors. I~ is paradoxical, then, that he has
struck upon one of the most effective methods for such exer-
cise. It might be ~otcd here that this pl~ying condition,
that of passive of objec-
tion to Steinhauser. . ' s proposals. i~atthay deli ve:cs a strong
attack against it. 2 In fact, Matthay's whole system is built
up with a consciously expressed dread of 11
key-bedding,n Matthay's
term for passive 'deightin.z. Matthay is supported in this by
V..lhiteside It is clear, too, that the schools
of finger training hav<= not died out. T1,v0 physiological stud-
. ~
1es o-f ~~porta~ce
. and a:most all of the practical methods in
common use e:::;phasize scc:-~ training. T'he ti.oJO studies ruentioned
do so on the basis of scientific arguments, some of which will
be discussed in the final chapter, but most of the methods do
so on the basis of tradition, largely ignoring the "weight"
schools.
The answer to the question of whether it is really pos-
sible to determine what muscles are being used by observation
from without must be that it is not possible. Matthay specifi-
cally mentions Steinhausen's inability to sense inner muscular

2Tobias Matthay, The Visi~le and Invisible in Pianoforte Tech-

nique (London, 1934), p. 9.3.
3Abby ~vbiteside, The Pianist's Hechani. sm (Nei.v York, 1929), p. 8.
4 otto Ortmann, The Physiological ~':<:o::he.:::->ics of Piano Technique
(New York, 19 29)and ArnoldSC.~uYtz~~t[:;c i~idclle of-the ?ianfst' s
Finger (Chicago, 1936). -- - -
 172

action, an inability arising from the fac'!: that he was not

a ryianist. He (Steinhausen) therefore relied on observation
. 5 The matter is dealt
an d carne to sone erroneous cone 1us1ons.
with more conclusively, althoush not specifically, by Ortmann
and Schultz. The large muscles and t\7 eight playing may be
used, or used in different ways, vnthout producing ili~Y effect
visible from without. Muscles may be tensed without producing
movement, provided the antagonistic muscles are tensed at the
same t".:-::e: what appears to be a free arm stroke may not be so
at all, because of the inhibiting action of the opposing mus-
cles. A pianist ~ay fling his arns about with great abandon
without ever producing an arm stroke in Steinhausen's sense.
On the other hand, lack of motion in the arm does not mean
that finger muscles are being used exclusively. Arm vleight
can be used, and most effectively, without ever lifting the
arm. The weight may be used as a base against which the fin-
gers act. \Vhat appears to be pure finger action may really
,._
be arm weight in this case. 0
The second debatable point in Steinhausen's introduction
is that dealing with the nature of legato (see above, p. 10).

5To bias Matthay, Some Commentaries o~,..!.~';. Te~.ching of Pia!_lQ_-

forte Technigu~ (Lon<ron:-N"rrr;-p-p-. '+O r: f.
6 schultz gives the most thorough treatment of bases of move-
ment, and the explanation and evaluation of such bases are
the principal studies of his book, The Riddle of the Pianist's
Fing~ (Chicago, 1936). The original ioea of having bases--
tor movement probably comes, again, from Hatthay. See The
Act of Touch C,Jew York, 1903).
 173

Steinhausen proposes the theory that le~~to is based largely

c:1 the production of a sufficient volune of sound. There is
little explanation of this thesis, but, since Steinhausen's
method of attack suggasted in Sec~ion VI is based on the need
for adequ2.~e volu:ne of tone, it :.s hizhly important in the
total pla..'1 of the system. ::-ro other author consul ted in t: ...:.;
preparation of this thesis mentions such a com1ection betweeen
volume of tone and le?ato. If there is really such a connec-
t --&r:d such '1:7ould certainly seem to be the case--then the
need for adequate tonal production becomes much greater and
Steinhausen's methods take on considerab:.e importance. Other
writers mention only the need for control over key release
in order to effect the COTh"'lection of tones. It appears, then,
that Steinhaus en has CO!Y!e uoon a much-ne2lected fact.
u Host
practicing pianists recognize his thesis as valid. Piano tone
dies away very rapidly. Le~ depends on the illusion of
one tone fusing into the next. If the first tone has died
away to such a point that it can no longer be heard above the
accompanying figures, then the illusion of leg~to is destroyed.
This is the effect some teachers describe as "whispering."
Steinhausen thus recognizes a peculiar pianistic necessity--
one overlooked by all other writers. There can be no really
cantabil~ or legato melody playing ~~thout sufficient strength
in the attack. A singing line cannot be sustained at a ~ian

issimo volume level.

 174

Leaving the fore~v-ord and proceeding to the main body of

tr:e book, 'tve find that Steinhaus en's concepts can be grouped
under three major headings: 1) relaxation; 2) vJeight; and
3) the nature and object of practice. These areas are those
in which Steinhausen reveals his r:;ost or:~ginal and important
ideas. The reader of Steinhausen's book, however, should
ah.vays bear in mind what Steinhaus en himself says of them:
"First, it should be stressed continually that the 'new' is
~ t new at all. ~-Je have it already. It is only a question
of separating true from false. 11
(See above, p. 16.)
Steinhausen's ideas of relaxation, as well as those of
his followers--Hatthay, Breithaupt, Bandmann, hlhiteside and
others--have undergone 'T:Uch opposition. A careful reading
of Steinhaus en 1 s text would, hm.;rever, dispel most of these
arguments. Relaxation in Steinhausen's sense does not mean
a sort of limp-rag technique. Wnat it does mean is the at-
tempt to relax all muscles opposec to the action of the limb
in the intended direction. At the same time he warns against
conscious attention directed toward the muscles themselves
(see above, p. 56}. Here he stresses that the selection of
appropriate muscles is an unconscious procedure. Hmv can the
principle of non-attention toward muscles and relaxation of
antagonistic muscles be reconciled? Steinhausen's answer to
this very pertinent question can be found on pp 57-58 above.
"Freedom to the limbs, let go, do r"ot hold back or fix anxiously,
 175

for the body left to itself finds its ohm \Jay. . 11 It is

~ ""\atter of holding the final purpose, the rr:usical object,
in mind while one learns to let the body take its o~n course
in achieving the goal. Again, as Ste.inhausen says, "If the
attention is diverted, a passive condition of rest occurs in
the muscles of its mn.1 accord. Dif2ic\.:'!.t:ie.s .s.::-is2, then, when
the attention has to be directed towards practicine, as is
inevitable at first when technical motions are worked out.
The process of un-learning this alertness, which interferes
and controls unnecessarily, is, in reality, an intellectual
procedure. 11 (See above, pp. 62-63.) Thus, antagonistic mus-
cles relax quite naturally when no attention is paid to them.
The attention should be focused initially on the required mo-
tion--not on th2 muscular action involved in that motion--,
and this motion should be determined solely on the basis of
the musical goal. Again and again Steinhausen warns against
any attempt to select muscles consciously; it is an effort
which is not only useless but also leads to stiffening and
tension.
Steinhausen points out an obvious b~t much overlooked
point in pedagogy. Teachers are constantly demanding loose-
ness in the joints without any real conception of how this
looseness might be obtained or even of what it, in actual
fact, is. In the first place, looseness or flexibility in
the joints is not a variable factor. The; corr:.pass of the joint
 176

motion is determined by the surfaces of

the bones concerned. sur:aces can be

altered only in childhood, and, vihc:.n -::l-:ey are, such al tera-
tion results in the flexibility seen, as Steinhausen says,
in "rubber men" (see above, p. 71). It is a fre::kish con-
clition and one not at all suited to p~=~o p~ayin3. In adults
little can be done to alter these surfaces and) consequently,
the range of joint motion. Furthermore, the resistance of
these surfaces, the stability and firmness they afford, is
a positive benefit to technique.
In the second place, what is usually meant by joint ri-
gidity is really a matter of muscular tension. ~~~en asked
to make a joint rigid, the student can obviously do nothing
about the bone structure; he tenses the muscles--both extensors
and flexors--which surround that joint. The balanced pull of
the muscles on all sides of the joint and the bones comprising
it serves to set the joint more firmly and to render it more-
or-less impervious to outside forces. (See above, p. 72.)
Thus, if looseness be desired, it can be achieved only
by relaxation of muscular tension. No amount of bending or
stretching will bring it about. The only exercise which can
be of use in bringing about increased extension in the joints
is that which strengthens the muscles pulling on the bones
concerned. The muscles can be strengthened and exercised;
the joints c~~not be ap~reciably altered.
 177

The point usually attacked in the relaxation technique

is the obvious one that total relaxation would result in no
tone production at all. If all muscles were lax at the mo-
ment of attack every joint 'l.vould give under pressure, and the
arm would fall to the side. The point. is so obvious that it
is a matter of wonder that so many adherents of the old school
could actually believe that this is ..vhat is meant by relaxa-
tion. Steinhausen has certainly given his own defense against
such an attack. "Looseness can be expected only in a condi-
tion of relaxation but never in the moment of attack." (See
above, p. 73.) "The technical difficulty is thus in giving
in and letting go at the right point. The begLmer is prone
to stiffen all joints by unnecessary muscular effort." It
is clear that the joints must be firm at the moment of attack,
but only in so far as is absolutely necessary. This condition
must be temporary and the state of relaxation the permanent
condition.
Unfortunately the lasting condition of relaxation which
Steinhausen proposes is that of "passive weighting." (See
above, pp. 138-139.) As pointed out above, such a condition,
far from being relaxing, is exhausting for the finger muscles,
although it can be granted that it relieves the shoulder and
most of the arm muscles. If indulged in extensively, it will
lead, however, to a very sluggish finger technique and a
decided decrease in agility.
 178

Steinhausen is not altogether guiltless of misinterpreting

"C-,-;~ statements oi others in regard to relaxation. On page 145
above he argues against the old test of lifting the arm while
the student is playing or i~~ediately a:ter the attacking mo-
tion. Riemann's statement agrees T.-Jith what Hatthay has to
say in the matter. Steinhausen cla:l.ms t'h.:-1t the test vJil'l. not
work if the hand is held in Riemann's position. The fact is,
however, that it will. Steinhausen says just belo~v, "It is
impossible, however, when the arm carries the hand." This
is not what Riemann said, hotvever. His statement was: ''The
hand is carried by the supporting fingers"--not by the arm.
It is true that if the hand is held by the arm the v1rist will
not give vJhen the arm is struck from beneath. Fu::thermore,
the test in its usual fol.i.-:1 is not concerned with whether the
wrist gives or not, but with vJhether the arm can be easily
lifted. The passive ~veighting of Steinhausen would render
the arm practically immobile, ~vhereas either of the other two
positions suggested above would allow the arm free movement.
It seems that Steinhausen has given up supporting the arm at
the shoulder and elbow in favor of supporting it at the wrist
and by the finger muscles. It is doubtful that such a position
is advantageous.
To repeat once again, Steinhausen's stressing of the
position he calls passive weighting is the major flatv in his
exposition of tech~ique. The technique which is probably
 179

correct -vms even stated by Steinhausen himself. "No stopping

o:: fixation at any time; smooth, fluid motion ah.;ays. There
is no interruption, no standstill, no 'holding' in the air.
Every 'position,' even if temporary, tends toward sluggishness
and implies a cessation of motion." (See above, p. 158.)
It is especially regrettable, then, that Steinhausen saw fit
to refute himself in regard to the "position" of passive
weighting. "Permanent positions and poses, which had to be
pointed out as wrong and not permissible with all other con-
ditions of the musculature (79), are exactly \v:-wt is demanded
of weighting for playing: it should be the ever-recurring
condition of rest and relaxation and, indeed, as long as
required or desired. 11 (See above, p. 147.) It is true that
"zero weighting" cannot be a permanent position either; it
is too tiring for the shoulder muscles. The only solution
to the problem--if we accept the principles of weight play-
ing at all--is to keep motion fluent at all times, so that
every position flmvs easily into the next in such a way that
static positions in any guise are virtually eliminated. Had
Steinhausen recognized the weakness in his passive position,
he would have developed an almost irrefutable theory in re-
gard to relaxation. As it is, this weakness leads him into
other errors, as is inevitable, in regard to weight playing.
These errors will be pointed out in what follows.
Steinhausen begins his discussion of weight and the use
 180

of the large muscles--tHo factors that cannot be separated--

,,_ .':1 proof that -.:Jeight is: 1) necessary, and 2) preferable
to finger technique. The necessity is caused by the fact that
the piano as manufactured today dem&nds a relatively strong
attack. This is doubtless true, especially when present-day
key resistance is compared with that in use on the harpsichord,
clavichord and the early piano. In addition, it might be men-
tioned that the size of modern concert halls and the litera-
ture for the piano from the nineteenth century omvard both
demand greater tonal volume. The question arises then: is
the contractive power in the finger muscles sufficient for
such volume? The question is some-v:rhat rhetorical. In the
first place, whether one plays with fingers or the whole arm,
weight is always a factor as long as there is gravitational
pull. We may eliminate arm weight by fixation of the arm
muscles? and thereby utilize the muscular strength of the
fingers and, of course, their ~.;eight. Without such fixation,
weight from the arm always comes into play as a base against
which the fingers operate. Sinc_e every action has an equal
and opposite reaction, weight or fixation or pressure must
be used to counteract finger action or such action has no
effect. The mechanics of this are best explained by Schultz.s

7This method is actually proposed by Schultz, The Riddle of

the Pianist's Ftnzer (Chicago, 1936).
8rbid.
 181

'i'he third means--pressur.:;;--uses vJ2ight as a factor to -v.rhich

added muscular force.

It is obvious, too, that the contractive power of finger
muscles cannot be used at all in chordal passages. Tne only

kind of for this is that which is

requi::ed to st:pport tl-.c: \;c:ight cor::::Lng f::o:n another source.
Thus to say simply that action in the finger muscles is in-
sufficient overlooks even more basic fc:.ctors. Hmvever, v1ere
one to eliminate arm \veight by fb:::.ing the arm muscles, the
wcdght and force of the finger alone Houl.d certainly not be
sufficient on modern piaaos. It is ha::d to see why such a
fatiguing procedure should be reco:::r:-::ended vJhen arm Height is
so readily available.
The attac!cs on \veight technique are usually due to an
over-sinplified ~.i':.eu of it. Sts:"_;:J::ausc:-! is not guiltless in

this respect. to: 1) the fall,

2) weight transfer, and 3) the stving.

The fall of the weight of tl~e a::-~1. onto the finrers is

'-'

the most obvious use of weight a11.d the one usually thought
of 'tvhen the subject of 'tveight playing is mentioned. Volume
levels would depend, in this case, purely on the extent of
the drop; a higher arm at the beginning of the drop would
produce a louder sound and vice versa. In the simplest fonn

of such vJeight use this technique would demand that the arm
be lifted from the keys for each stroke. A more refined use
 182

of such \veight v1ould allmv the fingers to remain on the keys

::ile the arm is lifted. The \vrist position would have to
be altered, of course. In either case the technique is ob-
viously limited to passages where speed is not a factor, since
weight must be released and recovered for each stroke. This
is the most frequent argument against weight technique. It
is limited to the slowest passages, and the regulation of tonal
levels is dependent on depth of fall, a fall beginning usually
\vith the finger mvay from the key and thus out of direct con-
trol over the key. Usually overlooked in these arguments is
the fact that arm \vG.ight drop, either \vith fingers resting
on the keys or away fro-::1 them, is used almost as a matter of
necessity in all chordal playing. There is no question here
of finger action. The action of weight is often supplemented,
of course, by muscular effort.
The second use of vJeight is often called weight transfer.
1bis concept is insepa~able from the idea of forearm rotation.
In this use the passive vJeight of the m:m is merely rolled
from one finger to the other without finger action. (See
above, pp. 91 and 129.) Steinhausen describes the advantages
of the rolling of weight, the principal advantage supposedly
being one of speed. Steinhausen says, 11
:lotation and the
raising or lifting of fingers are mutually exclusive." (See
above, p. 128.) Steinhausen does not stress the fact suf-
ficiently that the individual fingers must be made to support
 183

the weight and that the positioning of fingers is vitally

important to secure equality. On the other hand, if the fin-
gers are not exerted at all, there can be no control over dy-
namics, since the passive weight of the arm remains the same.
It would also be possible with Steinhausen's proposal to pro-
duce no tone at all, if the rolling motion were slow enough.
In general, then, Steinhausen's conception of rotation with
passive weight is altogether too crude in its musical results.
Matthay gives a much more refined and usable application of
rotation technique and demonstrates the necessity and impor-
tance of the action in piano technique. (See below, p. 222.)
Once again it is Steinhausen's concept of passive weighting
that prevents him from seeing the most important aspects of
the rotation technique. As he gives it, it is really only
useful in tremolo figures and partakes, in such figures, more
of the character of swing than of weight transfer. In support
...
of Steinhausen, however, it is only fair to mention that the
teaching of weight transfer is an invaluable aid in the pres-
entation of legato. It is impossible to produce a TIQrr-~ato

with weight transfer, and the basic concept, modified by par-

tial release of weight and some finger action or swing, forms
the basis of all l~ato melody playing.
TI1e third application of weight in Steinhausen's system
is the one really fundamental to his conception: the use of
the swing (Schwung). As Steinhausen defines it, this is:
 184

II a svnnc;l.ng
...... mo r ._..,.;;;.; v: o le
... l.on or,.. ,.._'!-:~ n' ~~S
r:lct::. 0.(:
... t-".;""~.(~
- _ .::1'"'.._
~ ..... .-,...,.,, f'~Offi
... th()>-

s>.:>ulder dmm in collabo:cation v1ith a sv:ringing, rotating mo-

tion of the forearm and the swingi~g participation of the hand
and fingers." (see above , . . 132 . ) .Had Ste;nb.ausen
P ..... investi-
gated further into the nature of such motion from the pianist's
point of view, he would have doubtless cast aside some of the
ideas of passive weighting which othen.;ise mar his theories.
The reader of Steinhausen's book may be somewhat puzzled as
to just what this motion is. The attempt will be made here
to offer some explanatio~.

Two f~idamental ideas must be kept in mind: l) that the

stdng is a combined moverr.ent utilizing weight and muscular
exertion, and 2) that it should be differ~ntiated from arm
drop or free falling Height. \lhat mal(es Steinhausen' s exposi-
tion of the matter confusing is that he initiates the swing
from the passive weight position (although he does not rule
out its initiation from the position of passive suspension).
This is where the difficulty lies. The only motion available
from the passive position is that of rotation--either of the
upper-arm or of the forearrn. If the tveight of the arm is not
lifted there is no distinction between this motion and that
in weight transfer, unless it be a matter of degree, that is,
a matter of a more extensive rotation movement. However, if
the weight of the arm is partially supported at the shoulder
and elbow, then the svnnging motion becomes a reality. The
 185

key may be held do'tvn 'llith a minir.mm of weisht, a muscular im-

p..:..lse given to the upper-arm or foreann, the vJeight partially
released; the resultant attack is truly a swing in -;,rhich all
elements co-operate. A true sv.;ring cannot really be achieved
from the position of passive There must be so:;::e
lifting of the arm, however slight or instantaneous it may
be. Once again the insistence on passive \veighting is Stein-
hausen's error. The S\~ng is, of course, limited in speed,
since the v1eight must be s'tvung for each stroke. The S'tvinging
motion can be especially useful in intense melodic passages
where a large tonal volume is required. In such passages the
swing downward, sideward and the upward lift become fused into
a circular motion, characterized by the circular or oval shape
of the line described by the 'tlrist. The fluid ease of such
a motion, the absence of any hesitation or inhibition, the
perfect co-ordination and timing of all the various muscular
actions required for it are the hallmarks of a perfected
technique. Steinhausen destroyed the fluidity of the motion
by insisting on stopping in the passive position. Others have
destroyed the fluidity by stopping in the zero-\veighting po-
sition. Furthermore, the S'tvingin3 motion in this sense per-
fectly realizes the capacities and limitations of the instru-
ment. There is adequate volume, produced with a minimum of
effort, capable of any degree of shading, and with no pressure
exerted on the key afte::- the moment of attack--an attacking
 186

motion, therefore, \vhich fulfills all of the requirements

~-~-:ted by Steinhausen on pp. 135 and 136 above. In addition
the motion flows easily into the position required for rapid
passage work: release of arrn v1eight tvith the fingers acting
against it as a base. To conclude: arr.1 drop, \veight transfer,
stving and fingers ag.:linst a Height base co::nprise the basic
motions required of any adequate technique.
Of all Steinhausen's concepts, the one which is most
ar~csting is that of practice as a psycho-physiological pro-
cedure. At the same time, it is this aspect of practice, the
psychological, which has been completely overlooked by almost
all other theories of piano technique. For the musician it
should be one of the most important. The musician, with his
almost universal repugna."lce for n:;atters of anatomy and anatom-
ical nomenclature, can take some comfort in Steinhausen's
writing.
In general, it may be said that the indifference of musi-
cians toward the physical necessities of their art has been
a result of their unwillingness to vulgarize an intellectual
and spiritual procedure wlth physical elements. This view
in itself is doubtless false, since, the human creation being
what it most obviously is, man has no other tJay of expressing
himself than through physical means. Tt~is is a natural law
and to overlook it is simply foolish. Such thinking has led,
however, to two important results. By overlooking physical
 187

laws pianists have wandered into stran;e and unnatural 'l.vays

c ~playing--no less 11
physical," of course, than the natural
ways but saved from crudeness by their very perversity. Over-
looking physical elements in musical pursuits thus leads also
to a peculiar affliction sornetit:1es c.:.<.llcd 1"::-rlshful hearing."
w~at is heard in the mind bears little or ~o resemblance to
what is heard from the instrument itself because there is no
physical link between that imagined and that produced. The
second result goes a step farther. Once the spiritual and
the physical are completely divorced, then the vmy is open
to a one-sided, false and purposeless cultivation of the
physical. This is no more natural -.:han overlooking the phys-
ical. VJith the control of the intelligence gone a reasonable
pursuit of technical ends is no longer possible. This is "Vlhat

Steinhaus en alludes to when speaking of "Vlitless gymnastics.

He is obviously reacting against the finger gymnastics prac-
ticed so assiduously in his day and exaggerates the evils of
such gymnastics. It is true that most of this gymnastic exer-
cise was falsely directed and was thus to be deplored. Stein-
hausen offers, however, no real substitute. If there is to
be weight playing, then there must be forms of exercise which
lead towards this goal. In addition many hands must be strength-
ened in order to support the weight thus used. Exercise of
the muscles which hold the fingers apart, the adductors, is
probably the most neglected side of such strengthening.
 188

Steinhausen's precept that all exercise must be done at the

' ?board should probably be heeded, since divorcing technical
from musical elements leads usually to unfortunate results.
In all exercise there must be the psycho-
logical function of technique is icp~irecl.

Tne comfort which musicians can derive fro~ Steinhausen's

conclusions is involved primarily ~.vith physiology. Stein-
hausen demonstrates that anatomical knowledge is of little
use in perfecting technique. (See above, pp. 58 ff.) First-
ly, the conscious selection of muscles is a virtual impossi-
bility. Secondly, the reciprocal relationship of muscles
with each other and the consequent muscular adjustments are
too complex to be controlled consciously. Thirdly, the brain
has the means for learnins physical motion independent of con-
scious control --the process knmm as adaptation. To the
musician this means that only the goal or aim of the motion
can be under conscious direction, and this should be the es-
sence of practice. The attention must be directed towards
the ultimate musical purpose and with the greatest possible
alertness. Practice thus becomes a process of adaptation--
repetition until the motion performed is executed 'tvith the
least possible effort and is perfectly adapted to the nrusical
goal. As Steinhausen points out, this process is not less
intellectual than conscious control. The brain is still the
organ involved fundamentally but not in a conscious way. The
 189

cor.scious activity of the brain is involved in the conception

o~ the musical goal desired and in checking the results of
the physical motion against this conception. The body is
left to its own activity guided by the subconscious centers
which integrate muscular action into a physiological tmole.
In simpler terms this means that a desired leap fro:n
cl to c 4 cannot be achieved by ~nlling muscles a, x, y and z
into action in just the right proportions. Such an action
.__ ;: .:.chieved by ~lling the movement itself, not the muscular
action. As Steinhausen demonstrates, the successful comple-
tion of any action is cependent upon the sum of all previous
experience. (See ~bove, p. 43.) By this is meant not only
the motions practiced for piano playing but also the infinitely
vast number of motions attempted and mastered in a thousand
varied activities from childhood on. The reservoir of expe-
rience is subconscious and fortlli1ately so, since active con-
trol of it ~vould be an impossible task. To despise such sub-
conscious activity as non-intellectual is nonsense. The
process is one of the brain and therefore no less intellectual
than any other such process. Furthermore, the point cannot
really be argued. Such activity is a fact and must be recog-
nized as such.
From the above considerations a fundamental conclusion
can be dra\-m. As Steinhaus en says, "we can teach the body
nothing; we can only lean1 from it." (See above, p. 4.)
 190

Thus seen from the psycho-physiological side, practice is a

?::.:..:cess of acquiring habits of motion. The attention must
be continually directed towards the aim or musical object of
the motion. This presupposes a mental ideal of \vhat that
musical object should be. ~~1en practice is so directed it
reaches its highest level. It is a combination of the pre-
liminary formation of absolute musical ideals and a recog-
nition of the proper and ordered position of the physical.
What must be guarded against is the arbitrary placing of any
artificial hindrances in the path of the acquisition of natu-
ral physical habits. No attempt should be made to control
that which by nature is subconscious.
In conclusion, the areas discussed significantly by
Steinhausen may be enumerated as follows:
1) the true nature of the instrument, its physical limi-

tations and its possibilities;

2) the meaning of relaxation and looseness;
3) the use of weight, swing and rotation; and
4) the essence of practice as a psycho-physiological
procedure, and the important consequences of this
recognition.
In these four areas Steinhausen made statements of great
novelty and practicability. There can be little doubt that
he was one of the first to think along such lines. Wnatever
the limitations of his thought, the important considerations
 191

rema.in true today. Little of v1hat hz.d been -vr.citten before

v- what has been written since, could lay clain in such
measure to the qualities of logical exposition, clear rec-
ognition of facts, freedom from prejt.:dice and absence of
incomprehensible technical 4-... erm~nOJ..02Y
,
It is for these

qualities, as well as for the revolutionary conclusions to

which adherence to such qualities led, that Steinhausen's
work should be read and respected.
 CHAPTER III
SOME COMPA..O..ISO~S t-liTH OTHER METP.ODS

The comparison of Steinhauser.' s "i:o-rk uith th.::t of others

in the field of piano technique poses certain difficulties.
Chief among these is the fact that the approach of Steinhausen
does not correspond with the approaches found in other works.
Steinhausen, as pointed out above, is pr:i.ncipally concerned
with indicating the more obvious errors in piano technique
current at his time and before. He suggests little in a pos-
itive way. He is not concerned \vith specific pianistic prob-
lems (octaves, trills, double notes, etc.) except as he may
refer to them in passing. Host of the methods written before
that of Steinhausen 111ere concerned primarily with just such
problems. For example, the Bree description of Leschetizky's
method has just a few pages devoted to general physiological
problems and then proceeds to exercises and specific techni-
cal difficulties. 1 This chapter will deal principally with
those aspects of piano technique which correspond with or
are opposed to those discussed by Steinhausen.
Since the older methods, those of Czerny, Germer, and
others,were really exercises and made no attempt to explain

lMalwine Bree, T:'le Lescl'letizk;z Method (Ne't.; York, 1913).

192
 193

the manner in which the exercises should be practiced, they

..; ....... not really be compared to the work of Steinhausen. They
may or may not be played according to St~inhausens princi-
ples. There can be little doubt, hm,;;cver, that such exer-
cises were and generally are practiced "'ith fL1gc:r technique
in mind. The attempt is usually made to exercise the fingers
without the participation of the wrist or arm--to Steinhausen
an impossible concept in its very nature. Statements from
three t.;rorks will be considered in establishing the nature of
the gymnastic, finger-drill approach. These works are those
of Ehrlich,2 Kullak,3 and their more recent successor,
Leschetizky. 4
Ehrlich's slight volume was written principally as a
guide to the practice of the Tausig DailY S~udies. A few
comments will suffice to determine its nature. Ehrlich as-
sumes, ~ priori, that exercise of fingers is a worthwhile
endeavor. From this he proceeds to the idea that the fingers
are best exercised if they are isolated from the rest of the
mechanism. To achieve this isolation he recommends that the
upper-arms be held tightly against the sides and slightly to
the front of the body. This is not advocated as a playing

2H. Ehrlich, Hot'l to Practice on the PianQ_, trans, J. H. Cornell

(New York, 190ZJ.-- -- ---
3A. Kullak, Aesthetics of Pianoforte Pla~ing, trans. T. Baker
(New York, f90/). -
4M. Bree, The Leschetizkz Methc~ (New York, 1913).
 194

method but as a Hay to insure non-participation of the arms

~d shoulders.The fingers are then to be drilled in the
Tausig exercises with the fingers held high. 5 (By high fin-
gers one usually understands curved fingers ~1ith a low tvrist
and the first bone of the finger dra',m up so that it fonns
an angle of less than 180 degrees with the back of the hand.)
The ability to contract the extensor muscles to a high degree
is thus assumed to be of importance. Similar drill is viewed
as essential by all of the "finger 11 schools. No reason is
really given for this, and it is very difficult to understand
why the high-finger position was ever ascribed any importance
whatsoever. The only argument ever advanced is that the height
of the fingers above the keys determines the amount of tone
produced. In theory, this is, perhaps, correct. In practice,
the difficulty in changing from the contracted extensor mus-
cles required in the lift to the contracted flexor muscles
required in the down"t.;ard thrust vitiates any advantage. It
is also doubtful that any 11
high-finger" player has ever achieved
a legato in cantabile passages. Still more disadvantageous is
the psychological difficulty of concentrating on lift when the
entire musical result is focused on the down stroke. The high-
finger attack is, therefore, as Steinhausen agrees, basically
hostile to musical feeling.
The conservative approach, i.e., the position of the rep-
resentatives of the older schools as it appeared after th~

5Ehrlich, QE. cit., p. 11.

 19.5

been published, can be suggested by a q~otation tro~ the

work of J. Alfred Johnstone.

"~Jhether are pm;er, control 2nd independence to be

gained by allov1ing all our hc:Lnd r:t'J.sc1.es to re:-c:ain in
their norn.1al condition of 'I.Jea:.::nes s, flabbir~::::;s s and
interdependence, and by feebly raising anci droppins
eacn ' f.~n~er; or by nract~Cll1CJ;
. . a stro:.-t<?, h. '
.1.g,1. , - '"t-
uD-.i.l.J:-
of each finqer and a
forcible dovm-st=:o:~e; a~ t:he sc:me
time holdin~ the other fingers motionless, so as to
isolate each and detach it from the in~luence of the
others c:Ls rr:L:ch as nossible? The very sto.tcm.::r~t:: of
the conflict:inQ vi~ws is a sufficient answer to the
,.;:) (

vJho le CfL!2 s ticn. a o

is not a sufficient
stone has not understood the 11
"\:ei.ght 11 sehool, or has only cho-

sen to understand its ~est absurd aspect. It is doubtless

true that in the controversy that the publication
of the v10rk.s of Steinl"-.:.s.-'-~sen ( l S03), Hc;.tth2y ( 1903) and Breit-
haupt (1905) there was tituch nc1!S2nse in the The point is
that Johnstone has not stated c~c conflicting views at all.
Firstly, 11
independence 11 is a co-:1cept
playing advocates. The m~sical goal is control and evenness;
Steinhausen and others think that such control is not a result
of finger independence but of directed Height. 2ven if inde-
pendence is vie\ved as a desirable goal, as it is in a sense by
Steinhausen, it is seen as the result of the elimination of
extraneous motion. This elimination is not achieved by force

6J A
'"l.. ' ~~one,
J Ol1...1S T'ne nr
At 0 f
(London, n.d.), p.~26.-_--
 196

as ~n the finger schools but by relaxation of all non-partici-

Secondly, although the ~veight approach les-
sens the importance of finger strength, it does not rule it
out altogether. Nowhere in Steinhausen's book is ''flabbiness"
of fingers recommended. Indeed, the opposite is true. (See
above, p. 132.) In addition, if the Steinhausen principle
of resting the weight on the fingers is observed, it will lead
to a strengthening of the fingers and especially of the flexor
muscles. Thirdly, Johnstone is obviously interpreting relax-
ation in the absolute sense. The real meaning of relaxation
has been pointed out above, p. 174. Complete relaxation of
finger, arm and shoulder muscles would lead, obviously, to
the production of no sound at all. All joints would be limp
and the arm would fall back to the side. Relaxation as under-
stood in its proper sense means elimination of all muscular
action not directly contributing to the action and a conscious
use of weight and swinging mass in the production of tone.
The best resume of piano methods up to 1861 is probably
7
contained in a work by Dr. Adolph Xullak. The principal points
of these earlier methods are described, and the reader is given
a good picture of the state of piano playing before the intro-
duction of the weight systems. The principles of piano play-
ing as advocated by Dr. Kullak then follow. In most respects
they are representative of the older schools.

7Aesthetics
 197

A term which Dr. I<ullak employs is that of finger

"fall." 8 This term reappears in the work of Deppe and is
implied in the writings of Matthay. The finger does not
strike the key but seems to fall into it. It is suooosed
''
to be something other than muscular action in the finger
itself. On the other hand, it is not an arm stroke. There
can be only one explanation. It is obvi~~s that the weight
of the finger itself can produce no tone. If it is not
muscular action in the finger, then, which produces the
tone, it is arm weight. The difficulty for all writers who
had an intuitive understanding of weight technique was that
they did not understand the principle of playing the fingers
against a base of weight and that a perfect co-ordination of
all elements results in almost no visible motion at all.
The finger appears to "fall" into the keys. There can be
little doubt that Deppe and I<ullak had a premonition of what
was meant by weight playing. It is really in the attempt to
define the action that the difficulties arose. One further
departure from the older methods is notable in Dr. I<ullak's
book: a flat finger stroke is recommended for ~ant~bile play-
ing. A flat finger stroke in itself is actually no guarantee
of greater tone or legato connection. Kullak must have in-
tended a forearm stroke and rotation as accompanying motions,
else the ends he desired could not be obtained.

8Kullak, Aesthetic~ . , p. 101.

 198

In other respects Kullak is quite conventional. Equal-

ization of fingers is an object of technical study 9 and de-
pressed knuckles are advocated. T.~e
solution of the problem
of finger equalization is seen as np.::rseverance. 111
Kullak
believed in the idea that artificial motions had to be le&~ned

in order to play the piano properly. "Thus the natural con-

dition of the material [ringers! has entered upon the fi~st

step of artificial training."ll A further illustration of

the importance laid on finger technique can be seen in the
statement, " . . the later development of all varieties of
touch and tone depends upon a finely individuated and highly
sensitive finger-action." 12 In !.11E.t..k~ playing an after-
pressure on the keys, that is, an extra effort of the finger
muscles on the key after the tone has sounded, is recommended. 13
This is one of the curious misunderstandings of the nature of
the piano found in the older methods and to which Steinhausen
makes such scathing reference. Leschetizky also recommended
the same touch but primarily as an exercise in gaining finger
strength. In octave playing "Zig-zag motions with the inevi-
table jogging to and fro of the elbow are strictly forbidden. ,,l 4
This directly contradicts most modern teaching, especially that

9 Ibiq_. , p. 114. 12rbid., p. 148.

10Ibid. 13Ibid., p. 152.
---' p. 116.
llrbid., p. 120. 14Ibid.
- - ' p. 179.
 199

of t.Jhiteside. 15 Passive stretching of finger joints is

advocated.l 6 See above, pp. 70 and 71, for Steinhausen's
view on this point. Kullak's opinion of the arm stroke is
summed up in the follo~:ving quotation: "The most skillful
arm-stroke, compared with that from the wrist or knuckles,
savors somewhat of roughness. 1117 The above summary of tech-
nical points is fairly representative of the literature on
piano technique before Steinhausen.
Leschetizky represents a curious phenomenon in the history
of piano pedagogy. His name is surely the most illustrious of
the great teachers. If the results of his teaching are in any
way reflected in the success of his pupils, then it was effec-
tive teaching indeed. A list of his pupils includes Paderewski,
Friedmann, Hambourg, Gabrilowitsch, Essipoff, Fanny Bloomfield,
Ethel Newcomb and Schnabel--an impressive roster. The question
is, how far does the playing of these students reflect the
technical approach of the master as his method is known to
us through the writings of his pupils? The book on which knowl-
edge of Leschetizky's approach is based is that of Malwine
Bree. 18 Also available in English is a book by Frl. Unschuld
von Melasfield.l9

15Abby Whiteside, The Pianist's ~echanis~ (New York, 1929) and

Indispensables 9f Pian~ Playing (New York, 1955).
162. cit., p. 183. 17Ibid., p. 189.
18M. Bree, The Leschetizky Method (New York, 1913).
l9unschuld, Th~ Pianist's Hand (New York, 1909).
 200

Both of th~se books agree on the general outlines of the

method. It might first be stated, however, what Leschetizky
himself thought about "methods" in general. He once said,
"~>Jrite over your music-room door the motto: 1No Method! 11120

It is a curious fact, then, that the man who so abhorred

methods is the very one with whom the whole idea of method
is so closely associated.
When one thinks of the Leschetizky technical system a
vision of a rigidly enforced finger training is brought to
mind--a torturous, painful and exaggerated lifting of the
fingers, a low and rigid wrist position. This impression is
the lasting one given by the books mentioned above.
The position at the piano is relatively normal. The el-
bows are not allowed to droop lower than the keyboard, and

Leschetizky forbade his pupils to grovel in the keys on the

one hand or to adopt an imperious attitude at the keyboard
on the other. To illustrate the ideal position, he drew an
analogy to a rider seated easily on his horse and holding the
reins loosely in his grip.
The hand itself was held easily rounded with an attempt
to make each finger strike at the same place on the key (at
least on white keys). The staccato finger touch, on which
the writers mentioned above put such stress, demanded very
forcefully held-back fingers. It is upon this point that

20 E. Newcomb, Leschetizkx ~ 1 l<new Him (New York, 1921), p. 5.

 201

Steinhausen and most contemporary teachers differ most

markedly from Leschetizky. The disciples of Leschetizky
tended to make this high-finger technique, complete with
"teacup" fifth finger, the sine ~non of picno playing.
This idea has been generally discredited today, s~c~~ the
whole strengthening and attention is focused on exactly the
wrong muscles--those pulling the fingers back, rather than
those drawing them down. Of the fact that the attack on the
key is the central question of piano technique there can be
no dispute. High-finger playing diverts the attention from
the most important part of the technique and is apt to divert
the student's attention from the musical result of the attack
as well.
Thumb passing was one of the most important features of
the Leschetizky system. In ascending figures, immediately
after the connection to the first finger was accomplished,
the thumb was to be snapped under the hand to prepare for its
next attack--the advantage being that the thumb was always
ready. The disadvantage was that the thumb's position hin-
dered the action of the other fingers. In the question of
thumb passing Leschetizky allowed no sidewise tilting of the
hand. (An exaggeration of this idea led later teachers to
place pennies on the back of the hand in order to insure its
being perfectly flat.) Lateral motion was, however, allowed,
and Leschetizky did advocate a free up-and-down motion of the
 202

wrist. The one restriction was apparently rigidly enforced,

that of allowing no rolling motion, a motion that originates
naturally in the fore- or upper-arm. This is in direct con-
trast to Steinhausen, of course, who advocated full freedom
of rotation in both the fore- and upper-arms.
One more point in the technical system, and one often
misinterpreted, is that of "after-pressure." This means that
after the key is struck the finger and forearm should continue,
and even more forcibly, to press downward into the key-bed.
This was intended to be an exercise exclusively, the object
being to build up the strength in the finger muscles by means
of this extra exertion. Tnere is certainly reason to believe
that this exercise might achieve the desired result. However,
it incurs the great disadvantage of fostering the habit, and
indeed of training the pupil in the habit, of key-bedding,
that is, in actual playing, of training the student to perform
an exhausting and useless extraneous motion which can, in re-
spect to the mechanical construction of the instrument, have
no possible effect on the already sounding tone. In addition,
any such after-pressure tends to divert attention from the
preparation of the following tone, which will most certainly
be under greater control when the playing mechanism is relaxed
and free of all unnecessary tension.
There is no doubt that the representation of the assistants
Bree and Unschuld gives a one-sided picture of Leschetizky's
 203

teaching. Leschetizky clearly considered no method satisfactory

for all pupils. He left the teaching of technique itself to
his assistants. It is known that he changed fingerings, dy-
namic markings and whole conceptions according to the peculi-
arities of the individual student. He took students to task
for trying to copy the interpretation or even the tec~,ical

approach of others in their own playing, even when he himself

had guided that approach. II .He at once took the greatest
interest in showing me how differently I must attack every
difficulty in the piece. Not only must the fingering be al-
tered, but even the tempos and shadings. Hy friend had under-
taken to write down all his suggestions of interpretation,
and these I had conscientiously transcribed to my own copy
and put them in practice as well as I could. 1121 His approach,
then, was suited to each student and concerned itself far more
with matters of interpretation, general musical culture and
.formation of musical style than with technique. A better pic-
ture of Leschetizky as the inspiring teacher can be obtained
from reading one of the biographies 22 than from reading the
methods wherein the impression of Leschetizky as a tireless
pedant is created. It is probably unfair to Leschetizky that
so much of the teaching done by purveyors of the Leschetizky
method has been done by those least equipped to present it.

21E. Newcomb, Leschetizky ~ I Knew Him (New York, 1921), p. 14.

In addition ~o Ne~vcomb listed above, A. Hullah, Jheodor

22
Leschetizky_ (New York., 1906~:
, , a"'~'
.... u. ..t:. ....~.~.~-""
1 '"""
v .... v'-""a,
~~.:_~ 7 1"'"'r-'lore
Leschetizkv, trans. Genevieve Seymot::: (~.s\l York, l90J).
 204
\
It is thus unfortunate that his name is linked with so much
inferior teaching. There is little doubt that Leschetizky
was a great and inspiring pedagogue who brought the very best
out of his pupils. There is a question, however, as to how
much this was due to any technical system. As this method
is stated by Bree and Unschuld, it runs completely contrary
to the teaching of Steinhausen, except for the general pos-
ture to be adopted at the piano. All of the objections of
Steinhausen cited above in connection with the older schools
would apply here as well.
The school of weight playing as a technical system prob-
ably began with the work of Ludwig Deppe (1828-1890). Host
of his theories have been thrown into disrepute by later
teachers and investigators, but the essential conception of
playing by use of the natural weight of the arm (however re-
strictive his application) was contained in the method.
It is clear that Deppe, living when he did, must have
been greatly influenced by the old school and yet not greatly
influenced by the investigation aroused by the great virtuosi,
especially Liszt and Anton Rubinstein, and by the scientific
spirit then coming of age. It is for this reason that the
explanations of his method seem to vacillate between a rigid,
inflexible system, resembling in many respects the older
methods, and a fundamentally new concept, weight playing,
which is never clearly or, better, practically presented.
 205

Two sources will be used for the following discussion.

These are the books written by Amy Fay 23 and Elisabeth Caland.2 4
Both were pupils of Deppe. Miss Fay's book is not a method
but an autobiographical work relating the story of her work
under various German teachers. The outlines of Deppe's system
are given, however, and without the almost ludicrous combination
of poetry and pedantry indulged in by Miss Caland. Neither work
probably presents Deppe's teaching fairly, but Miss Fay's book,.
by giving something of Deppe the man, presents a more compre-
hensive picture of it.
It is clear that the focal point of Deppe's method was
the production of beautiful tone. Such an approach has one
great virtue. Whatever the scientific impossibilities of af-
fecting the piano tone may be, the approach focuses the stu-
dent's attention on listening. No one would venture to dis-
pute this aspect of any performer's practice discipline.
Deppe's motto was, apparently, "when it looks pretty,
then it is right. 112 5 This means, according to Miss Caland,
the elimination "of all incoherent and doubled (or simultane-
ous) movements; for these, being inharmonious and disturbing
in their character, not only exert a destructive influence

23Mu~~~ Study in ~ermany. (New York, 1922).

24Artistic Piano Playing, trans. Evelyn Stevenson (Nashville,
19ory:---- :- -- -
25caland, QQ. ~i~., p. 17.
 206

on the unity of a composition, but they also effectually ob-

scure the artistic thought with which it is interwoven." 26
This is an idea which Steinhausen presents as well. There
is a psychic connection between motion and artistic thought.
To locate and use the muscles necessary for the production
of sound is not enough. The musical result must be unified
with the motion used to achieve that result. The separation
of the mechanics of technique from musical expression is
wrong; they must be dependent on one another. Technique has
seldom, if ever, been approached scientifically from this
angle. Perhaps the subject is too vast and complex. Otto
Ortmann proposed such a study b~t never finished it, at least
in a published form. On the other hand, the above quotation
implies that there should be no motion opposed to or unneces-
sary to the artistic purpose. This is obvious, although often
overlooked, especially in the practice.
The main technical points of the Deppe method are: 1) the
light hand; 2) the position of the seat, hand and arm; and
3) the controlled free fall. The light hand means about the
same as Steinhausen's zero-weighting. The arm and hand are
carried by the shoulder muscles. Deppe goes one step further,
however. The back muscles are used to pull the shoulder blades
down, this action serving as a counterweight to the arm and
hand weight. This is physiological nonsense, as Steinhausen
 207

points out. (See above, p. 80.) It is in direct contrast

to Steinhausen's principle of passive weighting. Whereas
Deppe sees zero-weighting as the position to which one re-
turns, Steinhausen sees passive weighting as this function.
The fact is, however, that both positions are about equally
tiring, although the active lowering of the shoulder in
Deppe's position does add one extra element of fatigue.
The most unusual aspect of the Deppe method is the posi-
tion of the seat, hand and arm. The seat must be low enough
so that the elbow is below the level of the keys. (Bechstein
even made a pianc with longer legs to accommodate the Deppe
position.) Deppe attempts to throw the elbow out of action
by keeping it close to the body and with a "feeling like
lead." 27 It is to be kept almost immobile. The position of
the arm would be determined, of course, by this position of
elbow and shoulder. The hand position is quite unusual. It
is held lightly (as described above) \dth the elbow close to
the body and the wrist raised. The line of the outside of
the hand and the forearm should be straight, at right angles
to the keyboard. The outside of the hand should be slightly
raised. Miss Caland describes this as a "feat which experi-
ence will prove to be much easier in theory than in practice.n28
In this one can only concur. It is a feat which is, indeed,

27 Fay, Music Study

, p. 293.
28 Q2. cit., p. 26.
 208

not only difficult, but--except in stationary positions (of

which there are, unfortunately, but few examples in the piano
literature)--physically impossible. No matter which way one
twists or turns, the elbow resolutely moves out of its posi-
tion, thereby disturbing the pose. In addition, all of the
fingers strike the keys obliquely except the fifth, and the
thumb is barely able to gain a place on the keyboard.
The advantagesof this position, Miss Caland claims, are
these:
"(1) Owing to the straight line running through the
hand and arm, the muscular connection between the two
becomes of the most direct and positive kind. vfuen
the hand is allowed to tu~ ou~ ~~ th~ wris~, this
~~~~ is summarily broken at that point, and the
fourth and fifth fingers--no longer lying parallel
with the keys, but stretched diagonally across them--
suffer a proportionate loss of power.
"(2) The very important muscles which lie along the
under (or inner) side of the foreann are nm.,;r brought
into exactly that position which is most favorable to
their free and unhampered co-operation with the muscles
of the upper arm; hence follows a notable increase in
their strength ~1d efficiency.
"(3) Through the agency of this hand-position the
fingers are effectually aided in attaiDing to complete
independence, and equality of power.u2Y
Taking the position of the hand at rest as carried uncon-
sciously at the side as normal, Deppe's position is best de-
scribed as a violent turning in of the inside of the hand.
One's description depends quite upon which side of the hand
is being looked at. It is disputable whether the "straight

29caland, QE cit., pp. 27, 28.

 209

line" is a reality. Are the muscles really in a more "direct

line 11 in the Deppean position? Should not, rather, the mid-
dle of the hand be in a line with the middle of the back of
the forearm--a position infinitely more comfortable and free
of the trembling which Miss Caland freely confesses as occa-
sioned by Deppe's position?
The action of the fingers themselves is described as tran~

quil. Only the finger used is called upon to move, the others
remaining quietly on the surface of the keys. This is a de-
parture, and probably a good one, from the concentrated atten-
tion focused on the high finger action of the old school.
However, one is at a loss to see where the necessary force
is obtained for anything more than a Q!anissimo volume level.
Deppe expected that the student would be able to play scales
and arpeggios without extension of the thumb or turning of
the wrist, since the hand was already turned in to such an
extreme degree.. In practice, however, scales and arpeggios
are impossible to play in this position if the elbow is held
close to the side. In addition, the oblique position of the
fingers across the keys is patently absurd.
The controlled free fall is the most important point in
Deppe's system and the one which has led later writers to
consider him the first to introduce weight playing. What is
meant by this term, "controlled free fall," can only be in-
ferred from the system as recorded by Miss Caland. The low
 210

elbow rules out any use of the weight of the upper arm and
shoulder. Since Deppe discouraged high finger action but en-
couraged what he called the fall of the finger, it can only
be supposed that this fall really meant the fall of the fore-
arm. If it is not brought into play, it is difficult to see
where the necessary force would originate. (See above, p. 197.)
As Miss Caland says,
"Naturally it is not possible to produce a tone having
much volume when the mind and will are entirely absorbed
in the effort to make each movement of the fingers in
exactly the right manner, and at the same time to govern
the operation of the muscles from shoulder to fingertips.
But, after the precise position of the hand has been
acquired, and the working of the muscular mechanism has
been mastered both physically and mentally, then the
tone 'tvill ever grow in beauty and in sonority, and will
be so spontaneous, so expressive, so instinct with life,
that the player's wondering joy and s3 isfaction will
likewise increase as the days go by." 0
Could it be that the student gradually learned surreptitiously
to bring the forearm into play, balancing it so well that no
outward motion was visible? This could be an explanation for
what otherwise appears highly unlikely. The tendency of the
writer, Miss Caland, toward optimism as a substitute for ex-
planation is readily apparent in this passage.
In chord playing Deppe definitely recommended the use
of weight in connection with "muscular synergy," i.e., a co-
operation of all the muscles of the arm and back. An ener-
getic contraction of these muscles combined with the weight
 211

of the forearm and accompanied by instantaneous relaxation

comes very close to Steinhausen's idea of the throw.
The two revolutionary principles, then, in Deppe are the
use of the larger muscles of the back and the use of forearm
weight. Steinhausen sees the deficiencies in the method in
the exaggerated pronation of the hand, the emphasis on "car-
rying" the hand (Steinhausen's zero-weighting) and the elim-
ination of the shoulder and upper-arm as weight sources. Most
later writers have credited Deppe with the root idea of weight
playing, the foundation of the teaching of Breithaupt, Matthay,
Steinhausen, Levinskaya, Whiteside and others.
The most widely known name in the development of weight
playing is that of Rudolph Maria Breithaupt (1873-1945), whose
work, Die ~atuerliche Klaviertechnik began to appear in 1905.
Although there are many basic similarities between the teach-
ing of Breithaupt and that of Steinhausen, there are also some
fundamental differences. There is no doubt that Breithaupt's
work has had wider circulation than that of Steinhausen. This
is probably due to the fact that Breithaupt was an active piano
teacher at the Sternschen Konservatorium in Berlin and had a
great number of pupils, among whom was Artur Rubinstein.
Steinhausen's book was little known outside of Germany, although
it is mentioned at some length by Matthay, Schultz, Ortmann
and others.
The Breithaupt method is more practical in scope than
 212

the Steinhausen. The second part of the work, Die Schule des
GewichtsRiels, is a method in the true sense of the word.
Whereas Steinhausen argues against existing methods and gives
only a general suggestion for the basic form of attacking mo-
tion, Breithaupt makes specific suggestions and gives exer-
cises and concrete applications to the piano literature. This
is yet another reason why Breithaupt has had a much greater
influence than Steinhausen.
Breithaupt is mainly concerned with bringing the weight
of shoulder, upper-arm, forearm and hand into active partici-
pation during performance. Any suggestion of tension, fixation
or muscular action that would in any way inhibit the free use
of this weight is strongly opposed. Like Steinhausen, then,
Breithaupt objects greatly to independent finger action, fin-
ger exercises in the usual sense, or any fixation. This does
not mean, however, that he thinks that the strengthening of
fingers should be neglected. Such strengthening exercises
are performed in the following manner: the full weight of the
arm is allowed to rest on the fingertips (for the purpose of
the exercise, curved), and the wrist is then raised and low-
ered. There is no active finger motion. The efficacy of the
exercise is in the passive support given by the fingers to
the weight of the arm. In general, the use of fingers in
the Breithaupt method is restricted to transmitting and sup-
porting weight.
 213

Deppe's principle of "free fall" is further expanded by

Breithaupt. With Breithaupt it is a full arm drop. Breit-
haupt does not overlook the fact that there must be muscular
action to resist the upward driving force which appears upon
contact with the key. Johnstone's argument, then (see above,
p. 195), is not valid. Breithaupt differs from Steinhausen
in that the weight is not allowed to remain on the key-bed.
It is recovered at the shoulder and remains ready for the next
drop. Breithaupt proposes exercises for gaining control over
t~is action of weight recovery. The arm is allowed to rest
on c.ne finger. The key is then allowed to rise of its own
accord in an instantaneous act of recovering the weight at
the shouloer. Learning weight release and weight recovery
is an essentiQl feature of Breithaupt's system. In this habit
of slackening and relaxing all muscles immediately after the
descent lies, thinks Breithaup, the secret of effective and
purposeful technique.
Another way of using the weight of the arm is advocated
by Breithaupt. In this technique the arm is dangled at the
shoulder, the sustained note just barely being held, the wrist
low. With a sudden jerk forward of the lower arm and a simul-
taneous raising of the wrist the thrown weight is directed
onto the desired finger. The whole mechanism again relaxes
and assumes the first position, ready for the next attack.
As Breithaupt says, "the swinging motion of the arm is the
principal function of technic, the weight projected from the
 214

shoulder, the brachial mass itself is the source of all simple

energy.n 3 1
In addition to arm drop and the swinging motion, Breit-
haupt recommends forearm rotation and weight transfer. These
terms are used in the same sense that Steinhausen uses them.
(See above, p. 182.) The same criticisms would then apply.
Like Steinhausen, Breithaupt fails to recognize the possibility
of playing with fingers against a weight base. This deficiency
makes the discussion of weight incomplete. He does not, how-
ever, recommend passive weighting as the normal relaxed con-
dition. This is an improvement on Steinhausen.
An important and unique feature of Breithaupt's approach
is that he regards ~-legato as the basic touch. This is
a logical consequence of regarding the swing and drop as the
basic motions. As far as can be determined, Breithaupt is
alone in this view; all other authors state that legato is
the basis of all technique. This pronouncement of Breithaupt
is a courageous one and ought to be thoughtfully considered.
It is an inherent feature of all weight technique. This is
not to say that ~-legato is the necessary result of weight
technique. If legato be desired in the swing and drop, then
the student must learn to keep keys depressed with a minimum
of weight so that the arm weight is mainly supported at the
shoulder and elbow. It is then possible to swing or drop the

31 R. Breithaupt, Natural Piano-Technic, trans. John Bernhoff

(Leipzig, 1909), II, 2T." . .
 215

weight onto the next key with legato connection. This is,
however, a refinement of the swing and drop and not an es-
sential part of them. Breithaupt is, therefore, correct in
his appraisal of ~-legato as the basis of weight technique.
He does little, however, to correct the impression that non-
legato is a necessary result of weight technique. It is ob-
viously true that legato is the musical goal most often re-
quired in melody playing. If weight playing were really op-
posed to such a legato, then it would have to be rejected for
such passages. That such an opposition does not really exist,
however, is evident in the light of the possible refinements
indicated above. Steinhausen recommends weight transfer for
legato playing. This is not really adequate, however, because
of the lack of dynamic control and the disadvantages of passive
weighting. Breithaupt suggests that the non-~egato inherent
in weight shifting (or swing) can be modified if accompanied
by inward or outward rotation of the upper-arm. Experiment
will show this to be true. It is a technique known as shoulder
guidance and is discussed more fully by Abby Whiteside.32
The remaining features of Breithaupt's system have to do
with the role of fingers. The hand position is derived in
the following manner. The arm is laid flat and outstretched
on a table top. The fingers are then drawn in, very slightly
curved, and the whole weight of the arm is transferred to the

32A. Whiteside, The Pianist's Mechanis~ (New York, 1929), pp. 40ff.
 216

fingertips. The point of resistance will be felt in the

knuckles which will stand up if the position is correct.
Breithaupt further recommends the use of the fingers as spokes
in a wheel, a conception similar to Steinhausen's. (See above,
p. 129.) Finger action is to be a sort of oscillation at the
knuckle joint with the fingers thrown forward and downward,
the action accompanied by a quick raising of the wrist.
As with Steinhausen, there is no real provision made in
Breithaupt's method for rapid passage work. The conception
of playing against a weight base is missing. Rotation in it-
self contains an inherent lack of dynamic control, as indi-
cated above. The other actions recommended by Breithaupt
require a recovery before each weight release. Such a re-
covery of weight is time-consuming and rules out rapid play-
ing. Breithaupt differs from Steinhausen primarily in the
instantaneous recovery of weight after each attack. This is
directly opposed to Steinhausen's passive weighting and in
accordance with the theories of Matthay.
Tobias Matthay (1858-1945), the famous English pedagogue,
can be placed with Breithaupt and Steinhausen as one of the
so-called relaxation exponents. Matthay gives credit specif-
ically to Steinhausen, citing his "splended pioneer work.u33
Matthay stands opposed, however, to certain fundamental con-
" ,.,<? '
cepts in Steinhausen's work. Matthay reject~ the idea of

33T. Matthay, Some Commentaries on the Teachi~ of Pi~oforte

Technig~ (Lonaon; f9Trr,-p-:-r:- - -- - 1, - .-
 217

thro~4 and free fall 3 5 as well as passive weighting 36 and

weight transfer.37 Matthay's objection to the throw and the
free fall is in the lack of control over key descent, a funda-
mental element in Matthay's system. Passive weighting is
rejected because of the effort required in supporting the
weight. Matthay was the first to recognize this deficiency
in the weight schools. Full weight transfer is not considered
desirable because of the supporting effort and because of the
lack of control over dynamics. 3 8 In spite of these consid-
erable differences Matthay commends Steinhausen for his work
in combatting the older German schools of finger technique.39
Before Matthays books are discussed further, it might be
well to mention the difficulties encountered in penetrating
Matthay's writing. Matthay was certainly no master of the
English language nor of literary style. All of his work reads
as if it had been translated from German. Matthay coins im-
possible words, even where very acceptable English equivalents
are available. Some examples from ~ Visible and Invisible
in Pianofort~ Technigu_e are "un-knowledge," "promptable,"

34Ibid., pp. 46ff.

35T. Matthay, The Visible and Invisible in Pianoforte Tech-
nique {London,-r932), p. 4o:- ------
36T. Matthay, The Act of Touch {New York, 1903), p. 184.
37Visible an~ Invisibl~ . . .' p. 93.
38lbid., p. 30.
39some Commentaries , pp. 47ff.
 218

"unrecent," and "prominentized." The organization of The

Act of Touch and of The Visible and Invisible in Pianoforte
-- -- --- -- ----- --- - - - -
Technig~ is a marvel of confusion. The confusion results
from too much repetition and from carelessness in the organi-
zation. In addition to the main substance of each section
there are "preambles," "digests," "summaries," "notes,"
"codas," "recapitulations," "epitomes," "final precepts," and
"amplifications." Furthermore, much of the most pertinent
information is hidden in footnotes. It is small wonder, then,
that Matthay's work has not been widely read or well under-
stood. ~Vhile the haziness of his style effectually obscures
some of the deficiencies, it also obscures some of the essen-
tial truths. Matthay was, first and foremost, a musician and
not a writer. Fortunately, we have at least some of his ideas
in comprehensible form.
Matthay differed from Steinhausen (although not from
Breithaupt) in a very fundamental way. It is clear that
Matth~y believed that piano tone could be influenced by the
method of attack. 4 0 The requirements for beautiful tone were
1) elimination of percussive noises and 2) controlled key
descent. The latter meant, physically speaking, continued
contact between the key surface and the fingertip. This ruled
out, for Matthay, arm drop from above the keys as well as the
free swing from key to key as directed by Steinhausen. Matthay

4 For a full explanation of Matthays theory in regard to piano

tone, see The ~~ of Touch, pp. 74ff.
 219

said, "Bad tone and lack of control over tone arises when the
key is jerked down by a too suddenly applied impulse. 1141 On
the other hand, Matthay recognized that the tone could not
be altered after it had been produced. This led him to his
theory of cessation of weight or muscular effort immediately
after tone production. For Matthay this did not mean the point
at which the key hits the key-bed. Furthermore, the sound
of the key hitting the bed was an undesirable percussive noise.
Matthay claimed that the complete elimination of contact with
the key-bed would be the result of a perfect technique. 42
In addition the key descent had to accelerate in the space
from the key surface to the point at which tone is produced.
This meant that the finger muscles had to be exerted in addi-
tion to other forces.
The difficulty in Matthay's fundamental theory of key
attack is that the three elements listed above (prepared at-
tack, avoidance of key-bed contact, and acceleration toward
the point of tone production) are not physically compatible.
The distance of key fall is too short for these actions to
take place. Matthay requires that the finger be in contact
with the key at the moment of attack, that the key descent
be accelerated, and that the key-bed be avoided--all this in
a space of less than three-eighths of an inch. The attempt

4lvisible and Invisible , p. 93.

42Act o{ Touch.. , p. 92.
 220

to avoid hitting the key-bed seems to be the most impossible

feature. Any attempt at this would result in timidity, weak
tone, and fixation. It is probable that Matthay modified this
idea in his actual teaching. Certainly fixation is the very
antithesis of Matthay's system.43 Matthay is very sound,
however, in another aspect of this theory. The important
point for the pianist is that the key-bed is not the important
object in the attack, nor the key surface, but rather the mo-
ment of tone production. As an aid in developing this concept
11atthay suggests, "we shall not try to ~ the key_board--or
at it, but shall instead try to play the strings by means of
the key.n44 Simple experiment will show how effective psycho-
logically this suggestion is in preventing key-bedding.
Matthay was really the first to recognize the fact that
any action needs a base against which it can operate. Matthay
defines his touch "generatt in tenns of such bases. There is
much confusion here, and as Schultz points out,45 in two of
the suggested touches no tone could be produced at all.

43An amusing example of what can be done with this theory can
be found in Schultz, The Riddle of the Pianist's Finger (Chicago,
1936), pp. 26lff. Schultz sees Matthay's theory of controlled
key descent as correct. Matthay was incorrect, he thinks, in
using weight as the basis of the attack. Since Schultz is in
favor of fixation as the base against which the fingers act,
he completely perverts Matthay's whole emphasis on relaxation
to make Matthay's theory agree with his own.
44The Act of Touch, p. 49.
45The Riddle of the Pianist's Fing~, pp. 244ff.
 221

Matthay was caught between two principles he held to be always

valid: 1) that there should be no fixation; and 2) that there
should be no key-bedding. Matthay thought that continuous
weight release would mean key-bedding (Steinhausen's passive
weighting) to which he was opposed. The only other base pos-
sible was fixation to which he was just as opposed. Weight
release as a base for finger action offered no problem as long
as the tempo was slow enough. Then the weight release could
be recovered after each descent. At moderate to fast tempos,
however, this obviously becomes impossible, as Matthay actually
recognized.46 The only alternative to continuously released
weight is fixation. It is clear that Matthay probably did
in fact use released weight. He tried to get around the prob-
lem in his writings by using the tenn, "hand weight, 11 (this
would produce an extremely feeble tone in its pure form) or
by using such terms as "poised arm," etc. By poised arm,
Matthay probably meant partially released arm weight, i.e.,
an arm upon which some upward acting muscular force was still
present. A perfectly poised arm, however, will move upward
at the slightest downward pressure of a finger. It is, there-
fore, useless as a base. In summary then, Matthay recognized
the need for a base but failed to bring forth an adequate one.
His dread of key-bedding prevented him from allowing continu-
ously released weight in any form.

46The Act of Touch, p. 228.

 222

In discussing rotation, however, Matthay suggests a

possible base for finger action completely overlooked by
other writers. 4 7 Matthay's conception of rotation is much
more subtle and ingenious than that of all other authors.
The rotating action need not be visible. The muscles bring-
ing about rotation can serve as a resistance to finger action.
If the action is perfectly balanced, there is no outwardly
visible forearm rotation. The finger is exerted and the re-
sistance is supplied to prevent the hand from tipping in the
opposite direction. This seems to be a perfectly reasonable
and plausible theory, although it is doubtful that such a
technique would operate completely without weight.
Matthay points out a deficiency in Steinhausen's sug-
gestions by stating that Steinhausen's not being a pianist
led him to think of everything as it appeared externally. 48
Steinhausen did not sense the balanced interplay of forces
which results in a perfectly calm exterior appearance, but
which does not necessarily mean muscular inactivity. This
has been pointed out above in regard to the use of weight
bases, and Matthay suggests the use of rotation as another
possibility. Still another such activity might be the play
of the muscles bringing the hand downward balanced against
finger action. If perfectly co-ordinated, such actions are

47~ Conunentar;_*!_~ , p. 1.
48_Thid.' p. 47.
 223

not readily perceptible from without.

Matthay supports Steinhausen in another area--the impos-
sibility of willing muscular action directly. 49 Any action
at the piano is too complex in its co-ordination to be willed.
Furthermore no one is able to bring a particular muscle into
play; he wills a certain action, and the muscle relaxes or
contracts as is needed to bring the action about. This is
a very important point and of special significance for the
teacher Who is trying to direct the student's muscular ac
tivity.
Matthay brings finger activity into much more prominence
than do either Steinhausen or Breithaupt. Almost every action
is at least accompanied by finger exertion. Matthay recog-
nizes that finger action is a necessity for rapid passages.50
This is a distinct advance over the pure weight schools.
Matthay is in agreement with Steinhausen, however, on the
theory of finger independence and agility. "The idea that
there are 'stiff' hands and fingers which have to be ground
down to suppleness by interminable exercises is mostly based
on fallacy.". '"Stiff' wrists, 'stiff' fingers, are, as a
rule, merely the outcome of incorrect muscular action--impeded
action~ i~e.: Action impeded by the unnecessary and harmful
associated action of the opposite muscles."51

49visi~le ?-_Il.<! Invisible , pp. 15 and 157.

50Act ~ Touch: pp. 200 and 228.
5 '
libid., p. 21. See alsop. 180 for further discussion.
 224

In spite of all the above apparent contradictions Matthay

still belongs to the group advocating weight touch. All weight
touch must, in Matthay's v~ew, begin on the key surface and
be recovered immediately after tone production. Matthay also
speaks of levering the weight of the arm onto the key.52 To
do this the elbow rises as the weight is released. The "up-
action" prevents key-bedding. Matthay thinks that the "upper-
arm forward dig" produces especially ugly tone because of its
sudden and uncontrolled action. This is, incidentally, the
action advocated by Breithaupt as forearm extension. In con-
clusion: Matthay supports Steinhausen in the theory of finger
agility, basic weight touch, and the principle of rotation;
he is opposed, however, to passive weighting (key-bedding),
free arm drop,. swing and weight transfer. Matthay's method
has many internal contradictions which can be mitigated,
however, by common sense and practical experiment. Matthay
always has the advantage of his superior musical intuition
and often speaks meaningfully to fellow musicians who under-
stand the action he is attempting to describe. In any case,
Matthay's great fame as a teacher has to do primarily with
his interpretative insight, his greatness as a musical intel-
lect, and his love of beauty. This is well attested by the
work of his pupils, among whom are Myra Hess, Clifford Curzon
and Cecile Genhart.

52visible and _Invisible , p. 35.

 225

Two further works on weight technique deserve brief men-

tion here--those of Levinskaya 53 and Whiteside. 54 Levinskaya's
book is an attempt to synthesize the schools of weight tech-
nique and finger action. Both are considered about equally
important. The basic approach toward weight playing is that
of Steinhausen. Levinskaya's system differs from Matthay's
in that key-bedding is allowed. Levinskaya sees the greatest
weakness in Matthay as the dread of key-bedding which prevented
a really free use of weight.55 A rather superficial survey of
old and new methods is made, the methods discussed and compared
and finally synthesized.
Miss Abby Whiteside extends some of Matthay's principles.
She discourages all fixation, finger drill and reaching for
notes. In Miss Whiteside's view, the upper arm and shoulder
are the sources of all power and also the fulcrums for all
lateral motion. The principal faults in technique are the
use of separate power impulses for each tone, key-bedding,
over-use of small muscles and finding notes by reaching with
the fingers. 56 Miss Whiteside has some original ideas as well.
The greatest advantage of using large muscles is musical;

53M. Levinskaya, ~e Levinskaya ~~ of Pianoforte Tech-

nique (London, 191"0)~ . .
54A. Whiteside, Indispensables of Piano-Playi~ (New York,
1955). The PianistslMecfianism-rNew York, 1~2~).
55~. cit., pp. 177ff.
56Pianist's Mechanism, p. 8.
 226

.the notes then group themselves in the larger motion and are
not thought of as separate units. This is a point which all
advocates of pure finger technique should consider. It is
an unquestionable fact that all pianists who rely exclusively
on finger technique lack the larger conceptions of musical
phrase, momentum and line. This is probably the most signifi-
cant argument in favor of the employment of the larger muscles
as the source of power and position. As to the fingers, Miss
tfuiteside says, "The fingers in themselves have no power of
co-ordination. The boc!Y must be taught and the fingers will
find their way under the guidance of this central control.u57
She says further, "Most technical difficulties which persist
are the result of reaching with the fingers for key position.n 58
Miss Whiteside makes no attempt to achieve ~egato in rapid
scales and arpeggios. She does not think that such legato
connection is possible or desirable and believes that the at-
tempt to achieve it results in tonal unevenness.59 The point
emphasized more strongly than any other is the initiation of
all movement by the upper-arm, usually serving as a guide and
fulcrum for a series of finger actions. The stress is on co-
ordinated activity, not on muscular isolation. "The muscle
power of the fingers is totally inadequate for producing a

57rndispensables , p. 9.
58indispensables , p. 76.
59Pianist's Mechanism, pp. 15 and 1~ and Indispensables
p.l15.
. . .'
 227

full range of dyz:tamics.u 60 Because of the attention given

to the fingers in scale practice Miss \Vhiteside says, "They
Lscale~7 should never, never be used as the basis for devel-
oping a technique.n6l
There remain two books for discussion which are the
result of a genuinely scientific attempt to base a technical
system on physiological truth. The books are those by Ort-
mann62 and Schultz.63 Neither book is easy or attractive
reading for the musician, not only because of the scientific
terminology but also because of the non-musical manner of ap-
proach. Ortmann is the least offensive because he bases his
conclusions on observation of what is actually done by good
pianists at the keyboard. Schultz, on the other hand, has
almost no musical or psychological intuition, although he
has some very interesting things to say about muscular co-
ordination.
Otto Ortmann's work is a thoroughly organized and sci-
entific study of the mechanics of technique. It is not a
technical method but a study of muscular and joint action.
The contents will be briefly summarized in what follows.
Part I explains the physical organism and its construc-
tion, the skeleton and the joints. There are several

60Indispensables , p. 118. 61~., p. 123.

6 2o. Ortmann The Phys_iological Mechani~ of Piano Technigl.!e,
(New York, 192~~
63A. Schultz, ~Riddle 2f the Pianist's Finge~ (Chicago, 1936).
 228

interesting points here. The action of the elbow is in one

plane only; movements outside of this plane involve several
joints. This means that practically all forearm motion at
the keyboard is a co-operative motion. This agrees with
Steinhausen's findings. The vertical stroke of the fingers
is advised because it does not waste force. Ortmann does not
consider, however, the factor of control. The axis of rota-
tion is through the fourth finger, an important point in
teaching, but it may be shifted by adduction at the wrist.
The hand position giving greatest ease, according to joint
mechanics, is that usually recommended--fingers mildly curved
at each joint.6 4 (This position is chosen, however, to favor
finger action.) The last chief point in this section is of
significance. Adduction of the fingers is dependent upon
the degree of flexion.65 It is, therefore, necessary for
many hands to keep the third (knuckle) joint straight in order
to achieve the required flexion. A curved third joint is of-
ten a physically impossible position.
Chapter II has to do with muscles. The emphasis here
is on the inevitability of the interaction of muscles--a point
also noted by Steinhausen. Ortmann draws no conclusion from
this fact, however, except that complete isolation is impos-
sible. Steinhausen thought that this meant that there should

64ortmann, Physiological , p. 32.

65~., p . 38.
 229

be no attempt at isolation; Schultz, on the other hand, thinks

that isolation should be encouraged to the highest possible
degree, even if unattainable. The obvious impossibility of
complete relaxation is pointed out, 66 and the nature of the
psychic learning process is discussed along the lines of
Steinhausen.67 Teachers might also note what Ortmann has to
say about the effect.of circulatory deficiencies on technique.68
Moving the student's hand in the manner desired by the teacher
is not physiologically sound. Different muscles are used and
to different degrees in passive and active contractions. 69
As do Steinhausen and Matthay, Ortmann points out that good
co-ordination is the elimination of excess or antagonistic
motion. 70
Ortmann demonstrates that less muscular action is needed
to fix a joint at the moment of key contact if the bones are
in line ~dth the force (straightened finger, high wrist, etc.).
Most pianists feel, however, that some flexibility or give is
a necessity for control. Passages involving leaps with rapid
change of direction should be made with the smaller parts
(fingers, hand, forearm), since the larger parts are difficult
to control once their large mass is set in motion and allowed
to continue under the force of inertia. 71 This is contrary
l':f"
OOibid. p. 60. 69rbid. p. 90.
---- ' ----'
---' p. 64.
67r bid. 7 Or tid. p. 100.
---,
68rbid. p. 71. 7trbid.
--- ' - - - ' p. 120.
 230

to Steinhausen, Matthay, Breithaupt and Whiteside, of course.

These writers all advocated no stretching or reaching by the
fingers. This was really on other grounds, however: adduction
of the fingers created hand-wrist tension and thus limited
finger agility. Ortmann discusses the inadvisability of call-
ing attention to the muscles themselves. Almost all of the
modern pedagogues are agreed on this. Ortmann shows that a
forward leaning position renders the upper-arm inactive. 72
This he thinks desirable because of the inertia problem men-
tioned above. Weight playerswould think the opposite: full
weight is obtainable only in either an erect or slightly back-
ward leaning position. Ortmann is opposed to weight transfer
in its pure sense, as is Matthay, and for the same reasons.73
Ortmann recognizes the need for a fulcrum against which an
action can take place. He says, "The teaching of the proper
timing of the rigidity instead of its complete avoidance is
the problem of pedagogy.n 74 Steinhausen holds the same view.
(See above, pp. 73 and 74.) In practicing passages that de-
mand agility Ortmann advises, "If accuracy be the aim in
learning a passage that involves leaps and speed, the lightest
possible practice will be advisable.n 75 "Arm-legato" is advo-
cated for passages slow enough to admit of it because of the
lack of percussiveness and shock and the gain in control.

72Ibid., p. 132. 74rbid., p. 158.

73Ibid., p. 138. 75ibid., p. 172.
 231

Ortmann discredits any attempt at quick release of keys, since

the key rises independently of finger action. Thisis an im-
portant point, since much unnecessary tension arises from
exaggeratedly quick key release. It is thus a mistake to
direct attention to the lift in teaching staccato.
Ortmann and Steinhausen disagree on the natural independ-
ence of fingers, but for different reasons. Steinhausen claims
that each finger is by nature independent since it has its own
tendon and nerve channel. Ortmann says, "The difficulty which
the young beginner finds in separate articulation of the fin-
gers results from the fact that, biologically, they are all
controlled by one muscle, the co-ordinated subdivision of which
has to be acquired through training.n76 Only a physiologist
would be in a position to confirm this statement. In any case,
Ortmann does not offer any assistance as to what sort of train-
ing would be effective in acquiring this articuL "ion. He dis-
credits high finger technique generally but is a strong advocate
of finger exercise. "The purely gymnastic training of the small
muscles of the fingers, ,hand, and fore-arm, in order to increase
their absolute strength, is, therefore, highly desirable for
piano technique.n77
These are, then, the main points of Ortmann's book. In
most points Ortmann and Steinhausen are in agreement. Ortmann,

761!?!.., p. 217.
77tbid., p. 235.
 232

however, is even less inclined than Steinhausen to advocate

any specific technique. He simply warns against the more ob-
vious errors. There is no discussion of psychological or
musical matters or of the relationship of technique to music.
Ortmann is only concerned with the apparatus and its functions.
The book is, nonetheless, extremely valuable scientifically,
although useless as a method. To be of any real service to
a teacher it would have to be tempered with musical intuition.
Musical intuition is precisely the quality which Arnold
Schultz lacks. Although Schultz' work is extremely valuable
in many. ways, particularly in his careful analyses of various
touch forms, he overlooks or is unable to appreciate the con-
nection between technical motion and musical expression. Hi8
basic conclusions can only be considered unmusical; there is
no other word for them.
In the logic of his analysis Schultz is irreproachable.
He makes two statements at the outset, however, which are un-
supported: 1) that the controlled key-descent is the "first
general precept of piano technique~; and 2) that legato is
the basis of all technique.78 Steinhausen's concept is that
controlled key-descent is meaningless in tone production (see
Steinhausen's book, above, Section II), and Breithaupt argued
against legato as the basis for technique, although, of course,
admitting its musical value. Through long and lengthy reasoning

78!h! Riddle , pp. 1, 2.

 233

Schultz arrives at the conclusion that the greatest control

and legato is achieved by arm and wrist fixation. \fuatever
may be the truth of his conclusion, any musician knows that
restriction of movement is fatal to musical expansiveness.
This is such an obvious and intuitive fact to a good musician
that Schultz entire reasoning appears an abstract absurdity.
Schultz does have many valuable things to say, however.
Schultz points out, agreeing with Steinhausen, that "with
the exception of a type of finger-action, probably no movement
is required at the piano which the student has not had occa-
sion to use elsewh?re."79 Schultz seeks later, however, to
develop that finger action to the exclusion of almost all else
rather than subordinating it, as does Steinhausen. Schultz
points out that "strength has, as a matter of fact, very little
bearing on velocity."80 Schultz' view of relaxation is aston-
ishing. First, he misinterprets it, as is usual, to mean com-
plete relaxation. 81 He then says, nThe only general value of
relaxation) let it be repeated, rests in its promotion of en-
durance.u82 This is, of course, true. Schultz, however, views
this as relatively inconsequential. To a pianist this is one
of the funda~ental problems; the relaxation of all unused or

79The Riddle . , p. 9.
80rbid., p. 21.
Blrbid., PP 23ff.
82Jbid.' p. 27.
 234

unnecessary muscles in order to achieve unhindered motion and

ease is the root of all good technique. Endurance is enor-
mously important, and the lack of it, in one way or another,
is at the bottom of most technical failures. By misjudging
the value of relaxation in a purely practical sense, Schultz
goes wide of the mark and betrays his essential ignorance of
what is involved in performance.
Schultz recognizes weight touch legato as being valuable
for slow passages, and he correctly points out that the proper
execution of the motion rests primarily on the correct use of
the wrist. He also admits of the use of other weight touches
but rules out the free arm drop because of its lack of con-
trol.83
The major effort of Schultz is devoted to finding out
which touch is the best for controlling key descent and which
provides the best legato at high velocities. This touch is
what he calls the "contra-fixation" movement84 or action of
the fingers against a fixed base. There seem to be two flaws
here, aside from the questionable value of controlled key des-
cent. First of all, legato is seldom a real consideration
in rapid, brilliant passage work. Non-legato playing is un-
deniably more brilliant. Furthermore, as Schultz admits,
..
"with extreme velocity there can be no problem of legato for

83
~.' p. 174.
a4ibid., P 62.
 235

the very rapidity with which the tones follow each other
serves to connect them."85 Secondly, Schultz thinks that
fingers which are isolated (as much as possible) from the
rest of the mechanism through joint fixation offer greater
control, since only a limited number of muscles need be used.
As Steinhausen points out many times, however, the finger mus-
cles are by nature unequal, and no amount of training can ever
make them even remotely the same. On the other hand, if weight
is used as a base, the force remains constant if rotated prop-
erly to balance finger action, as Matthay suggests. Desired
dynamic gradations can be obtained by greater finger effort
or by an increase in the amount of released weight. In contra-
fixation movement, little dynamic intensity can be achieved.
As Schultz says, "While its range of intensity with the small-
er playing units is less than that of the other two types, its
force is nevertheless adequate for the playing of most piano
music.n 86 This is a questionable view. Teachers know that
the musical problem of most students is the inability to pro-
ject, to excite in the listener the response which corresponds
to their own emotional reaction to the printed page. The tech-
nical problem is the limited range of dynamics, the inadequate
magnification of the expressive power of widely differentiated
tonal intensities. Any touch, such as contra-fixation, which

85Ibid., p. 90.
86ibid., p. 81.
 236

limits this range must be rejected out of hand. To develop

the contra-fixation touch would be to paralyze the projective
capacities of the student. Schultz recommends the development
of a sensation of pressure in the finger as a guide to contra-
fixation touch. This is pernicious advice because the attempt
to manufacture such an artificial sensation leads inevitably
to the tensing of the extensor muscles in the fingers. The
pressure sensation is then artificially manufactured because
a resistance is set up in the finger itself. The reader who
knows Matthay may be confused here with the concept of pres-
sure which Matthay recommends. By emphasizing relaxation
instead of fixation, however, Matthay guards against ~he set-
ting up of antagonistic forces. Matthay is merely trying to
make the student sensitive to the actual, not artificial, key
resistance--quite a different matter.
Schultz gives a very interesting and valuable analysis
of finger co-ordination which must be read in its entirety
for comprehension.87 It is a scientific investigation which
can be of great value to the teacher in guarding against
technical faults. It is not of much help, however, in deter-
mining what those faults are. In addition, it should always
be borne in mind what Steinhausen and all physiologists say
about muscular action: it is not muscle contraction which is
willed, but rather the motion itself. The remainder of

8 7 ~., pp. l33ff.

 237

Schultz' book is concerned with a generally derogatory analysis

of the Leschetizky, Breithaupt and Matthay methods and a mild-
ly laudatory one of the Ortmann work. In summary it can be
seen that Schultz is imbued with the inclination and sometimes
the skill of a trained scientist. Much of what he says is,
therefore, valuable. On the whole, however, he is very far
from making any real contribution for he lacks, almost entirely,
musical understanding. There is no comprehension of the psy-
chological difficulty of expressing musical motion without
physical motion, especially for the less gifted. There is
insufficient appreciation of the practical importance of re-
laxation. Further, there are certain physiological errors,
especially those dealing with finger isolation, which have
been pointed out above. In short, Mr. Schultz' book is some-
times interesting and informative but, for a musician, aggra-
vatingly over-technical, fussy, and--although not for these
reasons--anti-musical.
In the course of this chapter the attempt has been made
to summarize the important points of methods appearing before
and after that of Steinhausen. Three methods, those of Stein-
hausen, Breithaupt and Matthay, appeared almost at -the same
time. It is difficult to say which had priority. The most
important part of Breithaupt's work appeared some years after
Steinhausen's, as did the later books of Matthay. In any case,
these three men obviously held varying ideas as to what con-
stituted weight technique. They are all agreed, however, on
 238

the meaning and importance of relaxation and on the musical

necessity of relating muscular action to artistic expression.
The differences have been pointed out above in some detail;
it should be remembered also that there were major areas of
agreement. The real distinction between them and the expo-
nents of the finger technique systems, old and new, lies in
these areas. Today the furor which Steinhausen's work, as
well as. that of Breithaupt and Matthay, aroused can hardly
be imagined. The great danger lay in the completely subor-
dinate position into which the fingers were placed. Schultz
gives an excellent summary of the action involved in finger
co-ordination, and such ideas are probably n~cessary antidotes
to the de-emphasis of such action in Steinhausen. There is
no reason to believe that finger action need be stiff, tense
and fatiguing. If, as Steinhausen suggests, it is used in
co-operation with weight technique, it can be quite the oppo-
site. One cannot, however, dispense with it. The significance
and value of Steinhausen's contribution should now be apparent.
His work was creative and highly important, although not "new. 11
Natural laws can never be new; they are simply discovered or
re-discovered. All later writers are highly indebted to Stein-
hausen, eithe~ directly or indirectly. All pianists owe him
great respect and gratitude, whatever his faults and deficien-
cies, for he was a pioneer in the sensible and free approach
to the keyboard which is now common heri.tage.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Bree, Malwine. The Leschetizky Method. New York: The Uni-

versity Society:-f913.
Breithaupt, Rudolph. Natural Piano-~echnic, Vol. II. Trans.
John Bernhoff. Leipzig: ~. F. Kahn~achfolger, 1909.
Brower, Harriette. Modern Hasters of the Keyboard. New York:
Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1926.
Caland, Elisabeth. Artistic Piano Playing. Trans. Evelyn
Stevenson. Nashville: The Ofyrnpian Press, 1903.
Ehrlich, Heinrich. Ho~-1 To Practice on the Piano. Trans.
J. H. Cornell. ~w-york: G. ScKirmer,-lrfOZ.

Fay, Amy. Music Study in Germany. New York: Macmillan, 1922.

Hullahl Annette. Theodor Leschetizky. New York: John Lane Co.,
1Y06.
Johnstone, J. Alfred. The Art of Teaching Pianoforte Playing.
London: W. M. Reeves Ln.d~?:
Kullak, Dr. Adolph. Aesthetics of Pianoforte Playing. Trans.
Dr. T. Baker. New York: G.-Schirmer, 1907.
Levinskaya, Maria. The Levinskaya S~stem of Pianoforte Tech-
nique. London:~ M. Dent and ons, Ltd., 1930.
Hatthay, Tobias. The Act of Touch. London, New York: Longmans,
Green and Company:-T903-.
------. Musical Interpret~tion, _Its Laws and Principles.
Boston: Boston Music Co., 19~
-----. Some Commentarie~QQ the Teachin~ of Pianoforte Tech-
nique. London: Longmans, Green an co.;-Drtl.

239
 BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)

Matthay, Tobias. The Visible and Invisible in Pian~forte

Te~hniqrg London: H. Milford, OxbDra University
Press, 32.
Newcomb, Ethel. Lescheti~ As I Knew Him. Ne-.-1 York: D.
Appleton and Company, I91I.~ -------
Ortmann, Otto. The Physiological Mechanics of Piano Technique.
New York: E:-P.--Dutton and Co., 19Z9~--
Riemann, Hugo. Catechism of Pianoforte Playing. New York:
G. Schirmer, 190-.
Schultz, Arnold. The Riddle of the Pianist's Finger. Chicago:
University of-chicago Press;-1936.
Unschuld, Marie von. The Pianist's Hand. New York: Carl
Fischer, 1909.
Whiteside, Abby. Indispensables of Piano Playing. New York:
Coleman Ross Co., Inc., D.r5s:-
------. The Pianist's Mechanism. New York: Schirmer, 1929.

OTHER REFERENCES

Apel, \-lilli. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Article, "Pianoforte

Playing."
Grove's DictionaEY of Music and Musicians. 5th ed., Vol. VI.
Article, 1Pian01orte Playing. 11
Lavignac~ Alfred. Enclclopedie de la ~qsig~ et pic~~~~aire
du ~onservatoire. Articfe,-rrLe piano et sa tecl1n~que.'r-

Moser, H. J. Musils..le!.ikon. Article, n Klavierpaedogogik."

. "

Riemann, Hugo. Musiklexikon. 11th ed. Article, "Klavierspiel. 11

240