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An Equation-Based Simulation Environment To Investigate Fast Building Simulation
An Equation-Based Simulation Environment To Investigate Fast Building Simulation
Abstract
The design of innovative heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems for energy saver buildings relies on fast and robust
computer softwares able to predict the details in space and time of the indoor environment. In this paper we show the interest of
having in one hand, an open and exible environment to develop and test new models, and on the other hand, a fast simulation tool
that integrates satisfactory models to quickly assess the indoor environment quality.
Both tools implements a simulation method called the zonal method that is intermediate between single-node models and
computational uid dynamics models. These tools are then applied to analyze the details of the indoor environment in a cavity under
mixed convection conditions, to evaluate the thermal coupling between an electric heater and the ambiance and nally to realize a
whole year thermal comfort analysis within a dwelling cell.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.06.027
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1572 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
In Section 1, the intermediate zonal approach and the The simplest zonal models are based on xed airow
different elementary models implemented to improve directions and application of specic ow laws for
convergence and reduce simulation time for satisfactory plumes, jets and boundary layers [46]. Other models
results in terms of temperature elds and airow made the inter-cell airow rates a function of the
structure predictions are briey presented. Then both pressure distribution [7]. But it has been shown that this
simulation environments used to solve zonal models are approach cannot correctly represent driving ows [8].
described. It shows how the equation-based environ- For this reason, a new approach was proposed that
ment SPARK enhances elementary models testing and applied specic laws for driving ows and used a power-
validation. Then the simplied tool SIM_ZONAL is law pressure distribution where velocity is low [9,10].
introduced for long time analysis. The last part concerns Then, this approach has been used in other applications
applications in which zonal model results are compared such as pollutant transport in buildings [11,12]. But rst,
with highly detailed numerical and experimental results let us shortly recall conventional zonal model equations.
in typical indoor mixed convection conditions. The
second application illustrates the ability of the zonal 1.2. Zonal models equations
method to describe the interaction between the indoor
environment and an electric heater. Finally, a whole- Zonal models formulation consists in applying con-
year simulation is performed with a real climate to assess servation equations for each cell:
indoor thermal comfort.
Assuming that air is incompressible, the sum of the
mass ows across the faces of a cell must be zero.
1. Approach This yields to the following mass balance equation for
the standard cell i:
1.1. The zonal method
X
6
_ j!i 0,
m (1)
Zonal models are based on an approach that is j1
intermediate between single-air-node models, which give
where m _ j!i is the airow rate coming from cell j to
no information about air ow patterns, and CFD models,
cell i.
which give detailed temperature and ow distributions
Similarly, the net heat ow transferred into the cell
but are extremely computationally intensive. Such
across its faces must equal the heat stored in the
intermediate models execute much faster than CFD cal-
volume of air in the cell. This yields to the following
culations, give more accurate heat transfers than the
heat balance equation for a standard cell:
single-node approach and provide temperatures and
ow distributions that are detailed enough to predict X
6
qT i
thermal comfort. In zonal models, the inside of a room Fj!i FSource ri V i C p , (2)
j1
qt
is divided into a small number of zones or cells, which
are usually rectangular parallelepiped (see Fig. 1). Mass where Fj!i is the heat ux entering cell i coming from
balance and heat balance equations are applied to each cell j, FSource is the internal heat source, ri the air
cell and exchanges are calculated between them. The density, V i the cell volume, C p the air heat capacity,
solution of the resulting set of coupled equations gives and T i the air temperature.
an estimate of airow and temperature distribution in We assume that the relationship between air pressure,
the room. density and temperature in a standard cell is given by
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1573
(based on empirical convective heat transfer coef- CFD predictions given by Airpack (Fluent tool). The
cients depending on the surface-to-air temperature considered room dimensions are 4 7:5 2:5 m3
difference). length width height, and it has two windows
Waltons method [13] is used to compute long and 1:95 1:3 m2 centered on East and West walls (see
short-wave radiant exchanges among the inside room Fig. 4). Inlets and outlets dimensions are 0:2 0:1 m2 .
surfaces. In this method each room surface is assumed East and West walls and roof are in contact with
to radiate to a ctitious surface whose area, emissivity outdoor and South and North walls are adjacent to
and temperature give about the same heat transfer from heated rooms.
the room surface as in the actual multi-surface case. Fig. 5 presents mass airow rates predictions made
The advantage of the method is that it considerably with the linearized version of zonal models compared
reduces the number of interchange equations. with Airpack results within the rst vertical plane
dened in Fig. 4 (i.e. at x 13L). The x-axis in Fig. 5
represents j and k interface coordinates in South/North
1.3. Investigation on models
and bottom/top directions, respectively.
At the different points of the vertical section x L=3,
We have seen that zonal models formulation relies on
the zonal model predicts mass ow rates that are well
two element types: standard cells that implement heat
oriented (i.e. the airow structure is well captured) but
and mass transfers where air velocities are low, and
greatly underestimated in intensity when compared
some specialized cells describing regions of the room
with CFD results. One can argue that the airow
where the airow is dominated by driving forces (jet,
formulation in zonal models may be responsible for
plume, etc.). If the later implement widely used empirical
these discrepancies.
relations based on ne characterization of specic ow,
Actually, since pressure differences between two
the standard model assumes that where air velocities are
adjacent cells can be very small (less than 0.1 Pa) the
low, air exchanges are governed by a Bernoulli-like
linear coefcient of the simplied model may be higher
equation (see Eq. (4)). In this equation, C d is a discharge
coefcient and is usually xed to 0.83 while n represents
the type of airows (1 in laminar cases and 0.5 when
turbulent). This formulation has been used extensively
in order to support airow solution in zonal modeling
[14,8], but may not be suitable for simplied heat and
mass transfer modeling. In fact this kind of relations
introduces some instabilities around zero for DP
_
qm=qDPj 0 ! 1. Therefore we investigated the oppor-
tunity to approximate this power-low airow relation-
ship with a linear expression (see Fig. 3)
_ C %d SDP
m (7)
with in this case C %d 1:2 for DP 2 0:5; 0:5.
To evaluate the approximation degree caused by this
simplication, we compare our zonal results with
Fig. 4. Geometry and meshing.
3
1 0.2xDP+0.75 0.10
1.2xDP
DP 0.05
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
-1
-0.05
-2
-0.10
0.2xDP-0.75 00 10 20 01 11 21 02 12 22
-3 Cells
Fig. 3. Linear pressure law. Fig. 5. Mass airow comparison between SIM_ZONAL and AirPack.
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1575
0.05
through wall materials), to pre-process weather data les
and to post-process the results. These different features
0
are discussed in this subsection [15].
-0.05
2.1.1. The object-oriented simulation environment: SPARK
SPARK is a general simulation environment that
-0.1
supports the denition of simulation models and
-0.15 solution of these models via a robust and efcient
00 10 20 01 11 21 02 12 22 differential/algebraic equation solver [2]. In SPARK, the
Cells modeler describes the set of equations dening a model
Fig. 6. Mass airow evolution when increasing discharge coefcients.
as equation-based objects. At the lowest level, an atomic
class characterizes one equation and its variables. Then,
macroscopic classes can be created as an assembly of
various atomic or macroscopic classes. The entire model
than 1.2. For this reason we realized a parametric study is built by connecting the different necessary objects
on the new discharge coefcient C %d with values ranging derived from the class library. If one class of objects
from 1.2 to 5. needs to be reused, it can be instantiated as many times
Fig. 6 shows that if we compare mass airow rates as required, without any additional effort.
obtained with Airpack, higher values of discharge At this stage, it is important to note that the model is
coefcients permit to obtain a better air circulation input/output free. The particular problem to be solved is
representation. This result is interesting because it then described by imposing the adequate input data
conrms a physical study about discharge coefcient. (boundary and initial conditions) and by specifying the
Nevertheless, this example does not permit to propose variables to be solved. So in this environment it is not
any denitive conclusions, it indicates that the use of a necessary to order the equations or to express them as
pressure law needs to be very careful and avoid assignment statements (algorithms) in opposition to
obtaining a complex airow description. We also have conventional modular environments such as Matlab/
shown that this coefcient should be a function of the Simulink [16] or TRNSYS [17].
mesh density because the different discharge coefcients SPARK uses a mathematical graph of the model to
characterize the global pressure loss in a room. decompose it as strong components to be solved
Nevertheless, to keep a simple approach there is no independently. Within each component, SPARK nds an
interest in proposing a complex airow model. Although appropriate function call sequence to get the solution. If
mass airow rates are underestimated in a few cells (e.g. no direct sequence is possible, as evidence by a cyclic
01, 21) these rst results may be satisfactory enough to problem graph, a small cut set is determined so as to
estimate thermal comfort in a room once an adequate minimize the number of variables involved in the
specic model is implemented to represent local airow Newton-like iterative numerical solution process. As a
driving forces. result, this decreases the size of the Jacobian matrix
Now the zonal approach has been presented in some involved in the Newton iteration within the component.
extent, next section describes the two simulation Consequently, the way SPARK handles the solution of
environments used to implement the zonal method. coupled nonlinear equations makes it a fast solver for
building energy simulation problems.
Since the cut sets of variables have been identied,
2. Simulation environments the problem specication le is converted into a C++
program which is then compiled, linked and executed to
Zonal models were rst implemented in the general solve the problem for given boundary and initial
simulation environment SPARK particularly suitable for conditions.
testing new models. Aside of this work a dedicated tool We used SPARK to implement the solution of zonal
was implemented in a conventional programming models presented in the previous section. The corre-
language while taking as much assumptions as possible sponding set of equations consists of a class library that
to make it robust and fast, although it would be difcult has been organized using hierarchical relations between
to make it evolve in the future. This simulation code the different classes to improve model selection and
called SIM_ZONAL will also be presented in this section. maintainance.
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1576 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
2.1.2. SimSpark
Problem generation automation: The problem genera-
tion consists of automating the generation of the
SPARK problem specication le based on its con-
ceptual description. The latter species the grid density
on each direction, the grid dimensions, the types of
building elements used and their location in the
simulation domain (e.g. apertures, ventilation inlets/
outlets, glazing, etc.). All these data are stored in a
structured data tree based on the XML1 language. This
language is powerful since many tools are developed
around it. Our main interest here is to make the
conceptual description easy to share between different
computer codes with low implementation efforts. And in
our opinion this can bring many advantages in long
term developments, such as exchanging data through
the web.
Model selection: As shown in the previous subsection,
all major elements of the simulation domain (cells,
interfaces, and wall classes) have the same xed data
interface whatever is the model implemented in the class. Fig. 7. SimSPARK graphical user interface (model choice tab).
That way, we are able to interchange models without
changing the problem description le. So the model
selection is only made by giving to SimSPARK the run the simulation. The GUI for post-processing is also
corresponding set of directories of classes. Then this linked to the last tab. SimSPARK is highly congurable,
information is stored in the conceptual description of so that new elementary models can immediately be
the problem. This model selection mechanism has tested and coupled to the overall zonal model library.
proven to be very powerful for new model development
and validation. To do so, one can develop his new 2.2. Integration within a fast computer code
particular model satisfying the data interface standard, (SIM_ZONAL)
integrate it to the library, and then select it to build the
coupled simulation. The software SIM_ZONAL is a tool for evaluating
Input data generation: In the previous simple simula- indoor temperature and air ow distributions for
tion example, a 2 1 2 mesh using the envelope residential and ofce buildings [3]. The aim of this EDFs
model with heat transfer only, the number of unknowns (Electricity of France) software developed in collabora-
is 808 while the number of input data is 285. So it can be tion with LEPTAB (University of La Rochelle) is to
complex to manage so many input data when the evaluate thermal comfort situation and specically risks
domain grid is denser. To overcome this problem, we of discomfort (risk of draught, indoor gradient tem-
developed an input data preprocessor, so that all input perature, etc.) taking into account the coupling with the
variables can be set in a exible way. All dynamic values building envelope. The objective is to obtain a simple
related with the external environment are computed and robust software for rapid appraisals, that could be
from a weather data le. complementary to CFD codes.
Run and solver controls: The different run parameters This tool allows users to achieve dynamical and
as well as the solver settings are prescribed for each parametric simulations with variable room congura-
simulation. We also developed a mechanism to generate tions, different heating systems (electric heaters, heating
data used by SPARK to initialize dynamic variables as or cooling oors or ceilings) as well as many boundary
well as their derivatives. conditions (meteorological conditions) with a 1-h time
Front-end for pre- and post-processing: Fig. 7 presents step. The nal aim is to calculate comfort criteria such
the SimSPARKs graphical user interface (GUI) aimed as PMV or UCRES (comfort criteria developed by CSTB).
at giving some high level functions to quickly setup the SIM_ZONAL is based on a rough partitioning of the
main parameters of the simulation (the room partition- room which is divided into a small number of cells:
ing, the models and corresponding library directories they are rectangular parallelepipeds. The number of cells
used for the envelope modelling, and the names of is usually in the range of 10100, compared to hundreds
classes used from these directories) and then build and of thousands or more for typical CFD calculations. Heat
and mass balance equations are applied to cells and
1
Extensible Markup Language. exchanges are calculated between them. The zonal
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1577
model is coupled with a single-node building energy 3.1.2. Predictions vs. experimental data
simulation tool in order to control heating power In this section, we will present airow patterns,
based on some building use scenarios and meteorologi- velocity and temperature distributions predicted from
cal conditions. These features allow assessing the risk zonal and RANS k (Reynolds averaged Navier
of discomfort within a room. A graphical user interface Stokes equations with k turbulence model [19])
is used to set all parameters and visualize dynamic models for Zhang et al.s [18] conguration presented
results. above. Then, all predictions will be compared with
We will present three applications: two comparisons experimental data.
between zonal model results, experimental data and
CFD predictions in (i) an academic case under mixed 3.1.2.1. Airflow patterns. Zhang et al. [18] used a
convection conditions, (ii) a room heated with an smoke injection technique for room airow pattern
electric convector, and nally (iii) a whole year energy visualization within the experimental setup. Their
analysis of a heated room. observations are reproduced in Fig. 9. A jet is produced
downstream the inlet slot, and crosses all the test room,
to nally create a ow recirculation over the entire
room.
3. Applications Figs. 10 and 11 present airow patterns obtained from
zonal models with no jet model and with a semi-
3.1. Indoor environment under mixed convection empirical jet model from Rajaratnam [20], respectively.
conditions In the rst case, when no particular functions are
patched onto the standard model to characterize the jet,
3.1.1. Case study the former falls down very quickly at the rst quarter
Zhang et al. [18] developed an experimental facility to x=W 0:25 of the test room since the incoming air
provide measurements of the mean and turbulent temperature is about 2.5 1C lower than the average inner
behavior of room ventilation ows. An outer room air temperature. In the second case, momentum is well
with an heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning characterized by adding a jet model into the standard
(HVAC) system simulates different weather conditions zonal model. In this case the overall recirculation
by controlling the environment around the test room
(see Fig. 8) which is equipped with its own HVAC
system, and of a uniform oor heating system of 48
controllable panels to simulate internal heat loads.
Velocities and temperature were measured at 205
locations in the central vertical section of the test
room with a 1D hot-wire anemometer and a thermo-
couple, respectively, with an automatic computer-con-
trolled system for data acquisition and probe
positioning.
In the test case P6 presented by Zhang et al. [18], air
enters the test room through the diffuser at velocity U ref
of 1:71 m s1 Red 5:8 103 ) and a temperature T d of
23.1 1C, while the oor temperature T f is maintained at
39.7 1C (Gr 3:7 1011 ). Under these mixed convection Fig. 9. Airow visualization made by smoke injection [18].
conditions, measurements indicated that the ow inside
the room was two-dimensional except very close to the
Velocity pattern with no jet model
end walls.
1
0.75
d=0.051 m h=0.203 m
Uref
y/H
0.5
Fig. 8. Zhangs experimental setup. Fig. 10. Airow pattern from standard 8 6 zonal model.
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1578 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
Velocity pattern with jet model population. Then, those terms were added to average
1 predictions.
Fig. 13 presents speed predictions obtained by two
0.75 zonal models with a jet model along with RANS k
results. In all three sections, RANS k models predic-
y/H
0.5
tions give a satisfactory estimate when compared with
experimental data. The jet section is well characterized,
0.25
and the recirculation slightly underestimated especially
0 in the vertical section located at x 0:75 W. On the
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 other hand, all zonal models give a satisfactory speed
x/W estimate in the jet region, while the recirculation (speed
in the lower section of the room) is underestimated.
Fig. 11. Airow pattern from 8 6 zonal model with jet model.
In the previous subsection, we saw how dependent
was the results of zonal models on user expertise
according to the jet modeling. With this RANS k
model results, almost no expertise is required but more
computation effort is needed.
x = 0.25 W x = 0.5 W
1 1
0.75 0.75
z/H
z/H
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
||U||/U ||U||/U
ref ref
x = 0.75 W
1
0.75
z/H
0.5
Experimental Data
0.25 8x6 zonal
8x10 zonal
73x57 CFD
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
||U||/U
ref
model were integrated in SIM_ZONAL software. The approaches give enough condence in the results to use
application consists in a room with a window on the them as reference to characterize zonal model results.
West wall and an electric heater placed at the East wall. These results were compared with zonal model
Other characteristics are described in Fig. 4. We have predictions integrating specic laws to describe the
chosen a meshing of 27 cells and Figs. 15 and 16 describe plume generated above the electric heater (see Fig. 16).
temperature elds in the different cells in the vertical Results of Fig. 16 presents a higher temperature
median plan and in both subcells around the plume. gradient in the central vertical section of the room than
At rst we have got reference results with an experi- in reference results. Then, based on the work presented
mental study validated with CFD numerical simulations in Section 1, we decided to specify new discharge
(Fig. 15). The small differences between these two coefcients (C %d 5) to improve our results and we can
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1580 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
x = 0.25 W x = 0.5 W
1 1
z/H
0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25
0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 0 0.25 0.5 0.75
(T-Td) / (Tf -Td) (T-Td) / (Tf -Td)
x = 0.75 W
1
Experimental Data
8x6 zonal
0.75 8x10 zonal
73x57 CFD
z/H
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
(T-Td) / (Tf -Td)
see in Fig. 17 which compares the different results that for each ow component of the grid from RANS k
we get a much better estimate of the temperature eld. It predictions for typical ventilated room congurations.
clearly seems that with an adequate choice of discharge
coefcients temperature eld predictions can clearly be
improved. 3.3. A whole-year analysis
At this stage of this work, we demonstrated the
difculty to determine universal values for C %d discharge This third application illustrates some capabilities of
coefcients in the zonal modeling approach. So, SIM_ZONAL through the study of a room solicited by a
research efforts are currently done on developing fan coil during a whole year. Fig. 4 describes geometry,
a deterministic method to compute these coefcients meshing and different characteristics of the room. This
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1581
Experimental results CFD results (FLUENT) indoor temperature setpoint (19 1C). The values are
issued from a weather le and permit to calculate
22,2 22 22.2 23 22,5 22
solar gains which have to be taken into account in the
room energy balance based on its orientation and
26 21.8 21.7 21.6 27 20.5 20.5 20.5
characteristics.
T
Next step consists of taking into account heating and
W E 21 21 21 20 20 19,5
cooling systems. At this time the power supply is
B calculated with a well-mixed zone energy analysis tool
Heater placed on west wall : Power = 500 W
West wall outside temperature : 0 C with a choice of set point temperature. The power is
Outside temperature other walls : 20 C then an input of SIM_ZONAL and allows to run the
Geometrical dimensions : W/E: 4 m, S/N: 4 m, B/T: 2.6 m simulation. Fig. 19 presents the computed power supply
Fig. 15. Comparison between an experimental study and CFD results.
evolution in this case.
Simulation results are presented in Fig. 20. In this
gure, only three cells have been selected to plot air
With a standard plume model temperature evolution along the central vertical line in
the room. First we can see that air temperature at the
center of the room (cell 111) remains close to the
23.9 22,1 20.9 setpoint while a vertical temperature gradients appears
mostly in heating mode. The knowledge of temperature
40 3000
25 19.4 20.1 Solar gains
External temperature
30 Set temperature
2500
20
Temperature [C]
10 2000
Fig. 16. Zonal method results left with a plume model and right after -20 1000
correction of discharge coefcient values. -30
500
-40
-50 0
30 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Experimental Data Time
CFD
27 Fig. 18. Outside and set temperatures (19 1C) and solar gains.
SimZonal
Discharge coef.
Temperature
24
1500
21
1000
18
500
Power [W]
15 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cells
-500
Fig. 17. Temperature comparative study with different modeling
methods. -1000
-1500
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
room has two windows, one inlet and one outlet placed
over and under the windows, respectively. Time
Fig. 18 presents weather data for the given location Fig. 19. Heating/cooling fan-coil power versus time for a 1-year period
(i.e. outside temperature and solar gains) as well as the issued from a well-mixed zone energy analysis tool.
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1582 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
eld inside a room and mass airow evolution allows us data can then be performed in about 5 min on a
to estimate thermal comfort characteristics in the room. standard personal computer (1.5 GHz). Finally, the
Since 27 values of air temperatures are computed by the result visualization mode of this application (presented
zonal model, PMV and PPD values are calculated on in the gure) presents animated temperature and airow
columns of air within the occupation zone (height elds in the room along with weather data and spatially
bellow 1.8 m). In this case, PPD and PMV values are averaged thermal comfort indicators.
almost homogeneous and constant, and they stay
around 6.5 and 0:2, respectively.
Fig. 21 presents the graphical user interface of 4. Conclusions
SIM_ZONAL. It allows the user to set the geometry,
choose and locate some standards HVAC systems (e.g. In this paper, two softwares implementing the zonal
fan coil, electric heater, or electric heating oor) as well method have been presented. The rst one SimSPARK,
as their parameters. A whole year analysis using weather developed within an object-oriented environment is
particularly suitable for testing models without too
much code development efforts. The second one
22 SIM_ZONAL, developed with a conventional program-
ming language (C++) implements zonal models with
21 the maximum of assumption aimed at improving the
speed of the solution process.
Temperature [C]
Finally, further developments are needed to improve mixed ventilated buildings. Journal of the Human Environment
discharge coefcient estimation. One way is under study. System 1999;3(1):4359.
[10] Musy M, Wurtz E, Winkelmann FW, Allard F. Generation of a
It consists of extracting this information from
zonal model to simulate natural convection in a room with a
RANS k model predictions in typical airow cong-
radiative/convective heater. Building and Environment 2001;
urations. 36(5):58996.
[11] Haghighat R, Lin Y, Megri AC. Development and validation of a
zonal model POMA. Building and Environment 2001;36(9):
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