Chuong_8 Thng s k thut cht lng v phn tch kh nng quy trnh

vi R
Tm tt nh gi cht lng, cc gii hn c im k thut s c thit
lp. Trong chng ny, mt phng php thit lp cc gii hn c im k
thut c tnh n s mt mt ca khch hng v nh sn xut. Hn na, cc
gii hn v c im k thut l ting ni ca khch hng, v cht lng c th
c nh gi bng cch so snh n vi ting ni ca quy trnh, ngha l cc
gii hn t nhin ca n. Ch s nng lc v nghin cu bin i di hn v
ngn hn thc hin cng vic.
8.1 Gii thiu

Trong chng 4, chng ti xem xt mt s nh ngha v Cht lng t nhiu

quan im. Vic hon thnh mt s thng s k thut dng nh l tiu chun
c chp nhn rng ri nh gi Cht lng. Trong chng ny, chng ti
cung cp mt s hng dn v cc ngun lc thit lp cc thng s k thut,
v cch o lng v phn tch kh nng ca mt qu trnh hon thnh chng.
tng l sa mt s gii hn c t, Upper v / hoc Lower (USL v LSL
tng ng), v so snh chng vi cc gii hn t nhin ca quy trnh. Cc gii
hn t nhin ny thng c s dng tng t nh cc gii hn Kim sot
Trn v Di (UCL v LCL tng ng) trong Biu iu khin c gii thch
trong Chng 9. y l li cnh bo u tin ca Nh phn tch Cht lng:
phi lm r s khc nhau gia Gii hn Tiu chun v Gii hn Kim sot . Hn
mc k thut l ting ni ca khch hng1 (VoC). Gii hn t nhin (hoc Gii
hn Kim sot) l ting ni ca qu trnh (VoP). Do , kh nng ca mt qu
trnh l mt cch nh gi cch VoP ang chm sc VoC. Phn tch nng lc
lng nh thc t ny thng qua cc cng c ha, ch s nng lc, v cc s
liu khc, do o cht lng ca qu trnh ca chng ti
8.2 : Gii hn dung sai v thit k k thut
_ Trong phn ny, chng ti tp trung vo khoan dung t quan im ca khch
hng thng s k thut. Lu rng gii hn c im k thut c lp vi quy
trnh.
8.2.1 Ting ni ca khch hang :
Thit lp cc gii hn c im k thut l mt nhim v rt quan trng trong
kim sot cht lng. Thng s k thut nh vy nn xut pht t khch hng
trong giai on thit k sn phm hoc dch v, khng ch cc phng ban k
thut, m cn cc i khc lin quan n khch hng, c bit l t tip th.
Trong chng ny, chng ti gi nh rng cc gii hn c t c thit lp,
hoc bi khch hng hoc trong giai on thit k.Chng ti cp n chng
nh l gii hn c t trn (USL) v gii hn c im k thut thp hn (LSL).
Cc quy trnh c th c phn thnh ba loi theo gii hn c im k thut
ca chng, c th l:
Nh hn - tt hn, khi qu trnh ch c mt USL;
Ln hn, tt hn, khi qu trnh ch c mt LSL;
Ni danh l tt nht, khi qu trnh c c USL v LSL.
Cc k thut kim sot cht lng hin i thit lp cc thng s k thut
thch hp bao gm trin khai cc chc nng cht lng (QFD) v thit k tham
s mnh m (RPD). Chi tit v RPD c th c tham kho kin trong ISO
16336 [11]. TCAA SC8 cng ang xy dng mt tiu chun v QFD, vo thi
im ny c vit trong giai on DIS [2]. N cng l mt cng c thng
thng trong vic thit k cc phng php lun ca Six Sigma (DFSS), xem
[17].
8.2.2 : Quy trnh Dung sai :
_Cc gii hn v c im k thut ca khch hng c th c thc hin trc
tip di dng cc gii hn c im k thut trong mi trng sn xut.[3] Tuy
nhin, c th p dng cch tip cn kinh t xem xt s hiu bit ca khch
hng sn xut v khch hng v tn tht do cht lng km. C s l chc
nng Loss Taguchi. Chi tit v phn tch chc nng mt mt c th tm thy
trong Chng 4 ca [1] hoc trong sch gio khoa trc tuyn min ph [12].
Theo phng php Taguchi, nu c mt gi tr mc tiu Y0 cho mt c tnh
cht lng Y nht nh, s khi u t mc tiu ny s to ra cc sn phm
khng hon ho, v do c mt s mt mt cho x hi do cht lng km. S
mt mt ny c th c m hnh nh l mt hm bc hai ca dng:

trong Y l c tnh cht lng v Y0 l gi tr ch. i vi mt qu trnh c

th, k thu c nh sau:

Trong c l dung sai i vi c tnh Y t quan im ca khch hng, v Lc

l s mt mt cho khch hng khi c tnh khng t c c im k thut,
ngha l Y0 c. Lu rng tn tht l 0 khi qu trnh thc hin ng mc tiu
v tng khi gi tr ca c tnh khi hnh t mc tiu ny, xem hnh 8.1.
_Chi ph ca cht lng km thng cao hn cho khch hng hn l cho nh
sn xut. L do l mt sn phm hoc dch v c giao cho khch hng
thng l hp cht ca mt lot cc mt hng hoc thnh phn. V vy, nu mt
thnh phn ca sn phm hoc dch v b li, th ton b vt phi c sa
cha hoc thay th. Khng k chi ph lp t, vn chuyn v cc chi ph k qu.
Tuy nhin, mt mt hng b li trong nh sn xut s to ra mt chi ph thp hn,
ch sa cha hoc loi b cc thnh phn c nhn. Hy Lm mt cho nh
sn xut. Sau , chng ta c th tm thy mt gi tr cho Y0 m c trng sn
phm m chc nng mt mt bng s mt mt . Do , nh th hin r trong
hnh 8.1, gii hn c im sn xut thp hn gii hn c im k thut ca
khch hng. Khong cch gia chng ph thuc vo s khc bit gia tn tht
ca khch hng v thit hi ca nh sn xut, v kh nng khoan dung sn xut
c th c tnh nh sau:

Hnh 8.1 Chc nng v thit k c tnh ca Taguchi. Cng xa mc tiu, tn tht
cng cao. Chc nng c xc nh bi chi ph cho khch hng gii hn c
im k thut. Cc gii hn sn xut sau c xc nh ti thi im m
chc nng bng vi chi ph cho nh sn xut.
_ V d 8.1. Chiu dy tm kim loi.
Chng ti s dng v d c m t trong Chng 5. c im cht lng
c nghin cu l dy ca mt tm thp nht nh. dy danh ngha ca
sn phm ny l Yo = 0.75 in, vi lch chun l 0,05 inch. Sn xut c t
chc theo hai ca, by ngy mt tun, v mt mu n = 6 n v c rt ra t mi
ln thay i Khung d liu ss.data.thickness2 trong gi SixSigma cha cc php
o dy cho hai tun.
Cu trc ca khung d liu v mt mu cc hng u tin ca n l :
str(ss.data.thickness2)
## data.frame: 84 obs. of 5 variables:
## $ day : Factor w/ 7 levels "1","2","3","4"..
## $ shift : Factor w/ 2 levels "1","2": 1 1 1 ..
## $ thickness: num 0.713 0.776 0.743 0.713 0.747..
## $ ushift : chr "1.1" "1.1" "1.1" "1.1" ...
## $ flaws : int 9 NA NA NA NA NA 2 7 9 NA ...
head(ss.data.thickness2)
## day shift thickness ushift flaws
## 1 1 1 0.713 1.1 9
## 2 1 1 0.776 1.1 NA
## 3 1 1 0.743 1.1 NA
## 4 1 1 0.713 1.1 NA
## 5 1 1 0.747 1.1 NA
## 6 1 1 0.753 1.1 NA
Hnh nh ca tt c cc d liu c trong hnh 8.2 bng mt du chm vi gi lattice [15]
bng cch s dng m sau:
library(lattice)
dotplot(thickness ~ shift | day,
data = ss.data.thickness2,
layout = c(7, 1))

_i s b tr l mt vector s nguyn hai phn t cho s ct v hng trong

ma trn c t chc, trong trng hp ny chng ta c mt bng cho mi
ngy v theo cch ny chng ta tun t hin th ton b tun trong mt hng.
Gi s chng ta gi thit rng mt dung sai c = 0.05 c cho php theo
thit k xem xt sn phm c th chp nhn c bi 50% khch hang [4] v
khch hng mt mt ti thi im l Lc = 2.5 USD. Sau , biu hin ca
chc nng mt mt l:

_Nu chi ph cho nh sn xut ti cc c im k thut gii hn Lm D 1 USD,

sau dung sai sn xut l:

v gii hn c im sn xut l 0.75 0.032.

Trong phn ny, chng ta tp trung vo mt c im danh ngha l tt nht,
nhng c nhng m hnh cho cc chc nng gim gi tr ln hn, tt hn v nh
hn, xem v d [1] hoc [16].
8.3 Phn tch Nng lc (Dung sai nghe hay hn)
Trong phn ny, VoC s c so snh vi VoP. Th nht, chng ta cn nh
lng VoP.
8.3.1 : Ting ni ca tin trnh
_ Trong phn trc, chng ti thy rng cc VoC c xc nh bi cc gii hn
c im k thut. By gi, gii hn tham chiu ly gian hng trong tn ca VoP.
Gii hn tham kho thng c t tn l gii hn t nhin. Chng cng c
s dng lm gii hn kim sot trong biu iu khin, v vy i khi ba thut
ng c s dng lm t ng ngha. Gii hn tham kho l

Hnh 8.2 V d v dy: mt tun d liu im chm. Mi im i din cho

dy ca mt tm kim loi
_ c nh ngha trong ISO 22514-4 [8] nh cc phn s 0.135% v 99.865%
ca s phn b m t c tnh ca qu trnh. iu ny c ngha l khong cch
trong cc gii hn tham kho bao gm 99,73% cc quan st. Trong phn phi
chun, iu ny tng ng vi khong cch ba lch chun so vi trung
bnh ca qu trnh, xem hnh 8.3. Xc sut vt qu gii hn t nhin (0.0027)
c s dng lm gi tr trong cc kim nh gi thuyt, xem Chng 5.
Ti thi im ny, chng ta cn d liu nghe VoP. Mt mt, chng ta cn
phi c lng cc gii hn tham kho, v vy chng ta cn mt mu ca mt
quy trnh kim sot v a ra suy lun v s phn b xc sut. Nu chng ta c
th chp nhn rng d liu n t mt qu trnh phn phi bnh thng, sau
gii hn tham kho ch l 3. Chng ti c tnh v , v chng ta lm
xong, xem Chng 5 suy lun v c lng. Mt khc, phi ly mu so
snh cc php o thc t ca cc mt hng vi cc gii hn c im k thut.
Do , cch n gin nht nh gi cht lng ca chng ti l m s
lng mt hng trong mu l chnh xc. T l cc n v chnh xc l nng sut
ca mu. Nng sut ca qu trnh ny c th c tnh ton c tnh n vic lm
li (sn lng ln u tin) v mt s quy trnh lin kt (nng sut cun). T l
khuyt tt l s b sung cho sn lng quy trnh. Khim khuyt trn mi n v
v li trn mt triu c hi (DPMO) l cc s liu thng thng khc. D bng
cch no, nu mu l i din cho dn s, th chng ta c th c tnh nng
sut ca qu trnh thng qua t l mu ca cc vt phm chnh xc.
_V d 8.2. dy tm kim loi (tip) Nng sut quy trnh.
lm r, chng ti s dng cc gii hn c im k thut ca khch hng,
tc l, 0,75 0,05. Nh vy, chng ta c th tnh cc mc ra khi c im k
thut trong mu nh sau:

Hnh 8.3 Cc gii hn tham chiu trong mt phn b chun. Trong gii hn tham
chiu gim 99,7% s liu
_ nc <- sum(ss.data.thickness2$thickness > 0.8 |
ss.data.thickness2$thickness <0.7)
nc/length(ss.data.thickness2$thickness)
## [1] 0.07142857
_Do , sn lng ca mu l 78/84 = 92,86% v t l khuyt tt trong mu l 7,14%
_S lng khuyt tt trong mt mu rt hu ch cho cc mc ch k ton hoc cho cc
th tc ly mu chp nhn (xem Chng 7). Tuy nhin, trong Kim sot Cht lng
Thng k, chng ti quan tm n hiu sut di hn ca mt quy trnh. tm hiu v
iu , chng ti xc nh phn b xc sut ca d liu v c tnh cc tham s ca
n. Sau , t l khuyt tt c c tnh l xc sut m bin ngu nhin xc nh qu
trnh vt qu gii hn c im k thut.
V d 8.3. dy ca tm kim loi (tip) T l khuyt tt.
Cu hi u tin s l: l bin ngu nhin m t c im cht lng ca qu trnh
phn phi bnh thng? Cng c u tin chng ta c th s dng l biu . Hnh 8.4
cho bit biu cho tt c cc mu trong tun trong v d ca chng ta. Mc d n c
v bnh thng, chng ta c th thc hin mt kim tra gi thuyt v xem chng ta nn
loi b tnh bnh thng:
Biu ca ss.data.thickness2 $ dy

Hnh 8.4 Biu chiu dy tm kim loi. Biu cung cp cc u mi v tnh bnh
thng. Th nghim bnh thng t ra hu ch khi nghi ng
hist(ss.data.thickness2$thickness)
library(nortest)
ad.test(ss.data.thickness2$thickness)
##
## Anderson-Darling normality test
##
## data: ss.data.thickness2$thickness
## A = 0.48374, p-value = 0.2231
Chng ti s dng bi kim tra bnh thng Anderson-Darling, c khuyn co trong
ISO 22514-4. Khi gi tr p ln (thm ch ln hn 0,1), chng ta khng th t chi gi
thuyt bnh thng (xem Chng 5). Sau chng ta c tnh cc thng s ca dn
s chng ta:
thick.mu <- mean(ss.data.thickness2$thickness)
thick.sigma <- sd(ss.data.thickness2$thickness)
V by gi chng ta c th c tnh t l khuyt tt ca quy trnh ca chng ti:
def.USL <- pnorm(q = 0.8,
mean = thick.mu,
sd = thick.sigma,
lower.tail = FALSE)
def.LSL <- pnorm(q = 0.7,
mean = thick.mu,
sd = thick.sigma)
def.USL + def.LSL
## [1] 0.08648634
_Hn 8,6% cc mt hng s c, trong di hn, ngoi cc thng s k thut.
8.3.2 Cc ch s hiu sut ca qu trnh
_ n gin trong bi thuyt trnh, trong nhng iu sau chng ta gi s cc c tnh
phn b bnh thng. i vi cc c im khng bnh thng, cc phng php c
tnh hi khc nhau, nhng logic l nh nhau, xem [8]. Qu trnh thc hin c th c
nh gi ti bt k im no bng cch so snh cc gii hn tham chiu vi cc gii
hn c im k thut. Do , ch s hot ng ca qu trnh c nh ngha nh sau:

Vi LT th hin bin th di hn (LT). Lu rng con s ny l s ln cc gii hn

tham chiu (bin thin) ph hp vi cc gii hn c im k thut. Cc h thp ch s,
th t l cc mt hng khng ph hp hn. Tuy nhin, nu qu trnh khng tp trung
vo mc tiu, chng ta c mt hiu sut khc nhau cho cc gi tr ln hn v cho cc
gi tr thp hn. khc phc tnh trng ny, cc ch s hiu nng ca qu trnh trn v
di c nh ngha nh sau:

v ch s hot ng ti thiu ca qu trnh phn nh hiu qu ca qu trnh:

_Mt gii thch quan trng ca cc ch s ny l nu Pp Ppk, th qu trnh ny khng

tp trung mc dung sai c t, v qu trnh ny c th cn c iu chnh.
Khi chng ta c mt mu ca quy trnh ca chng ti, chng ta cn c tnh cc ch s
hiu sut. lm nh vy, chng ta cn c tnh lch chun v lch chun ca
dn s, ngha l v LT tng ng. Cc mu trung bnh v mu (tng th) lch
tiu chun thng c s dng c tnh cc ch s hiu sut:
_ L do trn p dng cho cc ch s nng lc trong phn tip theo. Hnh 8.5 cho thy s
gii thch ca ch s ty thuc vo gi tr ca n. Nu mt ch s bng 1, c ngha l cc
gii hn tham chiu v cc gii hn c im k thut c chiu rng bng nhau, v do
chng ta s c khong xp x (x100%) trong nhng nm ti. Nu ch s ln hn
mt, th qu trnh ny "c kh nng" hon thnh cc thng s k thut, trong khi nu
ch s thp hn 1 th chng ta c cht lng km v t l khuyt tt ln hn .

_Hnh 8.5 Gii hn c im k thut so vi gii hn tham chiu. Khong cch cng
ln t gii hn tham chiu n gii hn c t, hiu sut cng cao. Cc mnh
correrspond, tri sang phi, thc hin (hoc kh nng) ch s bng, ln hn v thp
hn 1
_V d 8.4. Chiu dy tm kim loi. Thc hin qu trnh. lch chun trung bnh mu
c tnh ton trong v d trc. Hn na, cc gii hn c im k thut ca nh sn
xut l 0.75 0.032, tc l, USL = 0.782 v LSL = 0.718. Sau chng ta c th d
dng tnh cc ch s hiu nng nh sau :
P.p <- (0.782 - 0.718)/(6*thick.sigma); P.p
## [1] 0.3823743
P.pkU <- (0.782 - thick.mu)/(3*thick.sigma); P.pkU
## [1] 0.2805216
P.pkL <- (thick.mu - 0.718)/(3*thick.sigma); P.pkL
## [1] 0.4842269
P.pk <- min(P.pkU, P.pkL); P.pk
## [1] 0.2805216
Chng ta s thy trong phn di y lm th no tnh cc ch s hiu sut s dng
gi qcc R.
8.3.3 : Ch s nng lc (dung sai nghe hay hn):
_ Cc ch s hiu sut trong phn trc c th c s dng ngay c khi quy trnh
vt ngoi tm kim sot. Hn na, cc ch s hiu sut o bin ng di hn (LT).
Mt khi qu trnh c kim sot, ch s kh nng c th thu c. tnh cc ch s
nng lc, chng ta cn d liu trong cc phn nhm hp l c kch thc n. Mc tiu
ca mt ch s nng sut l ging nh trong cc ch s hiu sut, tc l, o t l
gia dung sai c im k thut v khong tham chiu:

_ S khc bit l trong d liu c s dng v trong thc t bin i ngn hn (ST)
ST c s dng cho mt qu trnh kim sot thay v bin i LT.
_Mt ln na, ch s cng thp th t l cc mc khng ph hp s cng ln. Chng ti
cng nh ngha cc ch s nng lc v qu trnh v trnh thp nh sau:

_ V ch s nng lc quy trnh ti thiu phn nh tt hn hiu sut ca quy trnh:

_Nu qu trnh khng phi l trung tm trong dung sai c t, th chng ta c cc gi tr

khc nhau cho Cp v Cpk. Tng t vi cc ch s hot ng, chng ta cn c tnh
cc ch s nng lc. ngha ca qu trnh c c tnh cng thng qua trung bnh
mu . Tuy nhin, chng ta s dng cc c tnh sau y cho lch tiu chun ST:

_ Trong sj l lch tiu chun ca mi phn nhm. Nu qu trnh c theo di

bng cch s dng mt biu iu khin phm vi hoc mt biu iu khin lch
chun, cc c tnh sau y c th c s dng tng ng:
_ trong v l di trung bnh v lch tiu chun ca cc phn nhm tng
ng, v d2 v c4 l nhng hng s c lp bng ch ph thuc vo kch c mu n.
Xem Chng 9 tm hiu thm v cc biu iu khin. Sau , cc c lng
im thch hp cho cc ch s nng lc l:

_ Cui cng, chng ta hy xem xt mt qu trnh trong mc tiu T khng c tp

trung vo khong thi gian xc nh, tc l T (ULS LSL) / = 2. Trong trng hp
ny, chng ta c th s dng ci gi l ch s Taguchi c nh ngha l:

_ c th c tnh ton t Cpk nh sau:

_ V d 8.5. Chiu dy tm kim loi. Ch s nng lc.

thc hin phn tch nng lc s dng gi qcc, chng ta cn to ra mt i tng
qcc nh th chng ta mun v biu kim sot (xem chng 9) vi cc phn nhm
con.
Gi s rng mi ca l mt phn nhm :
library(qcc)
groups <- qcc.groups(ss.data.thickness2$thickness,
ss.data.thickness2$ushift)
myqcc <- qcc(data = groups, type = "xbar", plot = FALSE)
_ By gi chng ta c th nhn c cc ch s kh nng v mt biu din ha ca
qu trnh bng cch s dng chc nng process.capability, xem hnh 8.6:
process.capability(object = myqcc,
spec.limits = c(0.718, 0.782))
##
## Process Capability Analysis
##
## Call:
## process.capability(object = myqcc, spec.limits =
c(0.718, 0.782))
##
## Number of obs = 84 Target = 0.75
## Center = 0.7585 LSL = 0.718
## StdDev = 0.02376 USL = 0.782
##
## Capability indices:
##
## Value 2.5% 97.5%
## Cp 0.4489 0.3807 0.5170
## Cp_l 0.5685 0.4744 0.6625
## Cp_u 0.3293 0.2562 0.4024
## Cp_k 0.3293 0.2422 0.4164
## Cpm 0.4225 0.3552 0.4898
##
## Exp<LSL 4.4% Obs<LSL 6%
## Exp>USL 16% Obs>USL 21%
_ Lu rng, ngoi cc c lng im, c mt khong tin cy c cung cp rt hu
ch cho vic theo di kh nng. R rng l qu trnh minh ha ny khng c kh nng.
Mt nhn xt cui cng v Ch s Hiu sut v Nng lc. Ch s hiu sut o lng kh
nng thc t ca quy trnh, s dng s bin i v lu di, tc l s bin thin tng th.
Cc ch s nng lc o lng mc tim nng ca hiu sut c th t c nu tt
c cc nguyn nhn c bit ca bin th c loi b. Thc t, kh nng s thp
hn cc ch s thc hin v chng o lng s thay i trong ngn hn, ngha l s
bin i trong nhm. iu ny c th c nhn thy r trong Hnh 8.2, trong mi
nhm ring bit c cng mt bin th, nhng nu chng ta thc hin tt c cc php o
c mt s thay i ln hn. Mt khc,
Hnh 8.6 Phn tch nng lc cho v d dy. Mt biu c hin th v c so
snh vi cc gii hn v mc tiu ca ch tiu, cng vi cc ch s tnh ton
_chng ta c th tm thy trong cc bng ti liu v cc gi tr c ngh cho cc ch
s. Theo quan im ca chng ti, tt c cc quy trnh u khc nhau, v iu quan
trng l chuyn gia trong lnh vc ny hiu cc ch s nng lc v gim st cc qu
trnh mt cch c thc. Ch cn c mt s s trong tm tr, gi tr cho Cpk bng 1,33
v 1,67 c th l tt cho cc qu trnh xut sc tng ng. Gi tr Cpk = 2 tng ng
vi im s Sigma l 6, ngha l quy trnh cht lng Six Sigma, xem [1].
_Chng ti cung cp cc cng thc c tnh ch s nng lc thng qua cc b
c lng im. Nhng im c lng ny c phn b mu (xem Chng 5), v cc
khong tin cy cng c th thu c, nh trong v d trn. Thm chi tit v c lng
ch s nng lc c th c tm thy trong [14] v [13].
Cc gi R SixSigma v qualityTools cng tnh ch s nng lc. V li ch ca khng gian
chng ti khng bao gm cc v d ca h, kim tra ti liu ca h bit chi tit.