First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems

1. Thermodynamic System
A device which converts heat energy into mechanical work (and electrical work) or vice versa
Could be a very simple piston-cylinder device containing a compressible working fluid
Could also be a very complex machine involving multiple components, mechanisms, fluids and fuels
Once the system boundary is identified, everything outside is called the surrounding, so the system is exchanging
heat and/or work with the surrounding
If the system is also exchanging mass with the surrounding, it is an open system, otherwise it is a closed system
Examples:

Simple Closed System: Piston-Cylinder. Complex Open Systems: Reciprocating Engine, Aircraft Turbojet Engine.
2. Closed System (Control Mass)
A thermodynamic device that is completely sealed, so there is no mass exchange with the
surrounding, but it still exchanges heat (Q) and/or work (W) with the surrounding
Hence for a simple piston-cylinder device, the mass of the working fluid inside is a constant
The working fluid could be a saturated liquid-vapor mixture (such as boiling water), a
superheated vapor (such as steam), or a gas (such as air)
If the working fluid remains as a liquid during the process, there is hardly any change in volume since liquids are
extremely incompressible
3. Thermodynamic State & Properties of Pure Substance
The state of a system is defined when all its properties are known or can be found from known properties
Thermodynamic properties of a fluid includes pressure (P), temperature (T), specific volume (v), specific internal
energy (u), specific enthalpy (h), specific entropy (s), and quality of a saturated liquid-vapor mixture (x), etc.
For a pure substance any two independent properties would define the state, and hence all other properties can be
found from the compressed liquid, saturated fluid or superheated vapor tables
Usually pressure and temperature are specified to define the state because they are directly measurable with
ordinary instruments
For a saturated liquid-vapor mixture, pressure and temperature are dependent, so one other property (x, v, u, h, s)
besides temperature and pressure is needed to define the state and determine all other properties
4. Properties of Ideal Gas
A pure substance at a superheated vapor state may also be an ideal gas if its P, T and v is related by ideal gas law:
Pv RT or PV mRT
Each gas has a specific gas constant R which is related to its molecular mass M and the universal gas constant:
R kJ
R [unit: kJ/(kg-K)] R 8.314
M kmole K
In general, a vapor is approximately an ideal gas at relatively low pressure (<< critical pressure) regardless of
temperature, or at medium pressure when the temperature is sufficiently high (~ critical temperature), or at high
pressure (~ critical pressure) but also high temperature (>> critical temperature). Examples of ideal gas:
Nitrogen, Oxygen and Air at atmospheric pressure and temperature; water vapor at low pressures
Constant-volume specific heat is the energy required to increase the temperature by one degree per unit mass of
du
the gas when heated in a constant-volume rigid container, and can be expressed as: CV
dT
Constant-volume specific heat can be found experimentally, and is usually temperature dependent: Cv(T)
2

The change of internal energy of an ideal gas can be evaluated by: u 2 u1 Cv (T )dT
1

An ideal gas with Cv=constant is defined as a calorically ideal gas (also known as a perfect gas), examples are
monatomic gases (argon, neon, helium). Air at temperature below ~500 K is also approximately a perfect gas.
Hence for a perfect gas, the change of internal energy is simply: u 2 u1 Cv (T2 T1 )
5. Thermodynamic Process
A process is continuous change of state from the initial (beginning) state to final state of the system
Heat and/or work are exchanged with the surrounding during the process
A quasi-equilibrium process is one that is frictionless, continuous and controlled, so that it can be traced as a
mathematical function on a property diagram (such as a P-v or T-v diagram). Hence the work done by a closed
system of a compressible substance in a reversible process can be evaluated as:
W F dx P A dx P dV

Work done can be graphically represented by the area under the process on the P-V
diagram. Different processes result in different works. Examples: constant pressure
expansion (1-2 & 3-5), constant volume cooling (2-5), constant volume heating (4-5),
constant temperature expansion (1-3), polytropic expansion (1-4), etc.
If the closed system expands (dV > 0, W > 0), positive work is done by the system on the surrounding
If the closed system is compressed (dV < 0, W < 0), work done by the system is negative, or actually work is done
on the system by the surrounding

An irreversible or non-equilibrium process is one in which friction is present, or the change of state is sudden and
uncontrolled, so that it cannot be traced as a mathematical function on the P-V diagram. Hence the work done for
an irreversible process cannot be evaluated in the same way as for reversible processes, but can be found
indirectly by observing the net effect on the surrounding. Examples are mixing in a chamber; sudden,
unrestrained expansion; etc.
6. Work Done by a Closed System of Pure Substance in Quasi-Equilibrium Processes
Isochoric (constant-v) process: The substance is heated or cooled in a rigid container.
2
Since there is no change in volume: 1W2 P dV 0
1

Isobaric (constant-P) process: The substance is heated or cooled in a simple cylinder restrained
2
by a piston of constant weight on top: 1W2 P dV P (V2 V1 )
1

Isothermal (constant-T) process of a saturated liquid-vapor mixture: Since pressure is also

constant (= Psat) at the given temperature in the saturated region: 1W2 Psat (V2 V1 )

Isothermal (constant-T) process of an ideal gas ( PV mRT ): The gas expands or is compressed in a cylinder by a
piston which is controlled by a varying external force so that PV = const.
2 2 mRT 2 dV V V
W2 P dV
1 dV mRT mRT ln 2 P1 V1 ln 2
1 1 V 1 V V1 V1

Polytropic process: The gas expands or is compressed in a cylinder by a piston which is control by a varying

external force so that P V n const. n is called the polytropic constant. Hence, P1 V1 C P2 V2

n n

2 2 V21n V11n P2 V2 n V21n P1 V1n V11n P2 V2 P1 V1

For n 1 : W2 P dV C V n
dV C



1 n
1
1 1
1 n 1 n
2 2 C V V
For n=1: 1W2 P dV dV C ln 2 P1 V1 ln 2
1 1 V V1 V1
 Process controlled by a linear spring: The fluid expands or is compressed in a cylinder by
a piston which is restrained by a linear spring. The system pressure change is proportional
to the spring force, which is proportional to the piston displacement, which is proportional
to the volume change. Hence the pressure change is proportional to the volume change,
P1 P2
and the area under the process on the P-V diagram is a trapezoid: 1W2 V2 V1
2
7. First Law of Thermodynamics of a Closed System
It is also known as Conservation of Energy: Heat added to the system from the surrounding during a process is
equal to the sum of the increase of energy of the system and the work done by the system to the surrounding:
Q E W U KE PE W

For a stationary closed system there is no change of kinetic energy (KE=0) and if the change of potential energy
is also negligible (PE=0), the only energy change in the system is the internal energy (thermal energy stored in
the fluid), hence the first law simply becomes: Q U W

For a closed system of a pure substance undergoing a process from a uniform initial state (1) to a final state (2):

1 Q2 U 2 U1 1W2 mu 2 u1 1W2 (unit: kJ)

Q W
Define specific heat transfer and specific work done: q w
m m
Hence the first law in terms of specific energy: 1 q2 u 2 u1 1 w2 (unit: kJ/kg)
Adiabatic process: If a system is thermally insulated, the heat transfer is zero: Q E W 0 , hence W E
8. General Procedure for First Law Analysis Problems of a Closed System
Identify the initial state of the given substance: Compare this state with the saturated liquid and saturated vapor
states and determine if it is compressed liquid, saturated liquid-vapor, or superheated vapor.
Identify the process: Determine if it is isochoric, isobaric, isothermal, polytropic, spring-restrained or irreversible.
It is always helpful to sketch the process on a P-v diagram.
Identify the final state : Determine if it is compressed liquid, saturated liquid-vapor, or superheated vapor.
Ideal gas? If both states are superheated vapor, is the substance an ideal gas? Furthermore, is it a perfect gas?
Identify properties: Obtain properties (P, T, v, u, x, etc.) at both states from thermodynamic tables. For ideal gas,
apply ideal gas law. Also for perfect gas, use constant Cv to evaluate internal energy change.
Find system mass: If mass of the substance is not given in the problem, calculate it using given volume and state
properties. If volume is not given, just assume unit mass and evaluate specific work and heat in the following.
Evaluate work done: Calculate the work done (or specific work done) for the particular process given.
Evaluate heat transfer: Apply the first law to calculate the heat transfer (or heat transfer per unit mass).
Symbols and Units: Always use consistent set of symbols and include units in all answers.
Multiple processes: For problems involving more than one process, apply similar procedures for process (1-2),
process (2-3), etc. It is always desirable to list the properties at all states in the form of a table.
Be flexible: The order of the above general steps may be switched around depending on the given information in
each problem.