ne oes 450 9 | Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems By ERLING D. SUNDE Member of the Technical taf Bou Teuermoxe Lasozarons, Tre. siving sto 1 of IVER PUBLICATIONS, INC, NEW YORKcurren Contents Tateoduetion I, BASIC ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 2 22 23 a 2s 26 27 28 29 210 2 212 IIL RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS: ey 32 33 3a 35 36 37 Fundamental Concepts and Units. ‘Basic Fleccrical Phenomena and Cheracresistis, Fundamental Electromagretic Postalate, ‘Methods of Solution of Electromagnetic Problems,» ‘Paani Line Pramenss. ‘Teansmission Line Eau Sexi and Veevr Ponts of Stationary Hil. Hlecromagnotie Frergy Relations ‘Wave Equati in a Homogensous Medium. Basic Solution of Wave Equation. Internal Impedances of Cylindrical Conductors. - ‘Seif and Muwual Impedances of Cylindrical Conductors ‘Fourier Integral Transforms and Operational Calculus... IL FARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS Tntroduetion Basic Equacions Electrodes at Suriuse of Uniferm Barth... cts iow Sura of Uifarm Ear. ‘TwoLayer Stratification “Thrve Layer Stratification... Arbitrary Stratification ae Exponential Variation in Resisivicy-- Deter Analytical Apprenizati Earth fy Measaremenss,. arch Resistivity Data... Dara Seat Hariznet Wis. Buried Radial Wires, - ios of Earth Resistivity 2nd Structure from Measure. of Meayuted Resisivities. pace SSERRESE Senne eesshees aaes suxeee 3comarren f CONTENTS CONTENTS ix ‘VI. D.C BARTH CONDUCTION AND CORROSION PROTECTION 64 Istraduetion. 62 Corrsian Charters 7 cr 3:10 Equivalent Racias of Flat Conductors...» z 54) Inversey of Heterogeretic Cutrents 181 SUV Bifet of Vanvion in Resistivity with Depth. eee ae ist 312 Effect of Chemical Treatment of Soil... 6.3 Stray Conduction in Proximity Zones... i” 188 3.13 Earth Potentials Near Grounds. 6.6 Stray Between Point Electrode and Long Conductor. . 189 ‘L14 Hesting Eset. 6.7 Stray Between Parallel Conductors. . . eee ‘192 3.15 Greund Reslerance Measurements. 6.8 Parallel Conductors in Close Proximity. . 7 194 a EARIELRETURN fo EettefVarmion n Rev exc Gave 98 of INSULATED 60. Ecce of Variation in Resistivity on Stray Coirent. 198 1V. MUTUAL, IMPEDANCE G11 ce Coins and Baritene, 2 = 6:12 Protestve Sectonalzation — Insulating Joints... 200 4.1 Introduction B (613 Protestive Drainage — Cathodic Protection » SI og 33. Veruca and Witton Dipole Pies, eee {S.L4 Measarements of Conductor Constants, --...0c0.... 205 43° Bacth Return Mutsal Impedances in Geeta a ‘LE Menautements of Current and Potentials... 00... ‘or £4 Wires of Infinite Length at Serface of Barc ge 6:16 Cathodic Protection Test8.- secs. b at £5 Wat nce Lh te Sls oP ri E47 Steven Cando Survey. con 25 Wine of Infinite Length below Susface of Far 4.7 Infinite Wire on Surface of Two Layer Ext i ‘Vil, POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION AND INDUCTIVE 4h Tednite Wire soows Sartre of Two-Layer Earch Eee Sere 49 Infinite Wire — Arbitrary Horizantal Stratification co 7 4.20 Tafsite Wire — Exponential Variation of Resistivity. - TA Introduction....... x fs ms TL Finite Wires, Uniform Earth and Low Frequency... 13 72. Coupling and Circit Terminology Se noee al als 412 Finite Wires, Two-Layer Earth and Low Frequency. «0-0 +--+ 126 73. Current Disribution Between Reta Conductors 413 Resistive Coupling at High Frequencies. «<3: r ZA Return System Propagation Characteristics... -s..0-- toe et eerretc ck Woranecal and Vertical Conductors... 129 33 Earth-Gurrent and Barth Potential Distribution. 14. Maraal impede of Yercal Conductor, a 1 Betery Sipkan Potentalns spotter over Te Transient Coupling of BaeicReraen Cities 0.000000 ey 2. Shel fran see Gro Cec 2 fa Radiation. .cocsvssersesec ors 1B Shielding Effect of Concent Shields and Tape Arco Ee Geol Elis in Bo ' eh ee of Terminal to Longitudinal Voltages... .. 197 10 Transmission System Admiteances snd Impedances Bs Y, PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH-RETURN 71. Metheds of Fault Current Calcalation....... me ‘CONDUCTORS ‘Li2 Protective Devices for Communication Systems. 148 $1 Invrdoction 5 0 713 Protective Measures in Power Systests..- VL at 52. Fundamental Egaasons ee ww 74 Basic Factors im Nove-Frequency Induction... 000S. 282 $3 Rigorous Solution for Single Conductor... us a Approximate Solution for Single Conductor.» i ‘VII. SURGE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH. RETURN CONDUCTORS $5 Bees Appronmains fr Single Concucnr. +e 81 Bawaba nes 284 56 Pacallel Conduetors «++ -++0+ ie 82 Relation of High-Brequeney sad Surge Cheractristica. 00.00) 258 52 ena sessnesasattte ass 33 Propagation Constant for Bored Conductors, sv-s-ccsvvvsscee 258 8 Shunt Enegzation is 54 Sune Current Propagation in Long Buried Conductors... 259 £5. Conductive Enema 5 i 5-Sunme CarenePropsatn in Short Bar Condor. 2H $40 Tective Enerpzation. 2 sss sons isa TT gh 86. Surge Impedance Characerstice of Long Buried Candictor.. 263 SAL Effect of Farth Resistivity Variation with Dept ee 8.7 Surge Impedance Characteristic of Short Buried Conductors -.. 266 512 inte Conductor in Pre Space onion Ta 8. Efect of Soil lnization on Surge Characterietisg.- os sesss. 26? $13 Horizontal Conductor over a Perfectly Conduct OR: <<-*" yy 8.9 Propagation Characteristics of Insulated Buried Conductors,.,, 269 524 Hover oat ee eee a i $40 Propegaon Contato Innate Atl Contos «... mm $15 Impedance of oe = 8.11 Sune Current ition along Aerial Conductors .. 4 E46 Amtema Ground Lowes... un ae 172 ure Propagation along hut ”CONTENTS 8.12. Sune Impedance Characteristic of Aerial Conducta. 813 Effect of Carona on Propagation Characteristics... Rid Reflection Points ia Apseal Cond nctow.«-sosec0 8:13 Aerial Conductors with Uniformly Spaced Grounds, Inreanverion, ‘Aspe from the numerous transmission problems encountered in the develop- ment and operation of extensive communication and power systems, number of interference and protection problems also arise because of the unavoidable conflict of sac systems wich nature and with each other. This conilice resides in the circumstance that the earth is iavalved, it sre measure, 38 8 seturn canductor for both types af systems, either curing normal operation ot fr at the time of faults. The earth also serves as a return conductor for lightaing currents, which may occasion disturbances in communication and power systems. Since the soil is electrolytic, corrasion may be experienced ‘on buried conductors where an interchange of current takes place beeween the conductor and the earth. Problems thus arise both in communication and power engineering concerning the protection of transnission Ynes and ‘associated equipment against breakdown or interference due to excessive voltages. Protection mast also be provided against personal hazard due to abnormal voltages imposed on communication eircuits or on accessible ‘youncied metalic structores ofthe telephone and power plant. In addition, buried metallic seructores must be protected against excesive corrasiost Strokes 0 Atal Conlucers. 94 Stokes to Grune. ie , 3S Methane of Stokes co Buried Cordnctors Be Ghar Chorens for Stokes to Buried Conductors 27 peta Sree Bad Gnas ee Valeage Equations for Long Conductors... 38 Be VEE rhe used Cable for Direct Strokes Sio Veltpes in Buried Cable for Strokes to Ground... SAL Velases in Cable fer Discharges Beeween Clouds. .- 9.12 Provesve Mixsues (er Buried Cable. : 315 Lighting Trouble Expectancy for Buel Cable. S14 Voleages for Stokes to Aerial Cable ". Ss Prometive Measures for Long-Distance Amrial Ca 3g Carrere and Voltages in Local Aerial Cable 39 Bere Meee Leal Agila 318 Listening Voltages Imposed on Power Transmission Lines Bre rencctne Measures or Transmisnan Lines.e-v-e-o-ss 2-000 APPENDIX: DEFINITIONS AND TABLES OF FUNCTTONS 1, Eapooenti spre and Leguithmie Functions a resulting from stray current ot other causes, 2, Bxpoventia Inegr! Paretion. +++ x “To deal adequately with such questions, ic is necessary to consider theo- 3 ee ae - retical solutions to a number of basic problems in which the earth, as well 2s $ Rema functions. s--s buried eonductors or grounded serial conductors, is involved. ‘The analysis 6. The Functions © 9 and @ es 5. Paired Frequescy and Tine Response Funedians, References. 38 of such problems is inherently more complex chan that af completely metallic circuits, for several reasons. The first difficulty is the great extent of the earth, which necessitates the use of electromagnetic field theory rather than conventional transmission line and circuit theory in the solution of mast of the problems, Moreover, electromagnetic field theory alone does not suffice for the solution of all problems, sinee ionization effects due to high voltages ‘or to electrolytic action may also be involved. ‘The heterogencous character of the earth as a conductor and an electrolyte must be considered in some instances. Furthermore, the phenomena under consideration may be of anexrremely variable nature, asin the case of lightning earrents and voltages, necessitating statistical sreatment. Finally, in problems of inductive inter- ference, acquaintance may be required with the performance and operation of circuits and equipment of both power and communication systems.iit INTRODUCTION ‘Te mighe appear that with the many ead variable factors which may be involved, theoretical analysis may not serve any purpose, since the idealized conditions chat must of necessity be assumed will not be met with odinatily jn actual sitaations. On the contrary, this very situation necessitates theorctical derivation of relationships between the various basic factors. Sach relations cannot be established from experimental studies or observa. tions in particalar situations, since the various factors are aot under control and may not even be adequately known, On the other hanc, experimental studies staged under known conditions are essential and have beck used to establish whether or not excessive deviations fran theoretical resules may be expected because of departures from idealized basic physical assumptions, particularly as a resule of the heterogeneous character of the earth, Lightning disturbances are deale with extensively in the literarore, largely 1 atmospheric phenomena governed by the electric field in the air. How- lever, as regards the behavior and the effects of lightning near the surface of the ground and in communication and power systems they are primarily earth conduetion problems and should be so treated for proper understanding, and interpretation of a variety of observations. For instance, flashes that sometimes occur to objects within the protective zone of vertical conductors struck by lightning, as well as lightning damage to buried cable land the prevalence of lightaing outages of power transmission lines in high resistiviey trritory, are readily explained when account is taken of che finite conductivity of the earth and resultant earth potential gradients ‘Ina general analysis as presented here, advantage may be taken of the common nature of many of the problems to broaden the aspects of both theoretical and experimental results, For instance, the formulas for the conductive coupling becween a drainage ground and an excensive buried cable, which are of interest in covrasion protection, are basically the same as for the conductive coupling through the earth between a lightning channel to ground and an adjacent cable, excepe that in the first case the resist- ance of the cable is of main importance whereas in the other case the inductance is. The same basic effect is again involved as regards the earth potential near an electrified railway track, except that the important cizeuit parameters are again somewhat different. In adition to such similarities kn the physics of various problems, there may be other interrelations. Thus, the protection of power transmission linea against lightning outages provices, at the same time, a reduetion in the frequency of occurrence and magnitude oFiinductive disturbances in telephone cireuits. Protective measures against lightning damage to the telephone plant may also be effective in relation 1 inductive disturbances and, ia some instances, may affect corrosion aspects. "Although it is necessary torestrit the analysis to fairly simple fundamental INTRODUCTION xii cases on account of the complexities that would otherwise arise, in man; case eis possible by ingpection and analysis of theoretial reals to meas, nize fairly general Principles: ‘or rules which may be approximate but will serve as a useful guide in complex situations. To obtain engineering for- lay, it has been in this presentation sometimes expedient t9 make tae of mathematical approximations not afecting the fndamental aspects of the comet oy ewe etrors ae ‘usually be estimated and, where it has n sible to make experimental compar is, val tain tf make ceil company, the formulas thus obtained ong the application of carch-rerurn circuit analysis is here confined ‘transmission circuit protection problems, some of the devfvations ore base also to the study: of ground-wave radiation fields and antenna impedances. However, radiation phenomena are well covered in literature, with the cx- ception of antenna ground loses dissssed ely herein, _ Communication circuits are used frequently to investigate earth potenti diferences beeneen remote point Ppl fom ear eurenes on a vol, wide scale. ‘These currents are due ty terrestrial phenomena associatéd with the motion of the earth and with disturbances of solar origin in its magnetic field and im the ionosphere. Under abnormal conditions, these effects may be associated with interference in radio communication and in earth-retarn telegraph or control circuits. On long telephone circuits, the resultant earth potectial differences may also cause breakdown of equipment unless adequate Protection is Provided. The theory of terrestrial electricity and magnetism is dealt with extensively in literature and not considered herein.CHAPTER T Basto Exzetromacyetio Coxcerrs axp Equanioxs ‘This chapter is a brief review of basic electromagnetic concepts and equations and of conventional methods of solution of electromagnetic field problems, The presentation, which is arranged primarily for orientation and convenient reference to problems dealt with in later chapters, presumes acquaintance with differential and integral calculus and with furdemental clectrical terms and notions. For a more complete exposition and. for other aspects of the subject matter than aze of primary concen here, reference is mnade to the literature on electromagnetic theory, transmission Tine and circuit theory. 1 Fundamental concepts and units Blectricity appears to be of an atomic nature, the smallest particle being the electron, which, by conventions established before iis discovery, has been assigned 2 negative charge Since charges and their motion ace responsible for electric, magnetic and cleexrodynamic phenomena, it is natural that some unit of charge should be at the bese of an electrodynamic system of units. The additional units required to specify che motion of charges and the forces between them 2re provided in the international ‘meter-Hlogram-second system used in dynamics. For practical purposes, the coulomb is preferable as 2 unit of charge to the elementary electron charge 1.591 X 10 coulomb, and is employed here together with the other units mentioned above in the MKSC system advocated by Giorgi and Campbell, ‘The basic derived electrical concepes are as fellows: Quantity Defrion Symtol Designation Curent Coulanb/Sec J Ampere Porential Fote/Ceulms 7,7 Yale Power Tonle See PP Wate Plate Intensity Vole/Merer 56 Vae/Merr Magecsie Inceniy Arpere/Mexe HH Ampere Meter Revstance, Tnpedance Volt/Ampre RZ Ohm Conductance, Admiteence” Arpere/Volt GY Mh Inductance bum Second2 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cue. In formal relations between the above quantities, such as elementary laws established from basic experiments or more: complicated relations established therefrom by mathematical derivation, the units are as specified above. To comply with engineering practice, however, other units are tused at timer in illustrative examples or as coordinates on curves, Thus, 2 length may be designated in millimeters, centimeters, Kilometers, inches, feet or miles, although the lengths used in formulas are in meters. Simi- larly, it may be convenient to express a voltage gradient in volts per Kilometer or per mile or in kilovotts per centimeter, although the voltage gradient or fcld intensity used in formulas is in volts per meter. Tt alsois convenient at times to designate conductor constants in ohms, rhes, henries or farads per kilometer or mile, rather than per meter ag in the formulas. 1.2 Basic electrical phenomena and chavatterisics ‘Two kinds of forces between electrical charges are responsible for the physical recognition of electricity and its utilization for energy. transtnis- sion. For a given separation between the charges, one of these depends on the quantity of charge only and is referred to as the electric force. The ‘other depends on the product of charges and their relative velocity, or the electric current, and is referred to a8 the magnetic force. Associated with a configuration of charges may be visualized an electric feld of force, the intensity of which is specified by the force & exerted on a probe of unit charge at the point under consideration. Similarly, a current may be con- czived to have a magnetic field of force, the intensity of which is specified by the force IK that would be exerted on a fictitious isolated unit magnetic pole, actually nonexistent. Although the forces are of an electrical nature, they are measured in the same units as gravitational and mechanical forces and, like the latter, 2 vectorial quantities, as is the electric current. ‘A given electric or magnetic field produces a certain reaction within a medium which depends on three basic electrical characteristics. These are referred to a cube of the medium 1 meter on the side and are designated as follows: Conductivity: #, mho/meter, or resistivity p, meter-ohm Capacitiviey: 1, farad/meter, 8.854 + 10~* for free space Induetivity: », henry/meter, 1.257 - 10°* for free space “The conductivity of a medium is a measure ofits ability co transfer charge jn response to a given impressed electric force. ‘The capacitivity and Inductivity relative to free space are designated the dielectrie constant, fe and the permeability, respectively. ‘The departure of these quantities from unity, ¢— 1 and w— 1, referred to as the electric and the magnetic ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS — 3 susceptibility, may he thought of as measures of the ability of a medium to betome peasize hy displncments in i seructursio estore eek send magnetic forces. Permanent magnets retain a partial or remacens ‘ragnetizaton upon removal ofan applied magnetic feld and « corrspene, ing but less pronounced phenomenon may be observed in diclectics, which ray have a epocary ral plareatn 7 ‘onductors are generally classified into’ metals and cleciralytes, the conductiviy of metals being due tothe presence of free clecerons, that of electrolytes ta she dissociation of molecules into positive and negative fone Eleccrelytes are subject to the same clectromagetic laws as metals although the current in an electrolyte is sometimes regarded as a convection rates then « conduction cutrent and is associated with chemical phenomena that are outside the scope of eicctromagnetie feld theory. The electrom: asic laws also apply co convection earrents arising from che motion of electrons and ions in gases, although explicit consideration of thelr mesa may then be recuired to determine their paths and distribution in space In the case of conductors, any effects of the mass of the particles are in. cluded in the empirically determined condnctivisy, inductvity and capac, {sot actually encountered except in free space, in many problems « median of aabetantal conduevity my be regarded as an insta. In ooher robles metium of low eonduetvty may behave virally a «perfect, Residing in the atomic structere of a substance are other clectrk chest ttn the ested on, whch sero a a effects observed upon variation in the state of a medium or upon a ance Py nen et a no belong in the feld of electronics and sleetrothewiatey. tod ne caened briefly hete, the motion of electrifed particles oven in obedience to bor ot predictable from, the electromagnetic laws aling, since othes ects are invaved then the imeracton of else and magne fa a 5,0 these phenomena beiong electrifeation by friction between different inslators of witablesufae texture, resulting in tanner of surface lee {rom oe instr othe eter, the decree conduct of metal eh Increasing wemperarte aya result ofa decrease inthe numberof cleans, end the existence of contact potential between diferent reel, which fs inherent in the fact that there isa difference berween metale ie the 18y required to remove an electron from a metal in free spaces Other Bhenomens ae the cert proce na cloned chain of aiferet metalic conductors as a result of conversion of thermal into elecerieal energy whens 8 junction i heated ar by conversion of chemie! into local rere an electrolytic conductor is inserted in such a chain heeween ifr4 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coane _metallic conductors or if « metallic conductor is inserted between different electrolytes in a closed chain of electrolytic conductors or cells. Within electrolytic cells, metalic ions, which are always positive, travel toward and are deposited on the metal at the negative boundary or cathode, while the negative ions travel toward the positive boundary or anode, where they neutralize metal ions and thereby cause dissolution of the metal surface. Other phenomena are the removal of free electrons from metals by appli- cation of an electric feld of high intensity, known as high-feld emission, by heating the metal in a highly evacuated space, known as thermionic emis sion, or by illumination of certein metallic eurfaces, referred to as photo- clectric emission. If electrons released into 2 gas by any of these processes attain sufficient velocity, by virtue of an applied electric eld of high in- tensity, 2 phenomenon known as jonization may take place, in which some of the ators lose an electron in colliding with fast electrons to become tive ions. Under certain conditions this process may become cumul and result in an arc between the field electrodes, with both che initiat electrons and those emitted from the atoms as well as the positive ions colliding with other gas particles to release additional electons. At ex. ceedingly high temperatures, che electrons of neutral gas aroms may acquire sufficient velocity 10 become deteched, so thac a gas may also become ionized by thermal emission, although this cffect is ordinarily of secondary importance. In certain crystals, such as quartz, the pitzo-clectric effect is observed, in which charges appear on certain surfaces of the crystal as a result of me- chanical pressure and deformation; in addition, a pyro-clectric effect, in Which electromotive forces are developed berween certain faces of the crysl by application of heat, may be noted. The piezo-electric effect is revers- ible so that when the eryses is placed in an electric field, i is deformed by variation in the field intensity. Aside from the above phenomena in which charges or their external electric forces are observed, there are the very important internal electric Phenomena, resulting form the electrical structure of the atoms, that manifest themselves by chemical affinity between the elements and are thus responsible for chemical combinations. 1.3 Fundamental eeiromagnetic postuisses ‘The electric and magnetic fields at any point in a medium satisfy cereain physical postulates abstracted from basic experiments’. ‘These may de expressed symbolically without reference to any particular coordinate system and provide the hasis of mathematical formulation and solution of electromagnetic problems?-**, First, the following relations obtain between the field intensities and the ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 5 density J ofthe electric current, ® of the dielectric x or disp. 4 of the magnetic Bux ar displacement™, 7 — 01 1.02) . (2.03) pane ae ‘and 9, cand» are the characteritis of the medium at the point and in the direction under consideration. Th tity xb =O the displacement eutrent which, like the foresees fhe diplacemenc current which, lke the conduction curene «6, produces Second, the quantitice 9 § and B behave as ini ible and i stmuetible Puids so that the net fux over a neds ee yfhen it include a soure, in which case the total outward fux equals that from the saurce. The surface integral of the fx per unit volume as the enclosing volume becomes infinitesimal is defined as the divergence of the Yeetor. Because there are no free magnetic poles and since displacement Guzen i include with conduction eure, the divergences of and are Iways zero. This is not the case, however, with the ic displace ment 9 sad che faliowing relations obtains SCet dl 9-2 (104) divg -0 (1.05) divB a0 (1.06) ‘hare is the charge density at the point under consideration, change in the magnetic feld gives rise to an electric field, and converecly, the fed ineensces at 4 point being intercl wal clectromagnetic equations ce oe curl 6 = —s3ie (07) ene K = 66 + ab (2.08) here : and IC are time derivatives of 6 and frst equation i an expression of Faraday’s law regarding the voltage induced in a metalic loop by the variations in che fax treading the loss, {In a plane normal to the direction of the magnetic fax as shown in Fig, 11 a closed path sis assumed to include an area 2 of such small dimensions that the fx density may bereganted as constant over dd. By Faraday's Jam; the integral feof the tngential electric force 6 around the path * Scie letesaro used hereto dasa nstantancus values of quanta wh ‘vary arbitrarily with time, Sass6 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS rar tis equal to the time derivative of the flux vid within the path. The curl is, by definition, the integral per unit area, hence (1.07). “The second equation is a corresponding expression of Ampére’s law re- garding the line integral of the magnetic field strength around a path en~ losing @ conduction current, augmented by Maxwell to include displace- ‘ment current. F Kats taken in plane normal ro the dtection ofthe tor current (o& + xb) a included by she path, as shown in Fig. 1.2, ‘The absence of magnetic conductivity will be noted in the frst equation and is dae co the lack of isolated magretic poles in nature, Actually, the 4 ti Jeattat fester Fon 1. right-hand sides of the equations should be ~ @= —»¢— 7, and «6 +9~ 06 + 6 +46, but for media or circuits with fixed characteristics, as dealt with here, time variations in » and x are zero. ‘The electric and magnctic field intensities in (1,07) and (1.08) are not rovessarly the totel eld incensieies ata point. ‘There may be, for example, Potationary electric field due to galvanic or therraal action, or a stationary magnetic eld due to 2 permanent magnet of to current in 2 loop insulated Jom the medium. ‘The oxtl of any such feld vanishes, however, 36 the leetzie fed is not accompanied by variation in the magnecic (hux, and the Imagnetie Held is not accompanied ky current at the point under considera. tion. Such fields may chus be subtracted from the !eft-hand sides of the equations without affecting their validity, as is sometimes done to indicate that the equations apply to the fields arising from the vasiation in the magnetic fux or due to current at the point under consideration “The field equations may also be written in integral form applying to any path, rather than in the above differential form spplying to a point. The ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 7 latter form is convenient in formulating differential equati ttl eens Che ‘lowing integal frm is ors metic Eomseriog with clocui Sous=—f faa 1.09) Shute = f f Gras 2.10) _ bs ins eter on sheen ses are eke aun the boundary of any surface f over which the normal nents of & areir freed on the ghee ssa cn a in Fig. 13. The integral form follows ce fom the diferential Tor by application & cof Stokes’ theorem, which seates that the surface integral of the component of the curl of the veetor normal to the surface fexual the line integral of the tangential component of the veeror alongs the bound ary of the surface. The field equations also apply at dis- continuities such as the interface of two media of diferent electrical characteris, fies. Tn order to eatsty the equations at 4 boundary, itis necessary for the tangential components of the electric and magnetic field intensities to be equal on the two sides of the boundary: ds Ftsds=- [finda Bre, 13. Pa Bu Gey Hay = Tae a) ring fh v us 2 wee tant ten ie ee ae Fla 14 Boondary conditions fo magnetic felds Hag = Hay ‘This flows when she Fld intensities are de f ld intensities are decomposed into normal an asgental components, at shown for Jin ig Lin Whe the mente Sarge clang x natrow angen loop which incdes rhe boundary the width of the loop is made to vanish, the area did under the loop and the incearal $C, de = dA vanishes. This condition can be stised only if8 EARTH CONDUCTION EBPECTS cans the feld insensities are the same on beth sides of the boundary, with the Pie erception: if a conducting shee is placed between the two media and the conductivity of the sheet approaches infinity at the same time as the sheet becomes infinitesimally chin, the product of sheet thickness a Currene density may reach a finite value <. ‘The pach will then include eh current and the equations are then satisfied with Bes Gx Has Hae = E 12) here’ is the sheet current density measured in amperes per meter width of the sheet LA Methods of solution of electromagnetic problems aati rreated here generally deal wit Flectromagnetic problems of the type treated ‘ the resultant current, field intensity or pec in ee —— rimary field. ‘The latter may be a voltage applied to te erminals ee eras generally, a distribution of electric force along @ conductor crogithin a oeediam. ‘The primary Geld may be arbitrarily assigned although actually t2 specify the distribution of charges and Sa iat will provide a primary field as assumed may be an electromagnetic problem init Pit, For the purposes of analysis, the primary field is assumed to give rise ro a secondary distribution ‘of charges and currents and ree Tecondary field. ‘The resultant field is the sum of the primary and # secondary fields, ito, pa eae" aa) i Each of eh corresponding relations for the potential and the current. aie C19) met saesty gern (17) ed (1.08) wal = see i) atthe boundary of eo mets te = problems: jnvolving fields varying with the time, the snilyiie ee (aa fied considerably by the introduction of the familiar soidal" ime sett ‘sed in the symbolic solution of alternating-current problems & = BAt = Bicosat + isin wt) & - whe (ula) is li f cosine functions, which is related where £ is the amplitude of the sine and. h = he rootmeanaguare value E by #=V2E. ‘The amplitudes. and Feotmean square valucs are vectors like the instantaneous quantities, Inserting (114) and a corresponding relation for 3 in (1.07) and (1.08), shin name of the function, Which i la refered toa & hasmonic: fstion, i aeived focr the relation off = cost fsinw = 8x. ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 9 and eliminating on both sides 2, the latter equations become curl B= — fav (11s) cart H = oF + ioe (1.16) Variation with time thus has been climicared. The solutions may be extended, moreover, to arbitrary nonsinucoidal variations with time by methods described lator. Generally, the problems dealt with may be classified into circuit or net. work problems, conventional transmission Tine problems and two or three dimensional fica problems. fn cxcait problems it is possible to, isolate elements each having separately the familiar electrical characteristics — capacitance, conductance and inductance. These elements may be in- terconnected in a variety of ways into networks or circuits, and the currents or potentials in various branches in response to an impressed or electro- motive force may be found from a set of simaleaneous equations. These equations must be set up to satisfy (1.05), which in circuit theory is known 1s the first Kirchhoff law, requiring the sum of the currents at a branch point to be zero. Furthermore, to satiafy the field postulates or the second Kirchhoff law, the voltage around each closed loop or mesh, cluding electromotive Forces, must be 2010. Tn conventional transmission line theory, the field at any paint in a plane perpendicular to the transmission line is assumed to depend on the current and the charge at the point of intersection with the plane, but not on che ‘current at other peints along the line. With chis assumption it is possible to assign to a transmission line element the characteristics or parameters of longitudinal impedance and transverse admittance, and to formulate the current and the potential at any point by a differential equation known as the transmission Line, or the telegraph, equation. Ix deriving the transmission line equation, the distrfbution of the current or the field over the cross section of the conductors or in the surround medium is left out of consideration, and its effect, as well as that of dis- tributed charge, is assumed co be included in the longitudinal impedance and the transverse admittance. These parameters include the effect of currents and charges induced within or upon the transmission line con- ductors and surrounding or adjacent media, such as the earth. Derivation of formulas for the transmission line parameters necessitates the applica- tion of the eleecromagnetic equations to the electric andl magnetic field in the plane perpendicular to the line, a particular case of field theory. More gmnerally, field theory is concerned with the transmission of electromag- netic waves in three dimensions through space or media having specified clectric and magnetic properties, usually in response to current in 2 short conthietor, as én the ease of radiation, or to current in s long eonductor, as0 RARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cant in connection ith nmutusl inductive effects between earth zerorr ductors. ; The solution of feld problems generally is based om 2 three dimensional “wave cqustion derived from the general electromagnetic postulates wit the concepts of scalar and yeetor potentials introduced to facilitate the olution, By suitable choice of a coordinate system, depending on the type of symmetry involved in the problem at hand, itis possible to secure Pe ematical solutions to a pismber of problems involving homogeneous rnedie or combinations of such medi han ‘On account of their application in later chapters, the transmiss and wave equations will be desived here, togecher with foumulas for the transmission Une parameters LS Transmission line parameters a “Assume that a potential 7 is applied berween the inner and outer con- duceors of 4 coaxial conductor arrangement a shown in Fig. 1.5. The eS © eurcTRI HELD Mucxenc FIELD io, 15 Comin condor arrangement f suctor and, at some electric Sed will then be radial around the central conductor and, at sme GFatance rom the ens will have no component in the axial direction. coary (1.05), the radial cverent density at che distance 7 most equa Jin) = Jolt oan fe the total current between the inner and outer conductors per ware Jos th 2 ore arg thine fo oh dec fre the distance eis ther by (1.02) 20 =e th ag) GF tos) Oar ‘The applied potential muse equal the integral or (7) between r= a and 1 dyhence. he : fe Ver Sie btajds 7 Dale + ue) ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 11 ‘The unit length admittance defined by Y = Ja/V is therefore yw OS ot tee ais) $ kee bre ee eas. oa 2, (1.20) é log= jogs where G and C are the unit length leakage conductance and capacitance. Assume next a current J slong che inner conductor wich retum in the cuter, and let the conductivity and capacitivity of the medium between the condtuctors be negligible in comparison with chat of the conductors, 30 that longitudinal current in the medium may be neglected. The longitadina’ clectric force due to the finite conductivity of the conductors is then related to the longitudinal current density by (1.02). Nopleeting the capacitance of the conductors $n comparison with their conductance, and assuming @ ‘uniform current distribution over the cross section of the inner and outer conductors, the applied potential per unit length required to sustain the cearrent against the resistance of the circuit becomes Vi, = Ra Ry) = IR (1.21) Ra and Rp are the unit length resisvances of the inner and outer conductors: which equal Ry = 1/y4q and Xy = Lend, where og and oy are the con- duetivities, da and 4, the cross-section areas of the inner and outer con- ductors. ‘When the current varies with time, an additions! impressed force ia required to overcome the voltage induced in the circuit by the variation in the magnetic foe borween the innex and outer conductors. ‘The lines of magnetic Aux ate conceutzic circles about che inner conductors, and it Fallows from (1.10), with [f° Ju 2d = 1,0 more dineetly from Ampire's law that H= Ltr a2) By application of (1.07) or (1.09) to a path consisting of the inner can- ductor with return in the owter, or by direct use of Faraday’s law of mag- netic induction, i follows thar the applied voleage per unit lengeh required to sustain the current against the inductive voltage equals W=1T te pion 8 ta loge (1.23)2 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cnet “The unit length inductance is defined by L = F/T or Vial and eavals Pig’ 1.243 Lopes (128) “The vn length longicodinal impedance is the impressed electric fore we, quired, per unit Fength and for nie corent wo overeome the resistive and inductive voltages ancl equals La Rt ak 2s) “To derive corresponding expressions for & pair of parallel nos-coaxial conducts ies convenient to regard the fe as consisting of two radial cePspomente due 20 appli potentials of opposite sins givin:rse toa Zada) cerent Jo in one and —Jo in the other conductor, both with setur jo @ camote Cendctar a the distance D. If the conductors are separated by ihe distance d, the potentials of conductors, of a rains @ and, #7 bb (pre pre mo xml ° i ) Jo yy? le + tx) tee -f ya dale ff) e “The potential difference betweck the conductors Py — Py equals Ing Y= ale pie) Bab (4.26) % aay «.28) ‘The admittance is accordingly a The + aed 7 (1.29) ae “phe inductance ofthe constr exanaerneat ay be devel in a siilaz nmaer to thet ased in deriving (24) and equals 2 = pes 120) baal Consider a hypothetical plane midway berween the two conductors, 6 caeceesi. 16, and assume that the two conductors have equal rai om asthe potentiel and che elsctric fore inthe tangential dines, Tener a neo. For this rezon, Hf ee plant were condcting, Fe would ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 18 not carry current. IF the conductivity of che plane is asoured infinite, i ie farthermore permissible to remove the conductor on one side without dis trbing the feld on the other sie of the plane. The field equations will then be satisfied, since the tangential components of the field intensity slong the plane will be zero, as mast be the case for a plane of infinite condvetiv= ity, both for the static condition and when the feld varies with time, Fic, LS FleewicSeld of « pair of oppaitely chard conductors, Since the conductor potestial and the longitudinal voltage drop will be cnly half as great as with two similar wires, che admit inde ca ha as eat wires, ittance and induetance asi) L- pe (1.32) ‘The magnetic eld of a stationary current is not affected by che presence of a conducting sheet, and the sbove formula for L applies only for 2 vari- able Geld of & stationary field over a plane of infinite permeal Aper- fectly conducting plane acts as 2 reflector or mirrof, and the method of images employed in the above derivation is generally applicable to con- ductors over such a plane,4 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS 1.6 Transnsission line equation om Ti in Fig. 1.7, and Consider a short segment ofa transmission Tine as shown in Fig. 1.7, assume that the potential ¥/= (x) and the longitudinal current J = Z(x) vary with time as e. Tn accordance with the definitions of ¥ and Z the following equations then apply, when the positive direction of current is along the positive direction of the s-axis: at few 1.33) z ¥) q = 134) = a a iat on wi 0.x and substicution in Differentiation of the frst equation with respect to.» and substitution i the second give a differential equation for the current, whereas differentia ee eee ee Tor Bio. 1.7 Transmison line equations Us 442) ~ Ie) ~~ al = YFG Vig + ds) ~ Mp) = ~6P = Bld tion of the second equation and substitution in che first give « differential equation for the potential. These equations are ar apy 7. (1.35) ‘where Tis the propagation constant: P= ZY = UR + al)G + wor” (1.36) ‘The solutions of these equations are Ts pete Tg) = ae — Be mi Ve) = Kae + Ke ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 15 where the second equation is obtained from the first by use of (1.33) and K/=1/¥ is the characteristic impedance: Km 2/YPF ARE WEYG + ioe? (1.38) The integration constants and B are determined from boundary con- ditions which require continuity of both conductor current and potential at series or shunt discontinuities, except at a source point. At the open end cof a conductor the current mast thus be 2ero, while at the junction of sev eral condvetors the sam of the conductor currents must be zero. At very high frequencies there may actually be a displacement current fram the open end of a conductor which may need consideration, but transmission line equations as considered here axe not applicable in that case. The dis. continuity at a source point is equal to che electromotive force of the source less the impedance drop through the latter. Atthe junction of two conduc tors of different material there may be an electromotive force due to galvanic or thermal action, which must be taken into account in some problems, The current and potential distribution for a conductor of finite length energized at one end x = 0 and terminated at the other end x= s, through aan impedance Z, is frequently required and is obtained as follows: Assume that the current (0) impressed at x~ 0 is known, When (1.37) is applied to x = 0 and + = s, the boundary conditions to be satisfied are Ate=0: 4-B=1(0) Ate mas (4eT — Bel) Z,= KideP + Bel The solution of these equations is 1 4=1OT AW: B= 10) where jis the reflection Factor: os— K)/ (Ze K) (139) ‘The current and potential at « are accordingly ee) (1.40 ve) as) The impeiance Z = ¥(0)/F(0) looking into the energized end of the condictoris Let CLS ae 1.42)16 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS aan lerivation of the transmission line ‘equation the current was Tn the abr ei to one or more impressed electromotive forces be ‘at certain points, When the ate ix cual brs dis lectri¢ Aeld intensity £°(x) in the axial direction along the con witued fs ‘will appear on the right-hand side of (1.34) and with this snedification the current equation ts ar 1.49) -r = —¥P@) a we i. “The general solution of this equasion may be written 2 Toe) = [4 + Pe ™ BE Qe (1.44) (eq) = Kid + PON + BT ae where ron kf rome (4.45) ow Ae [Boer er (1.46) ‘The constants 4 and B are determined by the boundary conlions at qnds of the conductors or at source points, as before. -_ ee (ad) may te derived a (llowet, Consider an infinite condctr slong which there i an impressed foree (9), ‘The caren at see ce the electric force B°(2) de along the conductor element ais the 21) = Pe) PK. Ths allo since she Garett Implant k ja connected t9 cach end of the element de and the al impede ice ofthe laters celyible by comparion. The curren at due te Iimproned fore at os then dZ(@) exp — 11x — 2] and the tral current rue to the impressed forces between —* and = equals Pe) = ef Ors a) ‘current may next be canceled at any two points by two series genesa- on 30 aS or shen ‘@ conductor of eet grey Esra eatin iy be wriien as CP — BPC, a0 that the to by the genera ycror assured to extend from O in the postive direction nay be writen e ates Te) = fio BE Le [BO de = Lf + POET — B+ 9G) ~ BC e™ ‘To obtain (1.44), the constant =~) is included in B. ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 17 When the impressed electric force along a conductor vaties as UG + of)", P(x) and Qe) may be expressed in terins of the functions ‘and ¥ defined ia Appendix I and, when J ~ 0, in terms of the exponential integral function. With several transmission Tines « namber of simultaneous differential equations must be satisfied unless physical conditions permit lumping into 2 single equivalent line. Although the formal solution for rmultiple lines may readily be obtained®* in a similar or corresponding, manner to that shown in Chapter V for two conductors, considerable difficulty may be encountered in the practical application to more than tes lines of different characteristics. Using the formulas for ¥ and Z. given in 1.5, the propagation constant for a transmission Fine of negligible resistance becomes, Pm Tarlo + fee) 0.48) ‘When it is permissible to assume plane wave transmission and to neglect the conductor resistance, the propagation constant is thus independent of the geometrical configuration. Expression (1.48) for the propagation constant recurs in the wave equavion and upplies to the medium in which the conductor is imbedded. LT Scaler and vector potentials of stationary fields To derive the particular form of the field equations in a rectilinear coordinate system, consider a small reccanghe ddan the y.% plane around the component H, of the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 18. ‘The electric force around the loop is then [@Fx/8y — 3«/0s] dydz which, in accordance with Fig. 11, must equal —ioB, dydx. From this and corresponding ‘equalities for other components it follows that for time vatiation as eM! cutl E = 08,/ay ~ E,/0z = —iewH, curly E = aE,/0x ~ 8E,fax = ~inlly a9) curl, E = 0E (0x — 0B fay = —twrl, Similarly; curl, H = aH,/8y — aH,/0: = oF, tines curl, H = aHs/03 ~ OH ,/8% = oBy + inky (1.50) oul, Hl allyfar — 0/89 = cE, + iE ‘When applied to a cube in a rectilinear evordinate system, the expression for the divergence, as involved in (1.04), (1.08) and (1.06), becomes, in18 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cnr. the case of J = oF + fanB av f= SE (st) 2 i irecti because fowis the rate at which current in the x direction changes the ae ‘of current through the four faces of the cube parallel to the cee ith a corresponding significance as regards the other two deriva- ives. ‘When the integral pendent of the paths of the field intensity between any two points is inde- “follows that che integral around a closed path — ovine me pA 2M pwted 2B ae a “The field intensity and each af cur ofthe field — is 20. ani ence the curt of the Se the negative gradient of a salar its components may then be expressed ax potential U: E, © —ade U = ~ Uae (GQ --mvr - [+ 2+ By the definitions of divergence snd gradient, the divergence of fels desived from a scalar potential becomes au eu, aU divend U= Fat Ge tg 7 40 «1.82 (1.53) which is referred to as the Laplacian of U. anu ie static condition, J = 0, and the stationary condition i = ob en hat cat! B= 0, ‘The field may be derived accordingly ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 19 from a scalar potential which must satisfy Poisson's equation obtained from (1.01), (1.04) and (1.52), ie, aU = -O/s (154) where @ is the charge density at the point under consideration. ‘When the charge density is zero, a8 in free space, the potential satisfies Laplace's equation au=0 (ass) which also, in view of (2.05), applies to the potentia! in a medium carrying a constant current and, furthermore, to a magnetostatic field not accom panied by current at che point under consideration. Such a ficld may be due to a permanent magnet or to constant cutrent in a metallic loop ulated from the medium. Where there ig current or electric force varying with the time in the medium, however, tis seen (earn (1.08) that the curl of the magnetic force does not vanish’so that the integral of the magnetic Geld intensity between cwo points depends on the path. ‘The magnetic field intensity may then he expressed s the curl of a vector po- tential 4, the equation for each component of which corresponds to (1.54) and is Ad =» 56) where Jis the current density in the dizection of the component of / under consideration and y the induceivity of the medium. ‘This equation is derived as follows: With Brawls as7 (1.58) equation (1.08) becomes curl curl 4 = 9 From expression (1.49) for the cor), it flloms that a a eu, (cul A) = Seve A — 5 early 2 (ede 240) _2 (oe Bae ~ ay) eae 3x ‘Adling and subtracting 0°4,/a2, the following relation is obtained: cat (carl A) = ad, + Sev 4 Comesponding relations are obtwined for the yan components, so that the fllowing relation cbrains forthe total field: curl (curl 4) = —Ad + grad div d (1.39)—= ~ EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cane. ‘Asmentioned before, the curlof the gradient of ascalar potential vanishes, so that (1.57) remains valid ifthe gradient of a scalar potential is added to ‘A. This acalar potential may be so selected that div = 0, in which ease (1.56) is obtained when (1.59) is inserted in (1.58). ‘When 2 point charge Qo is imbedded in a uniform dielectric, it follows from (1.04) that the dielectric flux density D at the distance R from Qs Qo/4rR?, Hence the electric ficld strength equals Qo/4anR? and the poten a the distance Rs dR Qo Om nde HE tee a) The capaciy of « charged sphere of radius Ris accordingly 4xR, Expres sion (1.60) # a solution of (1.54). The more general solution for charges Gistributed in a uniform dieleetrc ia obtained by superposizion of the po- ‘ential due to individual charges and equals UR z Sf asi) where @ is the charge density at the distance R from the point under con- Sideravion and the integration is extended over the entire volume. "These solutions also apply to the stationary condition obtaining in the ‘ease of aconducting medium. A current is then required to maintain the charge distribution, as when current supplied to a cylindrical metallic conductor is discharged along its surface into & surrounding mediam of Comparatively low csnductivity, asin problems dealt with in Chapter IIL ‘Thus, if Ip is the current radiating from a point having a charge Qo, the current density at the distance Ris J = Jo/4nR? and the electric intensity due to the current J9/4zoR®, The potential at R is accordingly jo (dR __Io Grade TE Gro In the stationary condition both (1,60) and (1.62) arc satisfied, but the solution is expressed ordinarily in terms of che current, which is usually of greater finportance and is moze readily observed than the charge: ‘Corresponding to (1.61) a3 & solution of (1.54), the following volume ‘neegral represents the general solution of (1.56) for the vector potential cof a stationary current distibution: aa ve (1.62) “The volume integral applies to each component of the vector potential, J being the carrent density in the direction of the component under con- sideration, ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 21 Assume a short conductor of length 25 imbedded in a conducting medium of infinite extent and insulated from it except at the ends. When the con- ductor is made to carry a current J, the return through the medium will ‘onsist of wo opposite radial flows ‘rom the ends ofthe conductor element. Evaluation of the vestor potential shows that the contribution fram the two radial return flows is zero. For distances that ate large compared to dS, the volume integral of the current density may then be taken as 14S/R, so that Ids TER (1.68) A short current element as considered al i :own as i J 48 as its moment. ie aie i ‘From (1.64) the following expression for the magnetic flux intensity di toa dipole, known as the Biot-Savart law, is obtained by use of st “e pati = WE sng 65) 4 where ys the angle included between the radius vector R from the i s [e incl from the ai {> the poine ae which Bir evaluated aad the dioteon of he dipole aa, rom ths expression, the ogni fd due wo erent ins cenductor of acirary path nay be obsined by inerton along he Ph of con. 18 Electromagnetic energy relasions Icis postulated that the energy CV#/2 required to charge a eapecita to a potential Vis dntributed inthe surrounding imediam with the den sity «6/2. Similarly, thatthe energy LI?/2 required to create a magnetic fild by a current J in a ciceuit of inductance L is distributed as +C2/2. ‘The instantaneous energy within a volume is then given by the followin volume integral = WH af es pra 66) When the fed varies with time, the energy lose per aie time equals &O o —D ~~ f (bb + 0) de 187) Fram (1.07) and (1.08), —sC = curl 6 and xb = curl K — 66 Hence, oD — OP x fea &~ Sean) de+ [ose (68) - fi ‘diy [60] do + f 08 do (1.69)a EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cu. 1 where (1.69) is derived from {1.68} as shown below, and 16H] = 65 sing (1.70) je the vector product of & and SK, and 0 is the angle incloded between these vectors. The vector product is a vector perpendicular co the plane through Pr A Fro, 19 Ratited power deity Ps — [EH] ~ EH sin and X, as shown in Fig. 1.9. In rectilinear coordinates, t [SIC], = 6H, — EH; [BK], = BK, — 6H ys ' (6901, = B.C, — 6,50. a7 ; a a div {69€] = 5 (GH. — 6G) +5, CMe — EH) + EGR, ~ 57) We OH) g (2s _ he ~~ [8G 2) + 6G - 32) iy ae ed ¢ ae By >) ‘a, a8," (aby 38," + [-(B- 3) +90 GF a6 (3-3) =e eens (72) ‘The integral throughout « closed volume of the divergence of a vestar is equal by Gauss’ theorem to he surface intégral of the component of the a ee BLECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 23 ‘vector normal in the outward direction ¢o the surface enclosing the volume, i.e, the total flux from sources within a volume must equal the flux through the surface. Hence, if 4 is the area of the surface enclosing the volume, (1.69) may be written as follows: - 2 = fiends fos? ao (7a) ‘The firs incegral represents the power radiated through the surface, the second integral the power dissipated in heat within the volume. The ‘vector , = (6H) a7) represents the instantaneous power radiated per unit area across « surface through & and 5 and is referred to as the Poynting vector. For a steady state Geld varying as cos ai, with a time phase displacement «9 between the electric and magnetic field intensities, the average dissipa- on P, per unit volume and the radiation P, across a unit area over a long period f are given by 7s) P= BR! [Ritemateos (ou beddy toe = YOR cos. sin = EH cos gin 6 76) where # and A are amplitudes and E = B/V2, H = A/x/2 are root- ‘moan-square values. ‘Near a power source, ¢ ney be nearly 90°, so that the eneray in the field ‘oscillates between the electric and the magnetic state, wich only « minor fraction being radiated. At remote points, however, approaches zero ‘0 that the field is a radiation field rather than aa induction field, 28 near ‘power source. In order to evehiate the reactive effect of the field on the primary power system and the radiation from such systems, i is necessary to derive the electromagnetic wave equation and to obtain an appropriate solution, as outlined in the following sections. 19 Woase equation in a hemogencous medium “Yo derive the equations for the scalar and vector potentials of fields varying with time, as e, the magnetic field intensity is again related to the vector potentia) by (1.57). When the latter relation is substituted in