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Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Reactor is considered as the most important equipment in chemical plant and also
called as heart of the design project because it is the place where reactants are
convert into products. The selection and designing the reactor are important to
provide optimum economy of the chemical industry and at the same time produce
high conversion. In Acetone production plant from Isopropanol, the reactor selected
was plug flow reactor (PFR). This is because the process is continues and it is
required heat supply due to the reaction is exothermic. PFR is the best selection when
it is for continues process and have tubes inside to supply heat.
To have a complete design of reactor, a few steps are needed to follow. The step
provided below are acting as guide to the designer to do the correct acting.
3-1
Figure 3.1: Flowchart for designing a reactor
The PFR is selected based on its function that fulfil the requirement in acetone
production. Before the reactor is proceed to design process, some assumption need
to be noted. The assumption are:
Continues operation
Steady state condition
Irreversible reaction
Adiabatic operation (no heat loss throughout the system, Q=0)
No work shaft applied in the reactor (W=0)
Assume an endothermic reaction
Assume as isothermal reactor
Assume as isobaric (no P)
The reaction is homogeneous (gas)
3-2
Table 3.1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet
PFR
Stream 4
Stream 5
Temperature = 300oC
Temperature = 350oC
Pressure = 1 bar
Pressure = 1 bar
Main reaction
CH3CHOHCH3 CH3COCH3 + H2
A B + C
3-3
Operating Condition:
= 3.72835 kmol/s
1. PFR Equation
dx
FA = -rA
dV
dx
V= FA
-rA
2. Rate Law
The chemical reaction in this reactor is:
CH3CHOHCH3 CH3COCH3 + H2
A B + C
From the reaction above, it is first order reaction and the rate law generate as below:
-rA = kCA
Where;
-rA = rate of disappearance of Isopropanol (s-1)
k = rate constant for isopropanol at 350oC (dm3/mol.s)
CA = final concentration of isopropanol (mol/dm3)
3-4
3. Reaction Rate Constant, k
k = Ae-E/RT
where;
E = 72380 J/mol
R = 8.314 J/mol.K
T = 623 K (350oC)
J
3.51 x 105 -72380
mol
k(623K)= x exp ( )
s 8.314 J.mol-1 .K-1 x 623K
4. Stoichiometry
CAO (1-X)
CA =
(1+ X)
1-X
-rA = kCAO [ ]
(1+ X)
5. Combine Item 1 and 3
FA (1+ X)
V= dX
kCAO (1-X)
6. Parameter Evaluation
FAO
yAO =
FTO
223.701
=
308.3263
=0.7255
3-5
=1+1-1
=1
yAO PO
CAO =
RTO
0.7255 1 1.01325
=
0.08314 623
= 0.01419 mol/dm3
= 14.19 mol/m3
FA 1
V= [(1+ ) ln - x]
kCAO 1-x
(3.72835 x 1000) 1
= (1+0.7255) ln -(0.7255 0.99)
(0.29956 )(14.19) 1-0.99
= 6335.86 m3
8. Catalyst
Catalyst are substance that is integrated in the process to increase the rate of reaction
or in other words to speed up the process by taking part in intermediate stage of the
reaction and is liberated near the end of the reaction without changing the form of the
catalyst substance. Over a period of time, the catalyst will experience deactivation
and will no longer be efficient. The catalyst used in the fixed bed reactor Raney-Nickel
catalyst. The properties of the catalyst is shown Table 3.3 below.
3-6
Table 3.3: Raney-Nickel catalyst information
catalyst information
Surface area, SA 53m2/g
Diameter particle, dp 3mm
Pore diameter, d 55m
Particle density 3.46 g/mL
Voidage, 0.65
= 6335.86 m3 x (1-0.65)
= 2217.551m3
9. Mass of catalyst
Mass of catalyst is determined by using the density of catalyst times with volume of
catalyst;
= 7672726.46 kg
= 6335.86 m3 + 2217.551m3
= 8553.411 m3
Assume L/D = 3
D2
V= ( )x L
4
D2
V= ( ) x 3D
4
3-7
3
V= 3
4
3 4
=
3
3 4 8553.411
=
3
= 15.369 m
L = 3D
= 3 (15.369 m)
= 46.107 m
mol
223.701 s 3
= = = 15.76
14.19 mol/3
Then,
8553.411 m3
= = 542.729
3
15.76
3-8
14. Number of tubes
2217.551m3
= 46.107 m
= 48.10 m2
( )2
Cross sectional area of one tube = 4
(0.219075m)2
= 4
= 0.03769 m2
48.10 m2
=
0.03769 m2
= 1276
1276 1
= 0.219075m ( )2.142
0.319
Db = 23.65m
3-9
Less heat transfer rate is overcome by installing baffled-jacket. Further calculation
will determine whether internal and external heat exchanger is needed.
(0-(-20768.5)+71.4]kJ
E = Qn = [ ]
hr
kJ 1 hr kW
=20839.9
hr 3600s kJ
s
=5.789 kW (endothermic)
3-10
100+1200 W
UJ =
2 m2 K
W
= 650 2
m K
Table 3.6: Range of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Jacketed Reactor
Condition of heat transfer W/(m2K)
Gases in free convection 5-37
Water in free convection 100-1200
Oil under free convection 50-350
Gas flow in tubes and between tubes 10-350
Water flowing in tubes 500-1200
Oil flowing in tubes 300-1700
Molten metals flowing in tubes 2000-45000
Water nucleate boiling 2000-45000
Water film boiling 100-300
Film-type condensation of water vapour 4000-17000
Drop size condensation of water vapour 30000-140000
Condensation of organic liquids 500-2300
D2 D2
AJ = (outer space)- (inner space)
4 4
= (1.252- 1.22 )
4
=0.096 m2
T' J1 + T' J2
TJ =
2
400+302
=( )
2
= 351
3-11
QJ = UJ AJ (T' R -TJ )
W
= 650 0.096 m2 (623- 624)K
m2 K
= -62.4 W
5.789 kW= Cp T
kJ
=(1.53) (623-624)
kg.K
kg 3600s
= 3.78
s hr
kg
=13608
hr
This indicates that approximately 13608 kg/h of hot molten salt is to be supplied to
maintain reaction temperature at 350C. Note that molten salt will be cooled from
400C to 302C in this case.
Therefore,
= 0.15 N/mm2
At temperature 350 oC, design stress, S = 128 N/mm2 (online calculation tools, 2017)
3-12
Pi Di
Thickness= (ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-27))
2SE- 1.2Pi
N
(0.15 ) (1200mm)
= mm2
N N
2(1) (128 ) -0.15
mm2 mm2
=0.7 mm
Pi =design pressure
Di =internal diameter
S = design stress
Assumption;
So,
= 2.7 mm
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
De = nominal plate diameter = De = Di + 2 = 15.369 m + 2 x10-3m = 15.371 m
C = design constant, 0.25
S = maximum allowable stress, 128 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.15 N/mm2
3-13
Therefore, the t can be calculated;
0.250.15 N/mm2
t=15371 mm
128 N/mm2 1
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
Di = internal diameter, 15369 mm
S = maximum allowable stress, 128 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.15 N/mm2
Therefore,
N
0.15 15369 mm
t= mm2
N
[(4128 1)-(0.40.15)]
mm2
t = 7.503 mm
Torispherical heads
0.885Pi Rc
t= SE-0.1Pi
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
Rc = crown radius = Di = 15369mm
S = maximum allowable stress, 128 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.15 N/mm2
3-14
Therefore,
N
0.8850.152 15369 mm
t= mm
N
[(1281)-(0.10.15)]
mm2
t = 18.941 mm
Ellipsoidal heads
ii
= 20.2
i
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
Di = internal diameter, 15369 mm
S = maximum allowable stress, 128 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.15 N/mm2
Therefore,
0.15 15369
= 2
[(2 128 1) (0.2 0.15)]
2
= 9.006 + 3 ( )
= 12.006
Based on the condition of the process, the suitable head is torispherical head
because it is suitable for the operating condition below than 10 bar pressure.
For steel vessel, a cylindrical vessel with domed ends and uniform wall thickness can
be estimated from the following equation:
Dm = Di + t
3-15
= 1.2027 m
Lv = Length of reactor
= 4.50 m
Therefore, Ws = 4597.48 N
= 4.597 kN
kg
= 1276 9.7204845 45 m 9.81
m
= 5,475,453 kN
= 15.30 m3
= 1.5 kN
= 1.5 kN X 2
= 3.0 kN
3-16
3.1.2.3.4 Weight load of fluid (shell side)
= 37.08 N
= 0.03708 kN
= 40.79 N
= 0.04079 kN
Wc = density x volume
= 75269 kN
Wt = W s + W p + W i + W fs + W ft + W c
= 5550729 kN
=
2
3-17
0.15 1200
=
2 2.7
= 33.3
2
=
4
0.15 1200
=
4 2.7
= 16.7
2
=
( + )
278.434 103
=
(1200 + 2.7)2.7
= 127.29
2
Saddles support are the most commonly used support for the horizontal cylindrical
vessel. Therefore, design of saddle will be considered here. A horizontal vessel will
normally be supported at two cross sections (if more than two saddles are used the
distribution of the loading is uncertain). The total weight of the design reactor is
278.434 kN which is less than the maximum weight of saddle support. Therefore the
saddle support dimension could be used.
The theoretical optimum position of the supports to give the least maximum bending
moment will be the position at which the maxima at the supports and at mid-span are
equal in magnitude. For a uniformly loaded beam, the position will be at 21% of the
mid span, in from each end. Thus, based on statement above, saddles position from
both end:-
3-18
= 0.21 x 45m
= 9.45 m
(The end of the vessel will stiffen the shell if the position of the saddles is less than
D/4 from the ends)
The minimum contact angle suggested by the ASME Code is 1200, except for the
very small vessels, (Code Appendix G-6). For unstiffened cylinders under external
pressure the contact angle is mandatory limited to 1200 by the ASME Code (UG-29).
3-19
Figure 3.4: Suggestion of measurement based on diameter of vessel
The type of material used in designing the piping is carbon steel due to the price is
lower than other materials and its properties that does not corrode when involving in
the operation. The pipe diameter and thickness will be used to determine the size and
physical characteristic of the flange.
3-20
doptimum = 260G0.5 -0.37
Where;
= density, kg/m3
P x doptimum
Pipe thickness, t=
20+P
Where;
i) Feed stream
Feed density at 573 K = 1.032241 kg/m3
Optimum diameter:
=524 mm
P x doptimum 1 x 524
Pipe thickness, t= = =0.20 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
3-21
ii) Outlet stream
Feed density at 623 K = 0.5579616 kg/m3
Optimum diameter:
= 561 mm
P x doptimum 1 x 561
Pipe thickness, t= = =0.219 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
Optimum diameter:
=313 mm
P x doptimum 1 x 313
Pipe thickness, t= = =0.12 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
3-22
Corrosion allowance consideration (4 mm) = 4.12 mm
Optimum diameter:
=313 mm
P x doptimum 1 x 313
Pipe thickness, t= = =0.12 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
3.1.2.7 Flanges
A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form
a piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification.
Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together
two flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal.
Pipe flanges are manufactured in all the different materials like stainless steel, cast
iron, aluminium, brass, bronze, plastic etc. but the most used material is forged
carbon steel and have machined surfaces.
In addition, flanges, like fittings and pipes, for specific purposes sometimes internally
equipped with layers of materials of a completely different quality as the flanges
themselves, which are "lined flanges".
3-23
The material of a flange, is basically set during the choice of the pipe, in most cases,
a flange is of the same material as the pipe.
All flanges, discussed on this website fall under the ASME en ASTM standards,
unless otherwise indicated. ASME B16.5 describes dimensions, dimensional
tolerances etc. and ASTM the different material qualities.
3-24
Table 3.6: Flanges dimension of welding neck flanges
Pipe Nominal
outer size Flanged Hub ansatz Raised Bolting Drilling
diameter face Size
, OD D J b h a m g (inch) Number I k
(inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) Anzahl (inch) (inch)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Feed 20 20 27.50 20.50 1.69 5.6 20.0 22.00 23.00 1.25 20 1.25 25.00
508 698.5 520.7 42.9 144.5 508 558.8 584.2 31.8 635.0
Outlet 24 24 32.00 25.00 1.88 6.00 24.0 26.12 27.25 1.38 20 1.38 29.50
609.6 812.8 635.0 47.8 152.4 609.6 663.4 692.2 35.1 749.3
Hot in 12.75 12 19.00 12.00 1.25 4.5 12.75 14.38 15.00 1.00 12 1.00 17.00
323.8 482.6 304.8 31.8 114.3 323.8 365.3 381 25.4 431.8
Hot out 12.75 12 19.00 12.00 1.25 4.5 12.75 14.38 15.00 1.00 12 1.00 17.00
323.8 482.6 304.8 31.8 114.3 323.8 365.3 381 25.4 431.8
3-25
Figure 3.6: Bolt selected dimension
3-26
3-27
3.2 Heat Exchanger
The basic concept of a heat exchanger depends on the commence that the loss of
heat on the high temperature side is precisely the same as the heat picked up in the
low temperature side after the heat and mass flows through the heat exchanger. Heat
exchanger basically exchanges the heat between those two sides as a result; it is
decreasing the temperature of higher temperature side and increasing the
temperature of lower temperature side. A part from this, flow arrangement in heat
exchanger is essential as it related to the effectiveness of the heat transfer. There are
two kinds of flow arrangement which are parallel or co-current flow and counter-
current flow. A counter-flow heat exchanger shows the direction of the flow of one of
the working fluids is opposite to the direction to the flow of the other fluid. Meanwhile,
in a parallel flow exchanger, both fluids in the heat exchanger flow in the same
direction.
Figure 3.1: Parallel flow (concurrent) and counter flow (countercurrent) of heat
exchanger.
The principal types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied
industries,
1. Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating.
2. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications.
3. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and cooling.
4. Plate-fin exchangers.
3-28
5. Spiral heat exchangers.
6. Air cooled: coolers and condensers.
In order to select an appropriate type of heat exchanger for the chemical plants,
optimum process operations is need by selecting and implement the right types of
process equipment. Therefore choosing the right heat exchanger is important. Below
are examples of characteristic the right heat exchanger.
Application
Costing
Available utilities
Fluid flow capacity
Accessibility for cleaning and maintenance
Considerations for future expansion
Pressure drops across exchanger
Mechanical considerations
Operating Temperature and Pressure
The shell and tube exchanger is by far the most commonly used type of heat transfer
equipment used in the chemical and allied industries. The advantages of this type
are:
3-29
Figure 3.2: Shell and tube exchanger
The extent of the individual coefficients will rely on upon the way of the heat transfer
process which is conduction, convection, condensation, boiling or radiation on the
physical properties of the liquids, on the liquid stream rates, and on the physical
course of action of the heat transfer surface. Therefore this is the steps in a typical
design procedure are given below:
3-30
3.2.3 Process Condition
In the process, E-102 was selected to describe the design. The temperature reduced
from 738.9199K to 351.203K. The shell side was the effluent from the reactor,
meanwhile at the tube side was the acetone recycle stream that act as coolant. First
step, the temperature inlet and outlet of the cooling stream was made with
temperature inlet and outlet 293.15K and 464.14K respectively.
3-31
3.2.4.2 Heat Load
Q = mCpt
Q= 4460 kW
Where:
Assumption made:
1. The exchanger operates steady state
2. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is constant
3. Heat loss are negligible
4. All elements of a given fluid stream have the same thermal history in passing
through the exchanger.
5. Heat loss are negligible
(12)(21)
Tlm = 12
ln( )
21
3-32
(12)
R=
(21)
(21)
S=
(11)
Tm = Ft Tlm
Where Tm = true temperature difference, the mean temperature difference for use
in the design equation
Therefore,
(738.9199464.1445)(351.2037239.15)
Tlm = 738.9199464.1445
ln( )
351.2037239.15
= 181.41 oK
The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures, the number
of tube and shell passes. It correlated as a function of two dimensionless temperature
ratios. Where, R is two dimensionless temperature ratios and P is measure of the
temperature efficiency of the exchanger.
(738.9199351.2037)
R=
(464.1445239.15)
=1.72
(464.1445239.15)
P=
(738.9199239.15)
=0.45
The correction factor for 1 shell pass and two tube passes is obtained from Figure
3.3. The value of temperature ratio (R) and temperature efficiency (P) is plotted in
3-33
Figure 3.3. Hence, the temperature correction factor (Ft) value obtained from the
curve is 0.64. From correction factor, the true temperature difference (Tm) can be
determined as below.
Table 3.3: Correction factor for 1 shell and two tubes passes.
Tm = 0.64 x 181.41 oK
=116.10 oK
Heat transfer area is calculated where, Q is heat transfer per unit time (W), U is the
overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.oK), Tm is the actual temperature difference
(oK) and A is the heat transfer area (m2). The general equation is,
Q =UoATm
Where,
Q = Heat load, kW
Uo= Overall coefficient, W/m2.K
A = Heat transfer area, m2
Tm =True temperature differences
A=
Tm
4460
A=
850 116.10
3-34
Area =45.204 m2 (obtained from ASPEN)
Using a split-ring floating head exchanger for efficiency and ease of cleaning, plain
carbon steel can be used for the shell and tubes as long as neither fluid is corrosive,
and the operating pressure is not high. Standard diameters for tubes are given as
shown in Table 3.4 below. Use 19.05 mm (3/4 inch) outside diameter, 14.83 mm
inside diameter, 5 m long tubes on a triangular 23.81 mm pitch (pitch/diameter =
1.25).
2
Tube cross-sectional area =
4
(14.83 X103 )2
=
4
= 0.0001727 m2
3-35
13990.91 1 3
Volumetric flowrate = x x
3600 408.627
= 9.51078x10-3 m3/s
9.51078x103
Tube side velocity,UT = = 0.74 m/s
0.01312
From Table 12.4, from Coulson & Richardson sixth edition handbook, for two tube
passes and triangular pitch, K1 = 0.249, n1 = 2.207,
1/1
= x [1]
152 1/2.207
= 19.05 x [0.249]
=0.364 m
For a pull-through floating-heat exchanger, the typical shell clearance from Figure 3.3
(Coulson & Richardson, 4th Edition Handbook) is 89 mm, so the shell inside diameter,
Ds is:
3-36
Figure 3.3: Shell bundle clearance (Coulson & Richardson, 4th Edition Handbook)
Ds = 0.089 m +0.364 m
Ds = 0.454 m
Baffle spacing = Ds / 5
= 0.454/5
=0.0908 m
As = x Ds x Bs
23.8119.05
= x 0.454 x 0.0908
23.81
= 8.24 x 10-3 m2
1.10
Equivalent shell diameter, de = ( 2 0.917 2 )
1.10
= 19.05 (23.812 0.917 (19.052 )
= 13.52
14968.13 1 3
Volumetric flow rate on shell side, Vs =
x 3600 x 2.3775
= 1.7488 m3/s
3-37
1.7488 3 /
Therefore, shell side velocity, Us = = 29.45 m/s
8.24 103
Re =
(408.63)(28.17)(14.83103 )
=
0.224103
=762096.95
Prandtls number, Pr
Pr =
Where,
Fluid specific heat capacity, Cp = 92.050 kJ/kg.K
Fluid viscosity, = 0.224x10-3 kg/m.s
Fluid thermal conductivity, kf = 0.1032 W/m.K
92.05 (0.224103 )
Pr =
0.1032
=0.199
5
= = 337.15
0.01483
By using the calculated Reynolds number, the value of jh is determined from the
Figure 3.4 below. From the figure, the value of jh obtained is 2.9 x 10-2.
3-38
Figure 3.4: Heat Transfer Factor for Tube Side
0.33
hs =
(2.9 x 10 ) 762096.95 0.1990.33 0.1032
2
hs =
0.01483
=9248.24 W/m2.oc
For heat exchanger across a typical heat-exchanger tube, the relationship between
the overall coefficient and the individual coefficients which are the reciprocals of the
individual resistances is given by:
1 1 1 ln( ) 1 1
= + + [ ( + )]
2
Where:
Uo = overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube, W/m2.C
h0 = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2.C
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2.C
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2.C
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2.C
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m2.C
di = tube inside diameter, m
do = tube outside diameter, m
3-39
1 1 1 ln( ) 1 1
= + + [ ( + )]
2
The table below illustrated the typical value for fouling factors coefficients depending
on the types of the fluid used. From this Table 3.5, the value of hod and hid is
determined. The type of fluids used in hot stream is organic fluid, while the cool
stream to cool down the temperature is an outlet stream from flash which is also
organic fluid. The value obtained from the table is:
3-40
3.2.4.11 Pressure drop
14 2
P = Np[8 jf ( ) (
) + 2.5] (
2
)
Where,
Np = number of tube side passes (2)
L = length of tube (m)
Di = tube inside diameter (m)
U = tube side velocity m/s
density fluid in tube side kg/m3
14
5 2.2 104 4080.742
P = 2[8 (0.0024) ( )(
0.01483 2.2 104
) + 2.5] (
2
)
The mechanical design of a shell and tube heat exchanger provides information on
items such as shell thickness, flange thickness, etc. The popularity of shell and tube
exchangers has resulted in a standard nomenclature being developed for their
designation and use by the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association
(TEMA). Figure 3.5 illustrates the full TEMA nomenclature.
3-41
Figure 3.5: TEMA nomenclature (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association,
1988)
3-42
Design Temperature, Tt = 465*1.1 = 511 oC
Table 3.6: Design pressure and design temperature of shell and tube
Shell Tube
Operating 10% Safety Operating 10% Safety factor
factor
Pressure 3 atm 3.3 atm 5 atm 5.5 atm
Temperature 465oc 511oc+ 2oc 190oc 209oc + 2oc
=513oc = 211oc
Commonly, pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steel, low and
high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate and reinforced plastics. Selection of suitable
material is important to ensure the compatibility of the material with the process.
There are few factors should be considered in selecting the material of construction
for heat exchanger:
1. Corrosion Resistance
3-43
2. Operating Conditions
3. Economic Feasibility
5. Process Safety
Depending on the process condition with high inlet temperature on the tube side, the
tendency of corrosive to occur is high although always happen in long term since the
fluid properties is not corrosive. Considering the corrosion will occur in a long term, it
is important for both tube and shell to be constructed with a material that is highly
corrosive resistance materials. As a result, the selection of carbon steel material is
selected for both shell and tube since the operating temperature is not too high and
standard carbon steel can encounter the temperature up to 900F.
3-44
3.2.7 Welded Joint Efficiency
According to Sinnott, the strength of a welded joint are depending on the type of joint
and the quality of the welding. The ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 describes four
categories (Part UW-3):
c. Welds connecting flanges, tube sheets or flat heads to the main shell, a formed
head, neck or nozzle.
The strength of a welded joint is directly proportional with the type of joint and also
the quality of the welding. Radiography and visual testing used to test the soundness
of welds. Welded joint factor (J) used in the design ware determine on the type of joint
and also by the amount of radiography required. The welded joint factor J, shall be
taken as 1 as it implies that the joint is actually strong as the virgin steel plate.
Corrosion allowance been define as the additional thickness off metal that is added
in order to allow material lost. Source of material lost is corrosion, erosion or scaling.
These allowances are based on the experience of construction materials under
similar condition. Minimum allowance of 2.0 mm is used by carbon and lowalloy
steel where corrosion is not severe. 4.0 mm corrosion allowance should be used if
there is a severe corrosion condition. In this design, 2.0 mm was used as corrosion
allowance.
3-45
and stress rupture strength does not rule the selection of stresses; the maximum
allowable stress is the lowest of:
At temperature where creep and stress rupture strength rule, the maximum allowable
stress is the lowest of:
1. The average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 h
2. F the average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 h, where F0.67 for
temperatures below 15008F (8158C) (see the code for higher temperatures).
Figure 3.6: Typical Maximum Allowable Stresses for Plate under ASME BPV Code
Sec VII D.1
3-46
3.2.8.1 Tube Side
Construction Material : Carbon Steel
Design Temperature : 211 C
Allowable Stress, S : 102 N/mm2
Tensile Strength : 360 N/mm2
There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that the vessel can
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. Using the shell
side internal diameter, Ds = 0.454 m = 454 mm. The minimum thickness required to
resists internal pressure can be determined by:
Minimum thickness, e =
2
Where:
Pi = internal pressure =3.3 atm= 0.334 N/mm2
Di = Ds = shell diameter = 454 mm
E = Joint factor = 1
S = Design stress of shell side
Determination of minimum wall thickness:
0.3343 454
e=
240.6810.3343
e = 1.873 mm
3-47
The minimum wall thickness obtained for shell diameter of 454 mm is 1.873 mm. With
the corrosion allowance consideration of 2 mm, the minimum wall thickness is 3.873
mm which are adequate for industrial application.
The minimum thickness required to resists internal pressure can be determined by:
Minimum thickness, e =
2
Where:
Pi = internal pressure =5.5 atm= 0.557 N/mm2
Di = tube diameter = 14.83 mm
E = Joint factor = 1
S = Design stress of shell side
0.557 14.83
e=
2 102 10.557
e = 0.0406 mm
Minimum thickness for tube side with corrosion allowance, adding the corrosion
allowance of 2 mm,
e = 0.0406 + 2 mm
e = 2.0406 mm
3-48
3.2.11 Head and Closure
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The common
types used are as shown in Figure 3.7 below:
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads
4. Torispherical heads
Where,
Pi = design pressure
Di = internal diameter
J = welded joint efficiency
S = maximum allowable stress
3-49
3.2.11.2 Ellipsoidal heads
t=
20.2
Where,
Pi = design pressure
Di = internal diameter
J = welded-joint efficiency
S = maximum allowable stress
0.334 (0.454103 )
t=
240.6810.20.334
=1.86 mm
= 3.302 mm
From the calculation obtained, torispherical head would probably be the most
economical. Take as same thickness as wall thickness, 3.873 mm.
3-50
3.2.11.4 Channel Cover Thickness
Where:
Cp = A design constant, depend on the edge constraint
= 0.55 (for plates welded to the end of the shell with a fillet weld, angle of fillet 45o)
De = Nominal plate diameter
S = Design stress
0.334
t= (0.55)(0.454x103)
40.68
= 22.62 mm
=22.62 mm+ 2 mm (corrosion allowance)
= 24.62 mm
3. Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils
6. Insulation
7. The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water for the
hydraulic pressure test; and may fill with process liquid due to miss-operation.
3-51
3.2.12.1 Dead Weight of Vessel
For preliminary calculation, the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with uniform
wall thickness can be estimated from the following equation:
Wv = ( + 0.8) 103
Where:
Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates, N
Cw = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manholes, internal support, etc;
which can be taken as
= 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings
= 1.15 for distillation column, or similar vessels, with several manways and
with plate support rings, or equivalent fittings
Hv = height, or length, between tangent lines (length of the cylindrical section)
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
t = wall thickness
m = density of vessel material ; for carbon steel =7850 kg/m3
Dm = mean diameter of vessel = (Di + t x10-3),m
3-52
g = gravity acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
L = length of tube = 5m
Therefore,
Wt 152 0.0192 0.0152 7850 x 9.81 x 5
= 25005.8 N
Wt = W v + W t +W i
= 2483.14 N + 25005.8 N + 682N
= 28170.94 N = 28.17 kN
3-53
3.2.13 Bolted Flanged Joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels for manhole
covers and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges are
also used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections
for transport or maintenance and to connect pipes to other equipment such as pumps
and valves. Flanged joints are essential for maintenance while pipework are normally
be welded to reduce the costs. Flanges range in various sizes from a few millimetres
diameter for small pipe to several metres diameter for those used as body or head
flanges on vessels.
1. Welding-neck flanges
2. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types
3. Lap-joint flange
4. Screwed flanges
5. Blank, or blind, flanges
Figure 3.8: Flange type (a) Welding-neck (b) Slip-on (c) Lap-joint (d) Screwed
The welding neck flange type, which has a tapered hub with a smooth stress transition
and accessibility for full nondestructive examination, provides the highest integrity of
3-54
the three types. Furthermore, it is suitable for extreme conditions as subjected to
temperature, shear and vibration loads.
3-55
Figure 3.10: Saddle support
3-56
3.3 Absorption Column, T-102
The typical gas-liquid contacting operations include distillation, absorption, stripping,
leaching and humidification. Distillation and absorption are two most widely used
mass transfer processes in chemical industries. Design of plate column for absorption
and distillation involves many common steps of calculation such as determination of
number of theoretical plates, column diameter and plate hydraulic design. In
absorption process, a soluble component is absorbed in a liquid (called absorbent)
from a gaseous mixture. The gas and liquid streams leaving the tray are in equilibrium
under the ideal condition. Additional vapor phase is generated by the vaporization of
more volatile components (called stripping) and by condensation of relatively less
volatile components (called absorption) add to the liquid phase. Figure 8.17 below
shows the schematic inlet and outlet for the absorption column.
3-57
3.3.1 Chemical Design for Absorption Column, T-102
Column type
Number of trays
Column diameter
Column height
Liquid flow pattern
Provisional plate design
Weir design
Plate pressure drop
Downcomer residence time
In this absorption process, acetone (A) is diffused through stagnant, non-diffusing of
water (B). As the acetone gas diffuse into water and known as bottom product (LN
stream), the by-product of hydrogen will separate from the acetone and flowing out
as top product (V1 stream). The column is operate at 50OC and 3 atm.
V1
LO
VN+1
LN
3-58
Some of the information required for further calculation such as composition of
components for each stream are retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation model
result. Tables 3.11 below list all the required value for each stream.
Table 3.11: Summary of flow rate and composition for each stream
Lo (Stream 16)
IPA 0 0
Acetone 2.47X10-5 1.505x10-7
H2O 163.9744 0.999
H2 0 0
DMSO 0.11111103 6.765x10-4
Total 164.0856 1
VN+1 (Stream 7)
IPA 0.0810568 3.588x10-4
Acetone 9.069404 0.0402
H2O 0.5586704 2.476x10-3
H2 216.0744 0.957
DMSO 5.42X10-9 2.4x10-11
Total 225.7835 1
Component Flow rate Mole fraction
(kmol/hr)
V1 (Stream H2)
IPA 0.000242204 1.0769x10-6
Acetone 2.188794 9.733x10-3
H2O 6.671419 0.0297
H2 216.0295 0.9606
DMSO 7.03x10-6 3.126x10-8
Total 224.89 1
3-59
3.3.1.1 Selection of column
Generally, column internals can be trays or packing. Both column operates at different
fundamental and provide various advantages and disadvantages. Tray column
generally provide holdup for a portion of liquid through which vapor flows to
accomplish the vapor-liquid mass transfer liquid required for separation. With a
conventional crossflow tray, the liquid travel horizontally across the tray and into a
vertical downcomer while the vapor passes up through holes in the tray and across
the flow of liquid. Whereas, packed column offers continuous contact without full
disengagement of the vapor and liquid between the top and bottom of the packed.
Tables 3.12 below explain the advantages and disadvantages that need to be
considered in column selection.
3-60
Disadvantages Higher pressure drops Cannot handle
than packed columns. extremely high or low
flow rates.
Plugging and fouling
may occur. Cannot handle liquids
with high viscosities.
Calculation of stream density involved and relative molecular mass (RMM) calculated
are shown in the Table 3.13 and Table 3.14 below.
3-61
Table 8.14: Relative molecular mass (RMM) for each stream
By using P = 100 kPa as basis, the liquid and vapor density are calculated by using
equation below:
273
Vapor density, v (kg/m3) = ( )( )(100 )
22.4
The properties required for the calculation are shown as Table 3.15 below:
Temperature, Pressure,
(K) (kPa)
V1, top 309.305 202.65
The liquid density and vapor density for bottom and top product is calculated as
shown in Table 3.16 below:
3-62
Table 3.16: The liquid density and vapor density for bottom and top product
Therefore,
The vapor (V) and liquid (L) flow rate is determined by using the Equation 10.3-4 [6]
as shown below:
+1 1
( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( )
1 1 +1 1 1 1
Hence, the required component composition are retrieved from the AspenPlus
simulation model as shown below:
3-63
Table 3.17: Required component composition are retrieved from the AspenPlus
simulation
Xo at stream Lo 1.505x10-7
YN+1 at stream VN+1 0.04
XN at stream LN 0.042
Y1 at stream V1 9.734x10-3
The vapor (V) flow rate is calculated by using Equation 10.3-6 [6]:
= 1(1 +1 )
+1 , 1
( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( )
1 1 +1 1 , 1 1
+1
, max =
m = 0.721
0.04
, max =
0.721
= 0.055
To calculate L min,
1.50510 7 0.04
( ) + 215.893 ( )
1 1.50510 7 1 0.04
0.055 9.73410 7
= ( ) + 215.893 ( )
1 0.055 1 9.73410 7
3-64
L min = 118.293 kmol/hr
For absorption, the optimum liquid (L) flow rate is usually taken with 1.5 times Lmin
[8]. Thus,
L = 1.5 x Lmin
L = 1.5 x 118.298
L = 177.439 kmol/hr
+1 1 1
ln ( 1 (1 () + ))
=
ln
= 1
164.98
To find = = = 1.013
+1 0.721 225.783
164.085
To find 1 = = = 1.017
1 0.721 224.889
= (1.013)(1.017)
A = 1.015
Hence, to find N,
3-65
0.04 (0.721)(1.50510 7) 1 1
ln ( (1 ( )+ ))
(9.73410 3) (0.721)(1.50510 7) 1.015 1.015
=
ln 1.015
N = 2.963 = 3 trays
In actual practice, the efficiency of the tray will not be 100%. This means more number
of trays is needed for more efficient separation. Thus, overall tray efficiency is used
to determine the efficiency of the absorption in this design. Column efficiency is
calculated by using the value retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation model by
considering the feed flow rate of acetone and product flow rate of acetone for the
absorption column.
6.881
= = 100%
9.069
Eo = 75.87%
0.759
= 100%
1.5
Eo = 50.6%
The information on the tray efficiency is used to calculate the number of actual trays
in the absorption column.
3
0.506 =
3-66
3.3.1.5 Column sizing
The column sizing is carried at the tray where the anticipated column loading is the
highest and lowest for each section. However, the vapor flow rates have the highest
impact on tower diameter. The tray spacing determines the column height. Lower tray
spacing is desirable to minimize construction cost by checking against the column
performance criteria [7].
The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapor flow rate. The
equation which is based on the well-known Souders and Brown equation, can be
used to estimate the maximum allowable superficial vapor velocity (Uv), and hence
the column area and diameter [3].
1/2
= (0.171 2 + 0.27 2 0.047) [ ]
Where:
= maximum allowable vapour velocity based on column cross sectional area, m/s
= tray spacing, m
Therefore, for initial calculation, the tray spacing is assume as 600 mm for column
diameter of 1 to 3 m [7].
Uv = 1.076 m/s
Recall the vapor (V) and liquid (L) flow rate for further calculation,
3-67
3.3.1.5.1 Maximum volumetric flow rate, Qmax
()
=
0.059(3.025)
= = 0.741 /
0.241
0.059(19.768)
= = 0.484 /
2.411
Excessive liquid buildup inside the column leads to column flooding condition.
The nature of flooding depends on the column operating pressure and the
liquid to vapor flow ratio. The column flooding conditions sets the upper limit
of vapor velocity for steady operation. Thus, flooding velocity, Uf can be
calculated by using equation below [3]:
Where:
Based on the Figure 3.18 below, the liquid-vapour ow factor FLV is given by:
Where:
3-68
L = liquid mass ow-rate, kg/s
To calculate LFV,
0.887 0.241
= = 0.0207
3.478 36.438
Hence, K = 0.12
0.887 2.411
= 3.478 978.864 = 0.0127
Hence, K = 0.11
To calculate Uf,
3-69
For top section,
36.4380.241
= 0.12 = 1.471 m/s
0.241
979.8642.411
= 0.11 = 2.215 m/s
2.411
Net area for the column can be calculated by using equation below:
,
=
,
0.741
= = 0.504 m2
1.471
0.484
= = 0.219 m2
2.215
0.504
= = 0.577 m2
0.88
0.219
= = 0.249 m2
0.88
3-70
Therefore, column diameter for top and bottom section can be calculated by
using the equation below. The higher diameter is selected as the column
diameter for the uniformity between the sections.
4
=
40.577
= = 0.857 m
40.249
= = 0.563 m
As the column diameter, Dc is 0.857 < 1 m, the selection of the tray spacing will be
changed by following table below. Hence, the considered tray spacing in this design
is 500 mm.
, =
3-71
m = 0.5 m x 6 trays
m=3m
The choice of flow type (reverse, single pass or multiple pass) will depend on the
liquid ow-rate and column diameter. An initial selection can be made using Figure
3.19 below [3].
(, )
=
(0.059)(3.025)
= = 4.9 x 10-3 m3/s
36.438
By using Qmax = 4.9 x 10-3 m3/s and Dc = 0.9 m, from the Figure 3.5.3, the cross-
flow single pass is obtained.
3-72
3.3.1.7 Provisional trays design
The definition of tray areas and its nomenclature illustrated in Figures 3.20 and 3.21
are followed throughout the design procedure [2].
Total tower cross-section area (): The empty tower inside cross-sectional area
without trays or downspouts.
Net area (): The total tower cross-sectional area () minus the area at the top of
the downcomer (). The net area symbolizes the smallest area available for vapor
flow in the inter-tray spacing.
Bubbling area or active area (): The total tower cross-sectional area minus sum of
the downcomer top area () and downcomer seal area () and any other non-
perforated areas on the tray. The bubbling area represents the area available for
vapor flow just above the tray floor.
Hole area (): The total area of the perforations on the tray. The hole area is the
smallest area available for vapor/gas passage.
3-73
Figure 3.21: Typical cross-flow plate [3]
The height of the weir determines the volume of liquid on the plate and is an important
factor in determining the plate efciency. A high weir will increase the plate efciency
but at the expense of a higher plate pressure drop.
3-74
Hence, weir height, hw = 50 mm
For hole diameter, the hole sizes used vary from 2.5 to 12 mm; 5 mm is
recommended [3][7]. The bigger sizes are susceptible to weeping.
For tray thickness, it typically varies from 0.2 to 1.2 times of the hole diameter
and should be verified by checking the allowable plate pressure drop [7].
In order to calculate weir height, it can be estimated using the Francis weir as written
below:
2/3
= 750 [ ]
Where:
lw = weir length, m
3-75
The relationship between weir length and downcomer area is given in Figure 3.22 [3]
0.0692
= 100% = 12% = = 0.77
0.577 0.857
Therefore, Iw = 0.660 m
2 ()0.0052
1 = = = 1.963105 m2
4 4
0.0439
= = = 2236.37 = 2237 holes per tray
1 1.963105
3-76
3.3.1.9 Evaluation of the design
Weeping occurs at low vapor flow rates. The upward vapor flow through the plate
perforations prevents the liquid from leaking through the tray perforation. At low vapor
flow rates, liquid start to leak through the perforation, which it called weeping. When
none of the liquid reaches the downcomer at extreme weeping condition at very low
vapor flow rate, it is called dumping. The weeping tendency increases with increasing
fractional hole area and liquid flow rates [7].
0.0493
= ( ) = 3.025 = 0.149 = 0.149 kg/s
The height of liquid crest over the weir, how is estimated using Francis weir
formula as below.
2/3
= 750 [ ]
Where:
lw = weir length, m
3-77
Maximum height liquid crest,
0.149 2/3
, = 750 [ ] = 25.299 mm = 26 mm liquid
(36.438)(0.660)
0.104 2/3
, = 750 [ ] = 19.907 mm = 20 mm
(36.438)(0.660)
The lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage through the
plate holes becomes excessive. This is known as the weep point. The vapor
velocity at the weep point is the minimum value for stable operation. The hole
area must be chosen so that at the lowest operating rate the vapor ow
velocity is still well above the weep point [3].
how + hw = 20 mm + 50 mm = 70 mm liquid
The purpose to calculate weep point is to know the lower limit of the operating
range occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive.
Minimum vapor velocity through the holes is calculated based on the holes
area.
[2 0.90(25.4 )]
=
1/2
Where:
dh = hole diameter, mm
3-78
From the weep-point correlation Figure 3.23 below [3], K2 = 30.3
Therefore,
[30.30.90(25.45)]
= = 7.688 m/s
(2.411)1/2
A simple additive model is normally used to predict the total pressure drop. The total
is taken as the sum of the pressure drop calculated for the ow of vapor through the
dry plate (the dry plate drop hd); the head of clear liquid on the plate (hw and how),
and a term to account for other, minor, sources of pressure loss, the so-called residual
loss hr [3]. The equation used as shown below.
= + ( + ) +
Where:
3-79
hw =weir height, mm
hr = residual head, mm
Dry plate pressure drop occurs due to friction within dry short holes. Dry
plate pressure drop, hd can be calculated by using following expression [3].
, 2
= 51 [ ]
3-80
6 0.0439
= = 1.2 = 100% = 10%
5 0.439
Hence, Co = 0.88
To find Uh,max,
, 0.741
, = = = 16.879 /
0.0439
Calculate hd,
16.879 2 0.241
= 51 [ ] = 124.097 mm liquid
0.88 36.438
The residual pressure drop, hr results mainly from the surface tension as the
gas releases from a perforation. Equation below is equivalent to taking the
residual drop as a xed value of 12.5 mm of water [3].
The downcomer area and plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and
froth in the downcomer is well below the top of the outlet weir on the plate above. If
the level rises above the outlet weir, flooding in the column may occur. Figure 3.25
below shows the downcomer backup.
3-81
Figure 3.25: Downcomer backup
= ( + ) + +
Where:
To find hdc, the head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation:
2
= 166 [ ]
Where:
Am = either the downcomer area Ad, or the clearance area under the downcomer
Aap; whichever is the smaller, m2
3-82
To find Am, the clearance area under the downcomer is given by [3]:
The value hap is refer to the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate.
This height is normally set at 5 to 10 mm below the outlet weir height [3].
hap = hw 10 mm
hap = 50 10 = 40 mm
To find Aap,
To calculate hdc,
2
0.149
= 166 [ ] = 3.983
36.438 0.0264
The residence time, tr must be sufficient to allow in the downcomer for entrained
vapour to disengage from the liquid stream to prevent heavily aerated liquid being
carried under the downcomer. 3 s is recommended for the least residence times [3].
The residence time can be calculated with the following equation below:
Where,
tr = residence time, s
3-83
hbc = clear liquid back-up, m
Parameter Value
3-84
3.3.2 Mechanical Design of Absorption Column, T-102
3. Material of construction
5. Welded-joint efficiency
6. Corrosion allowance
7. Wall thicknesses
9. Analysis of stresses
In order to complete the mechanical design, several parameter are get from previous
chemical design and also retrieved from AspenPlus simulation model. Those
parameters are listed in Table 3.20 below.
Parameter Value
3-85
3.3.2.1 Design pressure, Pdesign
The column must be design to ensure it can withstand with the maximum pressure to
which it is to be subjected in operation [1]. It is stated that design pressure in the
column normally must be 5-10% above normal operating pressure for safety factor to
avoid unexpected release from the relieve valve during the process. Hence, API RP
520 has recommended practice sets of 10% margin between the normal operating
pressure and the design pressure.
It is stated that by ASME BPV Code, the maximum design temperature at which the
maximum allowable stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working
temperature of the material. The minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) should
be taken as the lowest temperature expected in service [1]. Therefore, design
temperature is expected as the same as operating temperature.
Tdesign = Toperating
Tdesign = 323 K
Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability of the material
such as cost, strength, ability of temperature and pressure handling and availability
in market. The selected material is carbon steel SA-516. Generally, grade 60, 65 and
70 are usually used in industry. Based on several properties and advantages, carbon
steel SA-516 grade 70 is selected. Table 3.21 shows the comparison of mechanical
properties between these materials.
3-86
Table 3.21: Mechanical properties comparison
It is important to decide a value for maximum allowable stress that can be accepted
in the material construction. The allowable stress limit helps to identify the ability of
the column to stand under standard test condition. ASME BPV Code has provide
Appendix A for maximum stress value for ferrous material. Table A.6 and A.7 in the
Appendix A are used to select the maximum allowable stress for carbon steel
material. Table 3.21 below summarized all the required information.
3-87
Table 3.21: Summary of Table A6. And A.7 in Appendix A [1]
Hence, the maximum allowable stress, S for carbon steel SA-516 is 20 000 psi, which
equal to 137.896 N/mm2.
Absorption column is built up of performed parts which are cylindrical body, head,
fitting and support that being joined by fusion welding. The quality of the welding
usually checked by visual inspection and non-destructive testing (radiography).
Radiographing is performed on complete weld length, cutting out and remarking any
device. Welded joint strength is depend on the joint type and amount of radiography
required by the design code [1]. The ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 Part UW describe
the requirement for vessel fabricated by welding. Table 3.22 shows the requirement
of welded material.
3-88
For pressurized component, the preferred joint type is basic weld joint. Any pressure
vessel containing lethal substances such as isopropanol, acetone and hydrogen, it
requires full radiographic testing for all type of butt welds. To ensure the flexibility of
design, double welded butt joint is selected. Whereas, by taking factor as 1.0, it
implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate. The use of lower joint
efficiency in design can save cost on radiography, but resulting thicker and heavier
vessel which is unfavorable. Thus, the welded-joint efficiency is selected as 1.0.
Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow material lost
by corrosion, erosion or scaling. Corrosion allowance shall be specify for all type of
pressure vessel as stated in ASME BPV Codes Sec. VIII (Part UG-25). For carbon
steel, which severe condition is not expected, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0
mm will be used [1]. It is due to carbon steel behavior as it is resistant to corrosion of
the separation process environment which involved hydrogen, isopropyl alcohol and
acetone.
The equation for vessel thickness is specified by the ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1
Part UG-27) as stated below.
=
2 1.2
Where:
(0.334)(857)
= = 1.039 mm
2(137.896)1.2(0.334)
3-89
3.3.2.8 Head and closure selection
For the column head and closure thickness, choice is selected by calculating the
minimum thickness of head type which are hemispherical, torispherical and ellipsoidal
head. The selection is based on the thickness, ability in handling pressure, strength
and cost. The equation involved are stated as in the ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1.
3.3.2.8.1 Hemispherical
=
4 0.4
(0.334)(857)
= = 0.519 mm
2(137.896)(1)0.4(0.334)
3.3.2.8.2 Torispherical
0.885
=
0.1
where Rc = Di,
0.885(0.334)(857)
= = 1.837 mm
(137.896)(1)0.1(0.334)
3.3.2.8.3 Ellipsoidal
=
2 0.2
3-90
(0.334)(857)
= = 1.038 mm
2(137.896)(1)0.2(0.334)
For ellipsoidal, it is usually used for process with pressure above 10 bar. The
shape of the ellipsoidal head is defined by the ratio of the major and minor
axis with standard arrangement on vessels is the 2:1 elliptical head. This will
have a depth of head which is a quarter of the vessels internal diameter. Due
to shallow dished shape, the forming cost is reduced [2]. However, in this
design, the head thickness is higher than wall thickness and make the column
unstable. Hence, ellipsoidal head is unfavorable.
For torispherical shape, which is extensively used as the end closure for a
large variety of cylindrical pressure vessels, usually operates below 10 bar. It
is easier to manufacture because of availability regular circular curves on the
edges then a larger curve as it heads. Torispherical heads are more
economical than other types of domed heads, owing to their compact
construction they are used for vertical pressure vessel. In addition, the
thickness is quite similar with the wall thickness so that it can offers more
stability on the column.
Some of the factor that contribute to the weight loads are vessel shell, vessel fittings
such as manway and nozzle, internal fitting such as trays, external fitting such as
ladders and piping and also the insulation material [1].
The column based need to be much thicker in order to withstand the wind and dead
loads. As for trial for weight load calculation, the columns are divided into 5 sections
3-91
with increment of 2 mm per section; 3.038 mm, 5.039 mm, 7.039 mm, 9.039 mm and
11.038 mm. Hence, average 7.039 mm is considered.
= 240( + 0.8)
Where,
Cw = a factor to account for the weight of manways and internal support (in
this case, Cv = 1.15)
t = wall thickness, mm
= 240(1.15)(0.864)[3 + 0.8(0.864)](7.039)
Wv = 8081.552 N = 8.081 kN
= .
By taking the cage ladder with the weight of 360 N/m, thus the total weight of
ladder can be determine by multiply the value with column height, Hv,
3-92
3.3.2.9.4 Weight of insulation, Wi
Foam glass has been selected as the insulation material due to several
advantages. For physical attributes, foam glass is resistant to water in both
liquid and vapor forms, non-corrosive and has superior compressive strength.
Instead, its unique benefits have make it favorable in industry application. The
benefits are it offers minimal maintenance or replacement of insulation or so
that it can reduces life-cycle costs. Foam glass also fire resistance that
protects the insulated equipment, and helps minimize subsequent plant
shutdown time [3].
By using the foam glass density as 150 kg/m3 and the range of optimum
thickness of foam wall insulation available in market is 30 mm to 120 mm,
select the insulation thickness as 120 mm.
Vi = (0.857)(3)(120x10-3) = 0.969 m3
2 x 1.426 kN = 2.853 kN
Therefore, the total weight loads obtained from this column is,
WT = W V + W P + W L + Wi
WT = 16.023 kN
The function to design the wind loading is to withstand the highest wind speed that is
likely to encounter at the site during the life of the plant. In this design, the dynamic
wind pressure is assumed to be 1280 N/m2.
3-93
The mean diameter which including insulator, Deff is calculated by using the equation
below,
Deff = 0.984 m
Fw = Pw x Deff
()( 2 ) (1259.52)(32 )
= = = 5667.84 N.m
2 2
The analysis is involving the stress of pressure, dead weight and bend act on the
column.
(0.334)(857)
= = = 20.332 N/mm2
2 2(7.039)
(0.334)(857)
= = = 10.166 N/mm2
4 4(7.039)
Dead weight stress is contribute by the weight of vessel and any attachment
on it. The stress can be either compressive or tensile, where compressive
stress act above the column while tensile stress act below the column [1].
3-94
16023
= = = 0.839 N/mm2
(+) (857+7.039)(7.039)
= ( ) ( ) +
2
Where,
Do = outside diameter = Di + 2t
= 64 (4 4 ) = 64 (871.0784 8574 ) = 1.783x109 mm
5667.84103 857
= ( )( ) + 7.039 = 8.401 N/mm2
1.783109 2
3-95
3.3.2.11.4 Resultant longitudinal stress, z
z = L + w b
The greatest different between the principle stress will be on the downwind
side,
H z (downwind)
Thus, the value obtained is well below the maximum allowable design stress,
137.896 N/mm2
3-96
3.3.2.12 The resultant buckling stress, c
= 2104 ( )
7.039
= 2104 ( ) = 161.616 N/mm2
871.078
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure.
Since the maximum compressive stress, 9.24 N/mm2 is below than crtitical buckling
stress, 161.616 N/mm2, hence, the design is satisfactory.
There are various factors that supposed to take in consideration to choose the support
for a pressure vessel or distillation column such as;
3-97
Figure 3.27: Straight cylindrical support
Parameter Value/Description
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full
of water.
= ( ) 2 9.81
4
= ( 4 ) (0.8572 )(3)(979.864)(9.81) = 16634.417 N = 16.634 kN
3-98
Total weight of the vessel calculated earlier, = 16.023 kN
()( + )2
=
2
(1.259)(3+2)2
= = 15.738 kN.m
2
4
=
( + )()()
Where,
4(15.738)103
= = 3.846 N/mm2
(857+7.039)(857)(7.039)
=
( + )
8081.552
= = 0.423 N/mm2
(857+7.039)7.039
3-99
3.3.2.13.5 Resultant stress in skirt, s
Both tensile and compressive follow the criteria. Hence, the thickness 7.039
mm (round off to 8 mm) is valid to be implemented.
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base
ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend
3-100
to overturn the vessel as this will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of
the vessel and the tensile load in the anchor bolts. The simplest types, suitable for
small vessels, is the rolled-angle ange rings, as shown in Figure 3.28 which have
been implemented in this design [2].
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area
required is given by,
1 4
= [ ]
()()
Where,
Nb = Number of bolts
Fb = Maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2 (Typical design value 125 N/mm)
3-101
Ms = Bending moment at the base, Nm
Cb = Db x = 1111.078
111.078
Nb = = 5.818 = 6
600
1 4(15.738103 )
= (6)(125) [ 8081.552] = 64.775 mm2
1.111
4 4
= ( ) () = (64.775) () = 9.082 mm = 10 mm
Base on Figure 13.30 [2], the type of bolt that recommended to be used is M24 with
root area 353, as show in Table 3.24 below. The selection is made by comparing bolt
root diameter, Dbolt with the D value (refer to the bolt root diameter) in that figure.
The nearest value is then selected.
3-102
Table 3.24: Anchor bolt design
Dimension, mm
Bolt Root A B C D E F G
size area
M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
Bolt size = Nominal diameter (BS 4190: 1967)
(a)
(b)
4
= [ + ]
( ) ( 2 )
2
3-103
Where,
Ds = skirt diameter, m
4(15.783103 ) 8081.552
= [ + ] = 30 785.911 N/m
(0.8572 ) (0.8572 )
Bearing pressure range is usually at 3.5 N/mm2 to 7 N/mm2. Therefore, the bearing
pressure is taken as 3.5 N/mm2.
30785.911
= = = 8.796 mm = 9 mm
103 3.5 103
Actual width required, Lbact with Lr value is equal to B value from Table 3.5,
30785.911
fc = = = 0.231 N/mm2
133.039
3( )
=
Where,
Lr = the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm
3-104
fr = Allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2
3(0.231)
= (76) 140
= 5.347 mm = 6 mm
Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps and
valves. It connecting pipe sections where ease of assembly and dismantling is
required for maintenance, but pipework will normally be welded to reduce costs.
In this absorption column, 4 main piping have take into consideration such as liquid
feed, vapor feed, bottom and top streams. The choice of piping materials is depending
on the mass flow and density of the stream that passing through the pipeline. For this
design, carbon steel is the most suitable for the piping materials and the type of
flanges used is welding neck type.
The approximate optimum duct diameter for carbon steel is given by,
A typical example of a standard ange design is shown in Figure 13.37 [2]. This was
taken from BS 4504, which has now been superseded by the European standard BS
EN 1092. The design of standard anges is also specied in BS 1560. The
recommended standard flange is based on the optimum pipe diameter, Di. The
dimension of the flange design is refered as Figure 3.30 below.
3-105
Figure 3.30: Nozzle flange dimension
G = 0.823 kg/s
= 985.678 kg/m3
G = 0.271 kg/s
= 0.899 kg/m3
3-106
Hence, the standard flange design for stream 7 is tabulated as below,
G = 0.189 kg/s
= 0.239 kg/m3
G = 0.905 kg/s
= 955.849 kg/m3
3-107
Hence, the standard flange design for stream 8 is tabulated as below,
3-108
Bending stress 8.401 N/mm2
Critical buckling 9.24 N/mm2
Vessel Support
Straight cylindrical skirt 90o
Design stress 137.896 N/mm2
Skirt height 0.02 mm
Total weight 32.657 kN
Bending moment 15.738 kN.m
Thickness 7.039 mm
Anchor Bolts
Bolts 8 bolts
Design stress 215.605 N/mm2
Area 64.775 mm2
Bolts root diameter 10 mm
Types M24
Flanges
Types Carbon steel welding neck
Diameter
Water inlet 20.407 mm
Vapor inlet 139.16 mm
Top 187.663 mm
Bottom 21.462 mm
3-109
3-110
3.4 Distillation Column (T-103)
There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific types
of separations, and each design differs in terms of complexity. In batch operation, the
feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the column is charged with a
batch and then the distillation process is carried out. When the desired task is
achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced. In contrast, continuous columns process
a continuous feed stream. No interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the
column or surrounding process units. They are capable of handling high throughputs
and are the most common of the two types. (WERMAC, n.d.). Continuous columns
can be further classified according to:
3-111
Azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top product stream
4. The type of column internals
Tray column - where trays of various designs are used to hold up the liquid to
provide
better contact between vapour and liquid, hence better separation
Packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used to enhance
contact
between vapour and liquid.
In this plant, the desired distillation column system is the multi component distillation.
It contains feed of more than two components. In this multicomponent distillation
column, there are IPA, acetone, water, hydrogen and DMSO. Distillation is one of the
most important process apply in acetone production plant. Multicomponent distillation
unit is well established technology that function to separate acetone from IPA-
acetone-water mixture from stream 6 and 8 in an economic way and commercial
scale. This process is being applied to separate acetone from the mixture as the
components in the mixture have difference boiling point and volatility as shown in
Table 3.30.
3-112
7. Conduct mechanical design: vessels, internal fitting.
Since the distillation process for this acetone plant involved multicomponent
distillation, the process in determining the number of stages and reflux requirement
much more complex than separation process for binary mixture. The complexity of
multicomponent distillation calculation can be reduced by neglecting the component
that exist in a small amount at feed stream.
Based on Table 3.31, there are very small amount of hydrogen and DMSO entering
T-103, therefore these two component can be considered as trace and will be
neglected during calculations. Considering only IPA, acetone and water entering T-
103, the new mole flow used in the calculation and targetted split fraction for each
component at the top and bottom of the column being specified as in Table 3.32.
Table 3.32: New Feed Flow for Component Involved, Mole Fraction and Split
Fraction
3-113
Error between initial and final feed flow entering T-103 can be calculated and the
calculated percentage error between final and inital total flowrate is less than 0.1%
which is 0.07%, therefore the assumption making is acceptable.
Key component desired for separation process will be categorised into heavy key and
light key component. Heavy key component is a component that has high boiling point
and it will be out from top product and being enriched at bottom product. While light
component is the component with low boiling point that is desired to keep out from
bottom product and being enriched at top product.
Operating pressure for each stream will be used to determine the bubble and dew
point. Bubble point is the point whereby any rise in the temperature of saturated liquid
that will cause the formation of vapor and it can be determined from the pressure of
feed and bottom stream. Meanwhile dew point is a point whereby any drop in the
temperature of saturated vapor that will cause the formation of liquid droplet and this
point can be determined from the top stream operating pressure. For multicomponent
mixtures at given pressure with the relation of equilibrium constant (K), bubble and
dew point can be calculated as follow;
Where:
3-114
xi = liquid mol fraction for component i
Equilibrium constant, K:
P
K= P
(3.3)
Whereby P is vapor pressure and P is the operating pressure both in Pa. P will be
calculated by using Antoinne Equation as in Equation 3.34.
Where:
C= antoine constant
T= temperature (K)
At feed stream with pressure of 5 atm, temperature required for bubble point to
happen is 130.709C (403.709K).
3-115
Table 3.35: Details for Bubble Point Calculations at 130.709C
At bottom stream with pressure of 1 atm, temperature required for bubble point to
happen is at 99.599C (372.599K). Data required for the bubble point calculation at
bottom stream as being tabulated in Table 3.36.
At top stream with pressure of 1 atm, temperature required for dew point to happen
is
57.999 C (330.999K). Data required for dew point calculation at top stream as being
tabulated in Table 3.37.
3-116
Table 3.38: Summary for Bubble and Dew Point Temperature
Stream
Feed Top Bottom
Bubble point temperature (K) 407.709 372.599
Dew point temperature (K) 330.999
KLK
LHK = KHK (3.5)
Where:
Where :
3-117
Table 3.39: Relative Volatilies of Each Component
+Hfs-Hf
q =
(3.7)
Where
Where:
Tf = feed temperature
For heat capacity calculation, equation 3.9 has been employed for heat capacity
calculation of liquid at Tfeed and Tbubble of the feed at column operating pressure.
3-118
Tfeed = 354 K, Tbubble = 403.709 K
Table 3.40: Data for Heat Capacity Calculation (R.H Perry. & D.W green., 1997)
8.32BT 2 z
= LV = (T+C)2
(3.10)
Where:
T= temperature, K
z = compressibility constant
3-119
z in Equation 3.10 can be calculated based on equation below;
Pr 0.5
z = [1- Tr 3
] (3.11)
Where:
Pr = reduced pressure
1
Pr = Pc (3.12)
Tbp
Tr = (3.13)
Tc
Where:
Pc = critical pressure
Tc = critical temperature
Component Tc Pc Tbp Pr Tr z
IPA 508.2 4.701 355 0.212721 0.698544 0.613137
Acetone 647.096 22.064 329 0.045323 0.508425 0.809411
Water 508.3 4.765 373 0.209864 0.733819 0.684768
3-120
Table 3.43: Latent Heat Calculation
+Hfs-Hf
=
26 154.53+3 171.2
= 26 154.53
Minimun reflux ratio (Rmin) gives definitation of minimun amount of liquid being
returned to column. Rmin can be identified through the Equation 3.14 that had been
develop by Underwood and Equation 3.15 had being applied in order to solve for .
Value of usually lies between relative volatility of light component and heavy
component. Data required for the calculation of and Rm as being tabulate in Table
3.44 and 3.55 respectively.
iXid
= Rm + 1 (3.14)
i-
Where:
3-121
iXif
= 1-q (3.15)
i-
Where:
iXif
Since q=1.12, thus to give i-
= -0.12, value of = 2.011 will take into
consideration.
From Table 3.45, it give total Rm + 1 = 1.565323, thus soving for Rm = 0.565323
3-122
Optimum reflux ratio = 1.5Rm
= 1.5(0.565323)
= 0.847985
Fenske equation will be used to estimate the minimun stages required at total reflux.
Fenske equation had been rearranged into Equation 3.16 in determining the minimun
stage required.
Xlk Xhk
log[ ]d [ ]b
Xhk Xlk
Nm = log ()lk
(3.16)
Where:
0.984342678 0.974996957
log[[ ][ ]]
0.009945413 1.0059E-6
Nm = log 4.690333
Nm = 11.88
From the calculated Nm, theoritical nomber of stage could be identified by using Erbar
Maddox Correlation as attached in Figure 3.31. From the figure, following data are
being calculated:
3-123
Nm/Ntheo = 11.88/Ntheo = 0.58
Ntheo = 21 stages
Where:
Eo = column efficiency
3-124
a = average relative volatility of light key
1 1
log a = (VISA) [( ) -( )] (3.18)
Taverage VISB
Where:
= (329 + 361)/ 2
= 345 K
From the data obtained in the tables above, efficiency of column calculated:
= 45.97% 46%
3-125
From the efficiency of column obtained, thus the number of actual stage can be
determined based on the Equation 3.19.
Nthe
N= Eo
(3.19)
21
N= = 46 stages
0.46
Nr B Xf,hk Xb,lk 2
Log Ns = 0.206 log [(D) ( Xf,lk ) (Xd,hk) ] (3.20)
Where:
Nr
Ns
= 1.0517
Nr = 1.0517Ns
Nr + Ns = 46
1.0517Ns + Ns = 46
3-126
2.0517Ns = 46
Ns = 22.4 22
Nr = 24
Plate tower distillation column has been chosen as column type for acetone
separation process as it offers lower cost compared with packed distillation column.
Conditions favoring plate column over packed column can be described as below:
1. Plate column more reliable because of liquid dipersion difficulties faced in packed
column.
2. Plate column may be designed to handle wide range liquid rate without flooding.
4. Cleaning process more easier for plate column compared with packed column
5. For large column height, packed column will give disadvantages as it will give more
weight.
7. Packed column generally are not designed for column diameter larger than 1.5
meter.
Colum height will be depending on the spacing between plate. Plate spacing normally
range from 0.5 m to 1.0 m depending on the diameter and also operating condition
(R.K.Sinnot, 1999). For column diameter above 1 m, plate spacing of 0.3 to 0.6 m
normally used. For initial estimation, plate spacing of 0.5 will be used and the value
would be revised later once detailed of the plate design is completed.
3-127
3.4.1.12 Physical Properties
i) Pressure Drop
= 41.202 kPa
Relative Molecular Weight (RMW) is the average molecular weight of the mixture for
each stream and this parameter can be identified through Equation 3.21.
Component MW Xf Xd Xb Density
(kg/kmol) (kg/m3)
IPA 60.1 0.015945 0.005712 0.025002 786
Acetone 58.08 0.46203 0.984343 1.01E-06 791
Water 18 0.522025 0.009945 0.974997 1000
Total
3-128
iii) Density of Mixture (PPM)
Liquid density = l = i i
(8.22)
MW Tstd Pop
Vapor density = v = Vstd Top Pstd
(8.23)
Where:
Table 3.50: Liquid and Vapor Density at Feed Stream (Top = 354K, Pop = 5 bar)
Table 3.51: Liquid and Vapor Density at Top Stream (Top = 329K, Pop = 1 bar)
3-129
Table 3.52: Liquid and Vapor Density at Bottom Stream (Top = 361K, Pop = 1 bar)
(l- v) 1/2
v = ( -0.171Lt2 + 0.27Lt 0.047) [ v
] (3.24)
Where :
v = maximum allowable vapour velocity, based on total column cross sectional area
(m/s)
v = ( 0.04525) (14.0059)
v = 0.63377 m/s
Flooding condition will determine the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate
efficiencies, a high vapour velocity is requiredand it normally lies between 70 to 90%
of that which would cause flooding. In designing distillation column, value of Uf being
assumed between 80 to 85% of flooding. Uf value can be estimated from the
correlation by Fair (1961) as being states in Equation 3.25.
3-130
Uf = K1 (3.25)
Where:
Uf = flooding vapour velocity (m/s) based on net column cross sectional area, An
In determination of K1 value, liquid vapor flow factor (FLV) must be calculated from
Equation 3.26;
V
Lw
FLV = Vw L (3.26)
Where:
5.047
3.4313
FLV = 6.4492 994.6494
FLV = 0.03789
K1 = 0.1
994.6494-5.047
Uf = 0.1 5.047
Uf = 1.4003 m/s
3-131
Un = 0.85 flooding velocity
Un = 0.851.4003
Un = 1.19 m/s
w
Dc = vv (3.27)
Where:
= D(1+R)
= 217.529(1+0.85)
3-132
= 402.4287 kmol/hr
= 23 217.2759 kg/hr
= 6.4492 kg/s
4 6.4492
Dc = 5.0440.63377
Dc = 1.6027 m
From the diameter obtained, area of the column can be determined from Equation
3.28.
2
Ac = 4
(3.28)
(1.6)2
Ac =
4
Ac = 2.0174 m2
Type of plate in distillation column will depend on the liquid flow rate and also column
diameter. An initial selection of plate type can be made by utilizing Figure 3.33.
According to the figure, at Dc = 1.6027 m and liquid flow rate of 0.00345 m3/s, plate
type suitable for the operation is cross flow (single pass) type.
3-133
Figure 3.33: Selection of Liquid Flow Arrangement (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
Length of the downcomers will fix the area of the downcomer and it usually be
between 0.6 to 0.85 0f the column diameter. Initial value to be used is 0.77 which is
equivalent to a downcomer of 12%. Length of downcomer could be determined based
on the figure of relation between downcomer area and weir length as shown in Figure
3.34.
3-134
By referring to the figure at;
Figure 3.34: Relation between Down Comer Area and Weir Length (R.K. Sinnot,
1999)
Height of weir help in determining the volume of liquid on the plate and plate
efficiency. Plate efficiency will increase if the weir height is increase but will contribute
to the higher expense on the pressure drop. For column that operating above
atmospheric pressure, the weir height will normally between 40 mm to 90 mm. The
recommended height for weir design is between 40 mm to 50 mm. Thus in weir design
basis of following parameter is taken into consideration:
Weir height, hw = 50 mm
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
3-135
3.4.1.20 Weep Point
Weep point is a condition whereby lower limit of the operating range occurs when
liquid leakage through the plate holes become excessive. To prevent the occurance
of weeping point, the lowest rate of vapour flow velocity must exceed the weep point.
As given by Eduljee (1959), the simplest yet reliable method to calculate minimun
velocity required in order to avoid weeping as shown in Equation 3.29.
[K-0.9(25.4-dh)]
h = v 0.5
(3.29)
Where:
h = minimun vapour velocity through the holes (based on hole area), m/s
Clear liquid depth is equal to the height of the weir, hw plus the depth of the crest of
liquid over the weir,how. The depth of the liquid crest over the weir can be estimated
by using Equation 3.30.
Lw
how = 750 [(l)lw] (3.30)
Where:
lw = weir length, m
3.4313
Maximum how = 750 [(994.9464)(1.22)]2/3 = 14.9943mm liquid
2.4019
Minimun how = 750 [(994.9464)(1.22)]2/3 = 11.8211 mm liquid
3-136
At minimun rate, hw + how = 50 mm + 11.8211 = 61.8211 mm liquid
[30.37-0.9(25.4-5)]
h = 5.04470.5
= 5.3472 m/s
= 5.9659 m/s
As actual minimun vapour velocity is higher than vapour velocity at weep point thus
weeping phenomenon can be avoided.
Maximun vapor velocity through the holes can be calculated from Equation 3.31.
= 8.52 m/s
3-137
3.4.1.22 Dry Plate Pressure Drop, hd
The estimation on the dry plate pressure drop for oriface flow could be derived from
Equation 3.32. Value of Co could be determined from the Figure 3.36.
hd= 51[ ]^2
(3.32)
where:
C0 = function of plate thickness, hole diameter and hole to perforated area ratio
C0 = 0.84
8.52 5.0447
hd= 51[0.84]^2 994.6494
= 26.61 mm liquid
3-138
3.4.1.23 Residual Head, Hr
= 12.57 mm liquid
ht = 101 mm liquid
Lwd
hdc = 166 [] (3.35)
where:
3-139
For clearance area under downcomer, Aap = hapLaw
Where:
hap = height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate (normally set at 5 to 10
mm below the outlet weir height).
hap = hw (5 to 10 mm)
hap = 50 10 = 40 mm
= 0.048 m2
Since Ad = 0.24 m, thus Aap smaller than Ad, thus value of Aap wil be taken into
consideration.
3.4313
hdc = 166 [994.64940.048]
hdc = 1.48 mm
hbc = 164.3 mm
The downcomer are and plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and
froth in the downcomer is well below the top of the outlet weir on the pplaye above.
Column will flood if the level rises above the outlet weir. hbc should not exceed half of
the plate spacing in order to avoid flooding.
Since hbc value which is 164.3 mm is less than half of plate spacing which is 260 mm,
thus the value of plate spacing being assumed (0.5 m) can be accepted.
3-140
3.4.1.27 Downcomer Residence Time
tr = 11.4 seconds
3.4.1.28 Entrainment
Entrainment can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961) as shown in
Figure 3.7 which gives the fractional entrainment (kg/kg gross liquid flow) as a
function of the liquid vapor factor, FLv with the percentage approach of flooding as a
parameter. Effect on the efficiency of column will be small when the upper limit of
is 0.1. Flooding percentage can be determined as in Equation 8.37.
= 84.98 %
Based on Figure 3.37, at percentage flooding of 84.98% and FLV =0.03789, value
= 0.09. As below than 0.1 than there is no effect in the column efficiency.
3-141
Figure 3.37: Entrainment Correlation for Sieve Plate (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
The area available for perforation will help to reduce the obstruction caused by
structural members like support rings and beams and also by the used of calming
zone. Calming zone is the area of unperforated plate strips at inlet and outlet sides of
the plate. Width of each zone usually in dimension of 1.5 m below, 7.5 mm diameter
and 100 mm above. The widht for support ring of sectional plates will normally lies
between 50 to 75 mm and the support ring should not extend into the downcomer
area. A strip of un pperforated plate will be left round the edge of cartridge type trays
in order to stiffen the plate.plate geometry will determine the area of unperforated.
Relationshipp between weir chord length, chord height and the angle subtended by
the chord is presented in Figure 3.8. Based on Figure 3.38, at Lw/Dc = 0.76,
c= 98. Thus angle subtended by the edge of the plate = 180 - 98 = 82.
3-142
Figure 3.38: Relation Between Angle Subtended by Chord, Chord Height and Chord
Length (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
Sized of hole vary from 2.5 to 12 mm and the preferred is 5 mm. Larger size is
required for fouling system. Typical plate thickness used for carbon steel is 5 mm and
3 mm for stainless steel.
Hole pitch describe the distances between hole centre and it should not be less than
0.2 hole diameters. The normal range usually between 2.5 to 4.0 diameters as at this
range, the pitch will give the number of active holes required for the total hole area
sppecified. Triangular pattern is preferred for pitch design. For triangular pitch, total
hole area, Ah as a fraction of the perforated area, Ap can be expressed in the Equation
3.38.
= 0.9 [ ]2 (3.38)
3-143
iii) Mean Length of Unperforated Strips
= 2.65
Area of unperforated edge strip = weir height mean length, unperforated edge strips
= 0.133 m
App mean length of calming zone = weir length + width of unpperforated strips
= 1.27 m
= 0.127 m2
= 1.26 m2
Relation between hole area and pitch as been shown in Figure 3.39. Based on Figure
3.39, at Ah/Ap = 0.15/1.26 = 0.12, Ip/Dh = 2.73. Since Ip/Dh value is within the range of
2.5 to 4.0 thus it is acceptable.
3-144
Figure 3.39: Relation between Hole Area and Pitch (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
= (0.0052)/4
= 1.9635E-5 m2
= 0.15/ 1.9635E-5
= 8 843 holes
3-145
Column height = 22.5 + 1.2 + 1.8 (1.2 m should be added at top of column for vapor
release and 1.8 should be added at bottom for liquid level and reboiler return)
Column height = 26 m
Length to diameter ratio of a tower should be not more than 30 and referably below
20 (ICARUS, 1998). As the calculated ratio is 16 m which is below than 20 m thus the
design calculated is acceptable.
3-146
Table 3.54: Summary Chemical Design of Distillation Colum (T-103)
Parameter Value
Feed temperature 354 K
Distillate temperature 329 K
Bottom temperature 361 K
Type of column Tray tower
Tray type Sieve plate tray
Dew point temperature 330 K
Bubble point temperature 372.54 K
Bubble feed point temperature 407.71 K
Q value 1.12> 1 (subcooled liquid)
Minimum reflux ratio 0.5653
Plate efficiencies 46%
Minimum number of stages 11.88
Number of theoritical stages 21
Number of actual stages 46
Number of stage above fee, Nr 22
Number of stage below feed, Ns 24
Reflux ratio, R 0.85
Plate spacing 0.5
Maximum allowable vapor velocity, v 0.6338 m/s
Column area 2.02 m2
Column diameter 1.6 m
Column height 26 m
Liquid flow pattern Cross flow (single pass) plate
Downcomer area, Ad 0.24 m2
Net area, An 1.76 m2
Active area, Aa 1.52 m2
Hole area, Ah 0.15 m2
Weir length, lw 1.22 m
Weir height 50 mm = 0.05 m
Hole diameter, dh 5 mm = 0.005 m
Plate thickness 5 mm = 0.005 m
Minimum design vapour velocity, Uh (min) 5.3472 m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity 5.9659 m/s
Plate pressure drop 26.61 mm liquid
(plate spacing + weir height) 260 mm
Downcamer liquid back up, hbc 164.3 mm
Residence time 11.4 s
Entrainment 0.09 (below 0.1)
3-147
3.4.2 Mechanical Design of Distillation Column
Based on chemical design of T-103 conducted in previous section, a few data have
been extracted as shown in Table 3.55.
Distillation column for acetone separation process must be designed to have the
ability to withstand the maximum pressure that it will experienced during operation.
Safety factor of 5 to 10% above normal working pressure must taken into
consideration in order to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets. In
3-148
this operation, safety factor of 10% above operating pressure is being consider to
prevent spurious operation of relief valve during process upset.
= 1.1 3 bar
= 3.3 bar
= 0.33 N/mm2
SS304 (18Cr/Ni, 2.5%Mo) has been chosen as the material use in fabrication of
column tower T-103. SS304 is the type of stainless steel that is widely used in
chemical industry that desired for corrosion resistance as it shows excellent behavior
in a wide range of atmospheric environments and many corrosive media
(R.K.Sinnot,1999). The designated distillation column function to separate acetone
from IPA and water. SS304 will subjected to pitting and crevice corrosion in warm
3-149
chloride environments, however during this separation process this problem will not
arise as the environment of process not involving chloride environment.
Table 3.56 describes relative properties and cost of metal that can be applied in
chemical processing industry. From the table, it showed that carbon steel has lower
cost compared with SS 304 and SS 346. However the maximum allowable stress for
carbon steel quite low compared with those two stainless steel. With the same
maximum allowable stress of 20 ksi, SS 304 gives better properties as its cost much
cheaper compared with SS 316.
Metal Price ($/lb) Max allowable stress (ksi) Relative cost rating
Carbon steel 0.46 12.9 1
Stainless steel 304 1.44 20 2.0
Stainless steel 316 2.47 20 3.5
Table 3.57: Typical Maximum Allowable Stresses for Plate under ASME BPV Code
Sec. VIII D.1 (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
SS 304 510 165 145 130 115 110 105 100 100 95 90
3-150
3.4.2.5 Maximum Welded Joint Efficiency and Construction Categories
Welded joint strength depend on the type of joint and also the quality of welding in
order to join head, perforated body and fittings together meanwhile the joint efficiency
values depends on the type of joint and amount of radiography required. The design
of welded joint should meet the following requirement;
3. Give good penetration of the weld metal from both side of joint.
For pressurized vessel, the preferred type of joint as being stated in ASME BPV Code
Sec VIII D.1, Part UW requirement for pressure vessle fabricated by welding or BS N
13455-3 ANNEX P, BS EN 13445-4 and BS EN 1708-1 welding is basic weld joint.
Any vessel pressure containing lethal substance (in this case are IPA and acetone)
must required full radiographic testing of all butt welds. To ensure the flexibility of the
designated distillation column, double welded butt joint is chosen as type of welded
joint with full degree of radiographic examination.
Table 3.58: Maximun Allowable Joint Efficiency for Designated Distillation Column
(R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
Joint Description Joint Degree of Radiographic Examination
Categories Full Spot None
Double welded butt A, B, C, D 1.0 0.85 0.70
joint or equivalent
Corrosion allowance referred to the additional thickness that being added to metal to
allow for lost of material by corrosion, erosion or fouling during operational process.
Corrosion allowance shall be specify for all type pressure vessel as being stated in
ASME BPV Code Sec VIII D.1 (Part UG-25). For alloy steel where severe corrosion
is not expected, a minimun allowance of 2.0 mm should be used and the corrosion
allowance should be increased to 4.0 mm where moresevere conditions are
3-151
anticipated. Minimun corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm will be anticipated in the
designing calculation as SS304 is corrosion resistance in the operating environment
which consist of IPA, acetone and water. Minimun corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm is
acceptable to be applied in this design as the behaviour of IPA, acetone and water
as the operating environment are not very corrosive thus the material of construction
able to withstand its properties with only 2.0 mm corrosion allowance.
The minimum thickness required for the cylinderical shell can be calculated from the
Equation 3.36:
PiDi
=
2SE1.2Pi
(3.36)
Where:
T = minimum thickness required, mm
Pi = internal pressure, N/mm2
Di = internal diamter, m
3-152
E = joint factor
S = maximum allowable stress, N/mm2
0.33(1600)
t = 2(130)(1)1.2(0.33)
Suitable head for the cylinderical vessel can be made based on comparison between
the different type of head thickness. The smaller different between head thickness
and cylinderical thickness is the most suitable one to be apply as head of vessel.
Various shape of heads that usually being adopted in industry are as shown in Figure
3.40.
Figure 3.40: Domed Head. (a) Hemispherical (b) Ellipsoidal (c) Torispherical
(R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
i
= e (3.37)
3-153
Where:
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
De = nominal plate diameter = De = Di + 0.2 = 1.6 m + 0.2 = 1.8 m x 103 = 1800
mm
C = design constant, depend on edge constraint
S = maximum allowable stress
E = joint efficiency
Pi = internal pressure, 0.33 N/mm2
i i
= (3.38)
40.4i
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
Di = internal diameter, 1.6 m x 103 = 1600 mm
S = maximum allowable stress, 130 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.33 N/mm2
Therefore,
N
0.33 1600 mm
mm2
t= N
[(4130 1)(0.40.33)]
mm2
t = 1.02 mm + 2 mm = 2.02 mm
3-154
iii. Torispherical heads
0.885PiRc
t= SE0.1Pi
(3.39)
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
Rc = crown radius = Di = 1600 mm
S = maximum allowable stress, 130 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.33 N/mm2
Therefore,
N
0.8850.33 1600 mm
mm2
t= N
[(1301)(0.10.33)]
mm2
t = 3.6 mm + 2 mm = 5.6 mm
PiDi
t = 2SE0.2P (3.30)
i
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
Di = internal diameter, 1.6 m x 103 = 1600 mm
S = maximum allowable stress, 130 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.33N/mm2
Therefore,
N
0.33 1600 mm
mm2
t= N
[(21301)(0.20.33)]
mm2
3-155
type of heads, the values for thickness obtained are much larger than the
thickness of wall, thus it will make the column become unstable and inefficient.
Ellipsoidal heads give the best result at value of 4.0 mm which is same with
the thickness of wall vessel. In distillation column, a much thicker wall will be
needed at the base. As the first rial, the column will be divided into five section
with the thickness increasing by 2 mm per section. Thus the thickness are 6,
8,10, 12 14 mm. Average thickness is 10 mm will be used in the calculation.
Some of the sources that contributing to the weight loads are the vessel shell,
vessel fittings (manways and nozzles), internal fittings (plates, heating and
cooling coils), external fittings (ladders, piping), auxiliary equipment that is not
self-supported (condenser, agitators), insulations and the weight of liquid to
be filling in the vessel.
However, since the material used for this vessel is steel, the equation above
can be further simplified;
3-156
WV = 240CWDm(HV + 0.8Dm)t
Weight of plates
The plates area must be include with typical liquid loading, 1.2 kN/m2
= 1.2 2
2.01 2 = 2.413
Number of plates, 46
P = 2.413 36 = 110.986
For insulation, the material selected is foam glass. For a refinery and
petrochemical plant, the property of insulation that needs to be considered is
the thermal properties as insulation functions to reduce heat loss since the
column operated above atmospheric temperature. Foam glass comes with
high quality and longer shell life besides having good thermal conductivity
(Foam Glas, 2004). Since foam glass is chosen as insulation material, the
density for this insulating material is 150 kg/m3
(R.K. Sinnot, 1999). According to (Kennedy, 2007), the optimum thickness for
insulation for distillation column, the range value is between 4 inch to 8 inch.
Thus, for this case, the thickness of foam glass selected is 4 inch (101.6 mm).
3-157
kg m
Wi = 13.28 m3 150 m3 9.81 s2
Wi = 19 538.77 N = 19.54 kN
To allow for attachment fitting, sealing and moisture adsorption, the weight
obtained will be doubled.
Wi = 19.54 kN 2 = 39.08 kN
= 360/1000 26 m
= 9.36 kN
Thus, the total weight loads obtained for this distillation column is;
Since the distillation column is 26 m tall, thus the pressure caused by the wind
must be taking into account. This will affect the stability of the column. This wind
loading will cause the bending stress of the tall column will be greater than direct
stress. Thus, it shows that wind loading and bending stress was related. The
bending moment at any plane can be calculated from Equation 3.32.
Fw x2
MX = (3.32)
2
Where,
For smooth cylinderical column, Equation 3.33 can be employed to estimate the
wind pressure. If the column outline is broken up by attachments like ladder pipe
3-158
work, the factor of 0.05 in Equation 3.33 should be increased to 0.07 to allow for
the increase drag.
Pw = 0.05Uw2 (3.33)
Where:
Pw = 0.05(150)2
Pw = 1126.8 N/m2
N
Fw = 1126.8 m2
1.82 m = 2 054.38 N/m
N
2054.38
Mx = 2
m
(26)2 m2
Stress acting on distillation column usually resulted from that include pressure,
dead weight of vessel and contents, wind, earthquake and also external load
contribute by piping and attached equipment.
3-159
N
PDi 0.33 1600 mm
mm2
L = = = 9.43 N/mm2
4t 414 mm
Dead weight stress is contributed by the weight of the vessel, its content and
any attachment to it. This type of stress could be compressive either tensile.
The compressive (negative) for points above the supports and tensile
(positive) for point below the plane of vessel supports (Sinnot & Towler, 2009).
The dead weight stress can be obtained by;
Wz 280.686 103 N
w = (D +t)t = [(1600+14)mm]14 mm = 3.95 N/mm2 (compressive)
i
Bending stress, b
The bending stress was resulting from the bending moments subjected to the
vessel. Some factors contributing to the bending moments are wind loads,
seismic load and the dead weight and wind loads (R.K.Sinnot, 1999). In order
to obtain the bending stress, the second moment area of vessel must be
calculated first.
Iv = 64 (Dv 4 Di4 )
Since the value of Iv has been determined, the bending stress can be
calculated as following;
b = 24.45 N/mm2
3-160
Thus, the resultant longitudinal stress can be obtained;
z = L + w b
The greater stresses is at downwind side of the vessel which is 37.83 N/mm2.
This value however consider acceptable in the design as the maximum
allowable stress for SS304 is 130 N/mm2 which is higher than the principle
stress.
According to R.K. Sinnot (1999), failure of design for column can occur under
an axial compressive load by buckling of complete vessel. Thus, it is
necessary to ensure that the maximum value of resultant axial stress will not
exceed the critical value at which buckling can occur. The critical buckling
stress is achieved by;
t
c = 2 104 (D ) N/mm2
v
14
c = (2 104 ) (1628) = 171.99 N/mm2
3-161
The maximum compressive stress that will occur when the vessel is not under
pressure is 28.44 N/mm2. Since the value obtained does not exceed the
critical buckling stress (171.99 N/mm2 ), the design is considered acceptable.
Vessel support will depend on the size, shape and weight of the vessel, design
temperature and pressure, vessel location and arrangement and also the
internaland external fittings and attachment. For tall and vertical column, skirt
support as shown in Figure 3.41 will be implemented. The design of support
must be checked to make sure that the resulting stress concentration are
below maximum allowable design stress as support will imposed localised
load on the vessel wall. Support also must be design to allow easy access to
the vessel and fittings for inspection and maintenance.
Figure 3.41: Skirt Support Design. (a) Straight Skirt (b) Conical Skirt
(R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
3-162
Design stress, Ss = 88.94 N/mm2
Maximum weight load on the skirt support will happen when the vessel full
with liquid (water). Approxiamate weight of vessel when full with water can be
estimated from Equation 3.34.
= 512.83 kN
N
2054.38
Ms = m
(26 + 3)2 m2
2
4Ms
bs = (Ds+tsk)Ds(tsk) (3.35)
Where:
3-163
As first trial, skirt thickness will be assume as same as the bottom section of
vessel which is 14 mm.
The dead weight stress of skirt for test and operating conditions can be
determine from Equation 3.36 and 3.37 respectively.
Wt
ws (test) = (Ds+tsk)(tsk) (3.36)
Wz
ws (operating) = (Ds+tsk)(tsk) (3.37)
793.516 1000
ws (test) = (1600+14)(14) = 11.18 N/mm2
280.686 1000
ws (operating) = (1600+14)(14) = 3.95 N/ mm2
(3.39)
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind
and dead weight loading.
3-164
26.47 N/mm2 < 76.59 N/mm2
s (compressive) < 0.125 Ey (tsk/Ds) sin
41.6 N/mm2 < 0.125(200 000)(14/1600)sin 90
41.6 N/mm2 < 218.75 N/mm2
Both criteria are statisfied, adding 2 mm for corrosion allowance will give a
design thickness for skirt support of 16 mm.
The moment produces by wind and others loads will tend to overturn the
vessel and in order to prevent this from happening is by setting up the couple
vessel weight and the tensile load in the anchor bolt. Rules that can be apply
for the selection of anchor bolts are as follow (R.K.Sinnot, 1999):
1. Used bolts larger than 25 mm.
2. Minimum number of bolts must be 8
3. Used multiples of 4 bolts
4. Bolt pitch must more than 600 mm.
1 4Ms
Ab = Nbfb ( Db W) (3.40)
3-165
Where:
Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2 (125 , N/mm2)
Ms = bending moment at base, Nm
W = weight of vessel, N
Db = bolt circle diameter, m
1 4863.87103
Ab = ( 280.686 1000) (3.41)
12(125) 2.2
= 859.99 mm
4
Db = 859.99
= 33.09 mm
The total compressive load on the base ring per unit length can be determined
from Equation 3.42.
4
Fb = [ 2 +
] (3.42)
Where:
Fb = total compressive load on the base ring, N/m
Ds = skirt diameter, m
4(863.871000) 280.6861000
Fb = [ + ]
(1.62 ) (1.6)
3-166
3.4.2.16 Base Ring Width, Lb
i) Minimum Width
The minimum width of the base ring can be determine from Equation 3.43.
Fb 1
Lb = fc
103 (3.43)
Where:
Lb = base ring width, mm
fc = the maximum allowable bearing on the concrete foundation pad, which
will depend on the mix used (typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm2)
435.24 1000 1
Lb = 3
5 10
For root area, Ab = 859.99 mm2, M42 bolts (BS 4190:1967) will be used with
root area of 1120 mm2. This value will be used during actual width that depend
on the chair design. Figure 3.42 showed flange ring dimension and contacting
edges fillet welded.
3-167
Table 3.60: Dimension for M42 Bolts (BS 4190:1967)
A 60
B 102
C 76
D 16
E 32
F 48
G 54
fc = Fb / Lb
fc = (435.24 1000)/(87.05 1000) = 4.99 N/mm2
3f c
tb = Lr fr
Where:
fr = allowable design stress in the ring material (typically 140 N/mm2)
3(4.99)
tb = 102 140
tb = 33.4 mm = 34 mm
3-168
3.4.2.17 Pipe Diameter Estimation and Thickness Required
Diameter of piping will directly influence the capital cost and inversely
influenced the pumping cost required. Type of material used in designing the
piping is carbon steel as it cost lower price among other metal and there is no
corrosive environment involved in the operation. Approximate pipe diameter
for carbon steel in turbulent flow can be calculated by using Equation 3.44.
Where:
G = flow rate, kg/s
= density, kg/m3
P d optimum
Pipe thickness, t = 20 +P
(3.45)
Where:
P= internal pressure, bar
d = pipe outer diameter
= design stress for carbon steel at working temperature, 88.94 N/mm2
i) Feed stream
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 0.664(4.7875)0.51(900.02)-0.36
= 0.1275 m, 127.49 mm
3-169
5 127
Pipe thickness, t = 20 (88.94)+5
= 0.36 mm
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 0.664(3.4861)0.51(5.0447)-0.36
= 0.7010m, 701 mm
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 0.664(1.3016)0.51(994.65)-0.36
= 0.0633 m, 63.29 mm
3-170
1 63.5
Pipe thickness, t = 20 (88.94)+1
= 0.036 mm
Flanged joints function to connect pipe and other instruments to vessel, for
manhole covers and for removable vessel head when ease of access is
required. Flanges also may be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary
to divide the vessel into sections for transport or maintenance. Besides that,
it also used to connect pipe to other equipment such as pumps and valves.
There are several type of flanges that can be utilized in process industries
such as welding neck flanges, slip on flanges hub and plate types, lap joint
flanges, screw flanges and blank flanges. Steel welding neck flanges has
been consider to be apply in designing column T-103 as it has a long tapered
hub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This properties reduce the
discontinuity stresses between the flanges and branch and also will increase
the strength of the flanges assembly. Welding neck joint very suitable to be
apply in extreme service condition where the flange is likely to be subjected
to temperature, shear and vibration loads. With outer pipe diameter of 127,
711 and 63.5 mm for feed, top and bottom stream respectively, standard
dimension for steel welding neck flanges at nominal pressure of 6 bar as being
tabulate in Table 3.32.
3-171
Table 3.61: Flanges Dimension of Steel Welding neck Flanges at Nominal Pressure 6 bar (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
3-172
Table 3.62: Summary Mechanical Design of T-103
Parameter Value
Specification of Column Design
Operating pressure 3 bar
Operating temperature 329 to 361 K
Column area 2.02 m
Column diameter 1.6 m
Column height 26 m
Design pressure 3.3 bar
Design temperature 421.65 K (148.5C)
Material of construction SS304
Insulation material Mineral wool
Insulation thickness 101.6 mm
Design stress, S 130N/mm2
Maximumm allowable joint 1
efficiency, E
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Vessel thickness 4 mm
Closure design Ellipsoidal
Loads
Dead weight of vessel, Wv 121.256 kN
Weight of plates, Wp 110.986 kN
Weight of ladder, Wl 9.36 kN
Weight of insulation material, Wi 39.08 kN
Total weight load of vessel, Wz 280.686 kN
Wind loading, W 2.054 kN/m
Bending moment of vessel. Mx 694.38 kN/m
Analysis of Stresses
Resultant longitudinal stress 37.83 N/mm2
Critical buckling stress,c 171.99 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress 28.44 N/mm2 (well below c)
3-173
Parameter Value
Vessel Support
Type of support Straight cylinderical skirt (s = 90)
Material of construction Plain carbon steel
Design stress, Ss 88.94 N/mm2
Young Modulus, Ey 200 000 n/mm2 at ambient
temperature
Skirt support height 3m
Weight load on skirt 793.516 kN
Bending moment of skirt, Ms 863.87 kNm
Bending stress on skirt, bs 30.42 N/mm2
Dead weight stress, ws (test) 11.18 N/mm2
Dead weight stress, ws (operating) 3.95 N/mm2
Maximum stress, s (compressive) 41.60 N/mm2
Maximum stress, s (tensile) 26.47 N/mm2
Skirt thickness 16 mm
Base ring and anchor bolts design
Approximate pitch circle diameter 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt diameter 2200
Recommended bolt spacing 600 mm
Number of bolt required 12 bolts
Bolt design stress, fb 125 N/mm2
Area of one bolt at the root of the thread 859.99 mm2
Bolt circle diameter, Db 33.09 mm
Compressive load on the base ring, Fb 435.24 kN/m
Base ring width, Lb 87.05 mm
Bearing pressure, fc 5 N/mm2
Bolt type M42 bolts (BS 4190:1967)
Actual bolt width required 168 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete 4.99 N/mm2
foundation, fc
The minimum bolt thickness, tb 34 mm
3-174
Parameter Value
Estimation of Pipe Diameter and Thickness Required
Feed inlet stream doptimum 127.5 mm
Pipe thickness, t 4.36 mm
Distillate stream doptimum 701 mm
Pipe thickness, t 4.39 mm
Bottom stream doptimum 63.29 mm
Pipe thickness, t 4.036 mm
Flanges Design
Type Steel welding neck flanges
3-175
3-176
3.5 Sequencing Batch Reactor(SBR)
3.5.1 Introduction
SBR technology that involved periodic discontinuous process with activated sludge is
suitable to treat various types of wastewater including domestic wastewater, specific
organic pollutants, heavy metal and various types of industrial wastewater by using
diverse types of reactor configurations (Cui et al. 2013). SBR is suitable to be used
for for IPA and acetone wastewater treatment since periodic operation imposes
suitable oxygen gradients on the microorganisms that overwhelm natural variations
in the waste strength and composition as mention by Woolard (1997). Higher efficient
transfer rate of dissolved oxygen in flocs was proposed as the main reason for the
higher IPA and acetone removal ability in sequencing batch reactor. Besides that,
SBR system also suitable to apply for wastewater stream that contain nickel metal
catalyst because of its flexible operation, controllable in reaction time and has perfect
quiescent settling in yielding high efficiency in biochemical oxygen demand and
suspended solid removal about 8998% and 8597% respectively (Malakahmad, A.,
et al., 2013).
The complete operation of SBR divided into a number of cycles that will bw carried
per day in a single reactor or basin. The duration for each cycle is about 3-6 hours
and each cycle comprises of the following phase which are repeated.
1. Fill
2. Aeration
3. Settling
4. Decanting
3-177
v. Excess or surplus sludge
Table 3.62: Primary Influent Parameter of Wastewater Discharged from the Process
Plant
3-178
Considered following design data:
For the design of flowrate, it is recommended that the peak flow (maximum daily flow,
Qpeak) is used. The Qaverage can get from manual mass balance.
Based on mass balance values, the overall wastewater effluent is 3695.272 kg/h.
3695.272 24 1 1 3
1 1000
= 88.687 m3/d
3-179
Where,
= 221.718 m3/day
The effective part of the tank (the volume between the lowest operating level and the
highest level, allowing for at least 0.5 m of freeboard) should be sized to contain the
volume of the peak hourly flow received during that portion of the SBR(s) cycle time
when there will be no forward flow or the volume of one batch, whichever is larger. In
addition to this, side stream/recycle flows should be included in the sizing.
3
221.718 699
=
3200 0.121
= 403.596 m3
Number of basin = 4
403.5963
Volume of each basin = = 100.899 m3 101 m3
4
3-180
Therefore, depth of basin = 3 m + 1.5 m = 4.5 m
100.899 3
Area of each basin = = = 22.422 m2
4.5
Width of basin
Providing length = 10 m
22.422 2
Width of basin = = 2.242 m 2.3 m
10
= 4.5 m 10 m 2.3 m
= 103.5 m3
= V/Q
101 3
=
221.718 3 /
24
= 0.46 d
= 10.9 h 11 h
V=QT
Q = V/T
3-181
Flow rate to anoxic zone to each basin
= Q +
= Q + HRT
= (12) m3/h 1 h
= 12 m3
Providing length = 5 m
123
= = 0.53 m
4.5 5
= 4.5 m 5 m 0.53 m
= 11.93 m3 12 m3
1.2 kg 2 / kg BOD
3-182
Note: g/m3 = mg/L
Kg of BOD removed
= BOD Q
= 152763.702 g/day
= 152.764 kg/d
1.2 110
= = 1.32
100
= 201.648 kg/d
O2 for N2 removal
4.6 kg O2/NH3-N kg
= 22 mg/L 1 mg/L
= 21 mg/L
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Kg of N3 -N Removed in day
= 4656.078 g/d
= 4.66 kg/d
= 21.436 kg/d
NO3-N generated
= 3492.059 g/d
= 3.492 kg/d
= 2.22 kg/d
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= 1.272 kg/d
= (Kg of O2 required for BOD load) + (Kg O2 required for NH3-N removed)
= 223.084 kg/d
kg
223.084 110
d
= = 245.392 kg/d
100
SOR =
( )/( )1.02420
245.392 kg/d
SOR = 0.95(8.42)/
[ (9.17)/ ]0.900.651.024(8120)
245.392
=
1.648
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= 148.90 kg/d
= 4.5 m - 0.4 m
= 4.1 m
= 5.6 % /m 4.1 m
= 22.96%
= 245.392 kg/d 4
= 61.438 kg/d
61.438100100
=
22.9623.21.204
= 957.97 Nm3/h/basin
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Air required per hours per basin
957.97
=
12
= 79.831 Nm3/h/basin
= 79.831 / 2
= 39.92 Nm3/h
61.438
So, power required = = 58.512 kWh
0.71.5
= 0.80 152.764
= 122.211 kg/d
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Sludge generated per basin
Number of basin = 4
= 122.211 kg/d 4
= 30.6 kg/d/basin
122.211100
=
10001.50.8
= 10.184 m3/d
= 10.184 m3/d 4
= 2.55 m3/d
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Pump capacity
60
=
2.5560
=
15
= 10.2 m3/h
Parameter Value
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3.5.2 Mechanical Design of SBR
3.5.2.1 Introduction
In this section, the mechanical design of SBR will be covered. The mechanical design
is based on determination of material of construction, design pressure, pipe diameter
used, type of flange, and vessel support. The drawing in the design shows the
important dimensions of the SBR such as the depth, wall thickness, and others
important dimensions of the SBR.
For the construction of SBR, Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP) was choosen as the
main material to be used for the construction. An FRP structure typically consists of
an unsaturated polyester (UP) resin applied to a mould in combination with
reinforcement, most commonly glass fibre, to form a part that is rigid, highly durable
and low in weight. FRP provides an unrivalled combination of properties:
Light weight
High strength-to-weight ratio (kilo-for-kilo its stronger than steel)
Design freedom
High levels of stiffness
Chemical resistance
Good electrical insulating properties
Retention of dimensional stability across a wide range of temperatures
With its excellent resistance to corrosion and chemical attack, FRP is widely used in
the chemical industry for the construction of pipe work and for chemical storage
vessels, fume scrubbers and many other high performance applications. Vinyl ester
and epoxy vinyl ester resins have been developed to give high levels of chemical
resistance even in the most aggressive environments. Besides from its excellent
resistant to corrosion and chemicals, FRP provide a cost effective choice in for the
industrial application. Table 3.58 below show the properties of FRP.
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Table 3.65: Properties of Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
Properties Value
= 1 1.1
= 1.1 bar
= 0.11 N/mm2
The normal operating temperature to be used for designing the SBR tank is at the
ambient temperature which is at 32oC. Safety factor of 10% from the operating
temperature will be considered during the calculation of design temperature.
= 32 1.1
= 35.2 oC
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3.5.2.5 Wall thickness
Minimum wall thickness is required for designing of SBR tank to ensure that the tank
can withstand its weight or loads build up in the tank. Assumption was made for the
wall thickness and the value obtained is 6.5 mm (Molded Fiber Glass, 2016) for the
wall construction of SBR. Corrosion allowance of 2 mm must be considered in the
during the calculation.
= 0.462 m
= 462 mm
(0.11)(2300)
= = = 14.882 N/mm2
2 2(8.5)
(0.11)(2300)
= = = 7.441 N/mm2
4 4(8.5)
Dead weight stress is contribute by the weight of vessel and any attachment
on it. The stress can be either compressive or tensile, where compressive
stress act above the column while tensile stress act below the column.
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10000
= = = 0.162 N/mm2
(+) (2300+8.5)(8.5)
= 2104 ( )
8.5
= 2104 ( ) = 73.641 N/mm2
2308.5
Standard flanges are available in a range of types, sizes and materials, and are used
extensively for pipes, nozzles and other attachment to tanks. The standard flange
dimensions can be obtained from ASME B16.5 Annex F. The flange used for SBR
tank was assumed to be the same for the inlet and outlet pipe.
Table 3.66: Standard flange dimensions in inches for welding-neck flanges based
on ASME B16.5 Annex F
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3.5.2.8 Type of support
There are two types of support that can be used for designing the SBR tank. Figure
3.41 shows the type of support available to be used for SBR.
Figure 3.46: Type of supports. (a) Conical skirt supports. (b) Supported on leg
bracket supports
Skirt supports are used for tall vertical columns while bracket supports are used for
all types of vessel. The supports must be designed to carry weight of the SBR. The
function of supports is designed to allow easy access to the SBR and fittings for
inspection and maintenance. For this design support of SBR tank, the suitable type
of support to be used based from the justification is bracket support.
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REFFERENCES
[1] Robert E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 3rd ed.
1981.
[2] Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 8th ed. 1997.
[5] Henry Z. Kister, Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1st ed. 1992.
[6] Christie J.G., Pearson New International Edition: Transport Process &
Separation Process Principles (Includes Unit Operations), Pearson
Education Limited, 4th Edition. 2014.
[9] E.Edwards, J. (2008, August 08). Design and Rating Shell and Tube Heat
Exchangers. Retrieved from
http://www.chemstations.com/content/documents/Technical_Articles/shell.pd
f
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