Introduction to Sustainable Engineering: A

course module for undergraduates

By
Bhaskar D Kulkarni
Sachin A Mandavgane

Note: For internal circulation in VNIT. A draft course book for

Sustanable Engineering
 Index
Secion I

Sr. No. Content Page no.

1 Chapter 1
1. What is Sustainable development? 02
2. Generalised definition 02
2.1. List of other definitions 03
2 Chapter 2
1. Protocols 05
2. List of protocols 06
3 Chapter 3 09
1. Measures 09
2. List of measures
4 References 12

Section II

Sr. No. Content Page no.

Page 2
 1 Chapter 1:Optimization 02
1.1. Introduction 02
1.2. Classical Optimization Techniques 03
1.3. Advanced Optimization Techniques 03
1.4. Softwares for Optimization 05
1.5. Case Studies for Optimization 13
1.6. Reference Books for Optimization 13
2 Chapter 2:Process Intensification 15
2.1.Introduction 15
2.2. Principles of Process Intensification 16
2.3. Methods of Process Intensification 16
2.4. Future Trends 16
2.5. Books for References 19
3 Chapter 3:Multi Criteria Analysis 20
3.1. Intoduction 20
3.2. Criteria for Selecting MCA Techniques 20
3.3. Objectives of MCA
3.4. Standard Features of MCA 21
3.5. Steps Involved in MCA 21
3.6. Types of MCA Techniques 22
3.7. Advantages and Limitations of MCA 22
Chapter 4:Multi Criteria Decision Analysis 24
4.1. Introduction
4 4.2. Stages in MCDA 25
4.3. Types of MCDA Techniques 25
4.4. Softwares for MCDA Techniques 25
4.5. Risk, Uncertainty and MCDA 26
4.6. Books for References 27
29
References 29
5 30

Section III

Sr. No Content Page No.

Page 3
 02
1. 1.Introduction
04
1.1 Goal Definition and Scoping
05
1.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
05
1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
06
1.4 Life Cycle Interpretation
06
2. 2. Why Conduct a Life Cycle Assessment?
3. Principles of life cycle analysis 06
3. 4. Examples Of Life Cycle Analysis 08
4. 5. Life Cycle Cost Analysis 11
5. 6. LCA Software 12
6. 7. List Of Handbook 13
7. Reference 14

Section IV

Green Chemistry 5

1. Basics
2. Green Chemistrys 12 principles
3. Applications
2. Green Engineering. 9
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Principles
2.3. Examples
3. Energy.. 13
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Types Of Energy
3.3. Forms Of Energy
3.4. Green Energy
4. Biorefineries 17
4.1. Principle
4.2. Biorefinery Systems
5.0 References 20

Page 4
Section I

Page 5
 Chapter 1
1. What is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable Development is the development of the society in such a way that it should
meet the needs of the present without affecting the future generations in a sustainable manner.
Sustainable manner means acquiring all these needs by maintaining a balance between
economic, social and environmental objectives for a short as well as long term processes and
the impact of all these actions should be positive for now and for the next generations. To
acquire this sustainable development from the engineering point of view there is a term evolved
called as Sustainable Engineering.
Sustainable engineering is the process of designing a system such that it will use natural
resources and energy sustainably to achieve sustainable development.

2. Definition on Sustainable Development:

Sustainable development was first defined in 1987 by the Bruntland World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) which says-

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs. [1][2]

This is the most commonly quoted definition and it aims to be more comprehensive than the
most. It contains within it two key concepts:
The concepts of needs, in particular the essential needs of the worlds poor, to which
overriding priority should be given, and:
The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environments ability to meet present and future needs.

2.1. Some other definitions:

1. Harwood (1990):
Sustainable agriculture is a system that can evolve indefinitely toward greater human utility,
greater efficiency of resource use and a balance with the environment which is favourable
to humans and most other species. [2]

2. Pearce, Markandya & Barbier (1989):

Page 6
Sustainable development involves devising a social and economic system, which ensures that
these goals are sustained, i.e. that real incomes rise, that educational standards increase,
that the health of the nation improves, that the general quality of life is advanced.[2]

3. Conway & Barbier (1990):

We thus define agricultural sustainability as the ability to maintain productivity, whether as
a field or farm or nation. Where productivity is the output of valued product per unit of
resource input. [2]

4. Daly (1991):
Lack of a precise definition of the term 'sustainable development' is not all bad. It has
allowed a considerable consensus to evolve in support of the idea that it is both morally and
economically wrong to treat the world as a business in liquidation. [2]

5. Heinen (1994)
No single approach to 'sustainable development' or framework is consistently useful, given
the variety of scales inherent in different conservation programmes and different types of
societies and institutional structures. [2]

6. IUCN, UNEP, WWF (1991):

Sustainable development, sustainable growth, and sustainable use have been used
interchangeably, as if their meanings were the same. They are not. Sustainable growth is a
contradiction in terms: nothing physical can grow indefinitely. Sustainable use is only
applicable to renewable resources. Sustainable development is used in this strategy to mean:
improving the quality of human life whilst living within the carrying capacity of the
ecosystems. [2]

7. Holdgate (1993):
Development is about realising resource potential, Sustainable development of renewable
natural resources implies respecting limits to the development process, even though these
limits are adjustable by technology. The sustainability of technology may be judged by
whether it increases production, but retains its other environmental and other limits. [2]

8. Pearce (1993):

Page 7
Sustainable development is concerned with the development of a society where the costs of
development are not transferred to future generations, or at least an attempt is made to
compensate for such costs. [2]

9. HMSO (1994):
Most societies want to achieve economic development to secure higher standards of living,
now and for future generations. They also seek to protect and enhance their environment,
now and for their children. Sustainable development tries to reconcile these two objectives.
[2]

10. Caring for Earth:

Improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of the
supporting eco-system. [3][4]

11. Hamilton Wentworth Regional Council:

Sustainable Development is positive change which does not undermine the environmental
or social systems on which we depend. It requires a coordinated approach to planning and
policy making that involves public participation. Its success depends on widespread
understanding of the critical relationship between people and their environment and the will
to make necessary changes. [4][5]

Chapter 2

Page 8
1. Protocols regarding sustainable development:
In order to achieve sustainable development among the globe there are some protocols
made. These protocols contain the steps to achieve sustainable development. The various
organizations like UN, WHO, IUCN, UNEP etc, the various countries, international NGOs are
the part of these agreements. There are several protocols made out of which some of the
important protocols are as follows.

2. List of protocols:
1. Basel convention:

It is the convection on the control of transboundary movement of hazardous wastes

and their disposal. It is an international treaty which is designed to minimize the movement
of wastes between the nations. The Convention was opened for signature on 22 March 1989
and entered into force on 5 May 1992. As of January 2015, 182 states and the European
Union are parties to the Convention. [7][8]

2. Cartagena protocol:

The protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the risks posed by genetically
modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. The Protocol entered into force on
11 September 2003. As of March 2015, the Protocol has 170 parties, which includes 167 United
Nations member states, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the European Union. [9][10]

3. Convention on the Conservation of the Migratory Species of Wild Animals:

This convection is established for the conservation and management of terrestrial,

aquatic and avian migratory species. The Convention was signed in 1979 in Bad Godesberg, a
suburb of Bonn (hence the name), and entered into force in 1983. [11][12]

4. Kyoto protocol:

It is an international treaty proposed by United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits to reduce greenhouse gases emission. The Kyoto

Page 9
Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16
February 2005. There are currently 192 Parties to the Protocol. [13][14]
5. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development:

It is a third international conference on sustainable development aimed at reconciling

economic and environmental goals. The conference had three goals-

Securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development

Addressing new and emerging challenges

Addressing the progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.

Hosted by Brazil in Rio de Janeiro from 13 to 22 June 2012, Rio+20 was a 20year
follow up to the 1992 Earth Summit / United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) held in the same city, and the 10th anniversary of the 2002 World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg. [15][16]

6. Rotterdam convention:

This convention involves information and exporter of hazardous chemicals with proper
labelling, direction of safe handling and informs purchases of any known. The Rotterdam
convention was adopted in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, on 10 September 1998 and entered into
force on 24 February 2004. [17][18]

7. Stockholm convention:

It is an international treaty that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of
persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

POPs: These are the organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation
through chemical, biological and photolytic processes.
The Stockholm Convention on POPs was adopted at the Conference of the
Plenipotentiaries convened from 2223 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. [19][20]

Page 10
8. Johannesburg declaration:

It is an agreement to focus particularly on worldwide conditions that pose severe threats

to the sustainable development of the people which include malnutrition, terrorism etc. The
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development was adopted at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD), sometimes referred to as Earth Summit 2002. [21][22]
9. Barcelona declaration:

This declaration promotes the engineering education for sustainable development. The
declaration was adopted on 29th October 2004. [23]

10. Talloires declaration:

This declaration deals with developing, creating, supporting and maintaining

sustainability. Jean Mayer, Tufts University president, convened a conference of 22
universities in 1990 in Talloires, France. As of August 14, 2010, 421 college and university
presidents have signed the declaration. [24]

11. Swansea declaration:

The main purpose of this declaration is to encourage more appropriate sustainable

development principles and practices at the local, national and global levels. [25]

12. Halifax declaration:

From December, 9-11, 1991, the presidents and senior representatives of 33 universities
from 10 countries on 5 continents met in Halifax, Canada. The Halifax Declaration was
released at the conclusion of the conference. [26]

13. Copernicus charter:

Page 11
 COPERNICUS (CO-operation Programme in Europe for Research on Nature and
Industry through Coordinated University Studies) is a programme of CRE designed to bring
together universities and other concerned sectors of society from all parts of Europe to promote
a better understanding of the interaction between man and the environment and to collaborate
on common environmental issues. [27]

14. Thessaloniki Declaration:

The declaration was adopted at the International Conference on Environment and

Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability, organized in Thessaloniki by
UNESCO and the Government of Greece, from 8 to 12 December 1997. [28]

15. The Graz declaration:

This was an international conference on Committing Universities on Sustainable

Development held from 20-23 April 2005 in Graz, Austria whose objective was to discuss the
role of universities and other higher education institutions in an overall societal transition
towards sustainable development. [29]

Page 12
 Chapter 3

1. Measures:
Due to globalization and industrialization the human needs are increasing day by day.
To complete these needs we are using the resources in such a way that they are on the way of
extinction. Also using these resources causing adverse effects on the environment and losing
its sustainability. Following are the measures in absence of the sustainability.

2. List of measures:

1. Eutrophication:

Eutrophication is the addition of artificial or natural substances or nutrients mainly

phosphates and nitrates through detergent, fertilizer or sewage to the aquatic system. The
addition of the above nutrients in aquatic system promotes the excessive growth of algae which
leads in the depletion of dissolved oxygen causing the deaths of the aquatic life. [30]

Page 13
2. Photochemical smog:

Smog is a type of air pollutant released in air by the burning of fossil fuels in the
industries. Photochemical smog is a condition that develops when primary pollutants like
oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds created from fossil fuel combustion interact
under the influence of sunlight to produce the mixture of hazardous chemicals known as
secondary pollutants. [31]

3. Toxicity levels:

Due to globalization and industrialization there is increase in the production of the

necessary substances. During this production process a lot of unnecessary substances are
evolved out which are directly released in the atmosphere, aquatic system etc. This increases
the toxicity level of that substance in a particular system causing injuries to environment.

4. Injuries and fatalities:

The change in environmental and climatic conditions directly affects the human health.
The emission of unwanted substances into air causes various air-borne diseases like lung cancer
etc. These unwanted substances are also responsible for various water-borne diseases. [32]

5. Radiation damage:

By so far radiation damage can be considered as the most severe damage to any living
organism. The most common source of radiation is the radioactive substances. The radiation
evolved out may directly affect the human health. The exposure of radiation causes the
breaking of tissues in the body and gives rise to various internal injuries. [33][34]

6. Proliferation:

Page 14
 Proliferation is nothing but the increase in number of something. Proliferation can be
majorly classified as-

Nuclear proliferation: it is nothing but the spread of nuclear weapons, fissionable

materials, nuclear technology etc. The spread of all this may increase the possibility of
nuclear warfare; de-stabilize the international or regional relations etc. [35]

Chemical proliferation: it means increasing the number of weapons which are in general
known as chemical weapons. Chemical weapons are the toxic chemicals or its precursor that
can cause death, injury or any type of harm through its chemical action. [36][37]

Other than above two the proliferation of living organisms will often create an
overpopulation problem and cause an environmental problem.

7. Global warming:

Global warming is nothing but the rise in the average temperature of the earths climate
system and its related effects. It is caused by increased emission of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere. The emission of greenhouse gases is mostly consisting of CO2 emission which
forms a blanket on earths surface and traps the heat. [38][39]

8. Acidification:

Acidification can be classified as:

Ocean acidification: it is the decrease in pH of ocean water caused by the uptake of carbon
dioxide from atmosphere. [40]

Soil acidification: it is the acidification of soil because of addition of fertilizers and acidic
wastes from industries into the soil. This decreases the fertility of soil and has adverse effect
on living organisms. [41]

Freshwater acidification: the added fertilizers and acidic wastes into the soil get mixed
with freshwater sources which are deep inside the earths surface and make them polluted.
[42]

Page 15
9. Ozone layer depletion:

Ozone is a gas that is naturally present in our atmosphere. Most ozone say about 90%
is found in the stratosphere, which begins about 10.16 kilometres (6.10 miles) above Earth's
surface. The depletion of stratospheric ozone caused by the emission of gases containing
chlorine and bromine. Most of these gases accumulate in the lower atmosphere and do not
dissolve readily in rain. These accumulated gases are transported to the stratosphere, where
they are converted to more reactive gases. Some of these gases then participate in reactions
that destroy ozone. [43][44]

10. Deforestation:
Deforestation in simple term means the felling and clearing of forest cover or tree
plantations in order to accommodate agricultural, industrial or urban use. It involves permanent
end of forest cover to make that land available for residential, commercial or industrial purpose.
[45][46]

10.1. Causes of deforestation:

Agricultural activities
Urbanization
Mining
Fires

11. Mining activities:

Mining oil, coal and other mineral products underlying in deep beds allow methane, a
greenhouse gas, to escape from the earth. Disturbing the soil, stored gases make their way into
the environment. [47]

12. Population Increase:

As the population on Earth increases, food and housing demands along with other basic
necessities also increase. Manure from cattle, contributes to methane gas levels. The cutting
down of forests to make space for housing and other buildings accounts for close to 11-12 %
of carbon emissions. [48]
References:

Page 16
1. World Commission on Environment and Development Our Common Future
(http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf)
2. Definitions of Sustainability (http://www.ecifm.rdg.ac.uk/definitions.htm)
3. IUCN/UNEP/WWF Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living (Gland,
Switzerland: 1991). (https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/CFE-003.pdf)
4. Definitions of sustainability and sustainable development
(http://www.sustainablemeasures.com/node/36)
5. Creating a Sustainable Community: Hamilton-Wentworth's Vision 2020 Canada
(http://www.unesco.org/most/usa4.htm)
6. Sustainability Basic Information (http://www.epa.gov/sustainability/basicinfo.htm)
7. Basel convention
(http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/text/BaselConventionText-
e.pdf)

8. Basel convention- Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_Convention)

9. Cartagena protocol (https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cartagena-protocol-en.pdf)

10. Cartagena protocol- Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartagena_Protocol_on_Biosafety)

11. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)

(http://www.cms.int/sites/default/files/publication/consolidated_part_I_and_II_en.pdf)

12. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals-Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Conservation_of_Migratory_Species_o
f_ Wild_Animals)

13. Kyoto protocol (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf)

14. Kyoto protocol- Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol)

15. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development

(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf)

Page 17
16. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development- Agenda 21
(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf)

17. Rotterdam convention

(https://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Services/Environmental_Management/GU
DDIS/Legal_Frameworks/rotterdam_convention.pdf)

18. Rotterdam convention- Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention)

19. Stockholm convention

(http://www.pops.int/documents/convtext/convtext_en.pdf)

20. Stockholm convention- Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants)

21. Johannesburg declaration

(http://www.joburg.org.za/pdfs/johannesburgdeclaration.pdf)

22. Johannesburg declaration- Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg_Declaration)

23. Barcelona declaration

(https://www.upc.edu/eesd-observatory/who/declaration-of-
barcelona/BCN%20Declaration%20EESD_english.pdf)

24. Talloires declaration (http://www.ulsf.org/programs_talloires.html)

25. Swansea declaration (http://www.iisd.org/educate/declarat/swansea.htm)

26. Halifax declaration (http://www.iisd.org/educate/declarat/halifax.htm)

27. Copernicus charter (http://www.iisd.org/educate/declarat/coper.htm)

Page 18
28. Thessaloniki Declaration

(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001177/117772eo.pdf)

29. The Graz declaration

(http://iau-hesd.net/sites/default/files/documents/graz_declaration.pdf)

30. Eutrophication (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophication)

31. Bina Rani, Upma Singh, A K Chuhan, Diwakar Sharma, Raaz Maheshwari ,
Photochemical Smog Pollution and Its Mitigation Measures Bina Rani et al, J Adv Scient
Res, 2011; 2(4): 28-33
32. Injuries and fatalities
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health)

33. Radiation damage (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/health_effects.html)

34. Radiation damage (http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/condition/radiation-damage)

35. Nuclear proliferation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation)

36. Chemical proliferation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon_proliferation)

37. Chemical weapons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon)

38. Global warming (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming)

39. Global Warming: the Hottest Debate of the Decade

(http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/global-warming.pdf)
40. Ocean acidification (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification)
41. Soil acidification (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_acidification)
42. Freshwater acidification
(http://www.sustainable-environment.org.uk/Environment/Freshwater.php)
43. Sivasakthivel.T and K.K.Siva Kumar Reddy, Ozone Layer Depletion and Its Effects: A
Review, International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol.2, No.1,
February 2011.
44. Ozone depletion (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion)
45. Deforestation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation)
46. Deforestation (https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/deforestation)
47. Mining (http://listovative.com/top-12-main-causes-reasons-of-global-warming/)

Page 19
48. Population increase (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_overpopulation)

Page 20
Section II

Page 21
 CHAPTER 1

OPTIMIZATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Optimization process is the selection of the best in a given range under given condition. The main
objective of the optimization may be minimization or maximization like minimization of production
cost or it may be maximization of profit and many more. In optimization process we produce an optimal
solution or a satisfactory solution by repetitive iterations. In optimization, we first define objective
function that is to minimize cost of production or to maximize the profit. Then constraints are applied
to it. Now by solving this objective function subjected to given constraints by various methods of
optimization, an optimal solution is achieved. Many software are available nowadays which carried out
optimization efficiently and reduce the labor work of iterations. Optimization techniques have been
applied to process industries since many years to achieve optimality in many aspects. Optimization is
very effective tool for attaining a goal of sustainability in various aspects. Optimization helps us to
modify existing process which will be cleaner and economical. It guides us to optimize the plant size
and prevent us from investing excess resources which will be utilized to increase production.

1.2 CLASSICAL OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES[15]

Many optimization techniques have been evolved. These techniques use different methods to solve the
objective function. Every technique has its own advantages and limitations. Several software are also
developed using this optimization techniques. Following are some optimization techniques:

1.2.1 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

This technique has linear objective function f and constraints may be linear equalities and linear
inequalities.

1.2.2 INTEGER PROGRAMMING

In this technique objective function is linear and some or all variables are constrained over integer
values.

1.2.3 QUADRATIC PROGRAMMING

This technique has quadratic term in objective function and objective function is subjected to linear
equalities and linear inequalities.

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1.2.4 NON LINEAR PROGRAMMING

It is the case in which the objective function or the constraints or both may be non linear.

1.2.5 STOCHASTIC PROGRAMMING

It has some constraints depending on random variables.

1.2.6 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

This technique splits the objective function into smaller sub-objective function.

1.2.7 COMBINATIONAL OPTIMIZATION

This technique deals with the objective function having discrete feasible solution or feasible solution
which can be reduced to a discrete one.

1.2.8 INFINITE-DIMENSIONAL OPTIMIZATION

This technique deals with the set of feasible solution which is a subset of a infinite dimensional space.

1.2.9 CONSTRAINTS SATISFACTION

This technique deals with the objective function f which is constant.

These methods are classical methods and are analytical in nature. They use differential calculus to locate
the optimal solution. In practical application these methods have limited scope because the involved
objective function may or may not be continuous or/and differential. But these classical techniques of
optimization must be essentially studied as they build up basis for developing most of the numerical
techniques. These techniques have evolved into advanced techniques which are more suitable for
todays practical problems.

1.3 ADVANCED OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES[15]

1.3.1 HILL CLIMBING

This technique involves a graph search algorithms. In this technique the current path is extended with
a successor node. This successor node is closer to the solution.

Simple hill climbing chooses the first closer node. But steepest ascent hill climbing compares all
successors and chooses the closest to the solution. If there is no closer node then both methods fail.
These methods are widely used in artificial intelligence field.

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1.3.2 SIMULATED ANNEALING

Inspiration behind the name and the method is annealing process in metallurgy. In annealing process,
to reduce the size of the crystals and to reduce their defects, material is allowed to heat and then control
cooling. In this method, each of the search space is compared with a state of some physical system. The
function which is to be minimized is treated as the internal energy of that system. The objective of this
method is to bring this system to the possible minimum energy level from an arbitrary initial state.

1.3.3 GENETIC ALGORITHM (GA)

It is a local search technique. It is used to find approximate solution to optimization and search
problems. GAs are particular class of evolutionary algorithms. GA is inspired by evolutionary biology.
They use technique such as inheritance, mutation, selection and crossover (also called recombination).
GAs are typically implemented as a computer simulation. In this technique, concept of Darwins theory
is used to solve the problem where chromosome of an individual evolves towards better solution.

GA starts with a population of completely random individuals and occurs in generations. Fitness of the
whole population is evaluated in each generation. Then based on their fitness, multiple individual are
selected from the current population. Then they are mutated or recombined to form a new population.
This new population is then used in the next iteration of the algorithm.

1.3.4 ANT COLONY OPTIMIZATION

Ants wander randomly in the real world. Upon finding food return to their colony and lay down
pheromone trails. Instead of travelling randomly, other ants follow the trail by earlier ants. The
pheromone trail stats to fade as time passes. Thus its attractive strength reduces. If an ant takes more
time to travel down the path and return back again, the more time pheromone gets to fade away.
Comparatively, shorter path get followed over faster and thus the pheromone density remains high. But
advantage of pheromone evaporation is that the convergence to a local optimal solution may be avoided.
The path chosen by first ant would be excessively attractive to the following ants if there were no
evaporation at all.

Thus a short path from the colony to a food source is found by one ant, that path is more likely to be
followed by other ants. Eventually all ants follow that single path after such positive feedback. The idea
behind ant colony algorithms is adapting this behavior by simulated ants. These ants walk around the
search space for the problem to be to be solved. This algorithm is used to produce near-optimal solution,
the traveling sales problem, etc. they certain advantages over simulated annealing and genetic
algorithm. They have advantages when the graph may change dynamically. This algorithm can be run

Page 24
continuously. They can adapt to change in real time. This technique has wide scope in transportation
system.

1.4 SOFTWARES FOR OPTIMIZATION

Using this classical and advanced technique of optimization many software have been evolved. These
softwares are useful to avoid hectic work of iterations. Various softwares are listed below:

Table 1.1 FREE AND OPEN SOFTWARES[36]

Sr.
No Name Brief info
.

1 ADMB nonlinear optimization framework, using automatic differentiation

2 Fortran code for general nonlinear programming. Interfaces with AMPL,

ALGENCAN
C/C++, CUTEr, Matlab, Python, Octave and R.

3 MATLAB Toolbox and Python APIs to Mixed Integer Nonlinear

APMonitor
Programming Solvers

4 ASCEND mathematical modelling system

An algorithm that seeks the least value of a nonlinear function subject to bound
BOBYQA constraints, without using derivatives of the objective function. By
5
Professor Michael J. D. Powell. Source code is available at CCPForge or here.

An algorithm that seeks the least value of a nonlinear function subject to

nonlinear inequality constraints, without using derivatives of the objective
6 COBYLA
function or the constraints. By Professor Michael J. D. Powell. Source code is
available at CCPForge or here.

Page 25
7 Non-linear Continuous Objective Function for small dimension (n<20) with
CONDOR linear and non-linear constraints. Only the value of the objective function is
used. Stand-Alone C++ code.

8 COIN-OR
integer programming
SYMPHONY

9 CUTEr testing environment for optimization and linear algebra solvers

10 A stand-alone C++ library with a variety of linear and non-linear solvers for
dlib
small and large scale problems

11 EvA2 Evolutionary algorithms framework written in Java

12 GLPK GNU Linear Programming Kit

13 IPOPT large scale nonlinear optimization for continuous system (requires gradient)

14 JOptimizer Java library for convex optimization

15 JuliaOpt A collection of optimization libraries and environment written in Julia

16 limited-memory quasi-Newton method optimization; for large scale

L-BFGS
optimization

17 Liger is an open source integrated optimization environment for single and

Liger
multi-objective nonconvex problems

Page 26
 An algorithm that seeks the least value of a nonlinear function subject to linear
LINCOA inequality constraints, without using derivatives of the objective function. By
18
Professor Michael J. D. Powell. Source code is available at CCPForge or here.

Global optimization software, Limited Version, MINLP, Parallelization

MIDACO
(Excel, Matlab, Octave, Python, C/C++, R and Fortran)
19

20 multivariate function minimizer for real-valued functions with analytic or

MINUIT/MINUIT2
numerical gradients

21 An algorithm that solves unconstrained optimization problems without using

NEWUOA derivatives. By Professor Michael J. D. Powell. Source code is available
at CCPForge or here.

22 many algos, many language bindings, global and local optimizers, derivative-
NLopt
free and gradient-driven

23 NOMAD generic black-box (no gradients required) optimization package

Multidisciplinary Design, Analysis, and Optimization (MDAO) framework,

OpenMDAO written in the Python programming language. Developed by NASA Glenn
24
Research Center, with support from the NASA Langley Research Center.

25 free numerical optimization framework in Python language for

OpenOpt
solving NLP, LP, MIP, QP, etc. with automatic differentiation features.

26
OptaPlanner OptaPlanner is a lightweight, embeddable planning engine written in Java. It
helps normal Java programmers solve constraint satisfaction problems

Page 27
 efficiently. Under the hood, it combines optimization heuristics and
metaheuristics with very efficient score calculation.

27 PPL integer programming problems, polyhedra

28 cross-platform numerical computational package and a high-level, numerically

Scilab
oriented programming language with free numerical optimization framework.

29 TAO large-scale optimization, focus on parallel algos.

30 An algorithm that minimizes a general differentiable nonlinear function subject

TOLMIN to linear constraints. By Professor Michael J. D. Powell.Source code is
available at CCPForge or here.

An algorithm that solves unconstrained optimization problems without using

derivatives (for general usage, NEWUOA is recommended to
31 UOBYQA
replaceUOBYQA). By Professor Michael J. D. Powell. Source code is
available at CCPForge or here.

1.4.1 PROPRIATORY SOFTWARES [36]

1. AIMMS optimization modeling system, including GUI building facilities

2. Altair HyperStudy Multi-Disciplinary Design of Experiments, Optimization and Stochastic

study software

3. AMPL modelling language for large-scale linear, mixed integer and nonlinear optimization

Page 28
4. APMonitor for large-scale, nonlinear, differential and algebraic optimization

5. ASTOS AeroSpace Trajectory Optimization Software for launcher, re-entry and generic
aerospace problems

6. BARON for global optimization of algebraic nonlinear and mixed-integer nonlinear

problems

7. CPLEX integer, linear and quadratic programming

8. EASY-FIT data fitting in nonlinear equations, ODEs, DAEs, PDEs (1D), PDAEs (1D), with
integrated user interface, modelling language, statistical analysis, etc. (MS-Windows, demo
version, free for academic use)

9. FortMP integer, linear and quadratic programming

10. FortSP stochastic programming

11. General Algebraic Modeling System

12. Gurobi integer, linear and quadratic programming

13. HillStormer NelderMead nonlinear optimization with linear constraints

14. HEEDS MDO multidisciplinary design optimization using SHERPA, a hybrid, adaptive
optimization algorithm.

15. IMSL Numerical Libraries Linear, quadratic, nonlinear, and sparse QP and LP optimization
algorithms implemented in standard programming languages C, Java, C# .NET, Fortran, and
Python.

16. IOSO (Indirect Optimization on the basis of Self-Organization) is a multiobjective,

multidimensional nonlinear optimization technology

17. Kimeme an open platform for multi-objective optimization and multidisciplinary design
optimization

18. Lingo Linear, integer, nonlinear and stochastic programming. Global optimization

19. LIONsolver an integrated software for data mining, modeling, Learning and Intelligent
OptimizatioN and reactive business intelligence

20. modeFRONTIER modeFRONTIER is an integration platform for multi-objective and

multi-disciplinary optimization. It provides a seamless coupling with third party engineering
tools, enables the automation of the design simulation process, and facilitates analytic decision
making.

21. Maple (software) Linear, quadratic, and nonlinear, continuous and integer optimization.
Constrained and unconstrained. Global optimization with add-on toolbox.

Page 29
22. MATLAB Linear, quadratic, and nonlinear problems with Optimization Toolbox; multiple
maxima, multiple minima, and non-smooth optimization problems; estimation and
optimization of model parameters.

23. Mathematica large-scale multivariate constrained and unconstrained, linear and nonlinear,
continuous and integer optimization.

24. MIDACO Global optimization software based on evolutionary computing, MINLP,

Parallelization (Excel, Matlab, Octave, Python, C/C++, R and Fortran)

25. MISQP SQP-type method for nonlinear mixed-integer programming, relaxable and non-
relaxable variables, tuned to minimize number of function evaluations (free for academic use)

26. MOSEK linear, quadratic, conic and convex nonlinear, continuous and integer optimization.

27. NAG Linear, quadratic, nonlinear, sums of squares of linear or nonlinear functions; linear,
sparse linear, nonlinear, bounded or no constraints; local and global optimization; continuous
or integer problems.

28. Nexus multi-disciplinary and multi-objective optimization and design process integration.
Nexus provides direct integration to many third party CAD/CAE and engineering software
tools for design process integration and automation.

29. NLPQLP SQP method for nonlinear programming with parallel and non-monotone line
search, among other features (free for academic use)

30. NMath linear, quadratic and nonlinear programming

31. IOSO multidisciplinary design optimization, for computer-aided engineering

32. OptimJ Java based modeling language. Premium Edition includes support for Gurobi,
Mosek and CPLEX solvers

33. Optimus platform a process integration and design optimization platform developed by
Noesis Solutions

34. optiSLang software solutions for CAE-based sensitivity analysis, optimization and robustness
evaluation

35. OptiY - a design environment providing modern optimization strategies and state of the art
probabilistic algorithms for uncertainty, reliability, robustness, sensitivity analysis, data-mining
and meta-modeling.

36. OptiStruct Award-winning CAE technology for conceptual design synthesis and structural
optimization.

37. PHX ModelCenter a graphical environment for automation, integration, and design
optimization.

Page 30
 38. PottersWheel Parameter estimation in ordinary differential equations (Matlab toolbox, free
for academic use).

39. pSeven software platform for automation of engineering simulation and analysis,
multidisciplinary optimization and data mining, developed by DATADVANCE. Powered
byMACROS algorithmic core.

40. SAS/OR A suite of solvers for Linear, Integer, Nonlinear, Derivative-Free, Network,
Combinatorial and Constraint Optimization; the Algebraic modeling languageOPTMODEL;
and a variety of vertical solutions aimed at specific problems/markets, all of which are fully
integrated with the SAS System.

41. SmartDO multidisciplinary global design optimization, specialized in computer-aided

engineering (CAE). using the direct global search approaches.

42. SNOPT large-scale optimization problems.

43. Unscrambler Optimizer product formulation and process optimization software

44. TOMLAB TOMLAB supports global optimization, integer programming, all types of least
squares, linear, quadratic and unconstrained programming for MATLAB. TOMLAB supports
solvers like Gurobi, CPLEX, SNOPT and KNITRO.

45. VisSim a visual block diagram language for simulation and optimization of dynamical
systems.

46. WORHP a large-scale sparse solver for continuous nonlinear optimization.

47. XTREME multidisciplinary global optimization based on genetic algorithms accelerated by

neural networks, multi-objectives (pareto front), continuous and integer design variables and
graphical user interface (Excel, C++ and Python API also available).

1.4.2 FREEWARES [36]

1. AIMMS free for academic use.

2. AMPL free student license.

3. APMonitor free for academic or commercial use with interfaces to Python and MATLAB.

4. ASTOS free for academic use.

5. Galahad library free for academic use.

6. LIONsolver free license for academic use.

7. MIDACO Global optimization software based on evolutionary computing, MINLP,

Parallelization (Excel, Matlab, Octave, Python, C/C++, R and Fortran)

Page 31
 8. MINTO integer programming solver using branch and bound algorithm. Freeware for
personal use.

9. OptimJ Java based modeling language. Free Edition includes support for lp_solve, GLPK
and LP or MPS file formats

10. PottersWheel Parameter estimation in ordinary differential equations (Free Matlab

toolbox for academic use).

11. SCIP Free only for research purpose as a member of a non-commercial and
academic institution.

12. WORHP free of charge for academic use.

1.5 CASE STUDIES FOR OPTIMIZATION

1. Optimization of the energy consumption of chemical bath plants[29]

2. Capacity optimization[25]

3. Network optimization[26]

4. Layout optimization of chemical process based on industrial risks[28]

5. Safety stock optimization

6. Inventory optimization[27]

1.6 REFERENCE BOOKS FOR OPTIMIZATION

1. Beveridge, G. S. G. and R. S. Schechter. Optimization: Theory and Practice. McGraw
Hill, New York, 1970.[1]

2. Edgar, T. F. and D. M. Himmelblau. Optimization of Chemical Processes. McGraw

Hill, New York, 1988.[2]

3. Andreas Antoniou, Wu-Sheng Lu. Practical Optimization: Algorithms And Engineering

applications.,2007[3]

4. Kalyanmoy Deb, Optimization for Engineering Design: Algorithms and Examples,

PHI; 2nd edition (1995)[4]

5. Koziel, Slawomir, Yang, Xin-She , Computational Optimization, Methods and

Algorithms, Springer; 2011[5]
6. Gade Pandu Rangaiah, Adrin Bonilla-Petriciolet, Multi-Objective Optimization in
Chemical Engineering: Developments and Applications, Wiley-Blackwell , 2013[6]
7. E. Bruce Nauman, Chemical Reactor Design, Optimization, and Scaleup, Wiley-
Blackwell, 2nd Edition, 2008[7]

Page 32
8. Gade Pandu Rangaiah (National University of Singapore), Multi-Objective Optimization:
Techniques and Applications in Chemical Engineering, World Scientific Publishing Co Pte
Ltd., 2009[8]

Page 33
 CHAPTER 2

PROCESS INTENSIFICATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Process intensification (PI) is one of the tools for optimization of chemical plant. PI can also be use as
a tool for achieving a goal of sustainable chemical process.

Sustainable chemical engineering has main four objectives:

1. By intensifying operation and a multiscale approaches to process control, increase productivity

and selectivity.
2. Based on scientific principle and new production method, novel equipment should be designed.

3. Chemical engineering methodology can be extended to product design and also use the triplet
molecular Process-Product-Process engineering (3PE) approach for manufacturing end-use
properties.

4. Implementation of multiscale application of computational chemical engineering modeling and

simulation to real-life situation ranging from molecular level to production level.[32]

Here we shall focus on process intensification only. Process intensification is a less or more complex
techniques in which large, expensive, energy-intensive equipments or process are replaced by smaller,
less costly, more efficient plants, minimizing environmental impact, increasing safety and improving
remote control and automation, or that combine multiple operations into a single apparatus or into
fewer or into fewer devices. New process will be more efficient, cleaner, and economical
manufacturing process.[32] Due to enhance mixing at molecular level, mass and heat transfer,
reaction kinetics, yields, and specificity also get improved. PI technology enhances mixing at
molecular level. This improvement helps to reduce equipment numbers, facility footprints and
process complexity. This improvement then minimizes cost and risk in chemical manufacturing
facilities. PI focuses on optimization of process performance at molecular level kinetics,
thermodynamics and heat and mass transfer.

Page 34
2. PRINCIPLES OF PROCESS INTENSIFICATION:

1. Maximize effectiveness of intramolecular and intermolecular events (example: dynamically

changing conditions to attain kinetic regimes with higher conversion and selectivity)

2. Provide all molecules the same process experience (example: plug flow reactor with uniform,
gradient-less heating)

3. Optimize driving forces at all scales and maximize the specific surface areas to which they
apply (example: increase transfer surface area through micro channel designs)

4. Maximize synergistic effects from partial processes (example: affecting reaction equilibrium
by removing products where and when they are formed)[33]

3. METHODS OF PROCESS INTENSIFICATION

PI technologies hybridized unit operation or unit processes into the multidimensional equipment.
This helps to increase productivity and/or selectivity with respect to desired product and to facilitate
the separation of undesired by-products.[32]

New modes of production are also developing using PI techniques. These new modes of productions
are based on scientific principles. Some of the new operating modes that are currently studied at
laboratory and/or pilot stage are cyclic process, extreme conditions, pultrusion, low-frequency
vibrations to improve gas-liquid contacting in bubble columns, high temperature and high pressure
technologies, etc.

PI technologies support microengineering and microtechnology. They have several advantages over
conventional chemical production technologies. PI technologies also promote the use of non
conventional energy sources like ultrasound, microwaves, solar energy, etc. in manufacturing process.
Following flowsheet (Fig. 1) shows the various methods of PI.[32]

4. FUTURE TRENDS

PI technologies have wide opportunity in chemical and its successive sectors. These sectors have wide
scope for improvements in energy consumption and raw material consumption and to reduce the cost
of production. Chemical sector is the most energy intensive of all industrial sectors. By applying PI
technologies this may be reduced to upto 50% of present usage. PI improves cost competitiveness, and
reduces CO2 emission, as well as their maturity and likelihood to overcome barriers to adoption.

The 2006 Chemical Bandwidth Study and the 2014 U.S. Chemical Industry Energy Bandwidth Study
indentified that following 11 chemicals in U.S. (listed in descending order of energy consumption) have

Page 35
significant opportunity for energy saving. This can be achieved by implementing PI technologies. 11
chemicals are[33]:

1. Ethylene

2. Ethanol

3. Chlorine / sodium hydroxide

4. Ammonia

5. Nitrogen / oxygen

6. Propylene

7. Terepthalic acid

8. Carbon black

9. Ethylene oxide

10. Methanol

11. hydrogen

Page 36
Fig. 1 Process intensification and its components [33]

In 2010, 1152 TBtu/yr energy is utilized for the production of these chemicals. This is 63% of the onsite
energy consumed in chemical industry. By application of PI technologies for each of the chemicals,
there is a scope to reduce energy consumption and save upto 563 TBtu/yr which is around 50% (Table
2). PI aims to make dramatic reduction in plant volumes, ideally between 100-1000 fold by hybridizing
two or more traditional operation in one unit and using microengineering along with the non
conventional energy sources. A vision of how a future plant employing PI is proposed and compared
with a conventional plant is given in Fig. 2. But for that several barriers must be overcome such as
maturity and economic competiveness of the new technologies compared to the conventional
technologies. PI guides us towards greener technologies.

5. BOOKS FOR REFERENCES

Page 37
 1. David Reay, Colin Ramshaw and Adam Harvey, Process Intensification Engineering
for Efficiency, Sustainability and Flexibility, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd edition,
2013[9]

2. Kamelia Boodhoo, Adam Harvey, Process Intensification Technologies for Green

Chemistry: Engineering Solutions for Sustainable Chemical Processing, John Wiley
& Sons Inc., 2013[10]

Fig. 2 One vision of how a future plant employing process intensification may look (right) vs. a
conventional plant (left)[32]

Table 2 2010 Production, energy consumption, cost of production, and energy savings potential for 11
chemicals.[33]

CHAPTER 3

Page 38
 MULTI CRITERIA ANALYSIS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

MCA is a tool that can be applied for the purpose of sustainability assessment. It compares different
policies on the basis of set of criteria. Critique of conventional cost benefit analysis and its variant i.e.
social cost benefit analysis (CBA) and social return on investment (SROI) is the reason behind evolution
of MCA. Both social CBA and SROI have both social and environmental wealth as basis. Both social
CBA and SROI can be monetized in order to be factored into conventional CBA. But MCA practitioners
prove that, the idea that decision should be based purely on the total balance of an action's cost and
benefits, without taking into account how these costs and benefits are distributed. The aim of MCA is
to bring to light the unavailable conflicts and competing interests, rather than preassuming that the
technically 'optimal' solution is necessarily the best for society. They effectively support the assessment
of and decision making on complex sustainability issues. Because they can integrate a diversity of
criteria in a guise. They can be adapted to a large variety of contexts. We can improve the procedure
and results obtained from MCA. All MCA require the exercise of judgment. However, they make in
difference in how they combine the data. Human decision may have difficulties in handling large
amounts of complex information in a consistent way. The main role of this technique is to deal with
this kind of difficulties.[19][20][21] Till now there are many MCA techniques and this number is still
goes on increasing. The reason behind this is[19]:

1. There are many different types of decision which fit the broad circumstances of MCA.
2. The time available to undertake the analysis may vary.
3. The amount or nature of data available to support the analysis may vary.
4. The analytical skills of those supporting the decision may vary, and
5. the administrative culture and requirements of organizations, vary
3.2 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING MCA TECHNIQUES

1. Internal consistency and logical soundness

2. transparency
3. ease to use
4. data requirement not inconstant with the importance of the issue being considered
5. realistic time and manpower resources requirements for the analysis process.
6. ability to provide an audit trail, and
7. software availability, where needed.
3.3 OBJECTIVES OF MCA

MCA is undertaken to do a comparative analysis between project and heterogeneous measures.

Page 39
 1. MCA is used as an ex-ante evaluation tool. It is particularly used for the examination of the
intervention's strategic choices.
2. In ex post evaluation, a programme or a policy can be evaluated with the help of MCA. MCA
can do it by appraising its impacts with regards to several criteria.[20]
3.4 STANDARD FEATURES OF MCA

A standard feature of MCA is a programme matrix, or a consequence table. In a performance matrix

each row describes an option and each column describe the performance of the option against each
criterion. Table 3 shows the performance matrix of a number of different toasters computed with a set
of criteria which is thought to be relevant in a household choice.

Table 3 Performance matrix[19]

This is a basic matrix which can be assessed by the decision makers in a basic form of MCA. In
analytically more information is use to be converted into consistent numerical values. Performance
matrix can be analyzed numerically by MCA techniques in two stages:

Stage 1 Scoring

Numerical score is assigned to the expected performances of each option. This numerical score is done
on strength of preference scale for each option for each criterion. In practice, scales extending from 0
to 100 are often used. In which, 0 indicates a real or hypothetical least preferred option, and 100 is
associated with a real or hypothetical most preferred option. Remaining all options is in between 0 to
100.[19]

Stage 2 Weighting

For each criterion numerical weights are assigned. These numerical weights define the relative
valuation of a shift between the top and bottom scale.

Page 40
These components are then combining to give an overall assessment for each criterion. These
components are combined by the computer programmes. A single weighted average of score is
calculated to combine scores on criteria and relevant weight between criteria.[19]

3.5 STEPS INVOLVED IN MCA

1. Select the field of application and determine the intervention rationale

2. Choose the negotiation/judgment group
3. Choose the technical team responsible for supporting the
4. Judgment team group
5. Establish the list of competing activities to be included in the analysis
6. Determine judgment criteria
7. Determine each criterions relative weight
8. Formulate a judgment per criterion
9. Aggregate judgments[20]
3.6 TYPES OF MCA TECHNIQUES[20]
MCA procedures are distinguished from each other principally in terms of how they process the basic
information in the performance matrix. Some MCA procedures may be suitable for different
circumstances than others.
3.6.1 DIRECT ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE MATRIX
This method provides a limited amount of information about options by direct inspection. An initial
step is to see if any option dominates over others. If this so, the next step is to determine whether trade-
offs between different criteria are acceptable. When everything looks according to method, an overall
assessment can be formed.
3.6.2 MULTI-ATTRIBUTE UTILITY THEORY (MAUT)
This model is (nearly) universally accepted model. This procedure has building blocks
1. Performance of matrix
2. Procedure to determine whether criteria are independent of each other or not
3. Ways of estimating the parameters in a mathematical function
This model has some key features which make it potentially demanding to apply.
3.6.3 LINEAR ADDITIVE MODEL
The simple linear additive models are applicable only if it can be proved or assumed that the criteria
are preferentially independent of each other and if uncertainty is not formally built into the MCA model.
This model combined an option's values on the many criteria into one overall value. This is achieved
by adding all the weighted scores together. The weighted scores are obtained by multiplying the value

Page 41
scores on each criterion by the weight of the criterion. It provides robust and effective support to
decision makers working.
3.6.4 THE ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS (AHP)
AHP also develops a linear additive model in its standard format. But it uses procedures for deriving
the weights and the scores by pairwise comparison between criteria and between options respectively.
But the strength and weakness of the AHP are a matter of concern for the specialists in MCA.
3.6.5 OUTRANKING METHOD
It has a different approach than any of those discussed so far. It use concept of outranking. Outranking
is done to seek to eliminate alternatives that are 'dominated'. One option outranks another if it
outperforms the other on enough criteria of sufficient importance. But that option must not be
outperformed by the other option. The set of options is being considered as measured against a pair of
threshold parameters. All options are assessed on the basis of the extent to which they exhibit sufficient
outranking with respect to this full set of options. This model has a interesting feature that it can classify
two options 'incomparable' under certain conditions. This model also has some advantages and some
disadvantages.
3.6.6 PROCEDURES THAT USE QUALITATIVE DATA INPUTS
This model generally approximates to the linear additive model. This model is transparent in many
aspects. It may involve significant amounts of data processing. If a single option is to be identified some
extra assumptions need to be made.
3.6.7 MCA METHODS BASED ON FUZZY SETS
Methods of this type are yet to be applied widely. Fuzzy sets attempts to capture the idea that our natural
language in discussing issues is not precise. Options are fairly attractive from a particular point of view
or 'rather expensive' are not simply attractive or expensive. Fuzzy arithmetic then tries to capture these
qualified assessments using the idea of membership function, through which option would belong to
the set of 'attractive' options with a given degree of membership lying between 0 and 1. Building an
assessment expressed in this way, fuzzy MCA model develop procedure for aggregating fuzzy
performance level using weights that are sometimes also represented as fuzzy quantities. However,
these methods are difficult to understand for non-specialists.
3.6.8 OTHER MCA MODELS
MCA models that have been outlined up till now are potentially applicable to decision making. There
are many models like methods based on Rough Sets, or Ideal Points and several methods that are
referred to in the MCA literature. Some of them have some application but some of them are not
advanced beyond the conceptual phase.

3.7 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MCA[20]

ADVANTAGES

Page 42
 1. Capacity to simplify complex situations.
2. The bases on which they choose criteria and rate performance are straightforward,
understandable, and drafted by the group in charge of the analysis.
3. The tool rationalizes the decision process.
4. It is a useful negotiation tool for debates among users.
LIMITATIONS

1. Practical difficulties of choosing the activities or the variants to be studied, to determine

comparison criteria, and to produce grading grids.
2. Lack of reliable data over a period of time sufficient to organize and validate the methodologies.
3. Multi-criteria analyses are often based on slow and iterative processes, which may include
protracted periods of negotiation.
4. Evaluators should have skills in mathematical concepts and data aggregation methodologies.
5. Multi-criteria analysis can be considered a subjective tool.

CHAPTER 4

MULTI CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is form of MCA. It has found many applications in both public
and private sector. It is also called multi criteria decision making (MDCM).

MCDA is an approach as well as a set of techniques. MCDA provide an overall ordering of options, the
most preferred to the least preferred options. MCDA can handle complex problem efficiently. Complex
problems can be those who are characterized by any mixture of monetary and non-monetary objectives.
MCDA breaks the problem into more manageable pieces to allow data and judgments to be brought to
bear on the pieces. Then these pieces are reassembled to present a coherent overall picture to decision
to makers. MCDA fulfill the purpose of serving as an aid to thinking and decision making. Many
softwares that assist the technical aspects of MCDA are evolved. These softwares are easy to use as
well.

4.2 STAGES IN MCDA

1. Establish the decision context.

1.1 Establish aims of the MCDA, and identify decision makers and other key players.

Page 43
1.2 Design the socio-technical system for conducting the MCDA.

1.3 Consider the context of the appraisal.

2. Identify the options to be appraised.

3. Identify objectives and criteria.

3.1 Identify criteria for assessing the consequences of each option.

3.2 Organize the criteria by clustering them under high-level and lower-level objectives in a hierarchy.

4. Scoring. Assess the expected performance of each option against the criteria. Then assess the value
associated with the consequences of each option for each criterion.

4.1 Describe the consequences of the options.

4.2 Score the options on the criteria.

4.3 Check the consistency of the scores on each criterion.

5. Weighting. Assign weights for each of the criterion to reflect their relative importance to the
decision.

6. Combine the weights and scores for each option to derive an overall value.

6.1 Calculate overall weighted scores at each level in the hierarchy.

6.2 Calculate overall weighted scores.

7. Examine the results.

8. Sensitivity analysis.

8.1 Conduct a sensitivity analysis: do other preferences or weights affect the overall ordering of the
options?

8.2 Look at the advantage and disadvantages of selected options, and compare pairs of options.

8.3 Create possible new options that might be better than those originally considered.

8.4 Repeat the above steps until a requisite model is obtained.[20]

4.3 TYPES MCDA TECHNIQUES

Here only list of MCDA techniques is given (due to very long list of techniques). Detail techniques are
given reference books. Different MCDA techniques are:

Page 44
 1. Aggregated Indices Randomization Method (AIRM)
2. Analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
3. Analytic network process (ANP)
4. Best worst method (BWM)[30]
5. Characteristic Objects METhod (COMET)[31]
6. Data envelopment analysis
7. Decision EXpert (DEX)
8. Disaggregation Aggregation Approaches (UTA*, UTAII, UTADIS)
9. Dominance-based rough set approach (DRSA)
10. ELECTRE (Outranking)
11. Evidential reasoning approach (ER)
12. Goal programming
13. Grey relational analysis (GRA)
14. Inner product of vectors (IPV)
15. Measuring Attractiveness by a categorical Based Evaluation Technique (MACBETH)
16. Multi-Attribute Global Inference of Quality (MAGIQ)
17. Multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT)
18. Multi-attribute value theory (MAVT)
19. New Approach to Appraisal (NATA)
20. Nonstructural Fuzzy Decision Support System (NSFDSS)
21. Potentially all pairwise rankings of all possible alternatives (PAPRIKA)
22. PROMETHEE (Outranking)
23. Superiority and inferiority ranking method (SIR method)
24. Technique for the Order of Prioritisation by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)
25. Value analysis (VA)
26. Value engineering (VE)
27. VIKOR method[32]
28. Fuzzy VIKOR method[33]
29. Weighted product model (WPM)
30. Weighted sum model (WSM)[24]

4.4 SOFTWARES FOR MCDA

1. 1000Minds software for Multi-Criteria Decision-Making, prioritisation and resource allocation.

Internetbased and free for academic use.
2. BENSOLVE Free MatLab implementation of Benson's algorithm to solve linear vector
optimization problems.

Page 45
3. Bubble Chart Pro OPTIMAL, desktop software application that integrates a variety of bubble
chart types with a SMART (Simple Multi-Attribute Ranking Technique) prioritizer and an
easy-to-use LP optimizer.
4. ChemDecide A software package containing a decision structuring tool and three analysis tools
that utilise AHP, ELECTRE III and MARE. Available through Britest Limited.
5. Decisionarium, global space for decision support (for academic use).
6. DEXi, program for qualitative multi-attribute decision modelling, developed at the Joef Stefan
Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
7. D-Sight, visual and interactive tool for multicriteria decision aid problems based on the
PROMETHEE methods and Multi-Attribute Utility Theory.
8. FLO, MATLAB-based software tool "FLO" (Facility Location Optimizer), for solving single-
as well as multi-objective location problems
9. GUIMOO, Graphical User Interface for Multi Objective Optimization from INRIA.
10. IDS Intelligent Decision System for Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis under Uncertainty
(using the Evidential Reasoning Approach).
11. IDSS Software: MCDM software of the Laboratory of Intelligent Decision Support Systems
(University of Poznan, Poland).
12. IND-NIMBUS - implementation of the interactive NIMBUS method that can be connected with
different simulation and modelling tools.
13. Interalg free solver, which includes global nonlinear multiobjective optimization with user-
defined accuracy.
14. IRIS and VIP, IRIS - Interactive Robustness analysis and parameters' Inference softward for
multicriteria sorting problems and VIP - Variable Interdependent Parameters Analysis
software.
15. MACBETH for MCDA, Measuring Attractiveness by a Categorical Based Evaluation
TecHnique in MultiCriteria Decison Aid.
16. MakeItRational, AHP based decision software.
17. MCDA Guides A collection of guides in how to model MCDA problems using Microsoft Excel.
18. modeFRONTIER, commercial software developed by ESTECO Spa dedicated to multi-
objective optimization and multi-disciplinary design, providing an easy coupling to almost any
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) tool.
19. Collection of Multiple Criteria Decision Support Software - by Dr. Roland Weistroffer for
solving nonlinear (and even nondifferentiable) multiobjective optimization problems in an
interactive way. Operates via the Internet - free for academic use.
20. ParadisEO-MOEO, module specifically devoted to multiobjective optimization in ParadisEO,
software framework for the design and implementation of metaheuristics, hybrid methods as
well as parallel and distributed models from INRIA.

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 21. Priority Estimation Tool, open-source (free) software for AHP-based decision making.
22. PROMETHEE-GAIA software.
23. MCDA software by Quartzstar Ltd.: OnBalance for evaluation decisions and HiPriority for
resource allocation.
24. RGDB, Graphic tool that helps to select preferable rows from relational databases.
25. Accord by Robust Decisions implementing the Bayesian Team Support technique.
26. TransparentChoice - Strategic decision-making software, MCDM software which allows
multidisciplinary teams to collaborate on complex decisions.
27. VISA, Web based Multi-Criteria Decision Making Software.[23]
4.5 RISK, UNCERTAINTY AND MCDA

There are many ways risk and uncertainty can be taken into account in any MCDA, but these are topics.
With the help of professionals these concerns can be best accommodate in MCDA.[19]

4.6. BOOKS FOR REFERENCES

1. Alessio Ishizaka, Philippe Nemery, Multi Criteria Decision Analysis: methods and
Software, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009[11]
2. Theodor J. Stewart, Journal of Multi Criteria Decision Analysis, Vol 22, John Wiley &
Sons Inc., 2015[12]
3. Prof. John Psarras, Prof. Constantin Zopounidis, International Journal of Multicriteria
Decision Making,
4. http://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=IJMCDM[13]
5. Jos Figueira, Salvatore Greco, Matthias Ehrogott, Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis:
State of the Art Surveys, Springer Science & Business Media, 2005[14]

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 REFERENCES

1. Beveridge, G. S. G. and R. S. Schechter. Optimization: Theory and Practice. McGraw

Hill, New York, 1970.

2. Edgar, T. F. and D. M. Himmelblau. Optimization of Chemical Processes. McGraw

Hill, New York, 1988.

3. Andreas Antoniou, Wu-Sheng Lu. Practical Optimization: Algorithms And Engineering

applications.,2007

4. Kalyanmoy Deb, Optimization for Engineering Design: Algorithms and Examples,

PHI; 2nd edition (1995)

5. Koziel, Slawomir, Yang, Xin-She, Computational Optimization, Methods and

Algorithms, Springer; 2011

6. Gade Pandu Rangaiah, Adrin Bonilla-Petriciolet, Multi-Objective Optimization in

Chemical Engineering: Developments and Applications, Wiley-Blackwell , 2013

7. E. Bruce Nauman, Chemical Reactor Design, Optimization, and Scaleup, Wiley-

Blackwell, 2nd Edition, 2008

8. Gade Pandu Rangaiah (National University of Singapore), Multi-Objective Optimization:

Techniques and Applications in Chemical Engineering, World Scientific Publishing Co Pte
Ltd., 2009

9. David Reay, Colin Ramshaw and Adam Harvey, Process Intensification Engineering
for Efficiency, Sustainability and Flexibility, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd edition,
2013

10. Kamelia Boodhoo, Adam Harvey, Process Intensification Technologies for Green
Chemistry: Engineering Solutions for Sustainable Chemical Processing, John Wiley
& Sons Inc., 2013

11. Alessio Ishizaka, Philippe Nemery, Multi Criteria Decision Analysis: methods and Software,
Wiley-Blackwell, 2009
12. Theodor J. Stewart, Journal of Multi Criteria Decision Analysis, Vol 22, John Wiley & Sons
Inc., 2015

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13. Prof. John Psarras, Prof. Constantin Zopounidis, International Journal of Multicriteria
Decision Making, http://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=IJMCDM
14. Jos Figueira, Salvatore Greco, Matthias Ehrogott, Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis:
State of the Art Surveys, Springer Science & Business Media, 2005
15. D Nagesh Kumar, Classical and Advanced Techniques for Optimization ,
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/105108127/pdf/Module_1/M1L4slides.pdf
16. Optimization methods, https://mech.iitm.ac.in/nspch52.pdf
17. Jean-Claude Charpentier, Among the trends for a modern chemical engineering, the
third paradigm: The time and length multiscale approach as an efficient tool for
process intensification and product design and engineering, chemical engineering
research and design, 88, ( 2 0 1 0 ) 248254
18. Mohsen Pirdashti, Arezou Ghadi, Mehrdad Mohammadi, and Gholamreza Shojatalab,
Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Selectio Model with Application to Chemical
Engineering Management Decisions, World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology, 49, 2009
19. Multi-criteria analysis: a manual, http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/12761/1/Multi-
criteria_Analysis.pdf
20. MULTI-CRITERIA ANALYSIS,
http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/evaluation/methodology/examples/too_cri_res_en.pdf
21. A taxonomy and review of the multiple criteria decision-making literature in chemical
engineering, http://tavana.us/publications/MCDM-CE.pdf
22. International Society on Multiple Criteria Decision Making,
http://mcdmsociety.org/MCDMNews/MCDMeNews_2011_2.pdf
23. Decision-making software, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-making_software
24. Multiple-criteria decision analysis, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-
criteria_decision_analysis
25. Capacity optimization case study,
https://www.google.co.in/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=7EeSVbaTMqnG8Afw2oH4DA&gws_rd=s
sl#q=Modeling+Warehouse+Capacity+to+Support+Monthly+S%26OP
26. CASE STUDY Network optimization,
https://www.google.co.in/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-
8#q=BENEFIT+CASE+STUDY+LLAMASOFT+MCCORMICK+%26+CO
27. Inventory Optimization Case Study, http://www.llamasoft.com/wp-
content/uploads/CS-Healthcare-CPG-IO-US.pdf

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28. Layout Optimization of Chemical Process based on Individual Risks,
http://www.sps.utm.my/download/PSEAsia2013-143.pdf
29. Modeling and Optimization of the Energy Consumption of Chemical Batch Plants,
http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:41634/eth-41634-02.pdf
30. Transportation otimization case study, http://www.llamasoft.com/wp-
content/uploads/CS-LandOLakes-TO-US.pdf
31. APPROACHING SUSTAINABILITY IN ENGINEERING DESIGN WITH
MULTIPLE CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS,
https://shareok.org/bitstream/handle/11244/7157/School%20of%20Chemical%20Engi
neering_07.pdf?sequence=1
32. Jean-Claude Charpentier, In the frame of globalization and sustainability, process
intensification, a path to the future of chemical and process engineering (molecules
into money), Chemical Engineering Journal, 134, (2007) 8492
33. Process Intensification Chemical Sector Focus Technology Assessment,
http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/02/f19/QTR%20Ch8%20-
%20Process%20Intensification%20TA%20Feb-13-2015.pdf
34. Process Intensification: Transforming Chemical Engineering,
http://www.ezine.agentschapnl.nl/sites/default/files/2013/10/Process%20Intensificatio
n%20Transforming%20Chemical%20Engineering.pdf
35. Process Intensification: An Overview of Principles and Practice,
http://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/file_store/production/193256/D690B047-C342-4790-A716-
AF21A9EF5355.pdf
36. List of softwares, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optimization_software

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Section III

Page 51
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

1. INTRODUCTION
As environmental awareness increases, industries and businesses are assessing how their
activities affect the environment. Society has become concerned about the issues of natural
resource depletion and environmental degradation. Many businesses have responded to this
awareness by providing greener products and using greener processes. The environmental
performance of products and processes has become a key issue, which is why some companies
are investigating ways to minimize their effects on the environment. Many companies have
found it advantageous to explore ways of moving beyond compliance using pollution
prevention strategies and environmental management systems to improve their environmental
performance. One such tool is LCA. This concept considers the entire life cycle of a product.
Life cycle assessment is a cradle-to-grave approach for assessing industrial systems. Cradle-
to-grave begins with the gathering of raw materials from the earth to create the product and
ends at the point when all materials are returned to the earth. LCA evaluates all stages of a
products life from the perspective that they are interdependent, meaning that one operation
leads to the next. LCA enables the estimation of the cumulative environmental impacts
resulting from all stages in the product life cycle, often including impacts not considered in
more traditional analyses (e.g., raw material extraction, material transportation, ultimate
product disposal, etc.).
The term life cycle refers to the major activities in the course of the products life-span from
its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, including the raw material
acquisition required to manufacture the product.

Figure 1-1 illustrates the possible life cycle stages that can be considered in an LCA and the
typical inputs/outputs measured.

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 Figure 1-1. Life Cycle Stages

Specifically, LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts
associated with a product, process, or service, by:
Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases
Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases
Interpreting the results to help decision-makers make a more informed decision.
The LCA process is a systematic, phased approach and consists of four components: goal
definition and scoping, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation as illustrated
in Figure1.2:

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 Figure 1.2- Phases of Life Cycle Assessment

1.1 Goal Definition and Scoping

Goal definition and scoping is the phase of the LCA process that defines the purpose and method of
including life cycle environmental impacts into the decision-making process. In this phase, the following
items must be determined: the type of information that is needed to add value to the decision-making
process, how accurate the results must be to add value, and how the results should be interpreted and
displayed in order to be meaningful and usable.
The goal definition and scoping of the LCA project will determine the time and resources
needed. The defined goal and scope will guide the entire process to ensure that the most
meaningful results are obtained. Every decision made throughout the goal definition and
scoping phase impacts either how the study will be conducted, or the relevance of the final
results. The following section identifies the decisions that must be made at the beginning of
the LCA study and the impact of these decisions on the LCA process.
1.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

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A life cycle inventory is a process of quantifying energy and raw material requirements, atmospheric
emissions, waterborne emissions, solid wastes, and other releases for the entire life cycle of a product,
process, or activity. In the life cycle inventory phase of an LCA, all relevant data is collected and
organized. Without an LCI, no basis exists to evaluate comparative environmental impacts or potential
improvements. The level of accuracy and detail of the data collected is reflected throughout the remainder
of the LCA process.
Life cycle inventory analyses can be used in various ways. They can assist an organization in
comparing products or processes and considering environmental factors in material selection.
In addition, inventory analyses can be used in policy-making, by helping the government
develop regulations regarding resource use and environmental emissions.

1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase of an LCA is the evaluation of potential
human health and environmental impacts of the environmental resources and releases
identified during the LCI. Impact assessment should address ecological and human health
effects; it should also address resource depletion. A life cycle impact assessment attempts to
establish a linkage between the product or process and its potential environmental impacts. For
example, what are the impacts of 9,000 tons of carbon dioxide or 5,000 tons of methane
emissions released into the atmosphere? Which is worse? What are their potential impacts on
smog? On global warming? The assessment takes inventory data and converts it to indicators
for each impact category. A typical list of impact indicators includes:

Global Climate Change

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Smog
Acidification
Eutrophication
Natural Resources (habitat, water, fossil fuels, minerals, biological resources)
Human Toxicity
Ecotoxicity
1.4 Life Cycle Interpretation

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Life cycle interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate
information from the results of the LCI and the LCIA, and communicate them effectively. Life
cycle interpretation is the last phase of the LCA process.
ISO has defined the following two objectives of life cycle interpretation:
1. Analyze results, reach conclusions, explain limitations, and provide recommendations based
on the findings of the preceding phases of the LCA, and to report the results of the life cycle
interpretation in a transparent manner.

2. Provide a readily understandable, complete, and consistent presentation of the results of an

LCA study, in accordance with the goal and scope of the study.

2. Why Conduct a Life Cycle Assessment?

There are many reasons for your company to conduct a Life Cycle Assessment. It can be used
to reduce environmental impact and waste, reduce costs, focus product development, support
marketing claims, improve product/corporate image and/or identify appropriate performance
indicators. Further, doing an LCA creates common metrics that can be compared and shared
across your company, or with your suppliers and partners.

3. Principles of life cycle analysis

Life cycle analysis involves the consideration of inputs (raw materials and energy) and outputs
(products and emissions) for each stage of the cycle over the useful life of a product or process.
Typically, there are a number of stages in the life cycle of a product, and according to Evans
et al. (2000), the most common stages for the manufacture of a glass bottle might include:
1. Raw materials acquisition (RMA): Includes raw materials and the processing required to
obtain them. Often, a separate life cycle analysis has been undertaken to determine the inputs
and emissions (burdens) associated with their acquisition. For example, RMA might include
the mining operations involved in obtaining sand, which is a raw material for the manufacture
of a glass bottle.

2. Manufacturing (MAN): Includes all of the manufacturing operations need to produce the
finished product. For the manufacture of a glass bottle this would include the production of the
glass as well as the manufacture of the lid and labels and boxes they are packed in. It can also
include the remanufacture of new product from recycled material.

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3. Use (USE): Includes operations associated with the product from the time it is put into use
to when it is either discarded or recycled. For a glass bottle, recycling might involve returning
the bottle intact for refilling or crushing it so it can be remanufactured and turned into a new
bottle.

4. Disposal (DISP): Is what happens once the product is no longer in use and is not reprocessed
back into the system. Usually, the product ends up as a waste and is disposed of in a landfill
site. Disposal encompasses the operations used to process the waste to minimise the impact to
the environment, and can include energy recovery through combustion.

5. Recycle (RECYCLE): Includes the operations required to redirect the material from
disposal and return it to the manufacturing stage for reprocessing. Recycling might include
collection of the material, cleaning and renovation before reuse or as a replacement for raw
material before undergoing a complete transformation back into the product.

6. Transportation (TRANS): Involves the physical transfer of materials from one location to
another at any stage in the life cycle. Usually, transport involves vehicles, such as trains, planes,
ships, etc, but can include conveyors, pipes and other distribution systems where an energy
usage and emissions can be identified.

7. Energy: Includes all forms of energy usage, such as electrical, fossil fuel or renewable.

There are some examples on which LCA is applied. These are given below:

4. Examples of Life Cycle Analysis

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1. Applications of life cycle assessment to Nature Works TM polylactide (PLA) production
[1]
2. Life Cycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Starch-Based Ethanol
[2]
3. A Parameterized Life Cycle Analysis of Crude from CO-Enhanced Oil Recovery [3]
4. Energy Life Cycle Assessment of Soybean Biodiesel Revisited [4]
5. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Textile Industries, Tirpur A Case Study [5]
6. Evaluating Literature Life Cycle Data: A Case Study for Electrical Metallic Tubing [6]
7. Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials [7]
8. Life cycle assessment applied to coffee production: investigating environmental impacts to
aid decision making for improvements at company level [8]
9. Life cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the process industry: a review [9]
10. Gate-to-Gate Life Cycle Analysis Model of Enhanced Oil Recovery [10]
11. Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles:
Implications for Policy [11]
12. Production of Bio-ethylene [12]
13. Life cycle assessment of ethanol production from tropical banagrass (Pennisetum
purpureum) using green and dry processing technologies in Hawaii [13]
14. Life Cycle Assessment of Beer in Support of an Environmental Product Declaration [14]
15. Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags: a review of the bags available in
2006[15]
16. Using life cycle assessment to document sustainability benefits of enzymes applied in the
leather industry [16]
17. Life Cycle Assessment In The Bioenergy Sector: Developing A Systematic Review [17]
18. Simplified Life-Cycle Analysis of PV System in Building: Present Situation And Future
Trends [18]
19. Simulation and life cycle assessment of process design alternatives for biodiesel production
from waste vegetable oils [19]
20. From Ground to Gate: A lifecycle assessment of petroleum processing activities in the
United Kingdom [20]
21. Life Cycle Assessment of Wood-Based Ethanol-Diesel Blends (E-Diesel) [21]
22. Life cycle assessment of switchgrass-derived ethanol as transport fuel [22]
23. LCAs of petrol and diesel a literature review [23]

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24. Life-Cycle Assessment of Pyrolysis Bio-Oil Production [24]
25. Cradle-to-Gate Environmental Assessment of Enzyme Products Produced Industrially in
Denmark by Novozymes A/S [25]
26. Comparative life cycle assessment of the Elemental T-shirt produced with biotechnology
and a Conventional T-shirt produced with conventional technology [26]
27. Life Cycle Analysis and Environmental Product Declarations: North American Market Analysis [27]
28. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Of Domestic Vs. Imported Vegetables Case studies on
broccoli, salad crops and green beans [28]
29. Life cycle assessment of solid waste management options: A Review [29]
30. LCA of Value-Added Novel Bio-products processing and Production [30]
31. LCA and Carbon Neutrality Assessment: Monetary Implication of Information Unavailability And
Uncertainty [31]
32. Sustainability Metrics: Life Cycle Assessment and Green Design in Polymers [32]
33. LCA Tool for Sustainability Evaluations in the Pharmaceutical Industry [33]
34. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Of Sugarcane Production And Processing In
Australia [34]
35. Life Cycle Assessment of Clothing Process [35]
36. Use of Life Cycle Assessment in Evaluating Solvent Recovery Alternatives In
Pharmaceutical Manufacture [36]
37. Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-food sector [37]
38. Life Cycle Assessment for Cultivation of Conventional and Organic Seed Cotton fibres [38]
39. Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) White Paper [39]
40. LCA Tool Adaptation to Pharmaceutical Processes [40]
41. Life Cycle Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions for an Ethanol Production Process Based
on Blue-Green Algae [41]
42. Life cycle greenhouse gas impacts of ethanol, biomethane and limonene production from
citrus waste [42]
43. Life-Cycle Analysis of Wood Products: Cradle-To-Gate LCI Of Residential Wood
Building Materials [43]
44. The use of LCA in the water industry and the case for an environmental performance
indicator [44]
45. Life Cycle Assessment Supports Cold-Wash Enzymes [45]
46. Methane and the greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas from shale formations [46]

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47. A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Building Insulation Products made of Stone
Wool, Paper Wool and Flax [47]
48. Life cycle assessment of fuel ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil [48]
49. Life cycle assessment in the steel industry [49]
50. Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater systems: Quantifying the relative contribution
of sewer systems water [50]
51. Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology [51]
52. Life Cycle Thinking and Assessment for waste management [52]
53. Minimization of the LCA impact of thermodynamic cycles using a combined Simulation-
optimization approach [53]
54. Life Cycle Assessment of the Production of Kernel Oil [54]
55. Life Cycle Assessment of Reusable and Single-use Plastic Bags in California [55]
56. Impact Of Plastic Packaging On Life Cycle Energy Consumption & Greenhouse Gas
Emission In The United States And Canada [56]
57. Life Cycle Analysis With examples from biofuel analysis [57]
58. Multi-Objective Design for the Consequential Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Ethanol
Production [58]
59. Life Cycle Assessment on the Conversion of CO2 to Formic Acid [59]
60. Water Use in Metal Production: A Life Cycle Perspective [60]
61. Life Cycle Analysis of Water Networks [61]
62. CORRIM: Life-Cycle Environmental Performance of Renewable Building Materials [62]

5. LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

Life cycle costing (LCC) is a process to determine the sum of all the costs associated with an
asset or part thereof, including acquisition, installation, operation, maintenance, and
refurbishment and disposal costs.
Early implementation of cost analysis models influences the design changes of the product and
provides explanations of the relationships between cost and design parameters. They contribute
to cost reduction by identifying high cost contributors. However, there are many features of a

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product that can be studied using a Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) model. The combination
of rising inflation, reduction in purchasing power, budget limitations, increased competition,
etc., has created an awareness and interest in the total cost of products, systems and structures.
Not only the acquisition costs associated with new systems, e.g. quality management systems
and environmental management systems, are rising, the costs of operating and maintaining
systems already in use are also increasing rapidly.
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is a data-driven tool that provides a detailed account of the
total costs of a project over its expected life. Recognizing its benefit, several agencies have
implemented LCCA programs and have successfully saved significant sums of money.

Many terms and definitions are used in the area of life cycle costing. Some of the frequently
used terms and definitions that are directly or indirectly related to life cycle costing include
Cost is the amount of money paid or payable for the acquirement of materials, property, or
services.
Procurement cost is the total of investment or acquisition costs (nonrecurring and recurring).
Ownership cost is the total of all costs other than the procurement cost during the life span of
an item.
Life cycle cost is the sum of all costs incurred during the life span of an item or system (i.e.,
the total of procurement and ownership costs).
Recurring cost is the cost that recurs periodically during the life span of a project or item.
Nonrecurring cost is the cost that is not repeated.
Reliability is the probability that an item or system will perform its function satisfactorily for
the desired period when used according to specified conditions.
Maintainability is the probability that a failed item or system will be restored to its satisfactory
working state within a stated total downtime when maintenance action is started per specified
conditions.
Downtime is the total time during which the item or system is not in a condition to perform
its specified mission or function.
Manufacturing cost is the sum of fixed and variable costs chargeable to the manufacture of a
specified item or system.
Maintenance is all scheduled and unscheduled actions necessary to keep an item or system in
a serviceable state or restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, servicing, modification,
repair, etc.

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 Repair cost is the cost of restoring an item, system, or facility to its original performance or
condition.

6. LCA Software
Life Cycle Assessment Software provides you with a professional tool to collect, analyze and
monitor the environmental performance of products and services. You can easily model and
analyze complex life cycles in a systematic and transparent way.
The list of software is given below:
SimaPro 7
GaBi 5
Umberto
Quantis Suite 2.0
EarthSmart
Sustainable Minds

Enviance System 6.4

7. LIST OF HANDBOOKS

1. Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment Operational Guide to the ISO Standards Volume 7 [10]
2. International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: General guide for Life
Cycle Assessment [11]
3. Life Cycle Costing Manual [12]
4. Life Cycle Cost Analysis Handbook [13]

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REFERENCES

1. Erwin T.H. Vinka,*, Karl R. Rabagob,David A. Glassnerb, Patrick R. Gruberb

Applications of life cycle assessment to Nature Works TM polylactide (PLA) production
Polymer Degradation and Stability 80 (2003) 403419

2. John Kruse Ph.D, Stewart Ramsey And Tom Jackson Life Cycle Analysis of Greenhouse
Gas Emissions Associated with Starch-Based Ethanol 2008

3. Joe Marriott, Lead Associate, Booz Allen Hamilton A Parameterized Life Cycle Analysis of Crude from CO-
Enhanced Oil Recovery National Energy Technology Laboratory 2013

Page 63
4. A. Pradhan, D. S. Shrestha, A. McAloon, W. Yee, M. Haas, J. A. Duffield Energy Life Cycle
Assessment Of Soybean Biodiesel Revisited American Society of Agricultural and
Biological Engineers ISSN 2151-0032 Vol. 54(3): 1031-1039 2011

5.S.Priscilla Rajakumari & S Kanmani Environmental Life Cycle Assessment Of Textile

Industries ,Tirpur A Case Study Journal Of Scientific & Industrial Research Vol 67.June
2008 461-467

6. Steve Barr, Todd Krieger Evaluating Literature Life Cycle Data: A Case Study for Electrical
Metallic Tubing DuPont Engineering Research and Technology October 2, 2007

7. Dr. Martin Baitz Mr. Johannes Kreiig Ms. Eloise Byrne Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of
principal competing materials Commissioned by the European Commission, July 2004

8. Roberta Salomone . Life cycle assessment applied to coffee production: investigating

environmental impacts to aid decision making for improvements at company level Food,
Agriculture & Environment Vol.1(2) : 295-300. 2003

9. Leslie Jacquemin, Pierre Yves Pontalier, Caroline Sablayrolles Life cycle assessment (LCA)
applied to the process industry: a review https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00741389
Submitted on 12 Oct 2012

10. Timothy J. Skone, P.E. Gate-to-Gate Life Cycle Analysis Model of Enhanced Oil Recovery National Energy
Technology Laboratory, 2013

11.Constantine Samaras, and Kyle Meisterling Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions from Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles: Implications for Policy Environ. Sci. Technol.,
2008, 42 (9), 3170-3176

12. Production of Bio-ethylene IEA-ETSAP and IRENA Technology Brief I13 January
2013 www.etsap.org www.irena.org

13. Mochizuki, J., Yanagida, J. F., Kumar, D., Takara, D., & Murthy, G. S Life cycle
assessment of ethanol production from tropical banagrass (Pennisetum purpureum) using

Page 64
 green and dry processing technologies in Hawaii American Institute of Physics Publishing
2014

14. Seth Lalonde, Anna Nicholson and Rita Schenck Life Cycle Assessment of Beer in Support of an Environmental
Product Declaration Earthsure September 2013

15. Dr. Chris Edwards Jonna Meyhoff Fry Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags:
a review of the bags available in 2006 Environment Agency 2006

16. JH Klverpris, JK Raman using life cycle assessment to document sustainability benefits of enzymes applied in
the leather industry
http://lcacopenhagen.setac.eu/embed/Copenhagen/programme_abstracts_book_31102012_v2.p
df

17. Rebecca Rowe, Dr. Jeanette Whitaker, Jennifer Chapman, David Howard and Professor Gail Taylor
Life Cycle Assessment In The Bioenergy Sector: Developing A Systematic Review UKERC/WP/FSE/2008/002
st
21 January 2008

18. P. FRANKL* A. MASINI** M. GAMBERAL Et and D. TOCCACELI ft Simplified Life-

Cycle Analysis Of PV System In Building: Present Situation And Future Trends Center for
the Management of Environmental Resources, INSEAD Fontainebleau, France June 1997

19. Srgio Morais a,b,*, Teresa M. Mata a, Antnio A. Martins a, Gilberto A. Pinto c, Carlos
A.V. Costa a Simulation and life cycle assessment of process design alternatives for
biodiesel
Production from waste vegetable oils Elsevier Ltd 2010.

20. Reyn OBorn From Ground to Gate: A lifecycle assessment of petroleum processing
activities in the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Process Engineering
Norwegian University of Science and Technology June 2012

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21. JOS CANGA RODRGUEZ Life Cycle Assessment of Wood-Based Ethanol-Diesel
Blends (E-Diesel) International MSC In Environmentally Sustainable Process Technology
February 2003

22. Yu Bai & Lin Luo & Ester van der Voet Life cycle assessment of switchgrass-derived
ethanol as transport fuel Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:468477 DOI 10.1007/s11367-
010-0177-2

23. Mattias Eriksson and Serina Ahlgren LCAs of petrol and diesel a literature review The
Swedish Knowledge Centre For Renewable Transportation Fuels Report 2013:058 ISSN
1654-9406 Uppsala 2013

24. Philip Steele Maureen E. Puettmann Venkata Kanthi Penmetsa Jerome E. Cooper Life-
Cycle Assessment of Pyrolysis Bio-Oil Production Forest Products Journal Vol. 62, No. 4

25. Per H. Nielsen1*, Karen M. Oxenbll1 and Henrik Wenzel2 Cradle-to-Gate

Environmental Assessment of Enzyme Products Produced Industrially in Denmark by
Novozymes A/S Int J LCA 12 (6) 432 438 (2007)

26.Anne Merete Nielsen Per Henning Nielsen Comparative life cycle assessment of the
Elemental T-shirt produced with biotechnology and a Conventional T-shirt produced with
conventional technology ERA / 1170057 / Final Report / 2009.11.13

27. Julie Hardy cSBA, LEED AP and Veronica Owens BA Life Cycle Analysis and Environmental Product Declarations:
North American Market Analysis
www.lhsbc.com | December 2013

28. Lloren Mil i Canals, Ivan Muoz, Almudena Hospido, Katharina Plassmann, Sarah
McLaren Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Of Domestic Vs. Imported Vegetables.
Case studies on broccoli, salad crops and green beans Centre for Environmental Strategy,
University of Surrey, Guildford (Surrey) GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/CES May 2008

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29. Pooja Yadav and S. R. Samadder Life cycle assessment of solid waste management options:
A Review Recent Research in Science and Technology 2014, 6(1): 113-116 ISSN: 2076-
5061 http://recent-science.com/

30. Emmanuel K. Yiridoe1*, Qiaojie Chen1, Rodney Fry2, Derek Lynch3, Gordon Price4 LCA of Value-
Added Novel Bio-products Processing and Production Impact Assessment the Next Generation 13 16 May
2013

31. Dr Mary Stewart1, Harriet Kater1, Dr David Mitchell1, and Rob Rouwette LCA And
Carbon Neutrality Assessment:Monetary Implication of Information Unavailability And
Uncertainty URL http://www.energetics.com.au

32. MICHAEL ANGELOD . TABONE , JAMES J . CREGG , , ERICJ . BECKMAN ,

, | ANDAMYE . LANDIS * Sustainability Metrics: Life Cycle Assessment and Green
Design in Polymers Environmental Science & Technology 2010.

33. Teresa M. Mata*a,d, Antonio A. Martinsb,d, Belmira Netoc,d, Maria L. Martinsd,

Romualdo L.R. Salcedoa, Carlos A.V. Costaa LCA Tool for Sustainability Evaluations
in the Pharmaceutical Industry Chemical Engineering Transaction VOL. 26, 2012

34. M.A. RENOUF1, 3, M.K. WEGENER2,3 Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Of
Sugarcane Production And Processing In Australia Proceedings of the Australian Society
of Sugar Cane Technologists, 29, 2007.

35. Altun Sule Life Cycle Assessment of Clothing Process Research Journal of Chemical
Sciences Vol. 2(2), 87-89, Feb. (2012)

36. William A. Carole, C. Stewart Slater, Mariano J. Savelski*, Timothy Moroz, Anthony
Furiato, Kyle Lynch Use of Life Cycle Assessment in Evaluating Solvent Recovery
Alternatives in Pharmaceutical Manufacture Chemistry and Industry 1997, Vol.1, pp.12
15

37. Niels Halberg (ed.) Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-food sector DIAS report Animal
Husbandry no. 61 October 2004

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38. Murugesh Babu. K* and Selvadass.M Life Cycle Assessment for Cultivation of Conventional and Organic Seed
Cotton fibres International Journal of Research in Environmental Science and Technology, 27 February
2013 http://www.urpjournals.com

39. Jennifer Schuppe (University of Texas), Holly Ho (ISMT) Lifecycle Assessment (LCA)
White Paper Technology Transfer #02014238A-TR International SEMATECH January
31, 2002 Tool Adaptation to Pharmaceutical Processes D 2.1 LCA Tool Adaptation To
Pharmaceutical Processes, January 2010

41. DEXINUO , ZUSHOUHU , DONG GUCHOI , VALEREM . THOMAS , * , ,

MA TTHEWJ . REALFF, ANDRONALDR . CANE , Life Cycle Energy and
Greenhouse Gas Emissions for an Ethanol Production Process Based on Blue-Green Algae
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 86708677

42. Mohammad Pourbafrani1, Jon McKechnie2, Heather L MacLean1,3 and Bradley A

Saville1 Life cycle greenhouse gas impacts of ethanol, biomethane and limonene
production from citrus waste Environmental Research Letters 8 (2013) 015007 (12pp)
doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/015007

43. Maureen E. Puettmann and James B. Wilson Life-Cycle Analysis Of Wood Products:
Cradle-To-Gate LCI Of Residential Wood Building Materials Wood and Fiber Science, 37
Corrim Special Issue, 2005, pp. 18 29c 2006 by the Society of Wood Science and
Technology

44. E Friedrich1, S Pillay and CA Buckley The use of LCA in the water industry and the case
for an environmental performance indicator ISSN 0378-4738 = Water SA Vol. 33 No. 4
July 2007 http://www.wrc.org.za

45. P. H. Nielsen: Life Cycle Assessment Supports Cold-Wash Enzymes International Journal
For Applied Science, SFW-Journal | 131 | 10-2005

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46. Robert W. Howarth Renee Santoro Anthony Ingraffea Methane and the greenhouse-gas
footprint of natural gas from shale formations Climatic Change DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-
0061-5

47. Anders C. Schmidt1*, Allan A. Jensen1, Anders U. Clausen2, Ole Kamstrup2 and Dennis
Postlethwaite3 A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Building Insulation Products made
of Stone Wool, Paper Wool and Flax Int J LCA 9 (1) 53 66 (2004) DOI
http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2003.12.144.

48. Aldo Roberto Ometto &Michael Zwicky Hauschild & Woodrow Nelson Lopes Roma Life
cycle assessment of fuel ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009)
14:236247 DOI 10.1007/s11367-009-0065-9

49. Life cycle assessment in the steel industry A position paper issued by the World Steel
Association (world steel) January 2010

50. Eva Risch a,*, Oriol Gutierrez b, Philippe Roux a, Catherine Boutin c, Llus Corominas b
Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater systems: Quantifying the relative contribution
of sewer systems water r e s e arch 7 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 3 5e4 8

51. Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles United
States Environmental Protection Agency April 24, 2013 EPA 744-R-12-001

52.Life Cycle Thinking and Assessment for waste management Source:

http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/photo/photo_thematic_en.cfm

53. Robert Brunet a, Daniel Corts a, Gonzalo Guilln-Goslbez a,*, Laureano Jimnez a,
Dieter Boer b Minimization of the LCA impact of thermodynamic cycles using a combined
Simulation-optimization approach R. Brunet et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 48
(2012) 367e377

54. Vijaya Subramaniam,Choo Yuen May ,Halimath Muhammad Life Cycle Assessment Of the
Production of Kernel Oil Journal Of Oil Palm Research Vol.22 December 2010 p.904-912

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55. Joseph Greene, Ph.D. Life Cycle Assessment of Reusable and Single-use Plastic Bags in California California
State University, Chico Institute for Sustainable Development January 2011

56. Franklin Associates Impact Of Plastic Packaging On Life Cycle Energy Consumption &
Greenhouse Gas Emission In The United States And Canada
Clients\ACC\KC14252701.08.14 3860.00.001.005Ii January 2014

57. Life Cycle Analysis With examples from biofuel analysis http://ocw.mit.edu/terms. November 2010

58. Arinola Abiolaa, Eric S. Fragaa & Paola Lettieria Multi-Objective Design for the
Consequential Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Ethanol Production Environmental Science
Technology, 40(6):1744-1750, February 2006

59. Alvaro Robledo-Diez Master in Industrial Ecology Supervisor: Edgar Life Cycle
Assessment on the Conversion of CO2 to Formic Acid Department of Energy and Process
Engineering Norwegian University of Science and Technology, June 2012

60. T E Norgate and R R Lovel Water Use in Metal Production: A Life Cycle Perspective CSIRO Minerals DMR-
2505 September 2004

61. Michael Ambrose, Prof. Stewart Burn, Dr Dhammika DeSilva, Mike Rahilly Life Cycle Analysis of Water
Networks

62. Bruce Lippke, Jim Wilson, John Perez-Garcia, Jim Bowyer, and Jamie Meil CORRIM:
Life-Cycle Environmental Performance of Renewable Building Materials Journal Forest
Products June 2004,Vol 54, No.6

63. A. A. Burgess, D. J. Brennan Application of life cycle assessment to chemical processes

Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2589-2604

64. Aida Sefic Williams- Life Cycle Analysis :A Step by Step Approach Illinois
http://www.istc.illinois.edu/info/library_docs/TR/TR040.pdf December 2009

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65. Curran, M.A. Life Cycle Assessment: An International Experience. Environmental
Progress, 19(2), 65-71.2000

66. The Method of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) http://www.oc-praktikum.de

67. B Resource Guide: Conducting a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 2008

68.G.M. Evans, K.P. Galvin, E. Doroodchi Introducing quantitative life cycle analysis into
the chemical engineering curriculum Education for chemical engineers 3 ( 2008 ) e57e65

69. B.S. Dhillon Life Cycle Costing for Engineers International Standard Book Number: 978-
1-4398-1688-2 (Hardback) 2010

70. Brian Pallasch, Emily Feenstra, Brittney Kohler Life Cycle Cost Analysis American Society of Civil Engineers Eno

Center for Transportation & Maximizing the Value of Investment Using Life Cycle Cost Analysis.

71. Senthil Kumaran Dhurairaj ,S.K. Ong,A.Y.C. Nee And R.B.H. Tan Evaluation of Life
Cycle Cost Analysis Methodologies Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 9, No. 1
(2002) 1066-7938

72. Dr. Arnold Tukker , TNO Institute of Strategy, Technology and Policy Handbook on Life
Cycle Assessment Operational Guide to the ISO Standards Volume 7, Kluwer Academic
Publisher New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow

73. International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: General guide for Life
Cycle Assessment - Provisions and action steps First edition March 2010. EUR 24378 EN.
Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010

74. Sielinde K. Fuller, Stephen R. Petersen LIFE Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy
Management Program NIST Handbook 135 1995 Edition 210 Pages

75. Tim Mearig, AIA Nathan Coffee Michael Morgan, PMP Life Cycle Cost Analysis
Handbook Department of Education & Early Development Education Support Services /
Facilities 1st Edition 1999

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76. Ester van der Voet and Gjalt Huppes Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing of Bioethanol from
Sugarcane in Brazil Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009; 13(6-7): 1613-1619.

77. R. Gary Hicks & Jon A. Epps Life Cycle Cost Analysis of Asphalt-Ruber Paving Materials

Page 72
Section IV

Page 73
 1.0 Green Chemistry

1.1 Introduction
Designing of chemical products and processes through elimination or reduced, use and
generation of hazardous substances that have negative impact on human health and
environment is called Green Chemistry .Rather than cleaning up pollution it involves
prevention of pollution at molecular level .It can be applied to all areas of chemistry.
The term green chemistry was first used in 1991 by P.T. Anastas in a special program launched
by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to implement sustainable development in
chemistry and chemical technology by industry, academia and government.

1.2 Green Chemistry's 12 Principles

These principles demonstrate the breadth of the concept of green chemistry:
1. Prevent waste: Design chemical syntheses to prevent waste. Leave no waste to treat or clean
up.
2. Maximize atom economy: Design syntheses so that the final product contains the maximum
proportion of the starting materials. Waste few or no atoms.
3. Design less hazardous chemical syntheses: Design syntheses to use and generate substances
with little or no toxicity to either humans or the environment.
4. Design safer chemicals and products: Design chemical products that are fully effective yet
have little or no toxicity.
5. Use safer solvents and reaction conditions: Avoid using solvents, separation agents, or other
auxiliary chemicals. If you must use these chemicals, use safer ones.
6. Increase energy efficiency: Run chemical reactions at room temperature and pressure
whenever possible.
7. Use renewable feedstocks: Use starting materials (also known as feedstocks) that are
renewable rather than depletable. The source of renewable feedstocks is often agricultural
products or the wastes of other processes; the source of depletable feedstocks is often fossil
fuels (petroleum, natural gas, or coal) or mining operations.
8. Avoid chemical derivatives: Avoid using blocking or protecting groups or any temporary
modifications if possible. Derivatives use additional reagents and generate waste.
9. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents: Minimize waste by using catalytic reactions.
Catalysts are effective in small amounts and can carry out a single reaction many times. They
are preferable to stoichiometric reagents, which are used in excess and carry out a reaction only

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once.
10. Design chemicals and products to degrade after use: Design chemical products to break
down to innocuous substances after use so that they do not accumulate in the environment.
11. Analyze in real time to prevent pollution: Include in-process, real-time monitoring and
control during syntheses to minimize or eliminate the formation of byproducts.
12. Minimize the potential for accidents: Design chemicals and their physical forms (solid,
liquid, or gas) to minimize the potential for chemical accidents including explosions, fires, and
releases to the environment .[1]
3. Applications:
1) Computer Chips : Huge amounts of chemicals ,water and energy are required for the
production of one chip. According to a study conducted in 2003, the chemicals and
fossil fuels required to make a computer chip was a 630:1 ratio! That means the source
material is 630 times the weight of one chip .
i) Scientists at the Los Alamos National Laboratory have used supercritical carbon
dioxide in one of the steps for chip preparation, which significantly reduced the
quantities of chemicals, energy, and water needed to produce chips.
ii) Richard Wool, director of the Affordable Composites from Renewable Sources
(ACRES) program at the University of Delaware, used chicken feathers to make
computer chips! The protein, keratin, in the feathers was used to make a fiber form that
is both light and tough enough to withstand mechanical and thermal stresses. The result
is feather-based printed circuit board which actually works at twice the speed of
traditional circuit boards. Although more research is going on for commercial purposes.
2) Medicine :
i) Merck and Codexis developed a green synthesis of sitagliptin, the active ingredient in
JanuviaTM, which is used for treatment of type 2 diabetes. This collaboration lead to an
enzymatic process that reduces waste, improves yield and safety, and eliminates the
need for a metal catalyst.
ii) The drug, Simvastatin, is a leading prescription for treating high cholesterol. Its
preparation used large amounts of hazardous reagents and produced a large amount of
toxic waste in the process. Professor Yi Tang, of the University of California, created
a synthesis using an engineered enzyme and a low-cost feedstock. Codexis, a
biocatalysis company, optimized both the enzyme and the chemical process. The result
greatly reduces hazard and waste, is cost-effective, and meets the needs of customers.

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3) Biodegradable Plastics : Several companies are developing plastics that are made
from renewable, biodegradable sources.
i) NatureWorks of Minnetonka, Minnesota, makes food containers from a polymer called
polylactic acid branded as Ingeo. It is just as strong as the rigid petroleum-based plastic
and is used for containers such as water bottles and yogurt pots.
ii) BASF developed a compostable polyester film that called "Ecoflex." They are
making and marketing fully biodegradable bags, "Ecovio,"made of this film .This
bags completely degrade into water, CO2, and biomass in industrial composting
systems. The bags are tear-resistant, puncture-resistant, waterproof, printable and
elastic.
4) Paint : Traditional oil-based paints use large amounts of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). These volatile compounds evaporate from the paint as it dries and many have
one or more environmental impacts.

i) Procter & Gamble and Cook Composites and Polymers created a mixture of soya oil
and sugar that replaces fossil-fuel-derived paint resins and solvents, cutting hazardous
volatiles by 50 percent. Chempol MPS paint formulations use these biobased Sefose
oils to replace petroleum-based solvents and create paint that is safer to use and
produces less toxic waste.
ii) Sherwin-Williams developed water-based acrylic alkyd paints with low VOCs that can
be made from recycled soda bottle plastic (PET), acrylics, and soybean oil. These paints
combine the performance benefits of alkyds and low VOC content of acrylics.[2]

5) Miscellaneous :
i) Disinfection of water by chlorination. Chlorine oxidizes the pathogens there by killing
them, but at the same time forms harmful chlorinated compounds .A remedy is to use
another oxidant, such as O3 or supercritical water oxidation.
ii) Production of allyl alcohol CH2=CHCH2OH : Alkaline hydrolysis of allyl chloride,
which generates the product and hydrochloric acid as a by-product , to avoid chlorine:
Two-step using propylene (CH2=CHCH3), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and oxygen (O2).
The acetic acid produced in 2nd step can be recovered and used again for the 1st reaction,
leaving no unwanted by-product.[3]
iii) Supercritical CO2 fluid is now used for chemical separation because of its low toxicity
and non-inflammability. Its stability and the relatively low temperature of the process

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 allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage and denaturation.
iv) Supercritical water : Organic substances are insoluble in water. Many compounds are
soluble in water when it becomes supercritical at 374 C and 218 Atm . Hence, this clean
and cheap solvent is used as a green solvent for many synthetic reactions.
v) The use of phosgene and methylene chloride in the synthesis of polycarbonates has
been replaced by diphenylcarbonate .[4]
vi) Waste water from industries have high values of COD.COD can be reduced by using
H2O2, subcritical water oxidation, thermal-liquid phase oxidation, isolated bacteria and
using adsorbents like activated carbon, fly ash and neem leaves.
vii) Biocatalysis is the use of enzymes or whole cells for synthetic transformations.
Enzymes are catalytic proteins that catalyze reactions in the living organisms.
Biocatalysts are more efficient, can be easily modified for their selectivity, stability and
activity than chemical catalysts.
viii) Bio-pesticides, are ecofriendly alternative to the traditional pesticides. Pathogenic
microorganisms targets a specific pest, thereby giving an ecologically and effective
solution. The commonly used bio-pesticides are biofungicides (Trichoderma),
bioherbicides (Phytopthora) and bioinsecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis).[5]
ix) Using TiO2 Titanium dioxide for photocatalyitic reactions under visible light will
reduce the energy use less amount of waste products are produced and the yields are
much higher than conventional methods.

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 2.0 Green Engineering
2.1 Introduction:
Commercialization and designing of industrial processes and products which are economically
reliable and reduce the risk to human health and the environment is known as Green
Engineering.
A chemical engineer needs the following things:
1) Efficiency of the process: It should be efficient in all aspects, right from the raw
materials.
2) Safety of the process: Process should be carries out safely throughout it production.
3) Economically Feasible: Non-profitable, would never work out.
Green engineering knowledge with the help of its 12 Principle will lead us to achieve the above
target on a large scale without harming our mother nature.
2.2 Principles:
The American Chemical Society has expanded these to twelve principles:

1. Inherent Rather Than Circumstantial Designing processes that use inherently

nonhazardous materials and energy, inputs and outputs should be main concern. If we use
hazardous compounds at the input no matter what those compounds do get carried in the final
product also. If not they are produced as waste which is again a matter of concern.

2. Prevention Instead of Treatment - Prevention of waste is better than to treat or clean up after
it is formed. Take an instance , burning of fossil fuels gives us energy which is useful product.
But along with ashes and CO2 are produced as waste which are responsible for global warming
and pollution. Hence, instead of using fossil fuels we can use fusion energy which donot
produce any waste.

3. Design for Separation - Separation and purification operations should be designed to

minimize energy consumption and materials use. Using intrinsic physical/chemical properties,
such as solubility and volatility rather than induced conditions, we can decrease waste and
reduce processing times for separations.

4. Maximize Efficiency - Products, processes, and systems should be designed to maximize

mass, energy, space, and time efficiency. Usually processes end up using more materials,

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energy, time and space than required which means resources are being wasted throughout the
life cycle. There is a need for real-time monitoring to ensure that the system continues to
operate at the intended design conditions for an optimized systems.

5. Output-Pulled Versus Input-Pushed - Products, processes, and systems should be "output

pulled" rather than "input pushed" through the use of energy and materials. More energy or
material (input-pushed) can increase output, but the same output can be achieved by new
designing where chemical processes are pulled (e.g. removing products from reaction
system) without additional energy or material[6]

6. Conserve Complexity - Embedded entropy and complexity must be viewed as an investment

when making design choices on recycle, reuse, or beneficial disposition. Products with high
complexity should correspond to reuse, products with minimal complexity should correspond
for value-conserving recycling or beneficial disposition.

7. Durability Rather Than Immortality - Targeted durability, not immortality, should be a

design goal. Products that last well beyond their useful commercial life results in
environmental problems, ranging from solid waste disposal to persistence and
bioaccumulation. Therefore it is necessary to design substances with a targeted lifetime to
avoid immortality of undesirable materials in the environment.

8. Meet Need, Minimize Excess - Design for unnecessary capacity or capability (e.g., "one size
fits all") solutions should be considered a design flaw. New materials, natural resources, energy
and technology are wasted in many industrialised countries for overdesign and variable
capabilities of various products. Many products after their commercial life cycle cause
increasing environmental problems as waste due to their complexity, extreme persistence and
difficulty in recycling.[6]

9. Minimize Material Diversity - Material diversity in multicomponent products should be

minimized to promote disassembly and value retention. Many consumer products today (cars,
electric and electronic equipments, food packaging, etc) offer multiple components product.
Even plastic materials contain a variety of other chemicals, such as plasticizers, dyes,
stabilizers, flame retardants. These added chemicals and in general material diversity
increases the properties and usefulness of products. But when these products come to an end

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of their life cycle and use they present a series of problems with disassembly, reuse and
recyclability.

10. Integrate Material and Energy Flows - Design of products, processes, and systems must
include integration and interconnectivity with available energy and materials flows. Most
materials and energy flows within a unit operation. At the process scale, the heat generated by
exothermic reactions can be used for other reactions with high activation energies. Byproducts
formed during chemical reactions or through purification steps can become feedstocks for
many other reactions. Electricity and steam can be produced simultaneously by cogeneration
energy system to increase its efficiency.

11. Design for Commercial "Afterlife" - Products, processes, and systems should be designed
for performance in a commercial "afterlife." By incorporating commercial afterlife into the
initial design strategy, rather than as an afterthought at end of life, the value added to molecules,
processes, products, and systems could be recovered and reused at their highest value level as
functional components.[7]
12. Renewable Rather Than Depleting - Material and energy inputs should be renewable rather
than depleting. Renewable natural resources, that have the ability to be reused and is produced
through natural processes, can be used in sustainable cycles without causing damaging effects.
Renewability of natural resources and appropriate use is the key for any sustainable
development and conserving the environment from harmful effects. [8]
To move towards a Greener engineering concepts an engineer especially chemical, process
engineer must be well aware of Life Cycle Analysis which is an important tool to design a
product from sustainable point of view. In order to help in the designing variable products,
several computerised-aided solutions are currently available.
The different software solutions designed to help engineers in getting idea about sustainable
processes Aspen Suite is one of the most popular, which covers a wide range of applications.
For instance, Aspen HYSYS and Aspen PlusTM for process simulation and optimization,
Aspen DMCplusTM for advanced process control, Aspen PIMSTM for advanced planning &
scheduling, and Aspen InfoPlus.21TM for plant information management are useful utilities for
design within Chemical Engineering. AspenONE includes a full complement of specific
software for Oil & Gas, for Petroleum, for Chemicals, for Specially Chemicals, for Consumer
Products, for Pharma and for Engineering & Construction.[9]

Page 80
2.3 Examples:
1) Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) design combines roofing protection and power
generation in one product.[10]
2) Approximately 90% of Xerox equipment can be remanufactured.
3) Waste water can be treated without involvement of effluent or any leftover by Zero
liquid discharge method. It is a process that is beneficial to industrial and municipal
organizations as well as the environment. It saves money also.
4) The heat generated by exothermic reactions can be used to drive other reactions with
high activation energies.
5) Products as diverse as cars, food packaging, computers, and paint all have multiple
components. This diversity becomes an issue when considering end of- useful-life
decisions, which determines the ease of disassembly for reuse and recycle. Options for
final disposition are increased through up-front designs that minimize material diversity
yet accomplish the needed functions.[8]
6) Using plastics and fibres made up biological compound polylactic acid instead of
petroleum-based polyacrylic acid, which is not biodegradable.

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 3.0 Energy
3.1 Introduction
Energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into
different forms, but cannot be created nor destroyed. It is the ability of a system to perform
work.
3.2 Types of Energy:-
1) Primary Energy:- Primary energy is the energy obtained directly from the
environment. Three distinctive groups of primary energy are:
Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels): crude oil, coal, natural gas, crude oil, nuclear fuel.
Renewable energy: hydropower, biomass, fusion energy, solar energy, wind, geothermal, and
tidal energy.
Waste.
2) Secondary Energy:- Secondary energy is obtained by the transformation of primary
energy in the form of electrical energy or fuel, such as gasoline, fuel oil, methanol,
ethanol, and hydrogen. The final energies produced are electrical, thermal, mechanical,
and chemical energy. These final energies set the energy production and its
consumption sectors.[11]

3.3 Forms of Energy:-

There are different forms of energy. But all forms can be put together in two categories i.e.,
kinetic energy and potential energy.
1) Kinetic Energy:-
The energy possessed by an object due to its motion is known as kinetic energy. Different types
of kinetic energy are :
i) Electrical Energy:- Energy possessed by movement of electrical charges. Ex-Lightning,
etc.
ii) Radiant Energy:- All electromagnetic energy travelling in transverse waves form are
radiant energy. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio
waves. Ex-Light, Solar energy, etc.
iii) Thermal Energy or Heat:- The internal energy possessed in substances due to internal
vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules. Ex- Geothermal energy.
iv) Motion Energy:- It is the energy obtained by the movement of objects from one place
to another. Ex-Wind energy.

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v) Sound Energy:- It is the movement of energy through substances travelling in
longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. It is a vibrational motion. Ex- Sound.
2) Potential Energy:- It is the energy stored by the virtue position of an object. Different
types of potential energy are:-
i) Chemical Energy:- It is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is this
energy that is responsible for holding up particles together. Ex- Petroleum, Biomass,
propane, natural gas.
ii) Stored Mechanical Energy:- Energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Ex-
Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands.
iii) Nuclear Energy:- Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It is the energy that holds
the nucleus together. This energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split
apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission.
By the process called fusion, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms release energy, in the sun.
iv) Gravitational Energy:- The energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a
table contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as still water in a
reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.[12]
3.4 Green Energy:-
Renewable energy also known as Green energy is concept of developing and commercializing
sustainable energy, which comes from nature and is replenished without causing any harm to
nature.
Conceptually, one can define three generations of renewables technologies, reaching back
more than 100 years .
Industrial revolution at the end of 19th century led to First-generation technologies which
include hydropower, biomass combustion and geothermal power and heat. Some of these
technologies are widespread in use.
Second-generation technologies include solar heating and cooling, wind power, modern forms
of bioenergy and solar photovoltaics. These are now entering markets as a result of research,
development and demonstration (RD&D) investments since the 1980s. Many of the
technologies reflect significant advancements in materials.
Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass
gasification, biorefinery technologies, concentrating solar thermal power, hot dry rock
geothermal energy and ocean energy. Advances in nanotechnology may also play a major
role.[13]
In 2010, renewable power constituted about a third of the newly built power generation

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capacities.[14]
According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators
may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of
greenhouse gases that harm the environment.[15]
Hydroelectricity:- Hydroelectricity is the electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., using the
gravitational force of falling or flowing water. The Three Gorges Dam in Hubei, China, has
the world's largest instantaneous generating capacity (22,500 MW), placing the Itaipu Dam in
Brazil/Paraguay in second place (14,000 MW).
Wind Energy:- Wind energy is extracted from air flow using wind turbines or sails which can
produce mechanical or electrical power. Windmills are used for their mechanical power,
windpumps for water pumping, and sails to propel ships. Gansu Wind Farm, which uses several
thousands of turbines making it the largest wind farm in the world.
Photovoltaic energy:- Photovoltaics (PV) uses solar cells arranged into solar panels which
convert sunlight into electricity. It's a fast-growing technology gaining worldwide attention.
PV system ranges from small, residential and commercial rooftops or building integrated
installations, to a large scale photovoltaic power station. Many countries have now installed
PV power stations. To name some are Agua Caliente Solar Project (USA, 247 MW), Charanka
Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW), Perovo Solar Park
(Ukraine, 100 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Brandenburg-Briest
Solarpark (Germany, 91 MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany, 84.7 MW), Montalto di
Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW), and the Eggebek Solar Park (Germany,
83.6 MW).
Biofuels:- Fuels produced through contemporary biological processes, such as agriculture and
anaerobic digestion, are known as biofuels. Biofuels can be obtained directly from plants, or
indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes.
Biofuels are broadly classified into 3 generations depending upon the source with which fuel
is obtained:
First Generation Biofuels:-
This fuels are produced directly from the food crops. Sugar cane, corn, wheat, and soybean
were the most commonly used first generation biofuel feedstock. However, they resulted in
problems including threatening the food chain, increasing carbon emissions when planted other
than agricultural settings, and intense growth requirements. This ultimately paved a way for
second and third generations biofuels.[16]
Second Generation Biofuels:-

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This fuels are produced from non-food crops.Grass, seeds of Cammelina, Palm, rapeseed,
Jatropha, waste vegetable oil included in second generation biofuels feedstocks. This also led
to many problems such as damage to engine due waste vegetable oil, time required to harvest
grass, etc.
Third Generation Biofuels:-
This fuels are derived from algae. It is capable of producing outstanding yields. Being a simple
eukaryotic organism it can be cultivated in open ponds, closed loop systems, and
photobioreactors. Algae grows in waste water also.
Algae, even when grown in waste water, requires a large amounts of water, phosphorus and
nitrogen to grow. So much that in fact the production of fertilizer to meet the needs of algae
which is used to produce biofuel will produce more greenhouse gas emissions than were about
to reduce by using algae biofuel to begin with, which will ultimately lead to high cost fuel than
from any other source. Another drawback of algae is that biofuel produced from them tends to
be less stable than biodiesel produced from other sources, because the oil found in algae are
highly unsaturated. [16]
Concept of Fourth Generation Biofuels:-
This Bio-fuels are not only aimed to produce sustainable energy but also a way for capturing
and storing CO2. The feedstocks are the Biomass materials, which have absorbed CO2 while
growing. This process involves capturing the carbon dioxide produced in all stages by using
processes such as oxy-fuel combustion. This system not only captures and stores CO2 from the
atmosphere but can also be reduced by replacing fossil fuels.[16]

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 4.0 Biorefineries
A biorefinery is a facility which integrates conversion of biomass processes and equipment
to produce fuels, products and chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery is a concept similar
to today's petroleum refinery, which produces multiple fuels and products from
petroleum.[17] 4.1 Principle:-
Biomasses have complex compositions. Primarily separating them into main groups is
appropriate. Subsequent treatment and processing of these substances will lead to a range of
products. The principle of petroleum refineries is to generate easy to handle, well defined,
chemically pure, economically beneficial products which must be transferred to biorefineries.
Biomass contains the synthesis performance of the nature and has different C:H:O:N ratio as
compared to petroleum. Biotechnological conversions along with chemical conversions, will
become a key player in the future. Thus biomasses have already been modified within the
process of genesis in such a way that it is adapted to the purpose of subsequent processing, and
products have also been made. These products are termed as precursors. Biorefinery is a
combination of technologies to convert biological raw materials into the industrial
intermediates and commercial final products.[18] The basic processes involved are upstream,
downstream processing, transformations, separations, thermo-chemical and biochemical
conversion, extraction. [19]
4.2 Biorefinery Systems:-
Currently, four complex biorefinery systems are in focus for research and development:
1. The Lignocellulosic Feedstock (LCF) Biorefinery
2. The Whole-Crop Biorefinery
3. The Green Biorefinery
4. The Two-Platform Concept
1.The Lignocellulosic Feedstock (LCF) Biorefinery:-
On large-scale Lignocellulose Feedstock (LCF)-Biorefinery will be on highest success. As the
raw materials involved is optimal (grass, reed, straw, reed, paper-waster, wood, etc.), and
products will hold a good position, in the future biobased product markets. Lignocellulose
materials consist of three primary chemical fractions or precursors:
a) Hemicellulose/polyoses, predominantly pentoses of sugar-polymer;
b) Cellulose, a glucose-polymer; and
c) Lignin, a polymer of phenols.
The general equations involved in conversion of LCF-Biorefineries are:

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 Lignocellulose + H2O Lignin + cellulose + hemicellulose
Hemicellulose + H2O Xylose
Xylose (C5H10O5) + acid catalyst Furfural (C5H4O2) + 3H2O
Cellulose + H2O Glucose (C6H12O6)
For the production of Nylon 6,6 and Nylon 6 furfural is the starting material. Based on recent
technologies a plant was conceived for the production of the main products furfural and ethanol
from LC-feedstock for the area West Central Missouri (U.S.A.). Ethanol can be used as a fuel
additive. By substantial microbial conversion of glucose, products such as hydrogen, methan,
propanol, aceton, butanol, butandiol, succinic acid, itaconic acid can be obtained.[20]
2. The Whole Crop Biorefinery:-
Raw materials used are cereals, such as wheat, rye, maize as well as triticale. Corn and straw,
are obtained equally by mechanical separation which is the first step. The straw is a LC-
Feedstock and may further be processed in a LCF-Biorefinery. Straw is also a starting material
for production of syngas via pyrolysis technologies. Syngas is the basic material for the
synthesis of fuels and methanol. The corn can be either converted into starch or directly used
as meal after grinding. Further processing may be carried out leading to four directions
a) Breaking up,
b) Chemical modification,
c) Plasticization or
d) Biotechnological conversion via glucose.
The meal is be treated and finished by extrusion into binder, fillers and adhesives. Starch can
be finished via plasticization, chemical modification and biotechnological conversion resulting
in end product poly-3-hydroxybutyricacid.[20]
3. The Green Biorefinery:-
A Green Biorefinery is a concept of utilization green (grassland) biomass as raw material
for the production of biobased products like proteins, fibres, lactic acids, and energy
(via biogas).[21] Beside cellulose and starch, the press contains valuable dyes and pigments,
crude drugs and other organics. The green juice contains proteins, free amino acids, organic
acids, enzymes, dyes, other organic substances, and minerals. By applying proper
biotechnological concepts green juice can be treated to obtain syngas and hydrocarbons.[20]
4. Two-platform concept:-
The two-platform concept means
(1) Biomass on an average consists of 75 % of carbohydrates which can be standardized by an
intermediate sugar platform for further conversions and

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(2) Biomass is converted thermo-chemically to syngas and other products.
The sugar platform is based on biochemical conversions and focuses on the fermentation of
sugars which are extracted from biomass feedstocks. The syngas platform is based on
thermochemical conversions and focuses on the gasification of biomass feedstocks and its by-
products through conversion processes. Other methods are hydrothermolysis, pyrolysis,
burning and thermolysis.[20]

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 5.0 References

1) http://www2.epa.gov/green-chemistry
2) http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/what-is-green-
chemistry/examples.html
3) Dr. Zeinab Shaaban Abu-Elnaga,Faculty of Science,Mansoura University , Egypt ppt
4) Concept of Green Chemistry,Redesigning Organic Synthesis,Bharati V Badami
5) Knowledge Paper on safe and judicious use of agrochemicals and applications of green
chemistry.
6) Green Engineering: Fundamental Principles and Applications.pdf
7) Through the 12 Principles GREEN Engineering- Paul T . Anastas(University of
Nottingham ,UK),Julie B . Zimmerman(University of Michigan)
8) http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/what-is-green-
chemistry/principles/12-principles-of-green-engineering.html
9) New trends for design towards sustainability in chemical engineering: Green
engineering J. Garca-Serna , L. Perez-Barrigon, M.J. Cocero High Pressure
Processes Group, Green Engineering Group, Departamento de Ingeniera Qumica y
Tecnologa del Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valladolid,
Valladolid, Spain Received 26 April 2006; received in revised form 4 September 2006;
accepted 23 February 2007.
10) Applications of Green Chemistry and Engineering for a Sustainable World-Dow Water
and Process Solutions
11) Chapter 2 energy and energy types.pdf
12) Energy kids page-Scientific Forms of Energy, Materials developed by the National
Energy Education Development Project (NEED).pdf
13) International Energy Agency, RENEWABLES IN GLOBAL ENERGY SUPPLY,
An IEA Fact Sheet
14) UNEP, Bloomberg, Frankfurt School, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment
2011Figure 24.
15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy#Commercialization
16) http://biofuel.org.uk/third-generation-biofuels.html
17) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorefinery
18) Background and Outline Principles and Fundamentals - Biorefineries Industrial

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 Processes and Products. Status Quo and Future Directions. Vol. 1 Edited by Birgit Kamm,
Patrick R. Gruber, Michael Kamm Copyright 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-31027-4
19) Biorefinery principles and cascading use of biomass - Capacity Building Programme small
scale biorefineries 24-25 June 2013 Putrajaya
20) Biorefinery Syastems - B. KAMM and M. KAMM, Biorefinery Systems, Chem.
Biochem. Eng. Q. 18 (1) 16 (2004)
21) The Green Biorefinery Austria Development of an Integrated System for Green Biomass
Utilization.pdf

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