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Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy /spktrskpi/ is the study of the interaction between
matter and electromagnetic radiation. [1][2] Historically, spectroscopy
originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its
wavelength,byaprism.Latertheconceptwasexpandedgreatlytoinclude
any interaction with radiative energy as a function of its wavelength or
frequency. Spectroscopic data are often represented by an emission
spectrum,aplotoftheresponseofinterestasafunctionofwavelengthor
frequency.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Theory Analysisofwhitelightbydispersing
itwithaprismisanexampleof
3 Classificationofmethods
spectroscopy.
3.1 Typeofradiativeenergy
3.2 Natureoftheinteraction
3.3 Typeofmaterial
3.3.1 Atoms
3.3.2 Molecules
3.3.3 Crystalsandextendedmaterials
3.3.4 Nuclei

4 Othertypes
5 Applications
6 History
7 Seealso
8 Notes
9 References
10 Externallinks

Introduction
Spectroscopy and spectrography are terms used to refer to the measurement of radiation intensity as a function of
wavelength and are often used to describe experimental spectroscopic methods. Spectral measurement devices are
referredtoasspectrometers,spectrophotometers,spectrographsorspectralanalyzers.

Dailyobservationsofcolorcanberelatedtospectroscopy.Neonlightingisadirectapplicationofatomicspectroscopy.
Neon and other noblegases have characteristic emission frequencies (colors). Neon lamps use collision of electrons
withthegastoexcitetheseemissions.Inks,dyesandpaintsincludechemicalcompoundsselectedfortheirspectral
characteristicsinordertogeneratespecificcolorsandhues.Acommonlyencounteredmolecularspectrumisthatof
nitrogendioxide.Gaseousnitrogendioxidehasacharacteristicredabsorptionfeature,andthisgivesairpollutedwith
nitrogendioxideareddishbrowncolor.Rayleighscatteringisaspectroscopicscatteringphenomenonthataccounts
forthecolorofthesky.

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SpectroscopicstudieswerecentraltothedevelopmentofquantummechanicsandincludedMaxPlanck'sexplanation
ofblackbodyradiation,AlbertEinstein'sexplanationofthephotoelectriceffectandNielsBohr'sexplanationofatomic
structureandspectra.Spectroscopyisusedinphysicalandanalyticalchemistrybecauseatomsandmolecules have
uniquespectra.Asaresult,thesespectracanbeusedtodetect,identifyandquantifyinformationabouttheatomsand
molecules. Spectroscopy is also used in astronomy and remote sensing on Earth. Most research telescopes have
spectrographs. The measured spectra are used to determine the chemical composition and physical properties of
astronomicalobjects(suchastheirtemperatureandvelocity).

Theory
Oneofthecentralconceptsinspectroscopyisaresonanceanditscorrespondingresonantfrequency.Resonanceswere
first characterized in mechanical systems such as pendulums. Mechanical systems that vibrate or oscillate will
experience large amplitude oscillations when they are driven at their resonant frequency. A plot of amplitude vs.
excitationfrequencywillhaveapeakcenteredattheresonancefrequency.Thisplotisonetypeofspectrum,withthe
peakoftenreferredtoasaspectralline,andmostspectrallineshaveasimilarappearance.

Inquantummechanicalsystems,theanalogousresonanceisacouplingoftwoquantummechanicalstationarystates
ofonesystem,suchasanatom,viaanoscillatorysourceofenergysuchasaphoton.Thecouplingofthetwostatesis
strongest when the energy of the source matches the energy difference between the two states. The energy ofa
photon is related to its frequency by where is Planck's constant, and so a spectrum of the system
responsevs.photonfrequencywillpeakattheresonantfrequencyorenergy.Particlessuchaselectronsandneutrons
have a comparable relationship, the de Broglie relations, between their kinetic energy and their wavelength and
frequencyandthereforecanalsoexciteresonantinteractions.

Spectraofatomsandmoleculesoftenconsistofaseriesofspectrallines,eachonerepresentingaresonancebetween
twodifferentquantumstates.Theexplanationoftheseseries,andthespectralpatternsassociatedwiththem,were
oneoftheexperimentalenigmasthatdrovethedevelopmentandacceptanceofquantummechanics.Thehydrogen
spectralseriesinparticularwasfirstsuccessfullyexplainedbytheRutherfordBohrquantummodelofthehydrogen
atom. In some cases spectral lines are well separated and distinguishable, but spectral lines can also overlap and
appear to be a single transition if the density of energy states is high enough. Named series of lines include the
principal,sharp,diffuseandfundamentalseries.

Classificationofmethods
Spectroscopyisasufficientlybroadfieldthatmanysubdisciplinesexist,
eachwithnumerousimplementationsofspecificspectroscopictechniques.
The various implementations and techniques can be classified in several
ways.

Typeofradiativeenergy
Types of spectroscopy are distinguished by the type of radiative energy
involved in the interaction. In many applications, the spectrum is Ahugediffractiongratingattheheart
oftheultrapreciseESPRESSO
determined by measuring changes in the intensity or frequency of this
spectrograph.[3]
energy.Thetypesofradiativeenergystudiedinclude:

Electromagneticradiationwasthefirstsourceofenergyusedfor
spectroscopicstudies.Techniquesthatemployelectromagneticradiationaretypicallyclassifiedbythewavelength
regionofthespectrumandincludemicrowave,terahertz,infrared,nearinfrared,visibleandultraviolet,xrayand
gammaspectroscopy.
Particles,duetotheirdeBrogliewavelength,canalsobeasourceofradiativeenergyandbothelectronsand
neutronsarecommonlyused.Foraparticle,itskineticenergydeterminesitswavelength.

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Acousticspectroscopyinvolvesradiatedpressurewaves.
Mechanicalmethodscanbeemployedtoimpartradiatingenergy,similartoacousticwaves,tosolidmaterials.

Natureoftheinteraction
Typesofspectroscopycanalsobedistinguishedbythenatureoftheinteractionbetweentheenergyandthematerial.
Theseinteractionsinclude:[1]

Absorptionoccurswhenenergyfromtheradiativesourceisabsorbedbythematerial.Absorptionisoften
determinedbymeasuringthefractionofenergytransmittedthroughthematerialabsorptionwilldecreasethe
transmittedportion.
Emissionindicatesthatradiativeenergyisreleasedbythematerial.Amaterial'sblackbodyspectrumisa
spontaneousemissionspectrumdeterminedbyitstemperaturethisfeaturecanbemeasuredintheinfraredby
instrumentssuchastheAtmosphericEmittedRadianceInterferometer(AERI).[4]Emissioncanalsobeinducedby
othersourcesofenergysuchasflamesorsparksorelectromagneticradiationinthecaseoffluorescence.
Elasticscatteringandreflectionspectroscopydeterminehowincidentradiationisreflectedorscatteredbya
material.Crystallographyemploysthescatteringofhighenergyradiation,suchasxraysandelectrons,toexamine
thearrangementofatomsinproteinsandsolidcrystals.
Impedancespectroscopystudiestheabilityofamediumtoimpedeorslowthetransmittanceofenergy.Foroptical
applications,thisischaracterizedbytheindexofrefraction.
Inelasticscatteringphenomenainvolveanexchangeofenergybetweentheradiationandthematterthatshiftsthe
wavelengthofthescatteredradiation.TheseincludeRamanandComptonscattering.
Coherentorresonancespectroscopyaretechniqueswheretheradiativeenergycouplestwoquantumstatesofthe
materialinacoherentinteractionthatissustainedbytheradiatingfield.Thecoherencecanbedisruptedbyother
interactions,suchasparticlecollisionsandenergytransfer,andsooftenrequirehighintensityradiationtobe
sustained.Nuclearmagneticresonance(NMR)spectroscopyisawidelyusedresonancemethodandultrafast
lasermethodsarealsonowpossibleintheinfraredandvisiblespectralregions.

Typeofmaterial
Spectroscopicstudiesaredesignedsothattheradiantenergyinteractswithspecifictypesofmatter.

Atoms
Atomicspectroscopywasthefirstapplicationofspectroscopydeveloped.Atomicabsorptionspectroscopy(AAS)and
atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) involve visible and ultraviolet light. These absorptions and emissions, often
referredtoasatomicspectrallines,areduetoelectronictransitionsofoutershellelectronsastheyriseandfallfrom
one electron orbit to another. Atoms also have distinct xray spectra that are attributable to the excitation of inner
shellelectronstoexcitedstates.

Atomsofdifferentelementshavedistinctspectraandthereforeatomicspectroscopyallowsfortheidentificationand
quantitationofasample'selementalcomposition.RobertBunsenandGustavKirchhoffdiscoverednewelementsby
observing their emission spectra. Atomic absorption lines are observed in the solar spectrum and referred to as
Fraunhoferlinesaftertheirdiscoverer.Acomprehensiveexplanationofthehydrogenspectrumwasanearlysuccessof
quantum mechanics and explained the Lamb shift observed in the hydrogen spectrum, which further led to the
developmentofquantumelectrodynamics.

Modern implementations of atomic spectroscopy for studying visible and ultraviolet transitions include flame
emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, glow discharge spectroscopy,
microwave induced plasma spectroscopy, and spark or arc emission spectroscopy. Techniques for studying xray
spectraincludeXrayspectroscopyandXrayfluorescence(XRF).

Molecules

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Thecombinationofatomsintomoleculesleadstothecreationofuniquetypesofenergeticstatesandthereforeunique
spectraofthetransitionsbetweenthesestates.Molecularspectracanbeobtainedduetoelectronspinstates(electron
paramagnetic resonance), molecular rotations, molecular vibration and electronic states. Rotations are collective
motions of the atomic nuclei and typically lead to spectra in the microwave and millimeterwave spectral regions
rotationalspectroscopyandmicrowavespectroscopyaresynonymous.Vibrationsarerelativemotionsoftheatomic
nucleiandarestudiedbybothinfraredandRamanspectroscopy.Electronicexcitationsarestudiedusingvisibleand
ultravioletspectroscopyaswellasfluorescencespectroscopy.

Studies in molecular spectroscopy led to the development of the first maser and contributed to the subsequent
developmentofthelaser.

Crystalsandextendedmaterials
The combination of atoms or molecules into crystals or other extended forms leads to the creation of additional
energeticstates.Thesestatesarenumerousandthereforehaveahighdensityofstates.Thishighdensityoftenmakes
thespectraweakerandlessdistinct,i.e.,broader.Forinstance,blackbodyradiationisduetothethermalmotionsof
atomsandmoleculeswithinamaterial.Acousticandmechanicalresponsesareduetocollectivemotionsaswell.Pure
crystals,though,canhavedistinctspectraltransitions,andthecrystalarrangementalsohasaneffectontheobserved
molecular spectra. The regular lattice structure of crystals also scatters xrays, electrons or neutrons allowing for
crystallographicstudies.

Nuclei
Nucleialsohavedistinctenergystatesthatarewidelyseparatedandleadtogammarayspectra.Distinctnuclearspin
statescanhavetheirenergyseparatedbyamagneticfield,andthisallowsforNMRspectroscopy.

Othertypes
Othertypesofspectroscopyaredistinguishedbyspecificapplicationsorimplementations:

Acousticresonancespectroscopyisbasedonsoundwavesprimarilyintheaudibleandultrasonicregions
Augerspectroscopyisamethodusedtostudysurfacesofmaterialsonamicroscale.Itisoftenusedin
connectionwithelectronmicroscopy.
Cavityringdownspectroscopy
CircularDichroismspectroscopy
CoherentantiStokesRamanspectroscopy(CARS)isarecenttechniquethathashighsensitivityandpowerful
applicationsforinvivospectroscopyandimaging.[5]
Coldvapouratomicfluorescencespectroscopy
CorrelationspectroscopyencompassesseveraltypesoftwodimensionalNMRspectroscopy.
Deepleveltransientspectroscopymeasuresconcentrationandanalyzesparametersofelectricallyactivedefects
insemiconductingmaterials
Dualpolarisationinterferometrymeasurestherealandimaginarycomponentsofthecomplexrefractiveindex
Electronphenomenologicalspectroscopymeasuresphysicochemicalpropertiesandcharacteristicsofelectronic
structureofmulticomponentandcomplexmolecularsystems.
EPRspectroscopy
Forcespectroscopy
Fouriertransformspectroscopyisanefficientmethodforprocessingspectradataobtainedusinginterferometers.
Fouriertransforminfraredspectroscopy(FTIR)isacommonimplementationofinfraredspectroscopy.NMRalso
employsFouriertransforms.
Hadronspectroscopystudiestheenergy/massspectrumofhadronsaccordingtospin,parity,andotherparticle
properties.Baryonspectroscopyandmesonspectroscopyarebothtypesofhadronspectroscopy.
Hyperspectralimagingisamethodtocreateacompletepictureoftheenvironmentorvariousobjects,eachpixel
containingafullvisible,VNIR,NIR,orinfraredspectrum.
Inelasticelectrontunnelingspectroscopy(IETS)usesthechangesincurrentduetoinelasticelectronvibration
interactionatspecificenergiesthatcanalsomeasureopticallyforbiddentransitions.

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InelasticneutronscatteringissimilartoRamanspectroscopy,butusesneutronsinsteadofphotons.
LaserInducedBreakdownSpectroscopy(LIBS),alsocalledLaserinducedplasmaspectrometry(LIPS)
Laserspectroscopyusestunablelasers[6]andothertypesofcoherentemissionsources,suchasoptical
parametricoscillators,[7]forselectiveexcitationofatomicormolecularspecies.
Massspectroscopyisanhistoricaltermusedtorefertomassspectrometry.Currentrecommendations[8]areto
usethelatterterm.Useofthetermmassspectroscopyoriginatedintheuseofphosphorscreenstodetections.
Mssbauerspectroscopyprobesthepropertiesofspecificisotopicnucleiindifferentatomicenvironmentsby
analyzingtheresonantabsorptionofgammarays.SeealsoMssbauereffect.
Neutronspinechospectroscopymeasuresinternaldynamicsinproteinsandothersoftmattersystems
Photoacousticspectroscopymeasuresthesoundwavesproducedupontheabsorptionofradiation.
Photoemissionspectroscopy
Photothermalspectroscopymeasuresheatevolveduponabsorptionofradiation.
Pumpprobespectroscopycanuseultrafastlaserpulsestomeasurereactionintermediatesinthefemtosecond
timescale.
RamanopticalactivityspectroscopyexploitsRamanscatteringandopticalactivityeffectstorevealdetailed
informationonchiralcentersinmolecules.
Ramanspectroscopy
Saturatedspectroscopy
Scanningtunnelingspectroscopy
Spectrophotometry
Spinnoisespectroscopytracesspontaneousfluctuationsofelectronicandnuclearspins.[9]
Timeresolvedspectroscopymeasuresthedecayrate(s)ofexcitedstatesusingvariousspectroscopicmethods.
TimeStretchSpectroscopy[10][11]
Thermalinfraredspectroscopymeasuresthermalradiationemittedfrommaterialsandsurfacesandisusedto
determinethetypeofbondspresentinasampleaswellastheirlatticeenvironment.Thetechniquesarewidely
usedbyorganicchemists,mineralogists,andplanetaryscientists.
Transientgratingspectroscopymeasuresquasiparticlepropagation.Itcantrackchangesinmetallicmaterialsas
theyareirradiated.
Ultravioletphotoelectronspectroscopy(UPS)
Ultravioletvisiblespectroscopy
Vibrationalcirculardichroismspectroscopy
Videospectroscopy
Xrayphotoelectronspectroscopy(XPS)

Applications
Curemonitoringofcompositesusingopticalfibers.
Estimateweatheredwoodexposuretimesusingnearinfrared
spectroscopy.[13]
Measurementofdifferentcompoundsinfoodsamplesbyabsorption
spectroscopybothinvisibleandinfraredspectrum.
Measurementoftoxiccompoundsinbloodsamples

History
ThehistoryofspectroscopybeganwithIsaacNewton'sopticsexperiments UVESisahighresolution
(16661672).Newtonappliedtheword"spectrum"todescribetherainbow spectrographontheVeryLarge
Telescope.[12]
ofcolorsthatcombinetoformwhitelightandthatarerevealedwhenthe
whitelightispassedthroughaprism.Duringtheearly1800s,Josephvon
Fraunhofermadeexperimentaladvanceswithdispersivespectrometersthatenabledspectroscopytobecomeamore
preciseandquantitativescientifictechnique.Sincethen,spectroscopyhasplayedandcontinuestoplayasignificant
roleinchemistry,physicsandastronomy.

"In1672,inthefirstpaperthathesubmittedtotheRoyalSociety,SirIsaacNewtondescribedanexperimentin
whichhepermittedsunlighttopassthroughasmallholeandthenthroughaprism.Newtonfoundthatsunlight,

whichlookswhitetous,isactuallymadeupofamixtureofallthecolorsoftherainbow" [14]
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whichlookswhitetous,isactuallymadeupofamixtureofallthecolorsoftherainbow"[14]
"In1802,WilliamHydeWollastonbuiltanimprovedspectrometerthatincludedalenstofocustheSunsspectrum
onascreen.Uponuse,Wollastonrealizedthatthecolorswerenotspreaduniformly,butinsteadhadmissing
patchesofcolors,whichappearedasdarkbandsinthespectrum.Later,in1815,GermanphysicistJoseph
Fraunhoferalsoexaminedthesolarspectrum,andfoundabout600suchdarklines(missingcolors),whicharenow
knownasFraunhoferlines,orAbsorptionlines."[14]

Seealso
Appliedspectroscopy Metamerism(color)
Astronomicalspectroscopy Operandospectroscopy
Biomedicalspectroscopy Scatteringtheory
Coronium Spectralpowerdistributions
Historyofspectroscopy Spectroscopicnotation
Listofspectroscopists Spectraltheory

Notes
1.Crouch,StanleySkoog,DouglasA.(2007).Principlesofinstrumentalanalysis.Australia:ThomsonBrooks/Cole.
ISBN0495012017.
2.Herrmann,R.C.Onkelinx(1986)."Quantitiesandunitsinclinicalchemistry:Nebulizerandflamepropertiesin
flameemissionandabsorptionspectrometry(Recommendations1986)".PureandAppliedChemistry.58(12):
17371742.doi:10.1351/pac198658121737(https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac198658121737).
3."ATasteofESPRESSO"(http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1537a/).Retrieved15September2015.
4.Mariani,Z.Strong,K.Wolff,M.Rowe,P.Walden,V.Fogal,P.F.Duck,T.Lesins,G.Turner,D.S.Cox,C.
Eloranta,E.Drummond,J.R.Roy,C.Turner,D.D.Hudak,D.Lindenmaier,I.A.(2012)."Infrared
measurementsintheArcticusingtwoAtmosphericEmittedRadianceInterferometers".Atmos.Meas.Tech.5(2):
329344.Bibcode:2012AMT.....5..329M(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AMT.....5..329M).doi:10.5194/amt5
3292012(https://doi.org/10.5194%2Famt53292012).
5.Evans,C.L.Xie,X.S.(2008)."CoherentAntiStokesRamanScatteringMicroscopy:ChemicalImagingforBiology
andMedicine".AnnualReviewofAnalyticalChemistry.1:883909.Bibcode:2008ARAC....1..883E(http://adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/2008ARAC....1..883E).PMID20636101(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20636101).
doi:10.1146/annurev.anchem.1.031207.112754(https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.anchem.1.031207.112754).
6.W.Demtrder,LaserSpectroscopy,3rdEd.(Springer,2003).
7.OrrBJHaubJGHeYWhiteRT(2016)."SpectroscopicApplicationsofPulsedTunableOpticalParametric
Oscillators".InDuarteFJ.TunableLaserApplications(3rded.).BocaRaton:CRCPress.pp.17142.ISBN9781
482261066.
8.Murray,KermitK.Boyd,RobertK.Eberlin,MarcosN.Langley,G.JohnLi,LiangNaito,Yasuhide(2013).
"Definitionsoftermsrelatingtomassspectrometry(IUPACRecommendations2013)".PureandApplied
Chemistry.85(7):1.ISSN00334545(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/00334545).doi:10.1351/PACREC060406
(https://doi.org/10.1351%2FPACREC060406).
9.Y.V.Pershin,N.A.Sinitsyn(2016)."Thetheoryofspinnoisespectroscopy:areview"(http://iopscience.iop.org/arti
cle/10.1088/00344885/79/10/106501/meta).Rep.Prog.Phys.79(10):106501.Bibcode:2016RPPh...79j6501S(htt
p://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016RPPh...79j6501S).arXiv:1603.06858(https://arxiv.org/abs/1603.06858) .
doi:10.1088/00344885/79/10/106501(https://doi.org/10.1088%2F00344885%2F79%2F10%2F106501).
10.Solli,D.R.Chou,J.Jalali,B.(2008)."Amplifiedwavelengthtimetransformationforrealtimespectroscopy".
NaturePhotonics.2:4851.Bibcode:2008NaPho...2...48S(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008NaPho...2...48S).
doi:10.1038/nphoton.2007.253(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphoton.2007.253).
11.Chou,JasonSolli,DanielR.Jalali,Bahram(2008)."Realtimespectroscopywithsubgigahertzresolutionusing
amplifieddispersiveFouriertransformation".AppliedPhysicsLetters.92(11):111102.
Bibcode:2008ApPhL..92k1102C(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApPhL..92k1102C).arXiv:0803.1654(https://ar
xiv.org/abs/0803.1654) .doi:10.1063/1.2896652(https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2896652).
12."Mediaadvisory:PressConferencetoAnnounceMajorResultfromBrazilianAstronomers"(http://www.eso.org/pub
lic/announcements/ann13066/).ESOAnnouncement.Retrieved21August2013.

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13.Wang,XipingWacker,JamesP.(2006)."UsingNIRSpectroscopytoPredictWeatheredWoodExposureTimes"
(http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2006/fpl_2006_wang002.pdf)(PDF).WTCE20069thworldconferenceon
timberengineering.
14.Fraknoi,AndrewMorrison,David(13October2016)."OpenStaxAstronomy"(http://cnx.org/content/col11992/lates
t/).

References
JohnM.ChalmersPeterGriffiths,eds.(2006).HandbookofVibrationalSpectroscopy(5VolumeSet).NewYork:
Wiley.ISBN0471988472.doi:10.1002/0470027320(https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0470027320).
JerryWorkmanArtSpringsteen,eds.(1998).AppliedSpectroscopy(https://books.google.com/?id=OzAnX25h4so
C&pg=PR4).Boston:AcademicPress.ISBN9780080527499.
PeterM.Skrabal(2012).SpectroscopyAninterdisciplinaryintegraldescriptionofspectroscopyfromUVtoNMR
(https://vdf.ch/index.php?route=product/search&search=skrabal)(ebook).ETHZurich:vdfHochschulverlagAG.
ISBN9783728133854.doi:10.3218/33854(https://doi.org/10.3218%2F33854).

Externallinks
Spectroscopylinks(https://dmoztools.net//Science/Physics/Optics/Spectroscopy/)atDMOZ
Amateurspectroscopylinks(https://dmoztools.net//Science/Astronomy/Amateur/Spectroscopy/)atDMOZ
NISTAtomicSpectroscopyDatabases(http://nist.gov/pml/data/atomspec.cfm)
MITSpectroscopyLab'sHistoryofSpectroscopy(http://web.mit.edu/spectroscopy/history/spechistory.html)
TimelineofSpectroscopy(http://spectroscopyonline.findanalytichem.com/spectroscopy/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=
381944&sk=&date=&pageID=1)

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