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Zhai Ancientven PDF
Zhai Ancientven PDF
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: Building has signicant impacts on the environment and natural resources. The emerging world energy
Received 24 September 2008 and environment challenges demand a substantial revolution of building design philosophies, strategies,
Received in revised form 21 September 2009 technologies, and construction methods. Vernacular architectures, built by people whose design
Accepted 4 October 2009
decisions are inuenced by traditions in their culture, have been gleaned through a long period of trial
and error and the ingenuity of local builders who possess specic knowledge about their place on the
Keywords: planet, and thus are valuable in promoting climate-specic passive building technologies to modern
Ancient vernacular architecture
buildings. This study introduced an approach to categorizing distinct vernacular regions and evaluating
Building characteristics
Energy performance
energy performance of ancient vernacular homes as well as identifying optimal constructions using
Computer energy simulation vernacular building techniques. The research conducted an extensive computer energy modeling for a
number of representative ancient vernacular architectural characteristics observed for different climatic
regions. The vernacular test subjects were compared against those established according to the
International Energy Conservation Code and those generated by the optimization software. The
simulation results of the energy models suggest that considering traditions seen in ancient vernacular
architecture as an approach to improving building energy performance is a worthwhile endeavor and a
scientic guidance can help enhance the performance. The study indicates that, although many
vernacular dwells exist in the world, it is challenging (but desired) to package vernacular architecture
traditions and quantitative design knowledge to modern building designers. This project is the rst part
of a much larger project that intends to create a knowledge base of vernacular building traditions that
will include information about not only the energy performance of traditional building techniques, but
also address areas of cost, material availability and cultural traditions.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction use them, not architects. The number of dwellings associated with
this estimate includes approximately 800 million dwellings.
Buildings account for 45% of worldwide energy use, 80% of Vernacular architecture is used to describe structures built by
potable water use, and 50% of the timber harvest in North America. people whose design decisions are inuenced by traditions in their
They also account for about 40% of municipal solid waste and 30% culture. Vernacular architecture varies widely with the worlds
of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global warming vast spectrum of climate, terrain and culture. It contains inherent,
and acid rain [1]. The emerging world energy and environment unwritten information about how to optimize the energy
crises demand a substantial revolution of building design performance of buildings at low cost using local materials. Over
philosophies, strategies, technologies, and construction and the course of time, vernacular dwellings have evolved to respond
management methods. In most developed countries, architects to challenges of climate, building materials and cultural expecta-
design the majority of new buildings. However, when one looks tions in a given place. Vernacular traditions have been gleaned
collectively at the worlds buildings both now and throughout through a long period of trial and error and the ingenuity of local
history, it becomes clear that professional architects designed a builders who possess specic knowledge about their place on the
very small percentage of structures. In fact, Oliver [2] of the Oxford planet, a commodity that is becoming increasingly scarce in our era
Institute for Sustainable Development estimated that over 90% of of remote communication and outsourcing. As such, there is value
all structures in existence today were designed by the people who in understanding and applying attributes seen in ancient
vernacular architecture to new buildings.
A great deal of literature was found on the topic of vernacular
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 303 492 4699; fax: +1 303 492 7317. building traditions. The most extensive document by far is the
E-mail address: John.Zhai@colorado.edu (Z.J. Zhai). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture, a 4000 page collection of
0378-7788/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.10.002
358 Z.J. Zhai, J.M. Previtali / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 357365
research by over 750 authors from 80 countries compiled by weather and geographic location, it makes sense to divide the
Professor Paul Oliver of Oxford University and published in 1997 world into distinct regions each with a unique combination of
[3]. With two volumes categorized by climate and the vernacular these three traits. Building materials also strongly inuence
responses of a plethora of cultures and another volume focused on vernacular building traditions, but introducing maps of materials
materials, resources and production, it is the worlds foremost would make a list of vernacular regions untenably large. And,
source for research in the area. Another noteworthy text is A although a map of timber resources and a map of soil conditions
Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction [4], which draws (which could be used to denote the availability of clays and stone)
conclusions about a basic language of architecture (similar to Carl are available from the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Jungs archetypal patterns) that has evolved out of vernacular Organization, no world-wide mapping of indigenous building
building traditions over the course of human history. materials was identied. Thus, this study focuses on a regionaliza-
This study is particularly interested in the energy-saving tion of vernacular architecture based on climate, cultural heritage
implications of vernacular architectural traditions. The Encyclo- and continent, with a goal of creating a manageable number of
pedia of Vernacular Architecture, a subset of its essays called vernacular regions (e.g., 100) that can be explored by a limited
Dwellings [2], and several academic papers were used in number of researchers over a limited time-frame.
conjunction with photographs found online to help identify
vernacular test subjects and dene constructions. The book 2.1. Mapping climate zones
Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction by the renown, and
some say controversial, linguist and African anthropologist Mapping climate zones is no trivial exercise. Much work
Greenberg [5] was also used in research related to the task of continues to be put into classifying the earths locations based on
mapping cultural heritage. This project develops a method for weather. German climatologist Wladimir Koppen (18461940)
categorizing distinct vernacular regions, a process by which energy developed a classication system that is generally accepted as the
performance of vernacular homes can be measured relative to most accurate method of mapping world climates. It includes 14
base-case dwellings designed using the International Energy zones separated by temperature and humidity. However, the
Conservation Code (IECC), and a manner to identify optimal Koppen climate zone map was found to be considerably complex
constructions using ancient vernacular building techniques. The for the purpose of this research and a simplied map based on the
study investigates a number of representative ancient vernacular Koppen climate classication system developed by de Dear [6] was
dwellings collected at 22 locations in 11 major climate zones, with chosen (Fig. 1). The de Dear map combines tundra and ice cap
an effort to identify vernacular trends, test technology effective- regions, as well as some arid and semi-arid, and some tropical and
ness, and shed light upon ancient building technologies at risk of sub-tropical locations. The de Dear map was thought to be an
being forgotten by the building industry. The impetus behind the acceptable compromise, especially considering its use was
project is to apply the developed approach to create a compre- accepted in a 1997 ASHRAE (The American Society of Heating,
hensive body of knowledge about vernacular architecture that can Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers) study entitled
be leveraged by architects and engineers at the beginning of the Developing an Adaptive Model of Thermal Comfort and Preference
building design process so energy-saving vernacular technologies [6]. It would be ideal to utilize a simplied world map with
can be integrated into new construction and cultural vernacular ASHRAE climate zone denitions, upon which the IECC was
traditions can be preserved. Another goal is to demonstrate a developed. Unfortunately, none was found to exist.
methodology that can be used by future researchers to quickly
distinguish between vernacular traditions precipitated by climate 2.2. Mapping cultural heritages
and those carried on by cultural traditions.
Given the migration of peoples and the temporal nature of
2. Categorization of vernacular architecture regions national borders, the question arises of how to map cultural
heritages. A relatively accurate method generally accepted by
To create a comprehensive knowledge base about vernacular anthropologists is the tracing of language families. A language
architecture using analysis, one must start by creating a list of test family is a grouping of languages based on linguistic similarities.
subjects derived from inuences that make the test subjects While religions, geographic locations, regional languages and even
unique. Since vernacular traditions are shaped strongly by culture, skin color change within a related people, basic language traits
such as syntax, phonetics, and semantics are strong indicators of a chosen for no particular purpose to be Climate ZoneLanguage
shared cultural heritage. Some language families are consistent FamilyContinent; for instance, SDAMNA stands for Semi Desert
with rather obvious migrations of peoples such as the Amerind AmerindNorth America.
Group which connects indigenous peoples from Canada to
Patagonia. Other language families suggest surprising cultural 3. Characteristics of ancient vernacular architecture
relationships between people separated by vast distances such as
the Dene Caucausian group whose languages stretch across three Once the framework for classifying vernacular regions was in
continents and include Dagestan spoken near the Caspian Sea, place, a literature review of ancient vernacular architecture and
Mandarin and Cantonese spoken in China, Basque spoken in Spain, extensive photo search for vernacular dwellings were conducted to
and the Athabaskan languages spoken by the Navajo and Taos better understand the constellation of vernacular building tradi-
peoples of North America. tions and identify primary building characteristics to be explored.
A map of language families was drawn from the Evolution of the Fifty-nine types of representative ancient vernacular dwellings
Human Language Project (aka The Tower of Babel), a compilation were identied and selected with at least two cases in each climate
of linguistic research started by Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin in zone. The following paragraphs brief the architectural character-
1997 and continuously augmented by other linguistics researchers istics and trends in the cases observed.
as new data becomes available. Like the climate zone mapping, the
question arose of how much detail to include in the map of 3.1. Envelope construction
language families for this project. To keep the number of
vernacular regions close to 100, it was decided to use the rst Constructions used for building envelopes can be generally
level of language families for all groups other than Eurasiatic which divided into two categories: massive and lightweight. It should be
was broken into second level language families. The resulting map noted that many vernacular dwellings observed combine massive
includes 17 language families with a good distribution across walls with lightweight roofs, most frequently thatch roofs. As the
continents (Fig. 2).
Table 1
2.3. Combining maps to identify unique vernacular regions Number of vernacular regions per climate zone.
Combining the de Dear climate map and the map derived from Climate zone Number of vernacular regions
the Evolution of the Human Language Project, resulted in 114 Continental subarctic (CS) 10
vernacular regions that contained a unique combination of language Tundra ice cap (TIC) 6
Desert (D) 13
family, climate and continent (Table 1). The visual mapping process
High altitude (HA) 11
resulted in fairly acceptable boundaries for each vernacular region as Humid mid latitude (HML) 8
each region highlights an area where one would likely nd a unique Mediterranean (M) 11
example of vernacular architecture. Certainly, like the boundaries of Semi desert (SD) 15
climate and language families themselves, the vernacular regions Tropical Savanna (TS) 13
West coast marine (WCM) 9
identied are also rather loosely dened. For categorization Wet equatorial (WE) 11
convenience, the study developed a nomenclature for the vernacular Humid subtropical (HS) 7
regions, by combining acronyms for each climate zone, language
Total 114
family and continent into a hyphenated code. The sequence was
360 Z.J. Zhai, J.M. Previtali / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 357365
Fig. 3. Observed wall mass types in percentage of dwellings in individual climatic regions.
climate becomes hotter and more humid, lightweight building were frequently observed in temperate and hot climates. They are
envelopes and construction materials become more prevalent commonly combined with loose inltration to facilitate natural
(Fig. 3). ventilation. Portable structures used by nomadic people such as
tents, lean-tos, tepees and yurts also fall into this category. The use
3.1.1. Massive constructions of thatch appears to be especially prevalent; it was found on every
Because of their ability to store and reradiate heat, and reduce continent other than Australia (probably because of the nomadic
inltration by creating a tight envelope, massive structures were nature of Aboriginal Australians). Thatch is dried grass or reeds
the most common vernacular dwellings observed in cold climates. that are bound together and layered on top of a wooden or bamboo
However, massive dwellings were also found in desert climates frame. The most common application of thatch in recent European
with extreme diurnal temperature variations. Given the proper traditions is for roofs, but many cultures, including prehistoric
thickness, a massive envelope will reverse the temperature Britons, used thatch for the entire structure. Analogous to hair or
extreme of the desert climate inside a dwelling, transferring heat fur, thatch is an excellent insulator that easily covers virtually any
absorbed externally during the day into the structure at night, and shape; it is appropriate for climates ranging from cold to hot, and
then doing the opposite during the night. Massive dwellings in humid to dry.
desert climates will also often have loose inltration to take
advantage of dry winds. 3.2. Roof material
Examples of massive wall constructions include rubble and
earth, wood covered with packed earth, rammed earth, adobe Roof materials in vernacular dwellings included stone (slate),
bricks, large wood timbers, and large stone with earth or mortar as tile, thatch, bark, skin, felt, wood or turf (Fig. 4). Further supporting
the binding agent. Dwellings observed with massive walls often its value in vernacular building traditions, thatch showed up the
included massive roofs which were built using traditional most frequently, but not in tundra and sub-arctic regions where
engineering solutions passed on from generation to generation vernacular roofs are most commonly made from large wood
such as stone arches and corbelled domes. However, thatch roofs timbers covered with turf. Considering thatchs excellent insulat-
were also seen in many massive vernacular dwellings. Corbelling is ing qualities, one would question why it is not seen in extremely
the practice of laying down stone or wood in concentric circles in cold climates. One clue may be a similar roof tradition seen among
the shape of a dome. Unlike the arch, it is found in virtually every the Navajo of New Mexico. Navajo hogans support a large mass of
indigenous culture. Another common massive construction dry, packed earth placed on top of massive timbers. What both the
technology observed in Asia, Africa and North America is the tundra and the desert have in common is the inability to support
use of adobe bricks. Adobe bricks are made in forms with a mixture the growth of tall grasses or reeds. As such, no thatch is available in
of soil containing clay, sand, gravel, water and will frequently either of these locations. However, it is important to note that turf,
include straw. Adobe brick making is a non-trivial skill passed from although not as thick and rarely as dry as thatch, must provide
generation to generation of craftspeople, and as such, its presence some insulating benet. Tile roofs are a common site in vernacular
in the three aforementioned continents suggests an anthropolo- architecture, but have very poor insulting quality. Thus, tile roofs
gical connection between cultures, but could also be an example of are combined with thick wood, masonry or earthen layers except
parallel evolution of a technology. in cases of mild environments like the Mediterranean where
Turf houses are dwellings that are covered with soil on which terracotta tiles were developed by the Romans in conjunction with
plants are allowed to grown, most frequently grass (turf). Pit mortar.
houses are all or partially below ground and frequently are also
covered by turf. Turf houses were seen most commonly as 3.3. Ceiling structure
dwellings in northern latitudes while pit houses were seen on
every continent other than Australia. Turf and pit houses should Like today, two types of ceilings are indicative to vernacular
also be included in the massive construction category, but it is dwellings: vaulted and at. Vaulted ceilings were observed more
important to note that they may not experience the same diurnal frequently than at ceilings. Flat ceilings were seen to be
temperature effects unless a portion of their envelopes thin enough predominant in multi-story dwellings most likely because of the
to feel the effects of the sun and night sky. expense required to build vaulted ceilings on each oor. In hot and
humid climates, vaulted ceilings appear to play an important role
3.1.2. Lightweight constructions in cooling by allowing stratication of air through buoyancy
At the other extreme are non-massive, lightweight structures allowing hot air to gather above occupants and cool air to rest near
made with thatch, wood, bark or bamboo. Lightweight structures the oor. However, there are many cases of vaulted ceilings in cold
Z.J. Zhai, J.M. Previtali / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 357365 361
3.7. Window
elevation above the ground allows for ventilation through the oor
for cooling.
3.10. Shading
established on the basis of many previous practices and scientic the IECC cases, and 19% of vernacular instances with less total
researches. energy than the IECC cases. In addition, there are 19% of vernacular
It should be noted that quite a few vernacular constructions cases with slight more cooling loads (<10%) than the IECC cases
appear to beat the IECC reference case. Result analysis shows there and 24% of vernacular cases with slight more heating loads (<10%)
are 38% of vernacular instances with less cooling loads than the than the IECC cases. One example of such successful vernacular
IECC cases, 29% of vernacular instances with less heating loads than case is for a dwelling in North Africa. In this case, both an all thatch
structure and all earth and wood structure exceed the reference considers the energy performance of building without considering
case by 10% while a dwelling with earthen walls and a thatch roof the availability and cost of local materials as well as culture
provides the highest energy savings. These three types of contexts of building characteristics.
constructions are all widely seen in North African vernacular This project is the rst part of a much larger project that intends
traditions. to create a knowledge base of vernacular building traditions that
In nearly all scenarios, the optimization tool selected a thick will include information about not only the energy performance of
packed earth or wood and earth wall, a thick thatch roof, and a traditional building techniques, but also address areas of cost,
basement. Even though earthen walls have a lower overall material availability and cultural traditions. Cost of labor as well as
insulation value than other vernacular constructions they were the cost and availability of local building materials vary widely and
selected because of the thermal storage capacityfurther demon- dynamically across the globe but are critical for assessing
strating the value of mass in improving energy performance in all feasibility of integrating vernacular techniques into contemporary
climates. Fig. 9 presents the comparison of the optimal and buildings. In addition, differences in human behaviors in diverse
observed vernacular walls. Obviously, the observed vernacular vernacular regions and dwellings should be considered in
walls have more diversity in types than the optimal ones, which is analyzing the energy implications of vernacular building technol-
understandable because the simulation only considers the energy ogies. The same occurred to the region-related specic building
performance of walls. In reality, the availability and cost of local codes such as building safety requirements (e.g., for earthquake
materials may play a much more important role in material reinforcement and re retardation).
selection. In a world that is seeing the rapid dissemination of mass-
produced homes and buildings designed by teams of architects and
5. Conclusions engineers sometimes thousands of miles away from the building
site, there is a threat that vernacular traditions that help dene the
This research performed an extensive analysis and computer cultural make-up of a people and a place will be lost. The challenge
energy modeling for a number of representative vernacular to preserve these valuable techniques and cultures will be to
architectural techniques and features summarized for different package this knowledge in such a way that vernacular traditions
climatic regions. The study presents an integrated approach to become widely known to modern designers and builders.
categorizing distinct vernacular regions in a manageable scale. The
simulation results of computer energy models suggest that References
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