GCE AL Bio

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rx;a ohdjxY uhd - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
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2'0 ix{dmkh iii
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ksmqK;dj 2 ^tallh 2& 7 - 34
ksmqK;dj 10 ^tallh 10& 139 - 174
ksmqK;dj 11 ^tallh 11& 175 - 195
ksmqK;dj 12 ^tallh 12& 196 - 220
ksmqK;dj 13 ^tallh 13& 221 -261
ksmqK;dj 14 ^tallh 14& 262 - 275
6'0 mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau 276 - 278
7'0 we.hS ie,iq 279 - 291
8'0 weuqKqu 292 - 322
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oHd{hska fyda j oHd{hska wkq.ukh lrk l%udKql+, wkqms<sfj<la we;s
nj isiqkg wjOdrKh l< hq;= hs' fuh j oHd;aul .egjla fyda tfkod
; .egjla fyda h yels hs' fuu ixOdkd;aul wkafIK rgdj oHd;aul
l%uh hehs yekaf'
oHd;aul l%uh my; i|yka mshjrj,ska iuka;hs'

l%udKql+, kslaIKh mok lrf.k .egjla ykd .ekSu
m%Yak pdu iy th mok lrf.k l,ams; f.dv ke`.Su
wjYH wjia:dj, md,l mlaIK o fhdod .kska l,ams; mlaId lsug
mlaIK fufyhu
mqfrdal:k lsu iy ;j rg;a mlaIK lrka tajd mlaId lsu'
kslaIK$ idlaIs wdOdrfhka l,ams; ;yjqre lsu
kj oekqu wkqj wod< m fjkia h yels jdo f.dv ke`.Su
iqiq WodyrK Nd;fhka oHd;aul l%uh meye,s lrkak'
6
2 tallh - jfha ridhksl iy ffi,Sh moku
ksmqK;dj 2'1'0 ( jfha ridhksl moku ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'1 ( foayfha uQ, jHuh ixhq;sh ms<sn| uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ;
foay ;=< wvx.= uQ,jH ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
wud;% iy wxY+ud;% uQ,jH fjkafldg ykd .kshs'
wud;% iy wxY+ud;% uQ,jHj, lD;H i|yka lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh

Ydl iy i;=ka ;=< wvx.= uq,jH ixhq;sh ms<sn| j im;a ^ uqs; fyda oHq;a&
jH isiqkag imhd fokak'
O uQ,jHj, idfmalaI nyq,;dj oelafjk pd" m%ia;dr iy j.= ms<sfh<
lsug Wmfoia fokak'
tla tla uQ,jHfha lD;H i|yka j.= iy pd ms<sfh< lrjkak'
isiqka ,jd tajd mka;shg bm;a lrjkak'
jfha ridhksl mokug wod< Ih ksfoaYfha we;s Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh
lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la

jfha uQ,jH ixhq;sh
iajdNdlj mj;sk uQ,jH 92 w;ka uQ,jH 20la muK foayj,
wvx.= f'
tajd w;=ka nyq, u jkafka ldnka" yhsv%cka" Tlaiscka" khsg%cka" fmdiamria
iy i,a* hk uQ,jH yhhs'
uQ,jH
ka ;=< wvx.= uQ,jH ixhq;sfha O fjkial we;' kuq;a we;e
uQ,jH w;HjYH uQ,jH f,i k lr ;sf' tajd foayj, ;sfnk
nyq,;dj wkqj wud;% yd wxY= ud;% uQ,jH f,i fjka flf
wud;% uQ,jH
hl=f.a h<s nfrka 0'01] la fyda Bg jvd je h' wud;% uQ,jHj,g
C,H,O,N,P, S, Ca, K, Mg wh;a f' we;e kaf.a ^ksoiqka( ksid& Na,
Fe yd CI o wud;% uQ,jH f,i we;'
wxY= ud;% uQ,jH
hl=f.a h<s nfrka 0'01] g jvd wvq h'
ksoiqka( B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, CI, Fe, Si, V, Cr, I, Co, Al
wud;% yd wxY= ud;% uQ,jHj, lD;H
7
ksmqK;dj 2'1'0 ( jfha ridhksl moku ms<sn| j uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'2 ( cSjh i|yd jeo.;a jk c,fha fN!;sl iy ridhksl

.=K ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd ( (
kag c,fha we;s jeo.;alu meye,s lrhs'
jh i|yd jeo.;a jk c,fha fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K ms<sn| j ia;r lrhs'
c,fha tu fN!;sl iy ridhksl .=K foay ;=< c,fhka bgqjk lD;Hhkag
wod< j uid n,hs'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (

c,h u.ska moaO;sj, bgq lrk lD;Hhkag wod< j c,fha fN!;sl yd
ridhksl .=K we;=<;a im;a ûqs; fyda oHq;a& jH isiqkag imhkak'
c,h jhg w;HjYH jHhla f hk ud;Dldj hgf;a rpkhla ,sug
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
rpkhg wvx.= h hq;= jeo.;a lreKq ms<sn| j idlPd lrkak'
isiqka ,jd bm;a lsula iQodk lrjkak'
wod< Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m ia;drKhla lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

jh i|yd c,fha we;s jeo.;alu
jfha nyq,; u wldnksl ixfhda.h c,hhs'
ka ;=< c,fha m%Odk lD;H
m%dla ma,diaufha ix>glhla
djlhla
m%;sl%shlhla
Y+k;dj mj;ajd .kakla
8
wfkl=;a lD;Hhka
.;s.K
= h ldhNdrh WodyrK
ldur WIAK;ajfha jhls m%dla ma,diaufha c,h m%dla ma,diaufha m%Odk

udOHhls ix>glhls'
O%eh;dj fyd| djlhls' fndfyda jH m%dlama,diaufha

iy ffi, hqIfha h f'
ffi,fha mjD;a;Sh l%shd
isjkafka c,Sh udOHhl h
ridhksl .;s.=K iuyr ffcj ridhksl m%NdixYaf,aIKfha

m%;sl%shdj, m%;sl%shlhla 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6+ 6O2
f,i l%shd lrhs' c,fokfha

msIagh + H2O fuda,afgdaia
wl ixila;s iy wdila;s ffi, j, Y+k;dj ffi, Yd, f "

n, mj;ajd .ekSu wldIah Ydlj,
ikaOdrKfha " Y+k;d
p,kj, " md,l ffi,j,
p,kh" mqIam msmSf '
by< mDIal wd;;shla oeu iuyr c, lDkag h,siaikakd

jdiia:dkhla imhhs'
wl ixila;s iy wdila;s jH wjfYdaIKh iy *af,dahu mixl%uKh iy

n, mjykh rfidaoa.ukh
mdxY= djkfhka c,h iy
Lksc ,jk wjfYdaIKh
c,fha wl YsIaG ;dm ie,elsh hq;= ;r ;dm p,;dmS i;=kaf.a foay

Od;dj m%udKhla wjfYdaIKh WIAK;ajh mgq mrdihla ;=<
fyda msgl, o WIAK;aj mj;ajd .ekSu
fjkia u wju u
9
wl jdIamSlrKfha foay mDIaG isis,a lsu vyh oeu iy W;aiafokh

.=ma; ;dmhla ;su
wl ,hkfha .=ma; c,Sh moaO;s u i|yd ffi, ;=< yd c,Sh moaO;s

b;d Yd, ;dm m%udKhla ;=< c,h blauKska whsia njg
;dmhla ;su jeh l< hq;=u m;a fkdu'
c,h f isjk c,Sh moaO;s imQKfhkau YS; ld,fha O%ej m%foaYj,

wiudldr m%idrKh whsia njg m;a fkd c,c kag c,h ;=<
whsia c,h u; mdu ksrems;j jdih l< yels
is f' j c,h m;=f,a u'
b;s f'
mdroDYH u wdf,dalhg myiqfjka c,c Ydl iy w,af.aj,g

kso hdug bvu c,h ;=< ie,elsh
hq;= ;r .eUqfrys jeug
yelsu'
10
ksmqK;dj 2'1'0 ( jfha ridhksl moku ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'3 ( kaf.a m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda.j, ridhksl

iajNdjh iy lD;H uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ka ;=< yuqjk m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda. ldKav y;fryss uQ,sl ridhksl
iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
tu ldnksl ixfhda. ldKav y;frys lD;H ia;r lrhs'
Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" msIagh" fm%dak iy ,smsv ykd .ekSu
i|yd oHd.dr mlaIK mj;ajhs'

Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" mssIagh" fm%dak yd ,smsv ykd .ekSu
msKsi oHd.dr mlaIK wdoYkh lrkak'
k fkd lrk ,o djK ^msIg a h" iqlf
a rdai"a .afldai"a ;a;r iq uoh" fmd,af;,a
jeks & isiqkag imhkak'
tajd ykd .ekSug u`. fmkajka iy ta i|yd wkq.ukh l< l%shdms<sfj<
we;=<;a jd;djla ms<sfh< lsug Wmfoia fokak'
wod< im;a jH ^ uqs; fyda oHq;a& imhd fokak'
foay ;=< wvx.= ldfndyhsf%g" fm%dak" ,smsv iy kshqlaf,hsla w,
iy tajdfha lD;H ms<sn| jd;djla bm;a lsug isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqm< s f
s j<lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'

foay ;=< yuqjk m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda. ldKav y;frys uQ,sl ridhksl
iajNdjh iy lD;H meye,s lrkak'
m%Odk ldnksl ixfhda. f,i
ldfndyhsfg
fm%dak
,smsv
kshqlaf,hsla w,
ldfndyhsfg" fm%dak" ,smsv iy kshqlaf,hsla w, jHj, wvx.= m%Odk
ffch wKq f,i i,lk nj meyeos,s lrkak'
fm%dak" kshqlaf,hsla w, iy iuyr ldfndyhsfg uyd wKq f,i i,lk
nj i|yka lrkak' ^tajdfha wKqlNdrh 104 - 1010 muK f &
11
ldfndyhsfg
mDh u;=msg we;s jvd;a u iq,n ldnksl ixfhda. ldKavhhs'
tfkod ;fha Nd;hg .efkk ms" iSks wdh ldfndyhsfgj,g
WodyrK f'
m%Odk uQ,jH ixhq;sh jkafka C, H, O
fmd wKql iQ;%h Cx(H2O)y ' c,fha fuka u ldnkaj, yhsf%gj, H : O
wkqmd;h 2 ( 1 f'
fudfkdielrhsv" vhsielrhsv iy fmd,sielrhsv f,i m%Odk
ldfndyhsfg j. ;=kla f'
fudfkdielrhsv
uQ,sl ridhksl iajNdjh iy ffch lD;H i|yka lrkak'
C mrudKq ixLHdj wkqj fudfkdielrhsv k lrkak'
C mrudKqq ixLHdj fmd ku WodyrK

3 g%fhdai .a,si/,ayhs
4 fgfg%dai t;afrdaia
îq,n ke;&
5 fmkafgdai rhsfndaia
hqf,daia
6 fylafidai .afldaia"
marelafgdaia
.e,elafgdaia
ish u fudfkdielrhsv Tlaisydrl iSks f'
vhsielrhsv
.a,hsfldisl nkaOk hkq fudkjd oehs meye,s lr fudfkdielrhsv
wKq folla tlafuka vhsielrhsv wKqjla we;s jk wdldrh meye,s
lrkak'
2C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O
fuda,afgdaia iy ,elafgdaia hk vhsielrhsv Tlaisydrl .=K fmkajQj;a
iqfl%daia Tlaisydrl iSks j.hla fkdf'
fmd,sielrhsv
nyqwjhl jHqy iEfok wdldrh meyeos,s lrkak'
fmd,sielrhsv jHqy we;s jk wdldrh meye,s lrkak' f ksid we;s jk
nyqwjhl YdLkh fkdjQ fyda YdLkh jQ odu iys; jHqy ;khs'
msIagh" .a,hsfldacka iy fi,shqf,daiaj, uQ,sl jHqyh iy lD;H
msIagh u; weuhsf,aia j, l%shdld;ajh
;j;a fmd,sielrhsvhla i|yd WodyrKhla f,i bkshq,ska
fyfi,shf q ,dai"a fmlaka iy lhska hkq jeo.;a fmd,sielrhsv jHq;m
a kak
nj meye,s lrkak'
12
ldfndyhsfgj, lD;H
ffi,Sh l%shdld;ajfha oS fudfkdielrhsv" vhsielrhsv iy
fmd,sielrhsvj, jeo.;alu iy lD;H meye,s lrkak'
msIagh" Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" ykd .ekSug ir, oHd.dr
mlaIK is lsu iy weuhsf,aia u.ska msIagh c,fok m%;sl%shd
kslaIKh lsu'
,smsv
my; i|yka foa ms<sn| j flfhka meye,s lrkak'
Iucd;Sh" c,fha wdjH ldnksl ixfhda. ldKavhls'
m%Odk uQ,jH ixhq;sh C, H, O iy iuyr g P iy$fyda N we;'
ldfndyhsfgj,g idfmalaI j Tlaiscka m%udKh fjdfha wvqh'
fo w,j, jHqyh - ika;Dma; iy wika;Dma; fo w, ksoiqka
iys;j
f;,a iy fo fjka lr ykd .kak' f;,a iy foj, g%hs.a,sirhsv
jHqyh
fjk;a ,smsv wdldr i|yd ksoiqka f,i b" fmdiafmd,smsv" iafgfrdhsv
iy gmsk
,smsvj, m%Odk lD;Hka meyeos,s lrkak'
f;,a iy fo ykd .ekSug oHd.dr mlaIK
fm%dak
fm%dak hkq weuhsfkda w,j, nyqwjhl nj;a" tajd Yd, wKql
ialkaOhlska hqla; jk nj;a i|yka lrkak'
m%Odk uQ,jH ixhq;sh C, H, O, N iy iuyr g S we;'
weuhsfkda w, taldjhjj,ska fm%dak iE we;' ffi, ;=< weuhsfkda
w, j. /ila mej;sh;a bka 20la muK fm%dak iEug odhl f'
fmmaghsv nkaOk yd tajd iEfok wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
fmd,sfmmaghsvhl jHqyh
fm%dakj, ixlSK jHqyh wdldr y;rlska ia;r jk nj
m%d:l - fh weuhsfkda w, wkqms<sfj<
oa;Shsl - fy,slaiSh fyda ke wdldr
;D;shsl - fmd,sfmmaghsv odufha ke ksid we;s jQ f.da,Sh
yevh' fuu yevh ia:dhS j mj;ajd .ekSug O
nkaOk odhl f'
pd;+: - fmd,sfmmaghsv odu folla fyda je ixLHdjla
inkaO we;s jk ixlSK f.da,Sh jHqy
fm%dak iaiajdNdlrKh iy th fm%dakj, l%shdld;ajhg olajk
n,mEu
ffi, yd ka ;=< fm%dakj, ldhNdrh
fm%dakj, O lD;H ^jHqyuh" mjykh" ix;" ixfldapl"
wdrlaIl" fydfudak" I" W;afma%rl& meyeos,s lrkak'
fm%dak ykd .ekSug oHd.dr mlaId - nhshqr mlaIdj
13
kshqlaf,hsla w,
my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn| fl meye,s lsula
wl idfmalaI wKql ialkaOhla iys; nyq wjhjhl f' C, H, O,
N iy P wvx.= f'
wdldr folls' DNA iy RNA.
;ekq tall f,i kshqla,sfhdaghsv" kshqla,sfhdghsvhl ix>gl
khsg%ckSh Niau wdldr" mshqk iy msk Niau' DNA iy RNA j, we;s
iSks ldKav iy Niaauj, fjki
fmd,skhs l
q ,
a f
s hdghsvhl jHqyh' DNA wKqf oa;aj fya,l
s i
a h
S jHqyh ia;r
lrkak'
DNA wKqf iajhxm%;sj,s; u
DNA iaiajdNdlrKh iy DNA iiajdNdlrKh
DNA iy RNA w;r fjkial
RNA j, j. ;=k ( m - RNA, t - RNA, r - RNA )
DNA iy RNA j, lD;H
kshqlaf,hsla w,j, olakg ,efnk kshqla,sfhdghsvj,g wu;r j ffi,
;=< yuqjk fjk;a kshqla,sfhdghsv iy tajdfha lD;H'
Wod- (ATP, NAD, NADP)
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
Tlaiy
s drl yd ksTlaiy
s drl iSk"s msIg
a h" fm%d
a ka" fo yd f;,a ykd.ekSu
i|yd ir, oHd.dr mlaId'
14
ksmK
q ;dj 2'2'0 ( kaf.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj,
odhl;ajh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'1 ( ffi, yd ffi,Sh ixOdk ms<n

s | oekqu mq`M,a lr .ekSu
i|yd wKalaIj, odhl;ajh ia;drKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
wdf,dal wKalaIh ksjer f,i Nd; lrhs'
wdf,dal wKaalaIh iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaIh w;r we;s jeo.;a ,laIK
ixikaokh lrhs'
ffi, jdoh ia;r lrhs'
m%d.a kHIal iy iQ kHIal ffi,Sh ixOdk ykd .ekSug bf,lafgdak
wKalaISh PdhdrEm Nd; lrhs'

uqL l=yr wdia;rKfhka ,nd.;a ffi, iy `MEKq wmsph ffi, wKa a laIfhka
kslaIKh lr tajdfha rEm igyka weug isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
iqiq uQ,dY% ûqs; iy oHq;a& u.ska ,nd .;a bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm
kslaIKh ;=<ska iQkHIal iy m%d.akHIal ffi, ixOdk ykd .ekSug
isiqka fhduq lrkak'
my; i|yka lreKq wdjrKh jk mos bm;a lsula i|yd isiqkag Wmfoia
fokak'
ffi, jdoh" wdf,dal wKalaIfha iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaIfha idfmalaI
jdis iy wjdis" oHd.drfha wKalaIh Nd;h iy th ksje/ j myrKh
lsu" m%d.a kHIal iy iqkHIal ffi, ixOdk w;r ieiula
wod< Ih ikaOdrh imQK lsu i|yd ia;drKhl fhfokak'
my; lreKq ms<sn| j wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
m%fYfuka hq;= j ksje/j wKaalaI Nd;h
wdf,dal wKalaIfha iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaIfha Yd,kh iy fNaok
n,h
wdf,dal wKalaIh iy bf,lafg%dak wKalaI ieiu
m%d.a kHIal iy iQkHIal ffi, ixOdk
wdf,dal wKalaIh
ir, iy ixhqla; wKaalaI fjka lr ykd .ekSu
ixhqla; wKalaIfha uQ,sl ,laIK iy ixrpl ia;r lsu - Wmfk; iy
wjfk;' tajdfha Yd,kh iy fNaok n,h ^,laIH folla tlsfklska
fjka lr ykd .ekSu i|yd tu ,laI fol w;r ;sh hq;= wju r &
15
bf,lafg%dak wKaalaIh
Yd,kh iy fNaok n,h
ifm%aIK iy mf,dalk bf,lafg%dak wKalaI
wdf,dal wKalaIh ksje/ j Nd; lrk wdldrh wdoYkh lrkak'
ksoYl kslaIKh i|yd wdf,dal wKalaIh Nd; lrk wdldrh wdoYkh
lrkak'
ffi, jdoh
ish ka ffi,j,ska iE we;' iuyre ;ks ffi,hlska iE we;s w;r
iuyre ffi, .Kkdjlska hqla;h'
jfha ixOdk ug kej; u;la lr.kak'
zZ f,i ie,lsh yels uQ,sl tallh ffi,h f' fuh tal ffi,sl
fhla ^Wod ( Chlamydomonas, Yeast& fyda nyqffi,sl i;a;ajfhla fyda
Ydlhla fyda h yelsh'
ffi,h jfha uQ,sl jHqyuh iy lD;Huh tallhhs'
jHj," ffi,hla u.ska ksrEmkh jk ixOdk ugu" kaf.a ish
,dlaIKsl .=K fmkajhs' ffi,hg my, lsis ixOdk ugula
f,i fyda zfhlaZ f,i ie,lsh fkdyels h' talffi,sl fhla jQj;a"
nyqffi,sl Ydlhl fyda i;a;ajhl=f.a jQj;a uQ,sl jHqyuh iy lD;Huh
tallh ffi,h f'
frdn yqla ^1663& - >k jHhla jk j,alhg md ug yelshdjla we;af;a
flfiao@ hkak f;are .ekSug W;aidyhl fhf " j,al mglfha ;=kS
fohla wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lr th isrej,ska iE we;s nj oel tajd
ffi, f,i ykajk ,'
frdn yqla f.a iuld,skhl= jQ wekagka jeka ,Sfjkayqla (1650) uq,ska u
tal ffi,sl ka jk Euglena iy nelahd kslaIKh lr ia;r
iys;j jd;d lrk ,'
WoaNso oHd{ ue;shia Ya,hsvka (1831) Ydl mgl wOHhkh lr ish u
Ydl" ffi,j,ska iE we;s nj ks.ukh lf<ah'
i;a;aj oHd{ ;shfvda Yajdka iy Ya,hsvka (1839) ish i;a;ajhka
ffi,j,ska iE we;s nj ks.ukh lrk ,'
jfpd ^1855& iEu ffi,hlau bka fmr mej;=Kq ffi,hlska" ffi,
Ndckh u`.ska yg.kakd nj fmkajd fok ,'
Ya,hsvka" Yajdka iy jfpd iska my; lreKq we;=<;a lr ffi, jdoh
bm;a lrk ,'
1' ish ka tl ffi,hlska fyda ffi, lsysmhlska fyda iE we;'
2' ka f.a uQ,sl jHqyuh iy lD;Huh tallh ffi,h f'
3' ish ffi, we;sjkafka l,ska mej;s ffi,j,sks'
ffi, ixOdkh'
ffi, ixOdk wdldr folls'
m%d.a kHIal ^fm%dlefhdagd & iy iQkHIal ^hqlefhdagd&
m%d.a kHIal iy iQkHIal ffi, w;r fjkial
16
nelahd iy wdlsnelahd" m%d.akHIal ffi, ixOdk orhs' wfkl=;a

ish ka iQkHIal ffi, ixOdk orhs'
m%d.a kHIal ffi, iy iQkHIal ffi, ieif m%d.a kHIal
ffi, ;rka l=vd u" ixOdkh jQ kHIahla fkdue;s u" mg,uh
bkashsld fkdue;s Su" 70s rhsnfidau oeu" laIq kd,sldj,ska iuka;
fkd jQ ir, lIsld oeu iy tajd mg,hlska jg fkd ;su" wka;#ma,diah
cd,sld iy ffi,Sh iels,a,la fkd ;su" nelahdj, ffi, ;a;sj,
fmmaghsfvd.a,hslEka ^peptidoglycan& wvx.= u iy wdlsnelahdj,
fmd,sielrhsv iy fm%dak wvx.= u'
rEm igyka" bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm iy m.Kl udOH u`.ska
oelafjk m O ffi, ixOdkj, ,laIK
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
wdf,dal wKalaIfha fldgia" lD;H yd ksoYl kslaIKh i|yd
wKalaI Nd;h'
ffi,Sh ix>glj, jHQyh wjfndaO lr .ekSu i|yd bf,lafg%dak
wKalaISh PdhdrEm Nd;h
17
ksmK
q ;dj 2'2'0 ( ka f.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj,
odhl;ajh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'2

2'2'2( Wm ffi,Sh tallj, jHqyh iy lD;H .%y lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd (
Ydl iy i;a;aj ffi,j, jHqyuh fjkial ii|hs'
ffi,Sh bkashsld iy ix>gl ykd .ekSug bf,lafg%dak wKaalaISh PdhdrEm
Nd; lrhs'
bkashsld iy Wm ffi,Sh ix>glj, jHqyh iy lD;H ia;r lrhs'

Ydl yd i;a;aj ffi,j, rEm igyka folla mka;shg fmkajkak'
tajd w;r iudkl iy fjkial i|yka lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak'
my; i|yka lKavdh l%shdldrlfuys isiqka ksr; lrjkak'
my; i|yka jk bkashsld iy ffi,Sh jHqy lg, ;=k w;ka Tng ,e
we;s bkashsld lg,h ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
uhsfgdfldkahu" y;,j" f.d,a.sfoay" laIq kd,sld" ,hsfidfidau
ma,diau mg,h" laIq foay" la;l" ffi,Sh ika" ffi, iels,a,
ffi, ;a;sh" r`M wka;#ma,diah cd,sld" isks wka;#ma,diah cd,sld"
kHIah" rhsfndfidau" lYsld" mlaIau
Tng imhd we;s wKaalaISh lod" bf,lafg%dak wKaalaISh PdhdrEm iy rEm
igyka Nd;fhka tu jHqy kslaIKh lr ykd.kak'
wod< jHqyj, lD;H fidhd .ekSug ,nd we;s uQ,dY% Nd; lrkak'
Ydl ffi,j, iy i;a;aj ffi,j, we;s bkashsld iy Wm ffi,Sh ix>gl
fjkalr ykd .kak'
lKavdh bm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
wod< Ih ikaOdrh imQK lsu i|yd ia;drKhl fhfokak'

Ydl ffi, yd i;a;aj ffi,j, bf,lafg%dak wKaalaISh PdhdrEm Nd;
lrkak'
bkashsld iy Wm ffi,Sh ix>glj, jHqyh iy lD;H
ffi, ;a;sh
Ydl ffi,j, ndysr wdjrKhhs' i;a;aj ffi,j, ffi, ;a;s ke;'
fi,shqf,daia iy fmlakaj,ska iE we;' fyfi,shqf,daia" ,s.akska"
iqfnka wdh o ;sh yelsh'
m%d:l fuka u oa;shsl ffi, ;a;s mej;sh yelsh' uOH iQia;rh"
m%d:l ffi, ;a;sh iy oa;shsl ffi, ;a;sh hk tajdfha ridhksl
ix>gl ykajd fokak'
18
ffi, ;a;sfha msysgk l+ k jQ isre yryd hdno ffi,j, ffi, ma,diau

inkaO lrk ma,diau nkaO ysoS we;'
ffi, ;a;sfha lD;H
ma,diau mg,h
m%dlama,diaufha ndysr iSudjhs'
rEm igyka Nd;fhka ma,diau mg,fha ;r, ;% wdlD;sh meye,s lrkak'
,smsv oa;aj ia;rhlska yd imQKfhka .s`MKq iy mhka; fm%dakj,ska iE
we;' p,kh jk ,smsv wKq u.ska ;r,uh nj;a fm%dak wKq ms<sfh< we;s
wdldrh wkqj ;% nj;a ,nd foa'
ffi,fha we;s wfkl=;a mg,j, jHqyh o g iudk f'
ma,diau mg,fha lD;H meye,s lrkak'
ffi,fha .;sl wdjrKh
c,h" whk iy iuyr ldnksl wKq we;=,aug bvu
wmjH msg u hdukh lsu
ffi,h ;=< wdi%e;sl ;=,H;dj mj;ajd .ekSu
m%;s.%dyl u`.ska f;dr;=re ,nd f.k ffi, w;r l%shdldrl
inkalrKh lsug ix{d ifm%aIKh$ffi, ykd .ekSu'
kHIah
ffi,fha m%fKsl f;dr;=re .nvd lrhs'
fndfyda ffi,j, tla kHIahla we;' iuyr ffi,j, kHIa rdYshls' Wod(
,Sr
kHIafha jHqyh ia;r lrkak' oa;aj mg,uh wdjrKhlska hqla; nj'
fl%dueka" kHIal hqIh" kHIal iy kHIaldj
kHIafha lD;H ia;r lrkak'
ffi,Sh l%shdld;ajh md,kh lsu
ffi, Ndckh i|yd kj kHIa ksmoug DNA ixYaf,aIKh lsu
rhsfndfidau ksmou iy fm%dak ixYaf,aIKhg wjYH RNA ksmou
rhsfndfidau
r- RNA iy fm%dak j,ska iEkq Yd, iy l=vd Wm tall follska iE we;'
t - RNAj, odhl;ajfhka m - RNA u.ska imhk fla;hg wkqj fm%dak
ixYaf,aIKh lsu'
wka;#ma,diah cd,sldj
ffi, ma,diah mQrlh wka;#ma,diah cd,sldf l=yrfhka fjka flfrk
me;e,s fyda kd,dldr fyda uj,ska hqla; wNHka;r mg, moaO;s cd,hls' fuh
kHIafha ndysr mg,h iu. inkaO j mj;S'
wka;#ma,diah cd,sld wdldr folls' r`M wka;#ma,diah cd,sld iy isks
wka;#ma,diah cd,sld
r`M wka;#ma,diah cd,sld
me;e,s uj,ska hqla; jk fuys msg; mg,fha rhsfndfidau msysghs'
rhsfndfidau u.ska ixYaf,aIs; fm%dak wka;#ma,diah cd,sldf l=yr ;=<g
hjhs'
19
ffi,mg,j, fmdiafmda,smsv iy .a,hsfld,smsv ixYaf,aIKh lsu

ffi,h ;=< tkaihsu iy wfkl=;a fm%dak mjykh lsu' mjykh i|yd
ifm%aIK wdYhsld ksmou'
isks wka;#ma,diah cd,sld
rhsfndfidau rys; kd,dldr u cd,hls'
mg, yd neKq tkaihsu we;'
,smsv" iafgfrdhsv iy ldfndyhsfg ixYaf,aIKh
ffi, ;=, mjykh" mjykh i|yd ifm%aIK wdYhsld ksmou
IyrKh
Ca2+ whk ix; lsu
f.d,a.s ixlSKh
me;,s wdYhsld f.dkqjls'
msg; iy we;=<; mDIaG ykd.; yelsh'
rEm igyka u.ska f.d,a.s foayfha jHqyh meye,s lrkak'
f.d,a.s foayj, lD;H
wka;#ma,diah cd,sldj, ksmofjk fm%dak yd ,smsv wka;#ma,diah
cd,sldj, we;s k, ud. ;=<ska fyda tajdhska ksmofjk wdYhsld u`.ska
f.d,a.s ixlSKhg mjykh f'
f.d,a.s ixlSKfha mg,uh u f.dkq ;=< oS fmd,sielrhsv fm%dak yd
,smsv iu`. tla ms<sfj<ska .a,hsfld fm%dak yd .a,hsfld ,smsv iEfoa'
wjYH;dj wkqj .a,hsfld fm%dak yd .a,hsfld ,smsv iys; wdYhsld f.d,a.s
u~,aj,ska wxl+r f,i fjka ffi,fha fjk;a ia:dkj,g .uka lrhs'
,hsfidfidau ksmou
,hsfidfidau
rK l%shdld;ajhg odhl jk mg,uh wdYhsld f'
ldfndyhsfg" fm%dak" ,smsv iy kshqlaf,hsla w, | oeu W;afm%arKh
lrk c, fol tkaihsu wvx.= f'
NlaIffi,l;dj u`.ska ,nd .;a wdydr wxY= rKh lsu
f. .sh bkashsld rKh lsu
nys#iaffi,sl;dj u`.ska fYaI.; jH ffi,fhka msg;g mjykh lsu
iajhxrKh u.ska ffi, hhdu
laIq foay ^fmfrdlaisfidau iy .a,fhdlaisfidau &
Tlaisldrl tkaihsu wvx.= mg,uh wdYhsld
wdldr folls'
.a,fhdlaisfidau - Ydl ffi,j, we;'
fmfrdlaisfidau - Ydl iy i;a;aj ffi, foflys u we;'
.a,fhdlaisfidauj, we;s tkaihsu u.ska fo ldfndyhsf%g njg m;a lrhs'
fmfrdlaisfidauj, we;s tkaihsu u.ska H2O2 | fy,Su W;afm%arKh lrhs'
fmfrdlaisfidauj, lD;H
fmfrdlaihsvj, I yrKh
Ydlj, m%NdYaajikfha jeo.;a f'
20
uhsfgdfldka%hd
mg, follska jg jQ bkashsldjls' we;=,a mg,fha hr we;'
rEm igyka Nd;fhka uhsfgdfldka%hf iQCIau jHqyh ia;r lrkak'
oa;aj mg,h" hr" rhsfndfidau iy DNA wvx.= mQrlh
uhsfgdfldka%hf lD;H ia;r lrkak
fl%ia pl%fha m%;sl%shd i|yd wjYH tkaihsu mQrlh ;=< wka;.; u' hr
u.ska bf,lafg%dka mjyk oduh is lsu iy Tlail s drl fmdiaf*dr,SlrKh
is lsu'
TlaisyrKh jQ iy tkaihsu Tlaiscka u`.ska TlaislrKh lr ATP ksmou
y;,j
Ydl ffi,j, muKla yuqjk oa;aj mg,uh bkashsldjls'
bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm Nd;fhka y;,jfha o< jHqyh ia;r
lrkak' msg; mg,h" we;=,a mg,h" ;hs,fldhsv" mxcr lKssld iy mxcrh"
mxcrh ;=< rhsfndfidau" DNA iy msIag lKsld wvx.= nj
;hs,fldhsvj, m%NdixYaf,aIl jKl wvx.= f'
y;,jfha lD;Hh - m%NdixYaaf,aIKh
ffi, iels,a,
fm%dak iQ;%sld iy laIq kd,sldj,ska iEkq ffi, ma,diaufha we;s ikaOdrl
jHqyhls' wjYH;dj wkqj le f.dia kej; ilia jk l%shdld jHqyhls'
my; ixrpl ;=fkys jHqyh ia;r lrkak'
laIqkd,sld" welaka iQ;%sld" w;rueos iQ;%sld
ffi, iels,af,a lD;H
ffi, ma,diauhg ikaOdrKh ,ndu
bkashsld r|jd ;nd .ekSu
ffi, ma,diah p,k" ffi, ma,diah ixirKh" wjYH g bkashsld iy
jKfoay p,kh lsu
lYsld iy mlaIau
laIqkd,sld j,ska ie we; ^ 9 + 2 & jHqyh orhs' ma,diau mg,fhka wdjrKh
we;' mdoia: lKssldjg inkaOj we;'
bf,lafg%dak wKalaISh PdhdrEm u`.ska jHqyh ia;r lrkak' mlaIau iy
lYsldj, lD;H( p,kh yd ffi, u;=msg jH mjykh
flakasldj
laIqkd,sldj,ska iEkq is,skavrdldr jHqy folls' i;a;aj ffi,j, yuqf'
ffi, Nckfha ;=rej iy ;l=j ms<sfh< lrhs'
21
la;l
Ydl ffi,j, yuqjk ;r,hlska msreKq ;dkma,diagfhka jg jQ Yd, jHqyhls'
c,h" iSks" whk iy jKl jeks jH .nvd lrhs'
ffi,j, c, ;=,H;dj mj;ajd .kshs'
ffi,j,g ikaOdrKh iy Y+k;dj ,ndfohs'
hqI jKl u.ska iuyr Ydlj,g jKh ,ndfoa
ffi,Sh l%shdld;ajhka i|yd wjYH jk djH ix>gl .nvd lrhs'
ffi, ika
hdno ffi, tlsfkl inkaO lrk ffi, ma,diaufha we;s jHqy f'
Ydl ffi,j, ma,diau nkaO
i;a;aj ffi,j, wdldr 3ls'
;o ika - hdno ffi,j, ma,diau mg,h ;ka ne| ;nd .kS' Wod ( wdydr
ud.fha wmsPo ffi, w;r we;s fuu ika ksid ffi, w;ka jH
ldka j,lajhs'
wdila;l ika
hdno ffi, j, we;s ffi, iels,a, hdka;%slj ;ka inkaO lsu
Wod ( if wmsPoh
ysoeia ika ^ ikaksfok ika &

hdno ffi, w;r ix{d iy jH yqjudre lr .ekSug we;s Rcq inkaO;d
Wod ( yD;afmaYS
22
ksmqK;dj 2'2'0 ( ka f.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj,

odhl;ajh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'3 ( Ydl mglj, jHqyh" tajdfha lD;H iu`. olajk
inkaO;d f.dv k`.hs'
bf.kq M, (
mglh hk ixl,amh meye,s lrhs'
m%Odk Ydl mgl j. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
m%Odk Ydl mgl j.j, ,laIK ,ehsia;=jla /ia lrhs'
Ydl mglj, jHqyh" tajdfha lD;H iu`. olajk inkaO;d f.dvk`.hs'
wKalaIfhka Ydl mgl ykd .ekSu i|yd Ydl mglj, ,laIK Nd;
lrhs'
O Ydl mgl j. ixikaokh lrhs'

Ydl foayfha olakg ,efnk m Ydl mglj, rEm igyka fmkaug pd
igyka" rEm igyka iy m.Kl wdY%s; bosm;a lsula (power point presenta
tion) Nd; lrkak'
tu Ydl mgl ykdf.k tajd msysgk ia:dk" m%Odk ,laIK iy tla tla Ydl
mglfha lD;H ms<sn| j igyka ;eug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
Ydl mgl wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lsug isiqkag wjia:d i,ikak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| j ksudKd;aul bm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk
lrjkak'
i,ld ne,sh hq;= jeo.;a lreKq biau;= jk fia ia;drKh lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSSug w;aje,la (

nyq ffi,sl kaf.a ffi, mgl" wjhj iy wjhj moaO;s f,i ixOdkh
we;' mglhla hkq fmd iNjhla we;s h fYaI;
s lD;Hhla fyda lD;Hhka
lsysmhlg fYaIKh jQ" fN!;sl jYfhka ne mj;sk ffi, iuQyhls'
Ydl mgl j." tajdfha jHqyh iy lD;H
Ydl mgl m%Odk ldKav follg fnfoa'
ir, mgl - tla ffi, j.hlska muKla iuka; f'
ixlSK mgl - ffi, j. lsysmhlska iuka; f'
ir, Ydl mgl wdldr ;=kls' uDia:r" ia:Q,fldaKdia;r yd oDVia:r
ir, Ydl mglj, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu
fYaIKh jQ uDia:r ffi, tajdfha msysu iy lD;H
ixlSK Ydl mgl j. folls'
ffY,u
maf,dahu
ixlSK Ydl mgl j, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
O Ydl mgl wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lsu iy ykd .ekSu
23
ksmqK;dj 2'2'0 ( kaf.a l%shdld;ajh i|yd ffi, iy mglj,

odhl;ajh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'2'4

2'2'4( i;a;j
a mglj, jHqyh" tajdfha lD;H iu`. olajk
inkaO;d f.dv k.hs'
bf.kq M, (
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
i;a;aj mglj, jHqyh" lD;H iu. olajk inkaO;d f.dvk.hs'
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl j.j, ,laIK ,ehsia;=jla /ia lrhs'
m%Odk i;a;aj mgl wKalaIfhka ykd .ekSu i|yd tajdfha ,laIK Nd;
lrhs'
O i;a;aj mgl j. ixikaokh lrhs'

i;a;aj mglj, jHqyh fiug wod< o;a; wvx.= rEm igyka"ms<sfh, l<
lod 'mska;+r iy iQodk l< m.Kl bm;a lsula (Power Point
Presentation) Nd; lrkak'
tajd ykd .ekSug isiqkag bv i,ikak'
tajdfha jHqyh" lD;Hhg olajk inkaO;dj f.dv ke.Sug wjYH f;dr;=re
tla/ia lsug isiqkag mjrkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| j mka;shg bm;a lsu i|yd .kajkak'
m%Odk lreKq biau;= jk fia ia;drKhla is lrkak'

m%Odk i;a;aj mgl j. iy tajdfha ,laIK
mglj, jHqy iy lD;H inkaO;dj
mgl ykd .ekSug wKalaISh kslaIK is lsu
i;a;aj mgl j." tajdfha jHqyh iy lD;H
i;a;aj mgl uQ,sl j. y;rlg fnod oelaf'
wmsPo mgl
inkaOl mgl
fmaYs mgl
iakdhq mgl
24
wmsPo mgl
wmsPo mglj, ,laIK ia;r lrkak '
wmsPo mgl j. folls'
1 ir, wmsPo
2 ia;N+; wmsPo
fuu wmsPo j. tajdfha olakg ,efnk ffi,j, yevh wkqj kej;;a
j. ;=klg fnfoa'
1 Y,aluh
2 >kdldr
3 ia:Nsl
Y,aluh" >kdldr" ia:Nsl hk wmsPoj, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu ms<sn|
j ia;r lrkak'
O ia;N+; wmsPo mglj, jHqyh lD;H iy msysu ia;r lrkak'
inkaOl mgl
inkaOl mglj, ,laIK ia;r lrkak'
m%Odk j. follg fnfoa
1 kshu inkaOl mgl
2 fYaI inkaOl mgl
kshu inkaOl mgl j. folls'
1 ,sys,a inkaOl mgl
2 >k inkaOl mgl
,sys,a inkaOl mgl iy >k inkaOl mglj, jHqyh lD;H iy
msysu ia;r lrkak'
fYaI inkaOl mgl j. ;=klg fnfoa'
ldf,ac
wia
rerh
ldf,ac" wia iy rerfha jHqyh" lD;H iy msysu ia;r lrkak'
fmaYS mgl
fmaYs mglj, ,dlaIKsl .=K ia;r lrkak'
fmaYs mgl j. ;=kls'
isks fmaYS
lxld, fmaYS
yD;a fmaYS
isks fmaYS" lxld, fmaYS iy yD;a fmaYSj, jHqyh" lD;H iy msysgk ia:dk
ia;r lrkak'
iakdhq mgl
iakdhq mglfha ,dlaIKsl .=K ia;r lrkak'
kshqfrdak wdldr ;=kls'
1' ixfol kshqfrdak
2' pd,l kshqfrdak
3' wka;udOH kshqfrdak
pd,l kshqfrdakh weiqfrka kshqfrdakhl jHqyh yd lD;H meyeos,s lsrSu
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
O i;a;aj mgl wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lsu iy ykd .ekSu
25
ksmqK;dj 2'3'0 ( ffi, Ndckfha jeo.;alu uid n,hs
ksmqK;d ugu 2'3'1 ( ffi, Ndck l%shdj,sh Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,
bf.kq M, (
ffi, pl%fha wj y;r ms<sn| ia;drKhl fhfohs'
tla tla wjfha is jk m%Odk is idlPd lrhs'
jK foayj, yeisug wod< j wkQkkfha wj y;r ia;r lrhs'
wkQkkfha iy W!kkfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'
wkQkkfha iy W!kkfha O wj wKalaIfhka ykd .ekSug ms<sfh<
l< lod Nd; lrhs'

ffi, pl%fha wj fmkaug im;a jH ûqs; fyda m.Kl& Nd; lrkak'
`MEKq uQ,d.% iy m%frdayd.% iys; lod kslaIKh lr wkQkkfha O wj
ykd .ekSug isiqkag bv i,iajkak'
wkQkkfha yd W!kkfha jKfoayj, yeisu wOHhkh lsug wod<
m.Kl wdY%s; bf.kq im;a fyda lsh jH imhd fokak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| bm;a lsulg .kajkak
m%Odk lreKq biau;=jk fia ia;drKhl fhfokak'
e,laa (
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSSug w;aje,l
my; lreKq ms<sn| wjOdkh fhduq lrkak
ffi, pl%h
tla ffi, Ndckhl wdrNfha isg B <`. ffi, Ndckfha wdrNh
f;la ffi,hl isjk is
m%;sM,h ;ks ffi,hlska ffi, folla ,nd oSuhs'
iQ kHIal ffi, pl%h
wj ia;r lsu - G1 S, G2, M ^wkqkkh & iy C ^ ffi, ma,diau
Ndckh& tla tla wjfha isjk m%Odk is ia;r lsu
G1 +S +G2 tla j wka;l,dj iEfoa'
wkQkkh
ffi, pl%fha S wjfha DNA ixYaf,aIKh f' jKfoay" jKfoaydxY
follg fn fikafg%dhrh k ia:dkfhka ne|S mj;S'
wkQkkh wj y;rlska hqla;h' m%dla l,dj" fhda. l,dj" fhda. l,dj"
wka; l,dj
wkQkfha by; tla tla wjj, jKfoayj, yeisu ia;r lrkak'
26
i;a;aj ffi,j, wkQkk Ndckfha flakafoay u.ska ;l=j fukau

;=rej o idohs'
Ydl ffi,j, flakafoay ke;' tfy;a ;l=jla iEfoa'
O%ej foig we hdug fmr fikafg%dhrh fomi we;s lhsfkfgdfldarj,g
(Kinetochores) ;l= ;ka;= ne|S mj;S'
ffi, ma,diau Ndckfha i;a;aj ffi, j, fNaok we,shla iEfok
w;r Ydl ffi,j, ffi, ;,hla iEfoa'
wkQkkfha jeo.;a lu ia;r lrkak'
W!kkh
W!kkh tl <`. is jk kHIa Ndck follska is jk nj meye,s
lrkak' m<uq Ndckfha jKfoay ixLHdj y wvla jk w;r fo jk
Ndckh" wkQkkhg iEu w;ska u iudk f'
W!kkh wj wglg fnfoa' W!kkh I iy W!kkh II Ndck wj
foflysu m%dla l,dj" fhda. l,dj" fhda. l,dj iy wka; l,dj f,i
wj y;rla ;sf' m%dla l,dj I .u wjh jk w;r is .Kkdjlska
hqla; f'
ish,q u wj wfgys isjk is ia;r lrkak'
ium%Nj jKfoay hkq fudkjd oe hs meye,s lr m%dla l,dj I ys tajd
hq.,a jk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
Wmd.u ixlSKh iEfok wdldrh iy tys jKfoaydxY fldgia yqjudre
u ia;r lrkak'
W!kkfha jeo.;a lu ia;r lrkak'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh (-
wKalaIsh lod u.ska wkQkkfha iy W!kkfha O wjia:d ykd .ekSu'
27
ksmqK;dj 2'4'0 ( mjD;a;Sh l%shdj, Yla;s inkO;d uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'1 ( mjD;a;h

S l%h
s dj,sj, Yla;s inkaO;d Yaf,aYkh lrhs'

bf.kq M, (
moaO;s i|yd Yla;s wjYH;dj u;=lr fmkajhs'
ksoiqka iys;j ixjD;a;Sh iy wmjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shd meye,s lrhs'
Yla;s ksuh tallh f,i ATP wKqf jHqyh iy tys jeo.;alu idlPd lrhs'
Yla;sh iyNd.S jk ffi,Sh l%shdj,Ska ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'

ffi,j, Yla;s inkaO;dj,g wod< jk uQ,sl uqs; fyda m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqkag
imhkak'
tajdhska jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgdf.k idrdxYhla f.dv ke.Sug myiql i,ikak
isiqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn| bm;a lsulg .kajkak
m%Odk lreKq biau;=jk fia ia;drKhl fhfokak'

moaO;s i|yd Yla;s wjYH;dj meye,s lrkak'
O wdldrfha ish`Mu jl%shd mj;ajd .ekSug ksrka;r Yla;s iemhqula wjYH f'
^hdka;%sl" ridhksl" mjykh" ikama;sh &
mjD;a;Sh - ffi,hl isjk ridhksl m%;sl%shd iduqyslj .;a l, mjD;a;Sh l%shd
k f' ksoiqka iys; j ixjD;a;Sh iy wmjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shd meye,s lrkak'
moaO;s i|yd Yla;sfha wjYH;djh wjOdrKh lrkak' Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh jk
m%;sl%shd iy Yla;sh fudapkh jk m%;sl%shd' ixjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shd is lsu i|yd
wmjD;a;Sh m%;sl%shdj, Yla;sh ffi, m%fhdackhg .kS'
m%;sl%shd w;r Yla;s jdylfhla f,i ATP l%shd lrhs'
ATP j, jHqyh ia;r lrkak' th Yla;s jdylhla f,i l%shdlrk whqre ksoiqka
iys; j idlPd lrkak'
ATP" ADP njg c,fokfha 30'6 kJ mol-1 Yla;s m%udKhla ksoyia lrhs'
ATP ip, wKqjla jk w;r" myiqfjka Yla;sh ksoyia lrk w;r kej; ilia ug
o yelsh'
28
ksmqK;dj 2'4'0 ( mjD;a;Sh l%shdj, Yla;s inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'2 ( mjD;a;h

S l%h
s dj,s hdukh i|yd tkaihsuj, ldhNdrh
uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
tkaihsuj, idudkH ,laIK iy tajdfha ldhNdrh meye,s lrhs'
tkaihsuj, m%Odk ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
tkaihsu m%;sl%shdj, iy-idOlj, jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
iqiq rEm igyka u.ska tkaihsu m%;sl%shd hka;%Kh ia;r lrhs'
tkaihsu m%;l
s h
s% dj, iS>;
% djh flfrys pH w.h" WIaK;ajh" Wmia;r idkaKh"
tkaihsu idkaKh iy ksfYaOlj, n,mEu meye,s lrhs'
msIag-weuhsf,aia moaO;sh u.ska tkaihsu m%;sl%shdjl f.h flfrys WIAK;ajh
n,mdkafka flfia oehs fmkaug oHd.dr mlaIK is lrhs'

tkaihsuj, ldhNdrh wdoYkh lsug ir, mlaIK fufyhjkak'
tkaihsu l%shdld;ajhg n,mdk idOl ksKh lsug wjYH WmlrK iy
jH iu`. wod< uqs; uQ,dY% iy m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqka fj; imhkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bm;a lsula i|yd Wmfoia fokak'
Ih fldgi wdjrKh lsug wod< lreKq biau;= jk fia ia;drKhl
fhfokak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr oSug w;aje,la
my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrkak'
tkaihsuj, idudkH .=K" fm%dakuh jHqyh iy YsIaG;djh meye,s
lrkak'
h ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl il%shk Yla;sh wvq lsug tkaihsuj,g
yelshdjla we;s nj ia;r lrkak'
rEm igyka Wmfhda.S lrf.k tkaihsu m%;sl%shdjl hdka;%Kh meye,s
lrkak'
1' w.=`M - h;=re hdka;%Kh
2' fm%a; - iSyq hdka;%Kh
iuyr tkaihsuj, l%shdld;ajh i|yd iy-idOl k jQ fm%dak fkdjk
fldgia w;HjYH jk nj meye,s lrkak'
29
iy-idOl j. ;=kls'
1' iy-tkaihsu
2' ix,.ak ldKav
3' wldnksl whk
by; tajdfha lD;H
iqiq ksoYl iys;j iy-idOl j. ;=k ms<sn|j ia;r lrkak'
il%shl iy ksfYaOl tkaihsu m%;sl%shd flfrys n,mdkafka flfiaoehs ia;r
lrkak' Wod (- ner f,day Ag+, Hg+, Cd+.
tkaihsu m%;sl%shdj, YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl ia;r lrkak'
pH, WIaK;ajh" Wmia;r idkaKh" tkaihsu idkaKh" ksfYaOl
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
tkaihsu ls%hdld;ajh wdoYkh lsu iy tkaihsh m%;sls%hdj, YS>%;dj
ksKh lsu i|yd oHd.dr mlaIK ^msIagh - weuhsf,aia&
30
ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'3 ( Yla;h

s ;sr lsf l%h
s dj,shla jYfhka m%NdixYaf,aIKh
uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
m%NdixYaf,aIK l%shdj,sfha jeo.;alu idlPd lrhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha wdf,dal m%;sl%shdj ia;r lrhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha wre m%;sl%shdj ia;r lrhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha C4 ud.h ia;r lrhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIKhg n,mdk idOl ksKh lsug mlaIK fufyhjhs'
iSudld idOl ms<sn| uQ, Ouh ia;r lrhs'
msg jk Tlaiscka mrsudj wkqj m%NdixYaf,aIK f.h ksKh lsug mlaIK
fufyhjhs'

m%NdixYaf,aIKhg wod< wod< uqs; fyda m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqkag imhd fokak'
jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgdf.k idrdxYhla ilia lsug myiql imhkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bm;a lsulg isiqka fmd<Ujkak'
jeo.;a lreKq biau;= lsug ia;drKhl fhfokak'

my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrkak'
m%NdixYaf,aIKfha ffch iy f.da,Sh jeo.;alu
ldnka iy Yla;sh ;sr lsf hka;%Khlaa f,i wod< m%;sl%shd iy wka;M,
wdY%fhka m%NdixYaf,aIK l%shdj,sh w: olajkak'
m%NdixYaf,aIK uOHia:dkh f,i y;,jh" tys ishq jHqyh" ;hs,fldhsv
mxcr lKsld iy mxcrh
wdf,dal Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh yd inkaO jKl" laf,darms,a jKlj,
wjfYdaIK jKdj,sh" m%NdixYaf,aIKfha l%h s d jKdj,sh yd tajd ieiu'
my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrka m%Ndixiaf,aIK hdka;%Kh
1 wdf,dal m%;sl%shdj
2 wre m%;sl%shdj
wdf,dal m%;sl%shdj
fuh ;hs,fldhsv mg, j, isjk nj my; ia;r iys;j meye,s lrkak'
31
m%Nd moaO;s I iy II, antenna complex, laf,darms,a jKl wKqj, Woamkh

u' jKl wKq w;r Yla;s ixl%duKh" m%;l s h
s% d uOHia:dk wKq" bf,lafg%dk
a
mjykh" c,fha m%Ndfokh" pl%Sh iy wpl%Sh fmdiaf*dr,SlrKh"
NADPH iy ATP ixYaf,aIKh
wre m%;sl%shdj
fuh y;,jfha mxcrh ;=< is jk nj my; ia;r iys; j meye,s
lrkak'
le,aka pl%fha m%;sl%shd mshjr ;=kls'
ldfndlais,alrKh - CO2 ;sr lsu" CO2 m%;s.%dylh f,i RuBP" RuBP
lfndlaisf,aia tkaihsu" PGA iEu'
PGA TlaisyrKh - wdf,dal m%;sl%shdf ixYaf,aIs; ATP iy NADPH
Nd;fhka PGA Tlaiy s rKh" PGAL ksmou" PGALj,ska fldgila ldnksl
wdydr ixYaf,aIKh i|yd fhfof'
RuBP m%;sckkh - PGAL j,ska fldgila iy ATP u`.ska RuBP ksmou
i|yd Nd; f' fuh RuMP yryd isf'
m%NdYajikh - RuBP" Tlaiscka iu`. inkaO PGA ^C3& tla wKqjla iy
fmdiafmd.a,hsflda,sla w, ^C2 & wKqqjla iEu' f ksid m%NdixYaf,aIK
ldhlaIu;dj wvqu'
CO2 ;srlsf C4 hka;%Kh ia;r lrkak' th ffi, j. folla ;=<
mshjr follska is f' tk m;% uOH ffi, iy l,dm fldmq ffi, h'
jvd;a ldhlaIu CO2 m%;s.%dylhla f,i PEP" Tlaief,d weisf ksmou"
th uef,a njg m;a u' uef,a ma,diau nkaO yryd l,dm fldmq
ffi,j,g mjykh u'
l,dm fldmq ffi, ;=< CO2 ksoyia lr mhsref ksmou' mhsref
kej; m;% uOH ffi, ;=<g mjykh u' l,dm fldmqq ffi, ;=<
wl CO2 idkaKhla hgf;a le,aka pl%h is u'
C4 m%NdixYaaf,aIKfha jeo.;a lu ia;r lrkak'
C3 m%NdixYaf,aIKh iy C4 m%NdixYaf,aIKh w;r fjkial
m%NdixYaf,aIK f.h flfrys n,mdk idOl iy iSudld idOl ms<sn|
uQ,Ouh
m%NdixYaf,aIK f.h flfrys CO2 idkaKh" wdf,dalh" c,h iy
WIAK;ajfha n,mEu'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ksoyia lrk O2 m%udKh wkqj m%NdixYaf,aIK YS>%;dj ksKh
lsru
S '
Ydl m;%hl yrialvl wkalaISh ksrSlaIKh ^m%NdixYaf,aIKh
i|yd we;s fYaI wkqj;k iys;j&
32
ksmqK;d ugu 2'4'4 ( Yla;sh ,nd .ekSf l%shdj,shla jYfhka ffi,Sh Yajikh
ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
ish ffi,Sh l%shd i|yd Yla;sh imhk l%shdj,sh f,i ffi,Sh Yajikh
biau;= lr olajhs'
ijdhq Yajikh isjk ia:dkh" m%Odk is yd wka;M, ia;r lrhs'
ksjdhq Yajikh isjk ia:dkh m%Odk is yd wka;M, ia;r lrhs'
ffi,Sh Yajikfha jeo.;alu ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

Yajikhg wod< uqs; fyda m.Kl uQ,dY% isiqkag imhkak'
jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgd .kska idrdxY .; lsug isiqkag myiql imhkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bosm;a lsulg isiqka fmdf<dUjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

ffi,Sh Yajikfha jeo.;a lu
ijdhq Yajikh yd ksjdhq Yajikh
.afldaia ijdhq Yajikfha mshjr
.a,hsfld,sish - .afldaia" mhsref wKq follg | fy<Su ffi,
ma,diaufha isf' Wmia;r fmdiaf*drhs,slrKh is jk wdldrh;a" NADH
yd ATP iEfok wdldrh;a" ia;r lrkak'
uhsfgdfldak a h% d mQrlfha oS mhsref"weisghs,a iy tkaihsu-A njg m;au
yd CO2 uqod yeu
fl%ia pl%h - uhsfgdfldka%hd mQrlh ;=< isjk m%;sl%shd pl%hlska
weisghs,a iy tkaihsu A, CO2 njg TlaislrKh'
.a,hsfld,sisfha oS TlaisyrKh jQ iy-tkaihsu ^NADH, FADH&2 yd ATP
iEoSu ia;r lrkak' fl%ia pl%fha oS mhsref TlaislrKh is u
ia;r lrkak'
uhsfgdfldkah % we;=<; mg,fha oS bf,lafg%dk a mjyk oduh" Tlails drl
fmdiafmdrhs,SlrKh iy TlaisyrKh jQ iy-tkaihsu TlaislrKh u
.afldaia ijdhq Yajikfha Yla;s mj;k ldhlaIu;dj .Kkh lrkak'
33
ksjdhq Yajikh
uOHidr meiSu iy ,elala w, meiSu" tajdfha jeo.;a lu ia;r
lrkak
ksjdhq Yajikfha Yla;s mj;k ldhlaIu;dj
.afldaiaj,g wu;rj Nd; jk fjk;a Yajik Wmia:r - ,smsv iy fm%dak
weuhsfkda w, ksmou i|yd mjD;a;Sh w;r ue M, ksmojk uOHia:dkh
f,i fl% pl%fha jeo.;alu
Yajik ,h - Yajik ,h hkq l=ula oehs meye,s lr th .Kkh
lrkafka flfia oehs meye,s lrkak'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
m%frdayKh jk c Nd;fhka Yajik f.h ksKh lsu'
34
3 tallh - kaf.a O;ajh
ksmqK;dj 3'1'0 ( ka f.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 3'1'1 ( oHd;aul mokula u; ;lafidak OQrdj,sh f.dv k`.hs'
bf.kq M, (
ka j.SlrKh lsf jeo.;a lu meyeos,s lrhs'
j.SlrKh yd kdulrKh ;=<ska ka ykd .kshs'
oamo kdulrKhg wkqj ka k lrhs'
iajdNdl yd lD;s%u j.SlrK l%u meyeos,s lrhs'
j.SlrK moaO;s meyeos,s lrhs'
ka j.SlrKh i|yd fhdod .kakd j.SlrK ug ykd .kshs'
ffjri i|yd fYaI jQ .;s-,laIK meyeos,s lrhs'
ka wrdcOdks ;=kg yd rdcOdks lSmhlg fnod fjka lsug fYaIs; .;s
,laIK Nd; lrhs'

ka wOHhkh lsu i|yd l%udKql, + j.SlrKhl we;s jdis u;= jk wdldrhg
nqoa l,nk ieishla mj;ajkak'
O mSka ms<sn| f;dr;=re we;=<;a uQ,dY% ûqs;$oHq;a udOH& imhd Tjqka
j.SlrKh lsu i|yd ksKdhl ms<sfh< lsug Wmfoia fokak'
ka j.SlrKh lsu i|yd w;S;fha .kakd ,o W;aidyhka iy j.SlrKfha
j;udk ;;a;ajh inkaOfhka idlPdjla fufyjkak'
kQ;k cSj oHd;aul j.SlrKh oyd oelafjk pd yd j.= ms<sfh< lsug
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

ka ykd .ekSu" j.SlrKh iy kdulrKh
j.SlrKfha yd kdulrKfha wjYH;dj
udkj YsIaGdpdrfha wdrNfha isg u" ksiqka Ydl yd i;=ka ykd .ekSu yd
k lsu mgka .ekSug fya;= h yelafla Tjqkaf.a meje;au Ydl yd i;=ka
u; r|d meje;s neks'
fYaIs; jQ .;s-,laIK Nd;fhka fYaI ykd f.k we;'
Ydl yd i;=kaf.a m%Odk ldKav ^;DK j." u;aiHhska" imhska" mlaIska&
fjka lr ykd .eksk'
35
flfia jqjo Tjqka i|yd Nd; l< kdu" NdIdj iy ia:dk wkqj fjkia
h'
kaf.a j oHd;aul wOHhkh i|yd talSh j.SlrK yd kdulrK
moaO;shla wjYH h'
ka l%uj;a j j.SlrKh l< m<uq ;eke;a;d weiafgdag,a h'
oamo kdulrKh
oHdf yd j oHdf oshqKqj yd oekqu mq`M,a u;a iu`. O oHd{hska"
WoaNso oHd{hska yd i;a;aj oHd{hska kdulrK yd j.SlrK i|yd fjkia
jQ l%u Nd; l<y' 18 jk Y; jIh olajd fndfydarg nyqmo kdulrKhla
Nd; h'
f,dj mqrd ms<s.;a oamo kdulrK moaO;sh lefrd,iaa ,Skshia ^1707 - 1778&
iska fhdackd lrk ,oaols'
hl=f.a kduh fldgia follska hqla; f'
m%:u fldgi .K kduh jk w;r fojk fldgi iq`M kduh f'
.K kduh fndfydag kdumohla jk w;r iq`M kduh h ,laIKhla ia;r
lrk fYaIK mohla f'
ksoiqka (- Homo sapiens - Homo hkqfjka ykajkafka ksid jk w;r sapiens
hkq nqoa u;a njhs'
tlsfklg nkaOq;d olajk kag tlu .K kduh iu`. fjkia jQ iq`M kdu
fhfoa'
ksoiqka (- Dipterocarpus zeylanicus yd Dipterocarpus grandiflorus -
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus- hkq mshdm;a folla iys;
M, yd Y%S ,xldf yuq jQ hkakhs'
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus- hkq mshdm;a folla iys;
M, yd Yd, mqIam iys; jQ hkakhs'
oamo kdulrKh inkaOj cd;Hka;r ixfla;
j oHd{hska kdulrKh i|yd ms<s.;a kS;s fyda kdulrK jHjia:d we;'
fuu jHjia:d Ydl" i;=ka" nelahd iy ffjria wkqj iq`M jYfhka fjkia
f' nelahd" Ydl" os,Sr yd i;=ka kdulrKfha oS Nd; jk jeo.;a kS;s
lSmhla my; oelaf'
- fYaI follg tl u kduh ;sh fkd yelsh'
- iEu fYaIhlg u .K kduhla yd iq`M kduhla we;s w;r fuu kdu
folu tl;=j fYaIfha kduh fyda oHd;aul kduh idohs'
- kduh ,;ska yqrejla we;s jpk jk w;r th frdauka wl=re Nd;fhka
,sh hq;= h'
- w;a wl=ka ,shk g hka b we|sh hq;= w;r uqKh lrk g we, wl=re
Îtalics& ,sh hq;= h'
- .K kdufha uq,a wl=r bx.%Sis lemsg,a wl=rla h hq;= w;r iq`M kduh
bx.%Sis ism,a wl=frka ,sh hq;= h'
36
oHd;aul ldhj, oS kduh ykajd ka oHd{hdf.a ku bx.%Sis lemsg,a

wl=rlska fyda fl lr oelaulska fyda imQK ku f,iska fyda kduh
w.ska olajhs' th ,;skSlD; jpkhla fkdf'
ksoiqka ( Cocos nucifera L., (L hkq Linnaeus hkakhs')
Wm fYaI fyda m%fNao ye|skau i|yd f;jeks mohla fhdod .; yels h'
ksoiqka ( Panthera pardus kotiya ^Y%S ,xld oshd&
iajdNdsl yd lD;%su j.SlrK l%u
fmd .;s ,laIKj,g wkqj ka ldKavj,g ieliSu j.SlrKh k'
j.SlrKh ms<sn| j oHd;aul yeoEu j.SlrK oHdj f' fuys oS
ka" OQrdj,S ms<sfj,lg ielfia' uQ,sl j.SlrK wdldr folls'
1 lD;%su j.SlrKh - fuys ldKav lsu f;dard .;a iudk ,laIK
lSmhla u; mok f'
fuu ,laIK f;dard .efkkqfha myiqj u; jk w;r f;dard .;a
f;dard.;a ksKdhl mok lrf.k ka ldKav lrkq ,ef'
fuys iajNdl nkaOq;d fkd ie<fla'
18 jk Y;jIhg m%:u Nd; lr we;s tl u j.SlrK moaO;sh
f'
Nd; lsu myiq w;r yd ;j;a ldKav tl;= lr mq`M,a lsug
yels h'
ksoiqka ( OdkH j." is;=re me," T!IO" i iys; Ydl
f,i Ydl j. l< yelsh'
mdo hq.,la" mdo hq.,a folla" mdo yhla" mdo
wgla we;s wd jYfhka i;=ka j. l< yelsh'
,Skshia fKq ixLHdj wkqj Ydl j. lf<a h'
2 iajNdl j.SlrKh - mKdl nkaOq;d biau;= jk f,i ldKav lsuhs'
fuys oS jxY m%fKsh u; mok jQ i;H îajNdl& nkaOq;d oyd
oelaf'
mKduh ms<sn| wOHhkfhka miqj ilia jQ j.SlrK wdldr hs'
,laIK .Kkdjla u; mok f'
Nd; lrk ,laIK kaf.a rEm oHd;aul" ldhsl oHd;aul" ffi,
oHd;aul fyda wKql j oHd;aul ,laIK h yels hs'
b;d u uE;l oS DNA yd RNA NIau wkqms<sfj< ^wKql& fhdod f.k
we;'
ksoiqka ( Ydl n%fhdmSgd" ,hsfldmSgd" fgfrdamSgd" iSlfvdmSgd"
fldksf*frdmSgd iy wekaf;dmSgd f,i j.SlrKh lr we;'
wdf;%dfmdavdjka lariafishd" bkafilagd " lhsf,dfmdvd"
maf,dfmdvd iy wrlaksvd f,i j. l< yel'
j.SlrK l%u fol inkaOj we;s jdis wjdis idlPd lrkak'
37
iq Nd;h
ka ykd .ekSu yd ldKav lsu i|yd Nd; f'
fo fn iqh nyq,j Nd; jk iqh f'
fuys mKdl nkaOq;d oyd fkd olajhs'
Nd;h i|yd isiqka fj; iq ,nd fokak'
ksoiqk 1 - iuk,hd" f.ueiaid" l=reKsshd" ldjd'

1' mshdm;a iys;''''''''''''''''''' ^2&
mshdm;a rys;'''''''''''''''''''' ldjd
2' mshdm;a hq., folla we;' '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''^3&
mshdm;a hq.,a folla ke;' '''''''''''''''''''''''''' f.ueiaid'
3' Y=Kva djla we;'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' iuk<hd
Y=Kv a djla ke; ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' l=reKshd
ksoiqk 2 - khd" .ev,d" f.nd" iuk,hd" uqyq weksuks

1' wh iu;sh iys; ''''''''''''''''''' uqyq weksuks
wh iu;sh rys;'''''''''''''''''''' ^2&
2' mdo iys; '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' ^3&
mdo rys; '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' ^4&
3' mshdm;a iys; ''''''''''''''''''' iuk,hd
mshdm;a rys; ''''''''''''''''''' f.nd
4' Yrh fldrfmd;=j,ska wdjrKh ;su''''''' khd
Yrh fldrfmd;=j,ska wdjrKh fkd ;su'''''''' .ev,d
j.SlrK moaO;s
uq,a ld,Sk j.SlrK moaO;s ish,a, lD;%sSu j.SlrK moaO;s f' nyq, j
fjd ksia Nd; wkqj ieliqks' ka oHd;aul j j.SlrKh l< m<uq
;eke;a;d jkafka weiafgdag,a h' Tyq ka Ydl yd i;=ka f,i j.SlrKh
lf<ah' i;=ka ;jrg;a O ksKdhl tk" ixprK " m%ckk " r;=
rer ffi, we;s ke;s nj wdoshg wkqj j. lrk ,oS' t f,i u weiafgdag,af.a
YsIHhl= jk ;sfhdm%eiagia iska ,dih wkqj Ydl j.lrk ,oS' ksoiqka (
.ia" mre yd me,E f,i iy jk ld,h wkqj ksoiqka ( jdIsl yd oajdIsl
yd nyqjdIsl' ,sfkahia f.a ld,h f;la oHd{hska O l%u Nd; l<y'
iavka cd;sl WoaNoS oHd{hl= jk lefrd,ia ,sfkahia ^1753& oamo kdulrKh
ykajd ka w;r Tyq Ydl 6000la muK ;lafidak OQrdj,shlg wkqj j.
lrk ,oS' tk fYaIh" .Kh" f.da;%h yd j.h f,ih' imqIam Ydl
j.SlrKfha oS Tyq mqIamhl wvx.= fKq yd lS, .Kk mok lr .;af;a h'
Tyq Ydl yd i;aj hk rdcOdks folla ykd .;af;a h'
CIqka fidhd .ekSu;a iu`.u Tjqka Ydl fyda i;=ka f,i j.SlrKh l<
fkd yels nj oHd{fhda f;are .;ay' fuu .eg`Mj i|d .ekSu i|yd
wkia fyal,a Êrnest Haeckel-1866& ;=ka jk rdcOdkshla ykajd kafka h'
t k fm%daiagd rdcOdksh hs' ;j o Tyq jxYh hk ;lafidakh ykajd oS
fndfyda ka j.SlrKh lf<ah'
38
bf,lafg%dak wkalaIfha fidhd .ekSu;a iu`. j oHd{hska iska

m%d.akHIal yd iqkkHIal ffi,Sh ixOdk" ykd .kakd ,oS' frdn t
fgl^1969&" rdcOdks mfya j.SlrKh ykajd kafkah' tu rdcOdks my
fudfkrd" fm%daiagd" os,Sr" ma,dkaf yd weksud,shd h' Tyqf.a j.SlrKh
ffi,Sh ixOdkh" tal ffi,sl nyqffi,sl nj" fmdaIK u; mok h'
iNjh iy mKduh ms<sn| vdka jdoh ms<s.ekSfuka miq" j.SlrK
oHd{fhdaa iajdNdl j.SlrK moaO;s Nd; lsu wdrN l<y' wKql j
oHdf kQ;k oshqKqj iu`. yd mKdl nkaOq;d wOHhkh lsug wKql j
oHd;aul l%u Nd;h ksid mKdufha uq, wjfha ka ldKav ;=klg
fjkajQ nj mye<s h' fuu ldKav oeka wrdcOdkS f,i yekaf' wrdcOdKs
hkq rdcOdksj,g jvd by<ska we;s uguls'
wdlshd" nelahd yd bhqlehd f,i yekafjk wrdcOdkS ;=klg jqia ^Carl
Woese-1977& iska ka j.SlrKh lrk ,oS'
wrdcOdks isg fYaI olajd ;lafidakj, OQrdj,sh
ka j.SlrKfha ;lafidak OQrdj,sfha tla tla ldKavh ;lafidakhla
f,i ye|skaf' tla tla ;lafidakhg kula yd ugula we;'
Wod (- j.h - Reptilia ^frma,shd&
OQrdj,s moaO;s hgf;a ;lafidak ug we;' tla tla wrdcOdks^Domain&"
rdcOdksj,g fnod we;'
rdcOdksh jxYj,g fnod we;' tla tla jxYh j.j,g fnod we;' fuu
ldKav kej; fnh yel'
Wod (- Wml=,h" Wm j.h ''' wdos f,i'
wrdcOdksh ^Domain&
rdcOdksh
jxYh
fmd ,laIK j.h ka
ixLHdj f.da;%h ixLHdj
je f ' l=,h je f'
.Kh
fYaIh
wrdcOdksfha isg fYaIh olajd hEf ;lafidakj, idudlhka w;r we;s

fmd ,laIK ixLHdj je f' fYaIfha isg wrdcOdksh olajd hEf
;lafidakhl isk ka ixLHdj jef'
j;udk j.SlrK moaO;sh yd tys moku

j;udk j.SlrK moaO;sfha moku f,i ie,flkafka wKql j oHdj
ms<sn| f;dr;=re h'
jeo.;a cdkj, DNA NIau wkqms<sfj<" uhsfgdfldka%h DNA" r-RNA j,
NIau wkqms<sfj<" nyq, fm%dakj, weuhsfkda w, wkqms<sfj<" ffi,Sh
ix>glj, wKql jHqyh hk ksKdhl u; kQ;k j.SlrK oHdj mok
we;' tys m%;sM,hla f,i j.SlrK moaO;s iS>%fhka fjkia we;'
39
fuys oS jQia iska bosm;a lrk ,o wrdcOdks ;=fka j.SlrKh myiqj i|yd
wm iska fhdod .kq ,ef' fm%daiagd rdcOdksh iajdNdl ldKavhla fkdjk
nj meyeos<sh'
th O mkdl iNhla iys; ka f.ka iuka; lD;%su ldKavhla f'
ffi,Sh ixOdkhla fkd ue;s ksid ffjri lsisu rdcOdkshlg wh;a fkdf'
th o lD;%su ldKavhla f' th fjku u i<ld nef,a'
wrdcOdksh ^Domain)
1' nelahd wrdcOdksh
2' wdlshd wrdcOdksh
3' bhqlehd wrdcOdksh
- fm%diagd rdcOdksh
- os,Sr rdcOdksh
- ma,dkaf rdcOdksh
- weksud,shd rdcOdksh
wrdcOdks
wrdcOdksh - nelahd
ffi,Sh ixOdkh m%d.akHIal f'
ffi, ;a;sfha ix>glh - fmmaafvd.a,hsleka f'
ffi, mg,fha ,smsv YdLkh ke;'
m%;sjlj,g ixfoS h'
fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh f*dauhs,a fu;sfhdkskaj,ska wdrN f'
RNA fmd,sufia tkaihsu tla j.hla muKla we;'
jdiia:dk fndfyduhl j;a f'
ksoiqka ( ihfkdnelahd" y;-i,a* nelahd" o-i,a* nelahd
wrdcOdksh - wdlshd
ffi,Sh ixOdkh m%d.akHIal f'
ffi, ;a;sfha ix>glhla f,i fmmasfvd.a,hsleka ke;' tys fm%dak yd
fmd,sielrhsv we;'
ffi, mg,fha ,smsvj, YdLkh jQ odu jHqyhla we;'
iafg%mafgduhsiska iy laf,da/f*ksflda,a jeks m%;sjlj,g ixfoS ke;'
îqkHIalhka fuks&
fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh fu;sfhdkskaj,ska wdrN f'îqkHIalhka fuks'&
RNA fmd,sufia tkaihsu j. lsysmhls' îqkHIalhka fuks&
.skslj," WKqosh W,am;a ,jk ye,a" .eUqre uqyq m;a, jeks b;d wdka;sl
mir ;;a;aj hgf;a j;af'
ksoiqka ( Methanococcus, Thermococcus
Methanobacterium, Halobacterium
40
wrdcOdksh - bhqlershd
ffi,Sh ixOdkh iqkHIal f'
ffi, ;a;sfha ix>glhla f,i fmmafvd.a,hsleka ke;' tys
fmd,sielrhsv we;'
ffi, mg,fha ,smsv YdLkh ke;'
m%;sjlj,g ixfoS ke;'
fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh fu;sfhdkskaj,ska wdrN f'
RNA fmd,sufia tkaihsu j. lsysmhls'
O mir ;;a;ajj, j;a f'
ksoiqka ( fm%daiagd" os,Sr" Ydl yd i;=ka
ffjri - idudkH ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
fuu tallfha oS we;s j.= ish,a, .=re Nj;=kaf.a m%fhdackh i|yd muKs'
bhqlehd wrdcOdkshg wh;a rdcOdks

tla tla rdcOdksj, m%Odk ,laIK
rdcOdksh - fm%daiagd rdcOdksh - os,Sr rdcOdksh - ma,dkaf rdcOdksh - weksud,shd
tal ffi,sl fyda tal ffi,sl f' nyq ffi,sl nyq ffi,sl
nyq ffi,sl fyda iuyr os,Sr i;H
.Kdjdi wdldr nyqffi,sl ke;
tajd os,Sr iQ;%sld
idohs'
m%NdiajhxfmdaIS IufmdaIS m%Nd iajhxfmdaIS IufmdaIS

fyda
IufmdaIS
ffi, ;a;s we;s ffi, ;a;sh ffi, ;a;sfha m%Odk ffi, ;a;shla ke;'
g tajd lhskaj,ska iEoS jYfhka we;af;a
fi,shqf,daiaj,ska we;' fi,shqf,daia h'
iEoS we;'
ix; wdydr O ix; wdydrh m%Odk ix; wdydrh m%Odk ix; wdydrh
f' .a,hsfldcka msIagh f' .a,hsfldcka f'
lIsld" mlaIau fyda iuyrg lIsld ixprK wjhj ke; lIsld" mlaIau"
jHdcmdo ;sh ;sh yelsh' kuq;a ixfldapl fl|s;s jeks
yelsh' ckaudKqj, lIsld fyda fYaI ixprK jHqy
mlaIau fyda we;' we;'
41

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'2 ( nelahd wrdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh .fIKh
lrhs'
ld,fo ( 02 hs'
bf.kq M, (
nelahd wrdcOdksfh ys wdfKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
nelahd yd ihfkdnelahd fjkalr ykd .kshs'
nelahd yd ihfkdnelahd wKalaIh u`.ska kslaIKh lr ykd .kshs'

nelarshd yd ihfkdnelahd inkaO uQ,dY% ûq;
s fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isik
q g
a
,nd fokak'
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd f.k is;a we|.kakd iq`M bosm;a lsula lsug
wdf,dal wKalaIh ;=<ska nelahd yd ihfkdnelahd kslaIKh lsug
isiqkag bv i,id fokak'
Ih lreKq we;=<;a bosm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

wrdcOdksh - nelahd
nelahdjkaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK
m%d.akHIAl ka h'
m%NdiajhxfmdaIS" ridhksl iajhxfmdaIS fyda IufmdaIS f'
p, fyda wp, ka h'
talffi,sl fyda .Kdjdi idohs'
ffi, Ndckh ;Shla oaLkavkh u`.sks'
ma,diau mg,h ;r, ;% jHqyhls'
ffi, ;a;s fmmaghsfvd.a,hslekaj,ska iuka; hs'
rhsfndfidah fm%d
a k yd RNA fmd,sufia bhqlefhdagdjka f.a tu fm%d
a k
yd RNA fmd,sufia j,g jvd fjkia h'
ksoiqka ( fldl=i" neis,i
ihfkdanelahdjkaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK
m%d.akHIal ka h'
m%NdiajhxfmdaISh
fndfydauhla tal ffi,slhs' kuq;a iuyre tlg inkaO kdkq fldmqjlska
jg jQ iQ;%sld idohs'
m%NdixYaf,aIl jKl f,i laf,dafrdms,a a iy *hsfldihkska we;'^ks,a"
fld< jKhla .kS'&
iuyr whg jdhqf.da,Sh khsg%cka ;srlsf yelshdj we;'
kso (- Anabaena, Nostoc, Lyngbya
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
oYSh nelahd yd ihfkdanelahdj, wdfKsl ,laIK
kslaIKh lsu'
42
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'3 ( fm%diagd rdcOdksfha jxYj,g wh;a kaf.a O;ajh

.fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ( 04 hs'
bf.kq M, (
fm%daiagd rdcOdksfha ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
,dlaIKsl ,laIK Nd; lr fm%daiagd rdcOdksfha ka jxYj,g j. lrhs'
fm%diagd rdcOdkshg wh;a ka ykd .kshs'

fm%daiagd rdcOdksh ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag imhkak'
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmqgd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
,laIK ykd .ekSu i|yd wdf,dal wKalaIh " ksoYl fyda ixrlaIs;
ksoYl u`.ska fyda fm%diagdjka kslaIKh lsug isiqkag bv i,id fokak'
isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

fm%daiagd rdcOdksfha jxY
tla tla jxYfha m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
is,sfhdfmdard rhsfidfmdavd ls%fidamSgd *sfhdamSgd frdfvdmSgd laf,dafrdamSgd
tal ffi,slhs tal ffi,slhs tal ffi,slhs nyq ffi,slhs nyq ffi,slhs tal ffi,sl fyda
nyq ffi,slhs
IufmdaIh
S IufmdaIh
S m%NdiajhxfmdaIhs m%NdiajhxfmdaIs' m%NdiajhxfmdaIs' m%NdiajhxfmdaIs'
laf,dafrdms,a -a, c, laf,dafrdms,a -a, c laf,dafrdms,a - laf,dafrdms,a -
lefrdka lefrdka a, d a, b
*shf
q ldaieka;k
s a *shf
q ldaieka;k
s a *hsfldihkska lefrdka"
m%Ndixiaf,aIl we;' *hsfldat;%k
s a iekaf;dam,
s a
jKl f,i we;' lefrdka we;' we;'
ixprK jHqy jHdc mdo we;' m%ckl ffi,j, m%ckl ffi,j, lIsld ke;' jOl ffi, yd
f,i mlaIau ;ks lIsldjla we;' lIsld we;' m%ckl ffi,j,
we;' lIsld we;'
ffi, ;a;s ffi, ;a;s fi,shqf,daia" fi,shqf,daia" fi,shqf,daia" fi,shqf,daia"

ke;' ke;' fmlaka yd m%Odk we,ack
s l
s a w,h ta.d fmlaka
jYfhka is,sld
ix; wdydr ,ekka" *af,dhka msIg

a h
l%f
s id,ekka ueksfgd,a msIg
a h
Wod(
Paramecium Amoeba Diatoms Sargassum Gelidium Chlamydomonas
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
by; jxYj, oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK kslaIKh lsu'
43
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'4 ( *ka.hs rdcOdksfha jxYj,g wh;a kaf.a O;ajh

.fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ( 04 hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
O jdiia:dkj, yg.kakd os,Sr ykd .kshs'
os,Srj, jOl jHQy yd ,sx.sl m%ckl jHqy kslaIKh lr ykd .kshs'
jOl yd ,sx.sl m%ckl jHqy mok lr f.k os,Sr rdcOdkshg wh;a ka
j. lrhs'

*ka.hs rdcOdksh ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag imhkak'
wKalaIh
S kslaIK ;=<ks a fyda $;srlrk ,o ksoYl u`.ks a os,r
S j, ,dlaIKsl
,laIK ykd .ekSug Wmfoia fokak'

*ka.hs rdcOdksfha m%Odk jxYj, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
jxYh - jxYh - jxYh - jxYh -

ls
% fhduhsfldagd ihsf.duhsfldagd weiaflduhsfldagd neiSfhduhsfldagd
c,cjdiS h' lIsldOr YdLkh jQ ixffi,sl" YdLkh jQ nyqkHIal YdLkh jQ talkHIal
os,Sr f' fo fn ksrdjdr os,Sr cd,hls' idjdr os,Sr cd,hls' fyda oa kHIal" idjdr
f,i YdLkh jQ os,Sr os,Sr cd,hls'
iQ;l%s d
w,sx.sl m%ckkh
w,sx.sl m%ckkh p, cdKqOdks u`.ska is f' w,sx.sl m%ckkh fldkS w,sx.sl m%ckkfha
cdKq u`.ska is f' u`.ska is f' O cdKq ksmojhs'
,sx.sl m%ckkh p, mqx ,sx.sl m%ckkfha oS ,sx.sl m%ckkh

yd cdhd ckaudKq u`.ska ixfhda.dKq iEfoa' wialcdKq u`.ska is f' ,sx.sl m%ckkh neiS
isf' ^ckaudKq cdKq u`.ska is f'
foj.hu pd,l h&
Wod ( Allomyces Wod (Mucor Wod ( Aspergillus Wod ( Agaricus
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
44
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'5 ( ma,dkaf rdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ( 06 hs'
bf.kq M, (
wdfKsl ,laIK Wmfhda.S lr f.k ma,dkaf rdcOdkshg wh;a ka j.
lrhs'
ma,dkaf rdcOdkshg wh;a tla tla jxY id:l fN!l ;hlg olajk
wkqj;k ia;r lr ixikaokh lrhs'
wdfKsl ,laIK Nd; lr imqIam Ydl tal cm;%S yd oa cm;%S f,i j.
lrhs'

ma,dkaf rdcOdksh inkaO uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqka fj;
imhkak'
wKalaIhS kslaIK yd $ixrlaI;
s ksoYl Nd;fhka ,laIK ykd .ekSug
isiqkag bv i,ikak'
ma,dkaf rdcOdkshg wh;a jxYj, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
n%fhd*hsgd ,hsfld*hsgd fgfrd*hsgd ihslefvd*hsgd fldak*

s frd*hsgd wekaf;d*hsgd
f;;a fN!l f;;a fN!l

ia:dkj, ia:dkj, fN!l ;hg wkqj;k oelsh yels h'
fYaIfhka idudkHfhka
nyq, h' yuqf'
ikd, mgl
ikd, mgl we;'
ke;'
ckaudKq Ydl cdKqYdl cdKq Ydlh m%uqLhs

cdKqYdl m%uqLhs'
m%uqL jk w;r m%uL q hs' ckaudKq cdKqYdlh yd cdKq Ydlh m%NdixYaf,aIlhs'
m%NdixYaf,aIlhs' Ydl" cdKq ckaudKqYdlh hk ckaudKq Ydl cdkq Ydl u; hefma'
Ydlh u; wO fol u
f,i hefma' m%NdixYaf,aIlhs'
iucdKqlhs iucdKql fyda iucdKqlhs'

IucdKqlhs' Iu cdKqlhs'
45
n%fhd*hsgd ,hsfld*hsgd fgfrd*hsgd ihslefvd*hsgd fldaks*frd*hsgd wekaf;d*hsgd
ixfiapkhg ndysr c,h wjYHhhs' ixfiapkhg ndysr c,h w;HjYH ke;'
c rys; Ydl f' c ork Ydl f'
jD; ^k.ak& c Ydlf' wdjD; c Ydl

^M, ;=< c
we;sf&
,sx.sl m%ckk
mqIam fkd orhs' tall f,i
mqIam orhs'
Marchantia, Selaginella Nephrolepis Cycas Pinus imqIam Ydl

Mosses- ^.odmdis& ^jk&
Pogonatum Lycopodium
wekaf;d*hsgd jxYfha j.j, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
j.h - fudfkdfld,sfvdfka j.h - vhsfld,sfvdfka
l,,hg cm;% tlla muKla we;' l,,hg cm;% 2la we;'
;ka;=uh uQ, moaO;shla we;' uqka uQ, moaO;shla we;'
m;%fha kdr kHdih iudka;rhs' kdr kHdih cd,dNhs'
mqIam fldgia ;%s wxlhs' mqIam fldgia p;= wxl fyda mxpdxlhs'
mqIamj, mmqIamh we;' mqIamfha uKsh yd uql=gh meyeos,sj we;'

ûKsh yd uql=gh meyeos,s j fjkalr
ykd.; fkdyel'&
lf|a ikd, l,dmj, lehu ke;' ikd, l,dmj, lehu we;'

ikd, l,dm is we;' ikd, l,dm j,hdldrj ilia we;'
Wod (- ;DK" fmd,a" frdai" jo îm;a;= u,a&
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
by; jxY yd j.j, oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK kslaIKh
lsu'
46

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'6 ( weksud,shd rdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh .fIKh
lrhs'
ld,fo ( 05 hs'
bf.kq M, (
weksud,shd rdcOdksfha wdfKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
weksud,shd rdcOdksfha ka j.SlrKh lsu i|yd jxYj, wdfKsl ,laIK
Nd; lrhs'
weksud,shd rdcOdksfha jxYj,g wh;a oYSh ka ykd .kshs'

weks u d,s h d rdcOdks f ha wmDIa G jxYS jxY inka O uQ , dY% ûq s ; fyda
bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag imhkak'
fyda ixrlaIs; ksoYl kslaIKh lr ,laIK ykd .ekSug isiqkag bv
i,ikak'
wdfKsl ,laIK ykd .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
jeo.;a lreKq oyd oelafjk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

weksud,shd rdcOdksfha wmDIaGjxYS jxYj, m%Odk ,laIK idlPd lrkak'
iS,kagfgd ma,fy,a- fkufgdavd wek,Svd fudiald wdf;%dfmdvd tlhsfkdvfgd

^ksvdhd& kaf;aia
ksoe,s jdiSka" mfia yd lrosh $osh fndfyda g fN!l lrosfha muKla
lrosh fyda c,fha fyda c,fha fyda fyda mi lrosh fyda fyda c,c yuqf'
osh f' f;;a mfiys mrfmdaI;s hka u;$;=< osh"
j;a f' f,i yuqf' iuyrla
mrfmdaI;s hska fN!l
Odrl foay
;=<
iqyqUq,d - mxpwh
iu;shla yd
wh iu;sh oa mdYal iu;sh lSghd oamdYal
fmkajhs' iu;shla olajhs'
'
oam%i;
a rhs' ;%m
S i
% ;
a rhs'
ckl ia;r foay l=yrhla jHdc fyd|ska jevqkq Yd, iSf,dauhla

rer fyn
fol w;r ke;' iSf,dauhla iSf,dauhls' we;' kd, mdo
we;'
uOHYaf,aIh we;' iys; c, jdyskS
we;' moaO;shla f,i
iSf,dauh iSf,dauh fldgila
laISKh' w;sYhska likh we;'
laISKh'
47
iS,kagfgd ma,fy,a- fkufgdavd wek,svd fudiald wdf;%dfmdvd tlhsfkdvfugd

kaf;aia
uQ,ls mDIafGdaohj isyk
s a is,k
s v
a rdldr Odldr ndysr ;drld yeve;s"
foaydldr me;,sh' is,k s va rdldr mKq wdldr foay ,di LKavkh is,k
s v
a rdldr
folls' LKavkhla foayhls' fo foayh' ndysrj we;' we;' iEu fyda mqIam
kd,dldr- ke;' fl,jrg hk yd wNHka;rj LKavkh b;d LKavhlgu yeve;s h'
nqyn
q djd" g l%ufhka LKavkh iq`M h' ikajQ Wmdx. LKavkh ke;'
l=vhl wdldr isyks fa ' olajhs' hq.,la we;'
fuhqid' LKavkhla
LKavkh ke;'
ke;'
h wdldrhl h wdldrhl YSIKhla meye,s meyeos,s YSIKh ke;'
YSIKh YSIKhla YSIKhla we;' YSIKhla we;' YSIKhla foayh fu!L
ke;' we;' we;' foayh ysi" we;' foayh wmfu!L
fmaYsuh mdoh ysi" Wri" wlaIh Tiafia
yd wka;rx. Worh f,i ilia we;'
f.dkqj f,i fndfyda g
fldgia ;=klg fnoS we;'
fnoS we;'
ffi, uD mlaIauOr oe Wpuhla foaydjrKh wmspufhka foay wdjrKh
ia;r fha wmspuhla fyda Wpuhla we;' i%djh jk
Wpuhla uD h' th uD wmspuhls'
oxYl fldaIaG we;' ndysr we;' lhsksuh m%djrKhla lhska iys; fndfydag
we;'Wpuhla pqIlr fyda $ oe fl|s ;khs' msgiels,a,ls' lKaGl we;'
ke;' yd wxl=Y we;' we;'
jHdc fndfydag ndysr we;=`M
fldr,aj,g iels,a,la isf,dal iSf,dal ndysr iels,a,la iels,a,ls'
muKla ke;' ;r,h iys; ;r,h iys; iels,a,la we;'
msgiels,a,la jia;sl jia;sl we;'
we;' iels,a,la iels,a,la iuyrekag
^pQKsN;
+ we;' we;' wka;#
fyda iels,a,la
fldfrdia& we;'
mlaIau ke;' mlaIau ke;'
wimQK imQK imQK wdydr imQK imQK

wdydr we;e wdldrj,
wdudY jdyskS wdydr ud. ud.hla we;' wdydr ud.hla wdydr imQK wdydr
moaO;shls' ud.hla we;'
l=yrhls' uqLh yd .=oh uqLh yd .=oh we;' uqLh yd ud.hla we;' ud.hla we;'
uqLh muKS' we;' .=oh we;' uqLh yd .=oh we;e wdldrj,
we;'
.=oh ke;' iuyrekag we;' uqL .=oh ke;'
f;s%ldj we;' Wmdx. we;'
ixjD;
jD; jD;
ixirK moaO;shla ke;' ixirK
ixirK ixirK ixirK
moaO;shla
moaO;shls' moaO;shls' moaO;sh laIsK
we;' mdYal
mDIah mDIah we;'
yDo we;'
yDohla we;' yDohla we;'
iuyr i;=kga
c,laf,dau" c,laf,dau"
ndysr c,laf,dau"
lxl;" m%djrK Yajdikd,"
Yajik wjhj ke;' c,laf,dau
l=yrfha we; m;a fmkye,s" msld" kd,mdo
we;' fyda cnd,sl
fN!l wdldr we;'
m%djrKh u.ska Yajik rela
Yajikh lrhs' we;'
48
iS,kagfgd ma,efy,a- fkufgdavd wek,svd fudiald wdf;%dfmdvd tlshf

s kdvfgd
kaf;aia
nysii
a d% is`M ffi, wkajdhdu jDlalsld we;' jDlalsld ue,am.
s h
S nysii
a d%
moaO;shla iy nysiai%d kd, iys; we;' kd,sld" y; moaO;shla ke;'
ke;' kd, iys; ir, .%k
a
nysiia d% nysiia d%
moaO;shls' moaO
a ;shls'
mQj
iakdhq .ex.a,hs d iakdhq j,hla uia;Is la .ex.a,hs d mDIah" iakdhq moaO;sh
cd,hla we;' hq.,la fyda yd wkajdhdu .ex.a,hs d hq.,a iys; hq.,uh iakdhq j,hla yd
iakdhq j,hla iakdhqq rcq hq.,hls' iakdhq uia;Is l
a wh iakdhq iys;
yd we;' oa;aj >k j,hls' .ex.a,h s d iy h'
wkajdhdu ufOHdaoh iakdhq rcq oa;aj Woh
iakdhq rcq iakdhq hq., folls' >k iakdhq
we;'^1-3& rcqjla we;' rcqjls'
fndfyda i;=kga
ixfoS wjhj ksoe,sjdiSkg
a m%Odk ir, weia iuyrekag ir, fyda ixfoS wjhj
f,i wlaIs,m wlaI, s m jYfhka we;' .%dysld weia" .%dysld" ixhqla; weia" ke;' iuyrekag
yd$ fyda ridhk msld we;' yd uDY wlaIs,m" iamYl" ;=,d iamY ixf
;=,dfldaIaG" m%;.
s d% yl iuyrekag ;=,d fldaIaG" fldaIaG" kd,mdo" wlaIs,m
wdosh iuyr we;' we;' we;' ixf frdau yd ixf
i;=kg a we;' we;' .%dysld we;'
m%ckl m%cfkaJsh" m%Kd, iys; m%ckfkaka h

s m%Kd, iys; m%Kd, iys; m%cfkaJsh
moaO;sh m%Kd," m%cfkaJsh yd m%Kd, m%cfkaJsh m%cfkaJsh Yd,hs'
- ir, w;sfl we;' we;' we;' we;' m%Kd, we;'
m%cfkaJsh wjhj we;'
we;' m%Kd,
ke;'
we;e
w,sx.sl lv lv u w,sx.sl we;e we;e wdldrj,
m%ckkh u`.ska w,sx.sl m%ckkh fyda wdldrj, wdldrj, mqkjOkh
wxl=rKh m%ckkh mqkjOkh mqkjOkh mqkjOkh isf'
u`.k
s a fyda iuyre fyda ke; fyda isf'
mqkjOkh olajhs' wxl=rKh
we;'
oa,sx.sl fyda idudkHfhka tal,sx.slhs' tal,sx.sl idudkHfhka tal,sx.slhs'

tal,sx.sl oa,sx.slhs' fyda tal,sx.slhs' we;e
yd
lDka
oa,sx.slhs l%if a Ishdjka tal,sx.slhs'
f.aa fl!udfrda
oaNjh olajhs
ixfiapkh wNHka;r wNHka;r ixfiapkh wNHka;r fndfydag

- ndysrhs' ixfiapkh' ixfiapkh' ndysr fyda fyda ndysr wNHka;r ndysr ixfiapkh
wNHka;r ixfiapkh' ixfiapkh'
ma,kQ,d mrfmdaI;s hkag iuyrekag fg%dfldf*d lSg wjia:d maf,re,d fyda

lSghd lSg wjia:d lSg wjia:d fg%dfldf*d fyda fj,sc tlla fyda mskdhd lSghd
fndfyduhls' we;' lSghd lSghd lSmhls'
ksoe,s jdiSkag
lSg wjia:d
ke;'
49
fldafgd jxYfha ,laIK idlPd lrkak'

iqyqUq,a wjfha fyda we;e jOl wjj, oKavdldr mDIah mDIaGrcqj
;su'
;ks" mDIah kd,dldr iakdhq rcqj
iqyqUq,a wjfha fyda iuyr jOl wjj, .%iksl c,laf,dau me
mej;Su
iqyqUq,a wjfha fyda l,, lik wjfha fyda wmr .=o j,s.h mej;Su
Woh yDoh iys; ixjD; rer ixirK moaO;sh
fyd|ska jOkh jQ iSf,dauh
iels,s we;sg th uOH pufhka iEkq wNHka;r iels,a,la f'
,sx. fjka we;' wKavc" wKavc,dnqc fyda c,dnqc h yel'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (-
50
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'7 ( ka wh;a j. ykd .ekSug ndysr ,laIK Nd; lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ndysr ,laIK Wmfhda.S lr f.k iS,kagfgd" ma,fy,akaf;aia" wek,svd"
fudiald" wdf;%dfmdavd yd tlhsfkdvfugd jxYj, ka m%Odk j.j,g
j. lrhs'
iS , ka g fgd" ma , fy,a ka f ;a i a " wek,s v d " fudia l d" wdf;% d fmda v d yd
tlhsfkdvfugd hk jxYj, m%Odk j.j,g wh;a ka ykd .kshs'
wmDIaGjxYS jxYj, j. w;r O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'

weksud,shd rdcOdksfha f;dard.;a wmDIaGjxYS j. ms<n
s | f;dr;=re wvx.= uQ,dY%
ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag ,nd fokak'
,laIK ykd .ekSu i|yd i$ixrlaIs; ksoYl kslaIKh lsug isiqkag
bv i,id fokak'
iS,kagfgd ^ksvdhd& jxYfha j.
yhsfv%dfidjd ialhsfmdfidjd wekaf;dfidjd
- m%uqL nqyqnd - m%uqL wjia:dj fuvqid - nqyqnd wjia:dj

wdldrhhs' Tjqka ;ks wdldrhhs ' Tjq k a l= v muKhs' ;ks fyda
fyda .Kdjdi f' yeve;sh' ksoyfia msyk
s hs' .Kdjdi wdldr f'
fuvqid wdldrh l=vd nqyqnd wjia:dj l=vd fyda fuvQid ke;'
yd ksoyiaj msyskk nqyqnd wjia:dj
ka f' ke;'
- uqLh jgd - uq L h jgd fu!L ndyq - uqLh jgd .%dysld j<

.%dysld j<hls' y;rls' foayfha odrfha lSmhls'
Wod ( Hydra .%dysld /ils' Wod ( uqyq u,
Obelia Wod ( Aurelia fldr,a
^f,dhd&
51
ma,fy,akaf;aia jxYfha j.
gqfn,dhd fg%ufgdavd fiiafgdavd
ksoe,s jdiSka h' ndysr mrfmdaIs;hka fyda wka;#mrfmdaIs;hka h'

wka;#mrfmdaIs;hka h'
m;%dldr foayhls' wlaIs,m m;%dldr foayhls' iqyU

q ,
q kag isyska" os.= me;,s foayhls'
we;' wlaIs ,m ke;' uQOdj yd ckk LKav
we;' wlaIs,m ke;'
Woh me;af;a uqLh Woh me;af;a Woh uQOdf pQIlr yd

msysghs' fkh yels pQIlrh$pQIlr yd uqLh jgd wxl=Y we;' uqLh ke;
.%iksldjls' pQIlr ke;' fu!L pQIlrhla we;'
Yaf,aIau, .%ka /ila LkaGl iys; laIqwx.=,sld iys;

iys; mlaIauOr Wpuhls' Wpuhls'
wmsPohls' Wod ( Fasciola Wod ( Taenia
Wod ( Planaria ^wlaud me;e,a,d& ^m mkqjd&
Bipalium
wek,Svd jxYfha j.
T,sf.dlSgd fmd,slSgd ysrefkhd
meyeos,s ysila ke;' weia iy .%dysld ykd .; yels meye,s

iys; meyeos,s ysila we;' ysila ke;' mQj" wmr
pQIlr we;'
wxYmdosld ke;' wxYmdosld we;' wxYmdosld ke;'
oe fl|s iq ixLHdjls' oe fl|s /ils' oe fl|s ke;'
fujq, we;' fujq, ke;'

Wod ( .ev,d Wod ( Nereis fujq, ke;'
Wod ( l+ve,a,d
52
fudiald jxYfha j.
nhsje,ahd .eiafg%dfmdavd fi*f,dfmdavd fmd,sma,efldf*drd
mdYa l lmdg 2la ljpfha lmdg 1hs' ndysr$wNHka;r w;smsys; jk M,l

iys; ljphls' ljph idudkHfhka ljphla we;' wgls k a hq ; a mDIa h
' ims,dldrh ke;fyd;a ljph ljphls'
iuyrkaf.a ljp CISk we;'
la I s K hs ' $ iuyreka g
ljp ke;'
f;%sldj ke;' f;%sldj we;' f;%sldj we;' f;%sldj we;'
mdoh fmdrjla Yd,j jevqkq mdoh .%dysld" kskd,h me;,s Yd, mdohls'
yeve;sh' fmaYsuh mdohls' yd ndyqj,g lrKh
we;'
ysi" weia" .%dysld ysi" weia yd .%dysld ysfiys meye,s ysila we;' weia
ke;' iys ; h' tla .% d ys l d weia we;'' ndyq 8-10 ls' fyda .%dysld ke;'
hq . ,hl weia ms y s g d iuyreka g wla I s , m
we;' Wod ( oe,a,d we;'
nQj,a,d Wod ( wgmsh,a,d
Wod ( uhka Wod ( f.d`Mfn,A,d Chiton
ldjdhka yfn,a,d
wdf;%dfmdavd jxYfha j.
lariafishd bkafilagd lhsf,dfmdvd maf,dfmdavd werlaksvd

foayh foayh ysi" ysi we;' LKav ysi" fl YSfI!rih
YSfI!rih Wri" Worh rdYshla iys; Wri yd Worh ^mqr(ldh& yd
yd Worh f,i f,i fnfoa' foayhls' Worh ^wmrldh&
fnoS we;' we;' ^lsk;s ,
= ,
a ka
f.a yer&
tla tla Wrfia mdo tla tla tla tla
LKavhg hq.,a 3ls' LKavhg mdo LKavhg mdo YSfI!rifha
Wmdx. mshdm;a tla hq., ne.ska hq.,a fol mdo hq.,a y;rls'
hq., ne.ska hq.,la fyda we;' I o< ne.ska we;'
we;' hq.,a folls' we;'
iuyrekag
mshdm;a ke;'
iamYl .= iamYl fl iamYl iamYl ke;'

iamYl hq.,a hq.,ls' hq.,ls' hq.,ls' Wod ( ul=`Mjd
folls' Wod (lerfmd;a;d Wod ( m;a;Ehd Wod ( yel/,a,d f.dakqiaid
^kEu uhsgdjka
Wod ( biaid lDfhl=& lsKs;=,a,d
ll=`Mjd
53
tlhsfkdvfugd jxYfha j.
weiafgfrdhshd T*shqfrdhshd tlsfkdhshd fydf,d;=frdhshd ls%sfkdhshd

uOH uvf,ka l=vd f.da,dldr f.da,dldr fyda os. foayh l=vd
fjka we;s' uv,ska meyeos,j
s uv,dldr foay we;' is,k
s v
a rdldr fldamamdldr
l%ufhka isyks a fjkajQ ndyq ndyq ke;' foayhls' uKshls' pQKuh
hk ndyq myls' myls' ndyq uDh' M,lj,ska iEoS
iEu ndyqjlu os." lefvk we;' thg iqkuH
wkajdhdu uOH iq`M" ika ndyq myla
we,shls' ^prkdr iys; tajdh' prkdr inkaO h'
we,sh&' we,s ixjD;h' tajdfha prkdr
we,sh ne.ska we;'
iuyrekag jDka;
we;'
Wv mDIaGfha fmif,ahd p,kh l< lkaGl fyda lkaGl ke;'

pQKuh fudg ke;' ndyqj, yels lkaGl fmif,ahd mdYal" isyska
lkaGl yd mdYalj yd fmif,ahd ke;' wkqmlaIl /ila
fmif,ahd LkaGl we;' we;' uqLh jgd we;'
we;' c,laf,dau c,laf,dau oyhls'
/ils'
uqLh - hg ^fu!L& uqLh uOHj uqLh - hg ^fu!L& uqLh - mQj;a uqLh yd .=oh Wv
mDIaGfha;a .=oh - we;' .=ohla mDIaGfha;a .=oh - .=oh - wmrj;a we;' ^fu!L& mDIaGfha
Wv ^wmfu!L& ke;' Wv ^wmfu!L& we;'
mDIaGfh;a we;' mDIaGfh;a we;'
kd, mdo we;' tajd .%dysld wdldr
hg fu!L mDIaGfha kd, mdo fma,s pQIlr iys; pQIlr iys;hs' kd, mdo we;'
kd, mdo we;' folla we;' isyska kd, mdo
tajdfha tajdfha we;'
pQIlr we;' pQIlr ke;'
Wod ( Nx.=r Wod ( uqyq bls Wod ( uqyq lels Wod ( uqyq ,s,S
Wod ( mie.s,a,d ;drldjd Sand dollar
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
by; jxYj, j.j,g wh;a oYSh kaf.a wdfKsl ,laIK ^ndysr& kslaIKh
lsu'
54
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1'8 ( fldafgd jxYhg wh;a ka wOHhkh i|yd wdfKsl

,laIK Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo ( 05 hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd"
wdfKsl ,laIK Nd; lr fldafgd jxYfha ka j.j,g fjka lrhs'
fldafgd jxYfha j.j,g wod< ka ykd .kshs'

fldafgd jxYfha f;dard .;a j. inkaO uQ,dY% ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl&
isiqkag ,nd fokak'
,laIK ykd .ekSu i|yd i fyda ixrlaIs; ksoYl kslaIKh lsug
isiqkag wjia:dj i,ikak'
isiq wkdjrK bosm;a lsug bv i,ikak'
iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

fldafgd jxYfha j.
fldkal
% ; s haia Tiafghsl;
a f a f
s haia wemshd frma,shd wdfia uef,shd
;l=rEmS foayh ;l=rEmS foayh foayh ysi yd l| foayh ysi" wkdl+, yeve;s foayh ysi" f.,"
ysi" l| yd ysi" l| yd f,i fnoS we;' f.," l| yd foayh ysi" f.," l| yd j,s.h
j,s.h f,i j,s.h f,i iuyrekag j,s.h f,i l| yd j,s.h f,i fnoS we;'
fnoS we;' fnoS we;' j,s.hla we;' fnoS we;' f,i fnoS we;' O wdldr we;'
fldfrdia msydgq iys; iu" iu frdau iy

r`M fldr< pl%dldr fyda fldr< iy fldr, iys; .%ka iys; h'
iys; iu lxl;dN .%ka iys; isks fldfrdia M,l mdo
fldr, iys; iu iys; h<s iu'
iu iu .%ka
rys;h'
hq.,kh jQ hq.,kh jQ
hq.,kh jQ ,h hq.,kh jQ ,h hq.,kh jQ hq.,kh jQ mxpd.=,sl .d;%" mxpd.=,sl .d;%
yd fY%daKs jr,a yd fY%daKs jr,a mxpd.=,sl .d;% mxpd.=,l s mQj .d;% hq.< we;'
we;' we;' we;' .d;% we;' mshdm;a njg
lrKh we;'
IudxYmqP iudxYmqP iuyr iqyU

q ,q kag fl j,s.fha j,s. O
fm!P jr,la fm!P jr,la j,s.h we;" ish wmr .=o j,s.h .= msydgq we;' wdldr j,ska
we;' we;' u lSg wjia:dj, fldrfmd;= msyg
s hs' iuyrekag
j,s.h we;' j,ska jeiS j,s. we;af;a
we;' l,, wjfha
muKhs'
55
fldkal
a f s haia
a f wemshd frma,shd wdfia uef,shd
Woh uqLh" uqLh Woh uqLh" o;a m<,a uqLhls' uqLh fydgla Woh uqLh" l=yr
tkeu,h iys; idudkHfhka we;ak wiaj, uqLh odrfha o;a f,i ieliS ;=< msys o;a we;'
o;a we;' w.%ia: h' u;=msgg i we;' we;" o;a ke;'
wiauh o;a we;' we;' iuyrekaf.a o;a
l=yr ;=< msysgd
we;'
we;=`M lk we;=`M lk muKs' we;=`M lk iy we;=`M lk" we;=`M lk" ueo we;=`M lk" ueo
muKs' ndysr ndysr lk fyda ueo lk muKs' ueo lk iy lk iy ndysr lk yd ndysr lk
lk fyda ueo ueo lk rys; h' ndysr lk ndysr lk we;' lk we;' we;' ndysr lka
lk rys; h' rys; h' fm;a; we;'
oe" ieye,a fndfydarg
iels,a, wiauh fndfydarg fydka imQKfhka u wiauh
ldf,ah f' iels,a,ls' wiauh jQ wiaNjkh jQ wiaNjkh jq iels,a,ls'
iels,a,ls' iels,a,ls' iels,a, jd; ikaj, ikaOdk
l=yr iys; h' mDIaGj,
ldf,ac we;'
weismh
s rys; weismh
s rys; p,kh l< yels Yd, mdYal Yd, mdYal p,kh l< yels
fyd|ska jOkh fyd|ska jOkh weismhs iys; weia weismh
s weia weismh
s weismsh iys; weia"
jQ weia" wxY jQ weia wxY weia" ks,k iys;h' ks,k iys;h'ks,k iuyrekag ks,k
fLdj we;' fLdj we;' mg,hla we;' mg,hla we;' mg,hla we;' mg,hla we;'
lSghkag wxY iuyrekaf.a th
fLdjla we;' wjYsIag we;'
oal=ruh oal=ruh l=r ;=kla l=r ;=kla l=r y;rla l=r y;rla
yDoh yDoh iys; yDoh iys; yDoh iys; yDoh iys; yDoh
Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh Yajikh
c,laf,dau c,laf,dau u`.sks' c,laf,dau" fmkye,s fmkye,s u`.sk's fmkye,s u`.k
s 's
u`.k
s 's c,laf,dau me`M fmkye,s" iu u`.k
s 's
c,laf,dau hq.,ls' fyda uqL l=yr
me`M lSmhls' msOdkhla we;' wdia;rh u`.ks 's
msOdkh ke;'
nysii
a d% jh nysiai%djh jDlal nysiai%djh jDlal nysiia d% jh nysiia d% jh nysiai%djh jDlal
jDlal u`.sks' u`.k
s 's uqyq u`.ks 's jDlal u`.sks' jDlal u`.sks' u`.k
s 's m%Odk
m%Odk nysiai%d kaf.a m%Odk iqyU
q ,q kaf.a m%Odk m%Odk khsgc % kSh khsgc% kSh
M,h hQhd h' nysiai%d M,h m%Odk khsgc % kSh khsgc % kSh nysiai%d M,h nysiai%d M,h
hQhd" h nysiai%dh M,h nysiai%d M,h hqla w,h hQhd
jdiSkaf.a NH3 hQhd h' lSg hqla w,h
wjia:dj, NH3
p,;dmS f p,;dmS f p,;dmS f p,;dmS f wp,;dmS f wp,;dmS f

lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq lmd, iakdhq
hq.,a oyhls hq.,a oyhls hq.,a oyhls hq.,a fod<yls hq.,a fod<yls hq.,a fod<yls
lSg wjhla lSg wj ;sh idudkHfhka lSg idudkHfhka lSg wj ke;' lSg wj ke;'
ke;' wKavc yels h' wj we;' lSg wj ke;' cdkak iys; l,, uj ;=<
fyda idudkHfhka wKavc f' wKavc fyda ;a;r pQKuh jOkh f'
wKavc,dnqc wKavc f' wKavc,dnqc ljp ;=< we;' c,dnqc" iuyre
f' f' cdkak wKavch wKavch' megjqka
iys; ljpj;a ujf.a CISr
;a;r ouhs' .%k
a j,ska Y%djh
jk ls j,ska
fmdaIKh f'
56
fldkal
a f s haia
a f wemshd frma,shd wdfia uef,shd
wNHka;r ndysr ixfiapkh wNHka;r fyda wNHka;r wNHka;r wNHka;r
ixfiapkh ndysr ixfiapkh ixfiapkh ixfiapkh
ixfiapkh
kso( .,aud kso( uehd kso( lgqiaid" kso( .srjd kso( hd" ksid"
kso( fudard n,hd f.nd kd.hd" lsUq,d lmqgd" ;,auid" uqyq
uvqjd mr ie,ukaord leianEjd" bnd meianrd isxyhd"
;s,dmshd Ichthyophis ^ kEu ma,emia" jjq,d"
mlaIsfhla& ^ls jefvk
kEu if;la'&
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
by; j.j, oYSh kaf.a ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ^ndysr& kslaIKh lsu'
57
tallh 4 - fmdaIKh
ksmqK;dj 4'1'0 ( ffcj f,dalfha fmdaIK l%shdj,sj, O;ajh

.fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 4'1'1 ( kaf.a fmdaIK uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
fmdaIKh w;HjYH ffcj l%shdj,shla f,i ia;r lrhs'
m%NdiajhxfmdaIS yd ridhk iajhxfmdaIS fmdaIKh fjka fldg ykd .kshs'
IufmdaIS fmdaIK l%shdj,sh meye,s lrhs'
IufmdaIS fmdaIK wdldr meye,s lrhs'
fYaI fmdaIK wdldrhla f,i lDNlaIl Ydlj, fmdaIKh ia;r lrhs'

lD NlaIl Ydl ms<sn| fhda mghla$mska;+rhla isiqkag fmkajd" ta i|yd
ksoiqka lSmhla isiqka ,jd k lsug i,iajkak'
fmdaIKh ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs; yd bf,lafg%dksl & imhkak'
lDNlaIl Ydl fYaI fmdaIK wdldrhla nj wjfndaO lrjkak'
im;a jH mYs,kfhka fmdaIK wdldr ms<sn|j my; lreKq tla /ia lsug
isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
ixl,amh
wjYH;dj
l%shdj,sh
jdis
ksoiqka
isiqka fidhd.;a lreKq bm;a lsug Wmfoia ,nd fokak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqm< s f
s j<lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'

fmdaIKh iy tys wjYH;d
fmdaIKh" Yla;sh yd ldnka ,nd .kakd l%shdj,shls'
jOkh yd w`M;ajehdj i|yd jH ixYaaf,aIKhg kag Yla;sh
wjYH f'
kso ( 1' fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh
2' idkaK wkql%uKhg tfrysj" jH ffi, ;=<g;a" msg;g;a il%shj
mjykh ^ fidah" fmdgEish fmdmh &
58
3' iakdhq wdf.j, oHq;a ifm%aIKh

4' fmaYsj, hdka;%sl ixfldapkh
5' lYsld yd mlaIAuj, p,kh'
j f,dalfha O fmdaIK wdldrj, rgd

ka Tjqkaf.a Yla;s m%Njh yd ldnka m%Njh u; ldKav l< yel'
wldnksl ldnka m%Njh f,i ldnkavfhdlaihs Wmfhda.s lr .kakd ka
iajhxfmdaISka f,i ia;r l< yel'
ldnksl ldnka Wmfhda.S lr .kakd ka IufmdaISka f,i ia;r l<
yel'
iQhdf,dal Yla;sh Wmfhda.S lr .kakd ka m%NdixYaf,aaISka f,i ia;r
l< yel'
ridhksl Yla;sh Wmfhda.S lr .kakd ka ridhk ixYaf,aIlhska f,i
ia;r l< yel'
iajhxfmdaISka ;u ldnksl wjYH;djka" ir, wldnksl jHj,ska
ixYaf,aIKh lr .ks;s'
iajhxfmdaIS fmdaIKh wdldr folls'
1' m%ldY iajhxfmdaIS ^m%Nd iajhxfmdaIS&
2' ridhksl iajhxfmdaIS
m%ldY iajhxfmdaIS - Yla;s m%Njh-iQhhd iy ldnka m%Njh
- ldnkavfhdlaihs
kso ( ihfkdanelahd
y; Ydl
ridhk iajhxfmdaIS - Yla;s m%Njh ridhksl jH iy ldnka

m%Njh ldnka vfhdlaihs f'
kso ( khs%ldrl nelahd
Nitrobactor, Nitrosomonas
IufmdaIS ka - ldnksl m%Njj, ldnka u; fmdaIKh f'
ish i;=ka" ,Sr yd nelahd je fofkla
IufmdaISka f'
IufmdaIS fmdaIK l%u
wdldr ;=kls'
1 uDf;dam fmdaIKh
2 i;a;aj ioDY fmdaIKh
3 iyjkh
uDf;dam fmdaIKh
u< fyda fhdackh jk ldnksl jH u; fmdaIKh jk ka uDf;damkah'
Wod ( fndfyda ,Sr yd nelahd
uDf;damka u< ldnksl jH u;g tkaihsu Y%jh lr rKh lrhs'
uDf;damka fuu nys#ffi,Sh rKfhka we;s jk wka;M, wjfYdaIKh lr"
ialrKh lrhs'
59
i;a;aj ioDY fmdaIKh

fndfyda i;=ka i;a;aj ioDYh' Tjqka wdydr ud.h ;=,g wdydr w.%yKh
lr;s'
fuu fmdaIK l%uh mshjr mylska iuka;h'
1' w.%yKh
2' rKh
3' wjfYdaIKh
4' ialrKh
5' my lsu
iyjkh
fjkia fYaI folla w;r inkaO;djhls'
ldKav ;=klg fnod we;'
1' wfkHdkHdOdrh
2' mrfmdaIS;dj
3' iyfNda;ajh
wfkHdkHdOdrh
fjkia fYaI foll ka fofokl= w;r lsgq inkaO;djhls'
idudlhska fofokdgu jdis ,ef'
kso ( rks, uQ, .e;s iy rhsfidah
mrfmdaIS;dj
tla hl=g ^mrfmdaIs;hd & jdis ie,fik yd wfkldg Ôdrlhd& ydks jk
fjkia fYaIj,g wh;a ka fofokl= w;r lsgq inkaO;djhls'
kso ( Plasmodium, Loranthus
Necator americanus , Cuscuta
iyfNdacS;ajh
tla cShl=g jdis ie,fik iy wfkldg n,mEula fkdlrk fjkia
fYaI folla w;r lsgq inkaO;djhls'
kso ( wms Ydl - ls
uqyq weksuks iy ;dmi ll=jd
lDNlaIl Ydl
fuh fYaI fmdaIK wdldrhlss' fuu Ydl wl%shj fyda il%shj lDka
.%yKh lr" rKh lr fYaIfhkau Tjqkaf.a khsg%cka wjYH;dj imqrd
.ksh's
kso ( Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia
60
ksmqK;dj 4'1'0 ( ffcj f,dalfha fmdaIK l%h

s dj,sj, O;ajh
.fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 4'1'2 ( Ydlj, m%Yia; jOkh i|yd we;s fmdaIK

wjYH;d Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
Ydlj,g wjYH w ud;% yd wxY=ud;% uQ, jH m%ldY lrhs'
wjfYdaIK wdldr ia;r lrhs'
lD;H yd W!k;d ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh

m%fYhla f,i ksmqK;d ugu 2'1'1 ys W.;a lreKq ^ foayfha uQ,jHuh
ixhq;sh uid n,hs'& isiqka yg kej; isysm;a lrjkak'
my; oelafjk uQ,jH ldKav isiqkag ,nd fokak'
C, N, Mg, Cl, Zn, Mo
O, K, P, Fe, B
H, Ca, S, Mn, Cu
my; oelafjk ud;Dld Tiafia O uQ,dY%j,ska f;dr;=re /ialr mka;shg bm;a
lrk f,i isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
uQ,jH wud;% yd wxY=ud;% uQ,jH" wjfYdaIK wdldr" lD;H yd W!k;d ,laIK
f,i ldKav lrkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la (

Ydlj,g wjYH wud;% yd wxY=ud;% uQ, jH
Ydlj,g wldnksl fmdaIl iuQyhla wjYH f'
iuyr uQ,jH wdjYHl uQ,jH f,i i,lSug fya;=
1' Ydlj, jHqyuh jHj, ix>gl u
2' fuu fmdaIl rys;j jk pl%h imQK l, fkdyels u'
fjd w;=frka iuyrla" Ydlj,g Yd, m%udKj,ska wjYH wud;%
fmdaIl f'
kso ( C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
wxY=ud;% fmdaIl" wvq m%udKhla wjYH f'
kso ( Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo.
lD;H yd W!k;d ,laIK ^weuqKqu n,kak'&
wjfYdaIKh lrk wdldrh ^weuqKqu n,kak'&
61
ksmqK;dj 4'1'0 ( ffcj f,dalfha fmdaIK l%h

s dj,sj, O;ajh
.fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 4'1'3 ( ksia wdydr ud. moaO;sfha jHqyh tys lD;Hj,g
inkaO lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ksia rK moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;H ia;r lrhs'
wdydrj, ix>gl yd tajdfha lD;H ia;r lrhs'
m%Nj yd W!k;d ,laIK m%ldY lrhs'
wdydr inkaO wdydr ud.fha wdndO ia;r lrhs'

isiqkag wdlD;s" rEm igyka yd wfkl=;a im;a wOHhkh lsu i|yd
wjia:dj i,id fokak'
ksidf.a wdydr ud.fha uQ,sl mgl ie,eiau yd tu moaO;sfhys O m%foaY
j,g wod<j m%Odk fjkial wOHhkh lsug wjia:dj i,id fokak'
^ m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlula yd iu`. is l< yel'&
my; i|yka f;dr;=re fidhd .ekSu i|yd isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
ksidf.a wdydr ud. moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh
wdY%s; .%ka
wdydrfha ix>gl" tajdfha lD;H" m%Nj yd W!k;d ,laIK ms<sn| fiug

isiqkaj fhduq lrkak'
ksidf.a wdydr ud.h yd inkaO iq,N widudkH;d ms<sn| f;dr;=re
fiug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
fidhd .;a lreKq bm;a lsu i|yd isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;drKh
lrkak'

ksia wdydr ud. moaO;sh my; fldgia j,ska iuka;h'
uqLh " uqL l=yrh " .%iksldj " wkakfi%da;h " wdudYh" laIqdka;h"
uydka;%h " .=o ud.h" .=oh
by; fldgiaj, msysu" o< jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s l< hq;=h'
oka; iQ;%h
o;aj, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
oka; fi!LHh /l .ekSug .; hq;= mshjr
62
ksia wdydr ud.fha ;a;sfha uQ,sl ie,eiau

Yaf,aIau,lh
wO( Yaf,aIau,lh
fmaYs fpda,h
uia;= mg,h
ksia wdydr ud.fha mgl ie,eiau uQ,sl ie,eiaulg wkqj msysgd we;s
wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
fmd ie,eiaf fjkial m%Odk jYfhka msysgd we;af;a
Yaf,aIau,lfhysh'
wdudYfha" laIqdka;%fha yd uydka;%fha we;s fjkialj,g inkaO
ksYa; lD;Hhka ia;r l< hq;=h'
l%udl=xpkh
wdY%s; .%ka
- fg .%ka -jHqyh yd lD;H
- w.akHdYh - jHqyh yd lD;H
- wlaudj-jHqyh yd lD;H
my; i|yka fydfudakj, wka;rdi. lD;Hh
- .eia%ka
- fld,sisiafgdlhskska - m%ekals%fhdihska
- isl%ka
- tkafgfrda.eiafgfrdka
wdydrfha ix>gl yd tajdfha lD;Hhka
ldfndyhsf
fm%dak
,smsv
gka
Lksc uQ,jH
c,h
;ka;=
m%Nj yd W!k;d frda. ,laIK
gka W!k;d yd frda. ,laIK
Fe, Ca yd I W!k;d yd frda. ,laIK
wdydr wdY%s;" wdydr ud.fha widudkH;d
- .eiag%hsia
- u, noaOh
.eiag%hsia
wdudY ;a;sh W;af;ackhfuka jemqr HCl i%djh Yaf,aIau,
ia;rh ydks f'
wdudYfha Yaaf,aIau, ia;r ydks fuka ,s yg.kS'
jemqr HCl i%djh ug odhljk fya;= (
63
.= ld,hla l=i.skafka isu

uOHidr .ekSu
laIh frda.h yd is*s,sia jeks frda.j,ska fm,Su
udkisl wd;;sh
md,kh
frda. md,kh i|yd isq l< hq;= phd;aul fjkial i|yka
lrkak'
u, noaOh
u,my lsf m%;Sl l%shdj hgm;a lsu u, noaOh we;sug
fya;=f'
.=o ud.fha fokdj
u,my lsf wmyiq;djh
md,kh
m%udKj;a ;ka;= iys; wdydr .ekSu yd ksis m u, my
lsug fhda.H f,i phd;aul yeis we;s lr .ekSu
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ksia wdydr ud.fha uQ,sl mgl oHd;aul jHQyh wOHhkh iy tys tla
tla m%foaYj, we;s m%Odk fjkial tajdfha lD;Hhg inkaO lsu'
64
tallh 5 - Yaajikh
ksmqK;dj 5'1'0 ( i;=kaf.a jdhq yqjudre l%shdj,s wkafIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 5'1'1 ( i;a;j

a rdcOdksfha Yajik jHqy O;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
Yajik mDIaGj, ,dlaIKsl .=K i|yka lrhs'
irKh yd th mDIaG mud wkqmd;hg olajk inkaO;dj meye,s
lrhs'
i;=kaf.a oelsh yels Yajik jHqy ia;r lrhs'
fhdacs; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (

my; lreKq u;=lrka i;=ka jdhq yqjudre lr .kakd wdldrh ms<sn| nqoa
l,nk idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
Yajikh Yla;sh ,nd .ekSf l%shdj,shla nj
i;=ka Tjqka j;ajk mirj,g wkqj O Yajik jHqy ord isk nj
my; we;s Wmfoia isiqka i|yd f'
Tnf.a lKavdhug mjrd we;s Yajik jHqy my; we;s jHqy ldKavh
w;ka f;dard .kak'
foaydjrKh" Yajdikd,
ndysr c,laf,dau" wNHka;r c,laf,dau
m;a fmkye,s" fmkye,s
we;s im;a Nd;d lrka wod< Yajik jHqy j. wh;a i;=ka wOHhkh
lrkak'
iqiq rEm igyka Nd;fhka Yajik jHqy ia;r lrkak
Yajik mDIaGj, ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;r lrkak'
Tnf.a fidhd .ekSu mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
iqiq wkql%uhlg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

Yaajik mDIaG i;= ,laIK
Yajik mDIaGhla hkq mirh iu`. jdhq yqjudre jk m%foaYh f,i myod
fokak'
fN!;sl l%shdj,shla jk irKh u.ska ishu i;=kaf.a jdhq yqjudrej isjk
nj i|yka lrkak'
65
ldhlaIu Yajik mDIaGhla i;=j my; i|yka ,laIK oelsh yel'

jdhq yqjudre u i|yd th f;;a yd mdr.uH h hq;= h'
ldhlaIu irKh i|yd ;=kS mDIaGhla h hq;=h'
i;=kaf.a wjYH;d wkqj Yd, jdhq mudjla yqjudreug ;r tu mDIaGh
i;=j Yd, j. M,hla ;sh hq;= h'
fyd| rer iemhqula ;sh hq;=h'
irKh iy mDIaG mud wkqmd;h (

Yajik jdhq yqjudrej irKh u.ska is f' l=vd i;=kaf.a Yla;s wjYH;dj
b;d wvq ksid;a" Tjqka b;d ir, ka ksid;a" foay wdjrKh yryd isjk
irKh m%udKj;a f'
Yd, i;=kf a .a ixlSK;dj fukau Yla;s wjYH;dj o b;d wlh' tu wjYH;d
iemhSu i|yd fuh m%udKj;a fkdf'
mDIaG - mud wkqmd;h wvq f jdhq yqjudrej i|yd mDIah j. M,h
m%udKj;a h hq;=h' tu ksid Yd, mDIah j. M,hla iys;j Yajik jHqy
jOkh h'
i;=kaf.a Yajik jHQy
foaydjrKh kso ( .ev,d" me;,s mKqjd
ndysr c,laf,dau kso ( fmd,slSgd mkqjka (Arenecola), biaf.hka"
i,ukaordjka
wNHka;r c,laf,dau kso ( wial uiqka" fmdlsiaika
Yajdikd, kso ( lDka" yel/,a,ka" m;a;Ehka
m;a fmkye,s kso ( ul=`Mjka" f.dakqiaika
fmkye,s kso ( laIsrmdhska ^ksid&" Wr.hka" mlaISska
66
ksmqK;dj 5'1'0 ( i;=kaf.a oelsh yels jdhq yqjudre l%shdj,sh wkafIKh

lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 5'1'2 ( ksidf.a Yajik moaO;sfha jHqyh tys lD;Hj,g olajk
inkaO;d wkdjrKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
udkj Yajik moaO;sfha o< jHqyh meye,s lrhs'
fmkye,s jd;k hdka;%Kh ia;r lrhs'
fmkye,s mudj iy Yajik pl%h meye,s lrhs'
rerh yd jd;h w;r;a" rerh yd mgl w;r;a jdhq yqjudrej meye,s lrhs'
ksidf.a Yajik hdukh ia;r lrhs'
udkj Yajik moaO;sh wdY%s; wdndO i|yka lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sh (

we;s wdlD;s" ixrlaIs; ksoYk" rEm igyka" icSlrKh fyda oHq;a udOH
Nd;d lr udkj Yajik moaO;sfha jHqyh yd l%h
s dld;ajh w;r we;s inkaO;dj
u;= lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
^m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlula f,i lsug &
my; i|yka udkj Yajik moaO;sfha wdndO ms<sn| lreKq tl;= lsug isiqka
Wkka lrjkak'
mdkfha n,mE
,s wxY=j, n,mE
is,sfldaisia iy weianeiafgdaisia
Yajik iS>%;dj yd kd iS>%;dj u; jHdhduj, n,mEu kslaIKh lr jd;d
lsug isiqkag bv i,iajkak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'

udkj Yajik moaO;sfha o< jHqyh
o< jHqyh yd msysu
th kdia jr" kdia l=rh" .%iksldj" iajrd,h" Yajdi kd,h" Yajdi kd,sld"
wkq Yajdikd,sld" .; l=r ^fmkye,s& j,ska iuka;h'
by; jHqyhkaf.a jHqyhg wod< j l%shdld;ajh o meye,s l< hq;=h'
Yajik ud.fha ;a;s jHdc mlaIauOr ia:Nsl wmsPo ffi, iy i%dh
l,ia ffi,j,ska wdia;rKh we;' ^ldf,ac iajrd,h" Yajdikd,h yd
Yajdi kd,sldj, wvx.= nj&
67
fmkye,s jd;kfha hka;%Kh

rEm igyka Nd;fhka fmkye,s jd;kh lsf hka;%Kh meye,s l< hq;=h'
wdYajdifha yd m%dYajdifha wka; mY+l fmaYsj, yd uyd m%drfha l%shdj
meye,s l< hq;=h'
Yajik pl%h yd Yajik jdhq mud
rerh iy jd;h w;r jdhq yqjudrej - Tlaiscka Yaf,aIau,fha h .;j,
;=kS wmsPoh yd rer flaYkd,sld wka;YaPoh yryd irKh f' th m%:ufhka
rer ma,diauh ;=,g f.dia ysfud.af,dka iu`. inkaO Tlaiy
s fs ud.af,dka
idohs'
rerh iy mgl w;r jdhq yqjudrej meye,s lrkak'
ksidf.a Yajik hdukh - th ridhksl m%;s.%dyl iy fud<fha iqIqkd
YSIlfha msys YAjik md,l uOHia:dkh u.ska hdukh jk nj meye,s l<
hq;= h'
udkj Yajik moaO;sh yd inkaO wdndO
fuka Yajik moaO;sfhys ukd l%shdld;ajhg we;sjk n,mE
u fya;=fjka fmkye,s ms<sld" fn%dkalhsia wd frda. je<f|k w;r
t u`.ska" fkdfhla frda. yd wdndO iEf m%jK;d wdh o wjidkfha
urKh o we;s h yel' ta wkqj my; i|yka lreKq biau;= l< hq;= h'
i' is.r u fya;=fjka l,ia ffi, u.ska Yaf,aIau, Y%djh W;af;ackh f'
Yajik ud.fha mlaIau l%shdj,sh weKysfuka Yaf,aIau, tl;= u
t u`.ska Yajdikd, bosu jeks ixl+,;d fyda fn%dkalhsia wdh we;s h
yel' tu ksid Yajikfha oS wmyiq;d we;s h yel'
ii' mlaIauj, l%shdj weKysu fya;=fjka fmkye,sj, ,s wxY= tl;= f' tu

ksid fmkye,s mglj, NlaIl ffi, m%udKh wl f' tu NlaIl
ffi,j,ska wl m%udKhla cdrl tkaihsu Y%djh u ksid .; mgl
ydks jk w;r jdhq yqjudrej i|yd we;s m%foaYh wvq hhs'
iii' is.r fuys CO jdhqj wvx.= jk w;r th rerhg Wrd .kS' th wm%;j s ;H
f,i ysfud.af,dka iu`. nef|kîa:dhS& w;r tu`.ska Tlaisysfud.af,dka
m%udKh wvq hhs' tu ksid rerh u.ska Tlaiscka mjykh wvqf'
iv' is.r fuys wvx.= jk ksfldka" yDo iamkaok f.h ;djld,slj je

lrk w;r mhka; rer flaYkd,sld ixl+pkhg o fya;= f' t u`.ska
rer mSvkh ;djld,slj je f'
v' .= l,la ;siafia is.r ug wkdjrKh fuka Yajdikd,j, wmsPo

ffi,j, wl .=Kkh ula oelsh yel' tu.ska widudkH ffi, f.dkq
we;s jk w;r bka ms<sld ;;a;ajhkag u. mEfoa' tu m%foaYj,ska ffi,
.e, .shfyd;a" fmkye,s yd wfkl=;a wjhjj,g o ms<sld ;ck we;s
h yel' fkdfndkakka yg o is.r u wd>%dKfhka fuu ;;a;ajj,
n,mE we;sh yel'
68
.= ld,hla ;siafia is,sld yd weianeiafgdaia wxY=j,g ksrdjrKhfuka we;sjk

jD;a;Suh wdndO'
,s yd I iys; we;s lrk /lshdj, fmr mfriaiu i|yd wjYH;dj
is,f
s ldiSia
is,sld ixfhda. wvx.= ,sj,g .= l,la ;siafia ksrdjrKh fuka fuu
;;a;ajh we;s h yel' by< wjodkula iys; ludka; f,i"
1' .%ekhs" l`M.,a je,s.,a m;,a
2' .,a w`.=re" rka" ka" ;U wdlr iy m;,a
3' je,s iy fmofre ludka; ^stone masonry and sand blasting&
4' re iy ue ludka; oelah yel'
is,sld wxY= wdYajdi l< g .; ;=< tl;= f' fuu wxY= uyd NlaIdKq u`.ska
NlaIKh lrhs' ka iuyrla .; ;=<k s a msg wkqYj
a dikd,sld wdY%;
s inkaOl
mgl yd mardjg wdikak rer flaYkd,sldj,g mefKa' l%u l%ufhka
;ka;=uh jOkhla we;s" wjidkfha oS rer flaYkd,sld yd Yajik
wkqYajdikd,sld kdY lrhs' fmky`M mgl l%ufhka kdYu ksid mqmaMqiSh
wOHd;;sh yd yDo l%shdld;ajh wvd,u is h yel'
weianeiafgdia u`.ska we;sjk frda. - weianeiafgdaisia

weianeiafgdaia ksIamdok wdYs%; /lshd lrkakka yd tajd Nd; lrkakka yg
fuu frda.h iEf wjodkula we;'
weianeiafgdia wxY+ fl;s iys; ,s wdYajdi lsfuka fuu wdndO we;s h

yel' fuu wxY= Yd,;ajfhka je jqjo" wkqYajdikd,sld iy .; ugu
olajd kso hd yel' .; ;=, tla/ia jk uyd NlaIdKq ffi, u.ska l=vd
fl;s NlaIKh lrkq ,nhs' kuq;a ;rula Yd, fl;s" uyd NlaIdKq ffi,"
fm%dakuh jH yd hlv ix;j,ska jg lrkq ,nhs' Yd, fl;s NlaIKh
lr .kq ,enQ uyd NlaIdKq ffi, .;j,ska msg wkqYajdikd,sld iy
rerkd, jgd tla /ia fuka ;ka;=uh mgl jOkh W;af;ackh h yel'
fuu fya;= ksid" fmkye,s mgl iS>%fhka ydhkh u" yd mqmaMqiSh wOHd;;sh
we;s lrhs'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
wdlD;s iy rEmigyka Nd;fhka ksia Yajik moaO;sh wOHhkh lsu
yd jHdhdu u.ska Yajik f.h yd kd f.hg we;s n,mEu kslaIKh
lsu'
69
tallh 6 - mjykh
ksmqK;dj 6'1'0 ( ka ;=< isjk jH mjykh yd inkaO l%shdj,s

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'1 ( Ydl ;=< c,h yd LKsc mjykh i|yd wod< ixl,am yd
l%shdj,s ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd;
Ydlj, jH mjykfha wjYH;dj meye,s lrhs'
Ydl foayfha ffi, ;=<ska yd w;ka c,h yd Lksc mjykh jk ud. ia;r
lrhs'
Ydlj, c,h yd Lksc mjykh mok we;s ixl,am yd uQ,Ou ia;drKh
lrhs'
Ydlj, c,h yd Lksc Wvql=re ikakhkh meye,s lrhs'
ffi,j, djHh Njh yd c, Njh ksKh lsug mlaIK fufyhjhs'

Ydlj, jH mjykh ms<sn| fmr oekqu uikak'
O im;a ûq;
s yd bf,lafg%dksl& weiqfrka Ydlj, c,h yd Lksc mjykh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;= lsug isiqka .kajkak'
.e,S igyka iy rEm igyka wdOdrfhka isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug iQodk
lrjkak'
iqiq wkql%uhlg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

mjykfha wjYH;dj
c,h yd Lksc ffY,u ;=<ska by<g mjykh flf'
djHh iSks iy fydafudak maf,dahu ;=<ska mjykh flf'
c,h yd djHh mjykh jk l%u
mg, yryd c,h mjykhg mok jk uQ,sl uQ,Ou" irKh" ksmdkh"
wdi%e;sh" ialkaO m%jdyh hk ixisoa yd c, Nj ixl,amh
my; oelafjk c,h mjykh jk l%u ia;r lrkak'
jdIamSNjkh WodyrK jYfhka .kska irKh
70
djK folla wdka;r mdr.uH mg,hlska (Differentially Permeable Membrane)

fjka we;s g ta yryd djHh wKqj,g muKla .uka lsug bv fkd
foka c, wKqj,g muKla .uka lsug bv fok irKfha fYaI wdldrhla
f,i wdi%e;sh
fm%dak" ta.d" jeks c,ld jHj,g c,h wfYdaKh u f,i
ksmdkh
.=re;ajh fyda mSvk wkql%uKh Tiafia c,h yd djHh iuQy jYfhka ^;ks
wKq wdldrfhka fkdf& mjykh u ialkaO m%jdyh f,i
c, Nj ixl,amh
c,h iys; kEu moaO;shlg c, Njhla we;' c, Njh mSvkh" he
we;s djHh" c,ld jHh wd idOl u; n,mdk c, wKqj, pd,l
Yla;sh yd inkaO jQjls'
c, Njh u.ska wxlkh flfrk mSvk tallj,ska-jdhqf.da, âtm&
meial,a (Pa)" fu.d meial,a (MPa) ukskq ,nkakls'
ixY=oaO c,fha Wmu c, Njhla mj;S'
wNsu; m jdhqf.da, mSvkh hgf;a ixY=oaO c,fha c, Njh Y=kH hehs
ie,fla'
c,fha djHh he jQ g c, Njh wvq RK w.hla .kS'
tneka iajdNdl j mj;sk fndfyda c,Sh moaO;sj, c, Njh RK
w.hla .kS'
djHh idkaKh l%ufhka je jk g c, Njh Bg wkqrEm j wvq f'
t uksid moaO;shl c, Njh tys djHh idkaKhg m%;f
s ,dau j iudkqmd;sl
f'
djHh idkaKh u.ska we;sjk c, Nj ixrplh" djHh
Njh f,i yekafjk w;r th f,i wxlkh flf'
mSvkh je lrk g c, wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh o je flfrka ta wkqj
moaO;sfha c, Njh o je flf'
tneka moaO;sfha c, Njh mSvkhg wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl f'
mSvkh u.ska we;sjk c, Nj ixrplh mSvk Njh f,i
k flfrk w;r f,i wxlkh flf'
iEu g u c,h .uka lrkafka c, Njh je moaO;shl isg c, Njh
wvq moaO;shlg hs'
71
ffi,hl c, Njh
ffi,hla c,h iys; moaO;shla jk neka Bg c, Njhla we;'
m%dlama,diagh ^ffi, mg,h" m%dlama,diauh yd la;lh hk ish,a,&
djHh yd c,ld jH wvx.= c,Sh moaO;shls' tu ksid Bg djHh Njhla
we;' th iDK w.hla .kakd w;r hkqfjka wxlkh flf'
ffi,h Y+k ;;a;ajfha mj;S k" m%dlama,diagfhka ffi, ;a;sh fj;
Y+k;d mSvkh (Turgor Pressure) (TP) k jQ mSvkhla we;s flf' tg
ffi, ;a;sfhka m%dlama,diagh fj; Bg iudk yd m%;sreoaO j ;= mSvkh
(Wall Pressure) (WP) ls%hd lrhs' tneka ffi,h ;=< we;s moaO;sh je
mSvkhla hgf;a mj;S' fu u.ska c, Njh je lsug fya;= f' fuu c,
Nj ixrplh mSvk Njh k jk w;r f,i wxlkh flf'
f ksid ffi,fha c, Njh my; we;s ilrKfhka ksrEmKh
flf'
la;lhla iys; ffi,hlg c,h we;= u" Y+k;dj iy Y+k;dj

c, Njh wdYs%;j iudNsidrl" Wm wNsidrl" WmdNsidrl djK ia;r
lrkak'
c,h ;=< iy WmdNsidrl" Wmrs wNsidrl djKhla ;=< ffi,hl
djHh Njh" mSvk Njh yd c, Njh fjkia jk wdldrh idlPd
lrkak'
c, Nj wkql%uKh Tiafia c,h ffi,h ;=<g yd bka msg;g .uka lrhs'
mgl djK ;=< .s,a jQ g fuh is f'
Y+k;dj yd Y+k;dj is jk wdldrh;a" wdrNl Y+k;d ixl,amh;a"
meye,s lrkak'
Y+k;dj fyda ffi,hla Y+k u Bg c,h wjfYdaIKh u fya;= fldg
f.k Ok mSvk Njhla we;su u.ska is f' la;l ;=< we;s mSvkh
u.ska ffi, ma,diauh ffi, ;a;h
s fj; mSvkhla we;s lrhs' h ;rulg
m%;Hdia: jQ ffi, ;a;sh wefoka ffi,fha mudj je f'
Y+k;dj hkq" ffi,fhka c,h msgu fya;= fldg f.k ffi, ma,diauh
ffi, ;a;sfhka bj; we;=<g ixfldapkh uhs'
Ydl ffi,hl m%Odk c, ix;h la;lhhs'
Rhoeo h wmsph is wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrka Y+k;dj wdoYkh
lsu'
ffi, Y+k fyda Y+k fyda fkdjk wjia:djla f,i wdrNl Y+k;dj
f,i yekaf' fuh Y=ku wdrN jk wjia:dj hs'
mglj, yd djKj, ffi, ;=<g yd msg;g c,h .uka lsu meye,s
lsu
72
Ydl uq,l jHqyh

talcm;S% iy oacm;S% Ydl uq,aj, m%d:l jHqyh ia;r lsu'
Ydl uq,a ;=<ska c,h mjykh
mdxY= djKfha c, Njh uqf,a ffi,j, c, Njhg jvd je jQ g
uq,g c,h Wrd.kq ,nhs' uqf,a fi,shqf,daia ffi, ;a;s iy ffi,dka;r
wjldY c,hg yd djHhj,g mQK mdr.uH f' iqfnN=; yd ,s.akSN+;
ffi, ;a;s c,hg mdr.uH fkdf' ndyslfha isg ffY,u olajd c,h yd
djHh u;= oelafjk ud. Tiafia .uka lrhs'
wefmdma,diag
isma,diag
la;l ud.h
Ydlh ;=< c, mjykh

c,h yd djHh .uka lrk wefmdma,diag" isma,diag iy la;l ud. ms<sn|
ixl,amh my; oelafjk m myod h yels h'
1 wefmdma,diagh hkq" c,h yd djHhj,g ksoyfia .uka l< yels ffi,
;a;s iy ffi,dka;r wjldYj,ska ie ,;a moaO;shhs' ffY,ufha h.sh
ffi,j, l=yr o wh;a f' wka;#Yapufha iqfn N+; leiamd m c,hg
wmdr.uH jk w;r tu.ska uqf,ys ndyslfha wefmdma,diagh yd ikd,
is,skavrfha wefmdma,diagh fjka lrkq ,nhs'
2 isma,diagh hkq" uq Ydlh mqrdu wka; inkaO we;s ffi, ma,diah
cd,hhs' ffi, ;a;sfha isre yryd hdno ffi,j, ffi, ma,diau hd
lrk ma,diau nkaO u.ska fuh ks;h' tla ffi,hl ma,diau mg,h
yryd ffi, ma,diaghg we;= jk c,h c, Nj wkql%uKh Tiafia
ism,diagfha wfkla ffi,j,g .uka l< yels h'
3 Ydl ffi,j, la;l c,h Yd, f,i .nvd lr ;nk tajd f' tneka
hdno ffi,j, la;lfhka la;lhg c, Nj wkql%uKh Tiafia
ism,diajfha c,h .uka lrhs' la;lfhka la;lhg c,h .uka lrk
g tla ffi,hl ;dkma,diagh" ffi, ma,diauh" ma,diau mg,h yd ffi,
;a;sh miq lrka fojk ffi,fha ffi, ;a;sh" ma,diau mg,h" ffi,
ma,diauh yd ;dkma,diagh miqlr hd hq;= f' f ksid la;l ud.fha
uqyqK h hq;= m%;sfrdaOh je h'
73
wka;Yapufha leiamd m u.ska wefmdma,diag ud.h wjysr lrhs' ta ksid

wka;Yapuh yryd .uka l< hq;= jkafka isma,diag ud.fhks' tys Lksc
jrK wjfYdaIKhg Ndck f' Ydlj,g wjYH Lksc muKla wjfYdaIKh
lr .kq ,nhs'
Ydlh ;=< c,h yd Lksc Wvql=re ikakhkh

ffY,u ;=<ska c,h yd Lksc mjykh i|yd mok jQ uQ,Ou jYfhka
mdxY= djKfha isg Ydlh ;=<ska jdhqf.da,h olajd c, Nj wkql%uKh"
c,fha wl ixila;s iy wdila;s n, yd W;aiafok pQIKh .; yels h'
ixila;s - wdila;s - wd;;sjdoh
ffY,u ;=<ska c,h yd djHh ialkaO m%jdyh
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ynr, m;% jDka;j,$ w;dm,a wdlkaO ;Srej, c, Njh ksKh lsu'
Rhoeo wmsph isj, djH Njh ksKh lsu'
74

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'2 ( Ydlj, jdhq yqjudrej isjk wdldrh uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd (
m;%j, jHqyh ia;r lrhs'
mQldj, jHqyh tys lD;Hhg olajk inkaO;d olajhs'
mQld yd jd isre yryd jdhq yqjudrej is jk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
mQld iy jd isrej, jHqyh wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrhs'

isiqkg mQldj, iy jd isrej, jHqyh wKalaIh ;=<ska iy$fyda fjk;a
wod< im;a ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& weiqfrka kslaIKh lsug wjia:dj
Wodlr fokak'
wod< im;a ûq;
s fyda bf,lafg%dksl& Nd;fhka mQldj, jHqyh iy lD;Hh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re /ia lsug Wmfoia fokak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug Tjqka iQodk lrjkak'
wod< wkql%uh Tiafia Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

m%Odk jdhq yqjudre mDIaGh f,i Ydlm;%
Ydl m;%j, jHQyh
mQldj, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
oacm;S% yd ;DK Ydlj, ûOH Ydl& m;%j, yrialv wkafIKh lsu
yevh" fYaI jHqy" ffi, ;a;sj, >k rgd yd md,l ffi,j, y;,j
mej;Su
jDlaldldr yd vfn,a yeve;s md,l ffi,j, jHqyh oyd oelau
mQld yd jd isre u.ska flfrk jdhq yqjudrej
ojfia O ld,j, mQld jr u yd jeiSu md,l ffi,j, Y+k;d
fjkia u ksid is u
md,l ffi,j, c, Njfha is jk laIKsl fjkia fya;=fjka hdno
wmsph ffi,j,ska c,h Wrd .ekSu fyda hdno ffi,j,g c,h msg lsu
wdf,dalh we;sg md,l ffi,j, djHh Njh wvqu" m%NdixYaf,aIKh"
msIag-iSks mj;kh yd K+ whk iHkaoh hkd hka;%K lsysmhlska meye,s
l< yels u
75

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'3 ( Ydl ;=<ska c,h bj;af l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
W;aiafokh isjk ud.h ia;r lrhs'
W;aiafokh flfrys n,mdk idOl ,ehsia;=.; lrhs'
W;aiafokh wju lsug Ydl olajk wkqj;k ia;r lrhs'
uQ, mSvkh yg.kakd wdldrh;a" th xohg olajk n,mEu;a" ms<n
s | ia;drKh
lrhs'
W;aiafokfha yd xofha idfmalaI jdis wjdis ii|hs'
O mdil ;;a;aj hgf;a m;% yd m%frday uska W;aiafok YS>%;d ksKh
lsug mlaIK ie,eiq lr fufyhjhs'
fhdacs; bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sh (

W;aiafokh yd xoh ms<sn| wod< im;a ûqs; yd bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkag
imhd fokak'
W;aifa okh yd xoh ms<n
s | j oHd.drfha yd lafIa;f
% ha isl< yels mlaIK
yd kslaIK lsug yd jd;d ;eug myiql i,iajkak'
f;dr;=re tl;= lr bm;a lsulg iQodk jk f,i isiqkg Wmfoia fokak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug isiqka fufyhjkak'
wod< m Ih wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;drKhl fhfokak'

W;aiafokh
W;aiafok ud.h
W;aiafokh hkq m%Odk jYfhka u mQld ;=<ska yd h muKlg jd isre
yd Wpufhka o Ydlfhka c,h jdIam f,i msguhs' mQld W;aiafokh
ms<sn| my; lreKq u;= lr olajkak' f;;a ffi, ;a;sj,ska c,h
jdIamSNjkh jk g ta wjg c,jdIam >k;ajh je f' iEu mQldjl u
c, jdIam ljp we;s w;r" f ;=<ska c, jdIam irKh is f' ksi,
jd;fha fuu c,jdIam ljp w;smsys; fuka m;%h wjg ;=kS c, jdIam
ia:rhla we;s f' fuu c,jdIam ia;rfha >Klu m;% mDIaGfha iajNdjh
u; r\ mj;S'
.,d hk jd;fha fuu c, jdIam ia;rh ialkaO m%jdyh uska bj;a
flf'
76
W;aiafok YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl

wd;dj" iq<" WIaK;ajh" wdf,dalh" mfia we;s m%fhdacH c,h m%udKh iy
CO2 idkaKh jeks ndysr idOl;a" mQld ixLHdj yd jHdma;h
s " m;% wNHka;r
jHqyh iy Ydlfha wvx.= c,h m%udKh jeks wNHka;r idOl;a" W;aiafok
YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
W;aiafokh wju lr .ekSug Ydl olajk lrK'
uQ, mSvkh yd xoh
xoh yd uQ, mSvkh meye,s lrkak' iuyr wldIah Ydlj, uQ, mSvkh
ls%hd;aul jk wjia:dj, c, j,ska j c,h jEiafia' c, yd uQ,
mSvkh kslaIKh lsug fhduq lrkak'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
Ydl m;% yd m%frdayj, W;aiafok YS>%;dj ksKh lsu'
77

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'4 ( Ydl ;=< wdydr mixl%uKh flfrys odhl jk lsh
% dj,s
uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
maf,dah mglfha jHqyh ia;r lrhs'
maf,dah mglfha jHqyh t uska bgq flfrk lD;Hhg olajk inkaOh
olajhs'
Ydl foayh ;=< wdydr mixl%uKhg odhl jk ls%hdj,s ms<sn| ia;drKh
lrhs'

mixl%uKh yd inkaO wod< im;a ûq;
s yd bf,lafg%dksl& isik
q g imhkak'
mixl%uKh yd inkaO j is lrk ,o fmd;= j< bj;a lsf mlaIK yd
l=;a;ka fhdod f.k is lrk ,o mlaIK ms<n
s | idys;H uYkhla weiqfrka
f;dr;=re tl;= lsug isiqka fhdojkak'
lf|a lalv yd yrialv kslaIKfhka maf,dah mglfha jHqyh wOHhkh
lsug i,iajkak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
wod< wkql%uhlg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

maf,dahu mixl%uKh
maf,dah mixl%uKfha jeo.;a lreKq
ldnksl wdydr Ydl wjhj w;r mjykh lsug uey;a jkafka maf,dahu
mglh nj myokak' m%Odk jYfhka mjykh jk ldnksl jHh
m%NdixYaf,aIK M, mj;kfhka iEKq iqlafrdaia jk w;r ix; wjhj
yd jOk uOHia:dk fj; mjykh flf' fjk;a ldfndyhsf%g yd
ii|k g iqlafrdaia jvd;a djH yd ksIalS%h ixfhda.hla jk neka th
mjykh i|yd jvd;a iqiq h' flfia jqj o maf,dahu uska fjk;a ldnksl
wdydr jk weuhsfkda w," gk" jOl jH" Ydlj,g fhdok ,o
ridhk jH o K+, fmdiafma jeks wldnksl whk wdh o mjykh
flf'
Ydl lf|a yria lvl oelafjk m maf,dahufha jHqyh yd inkaO
wKalaISh kslaIKh
78
O ffi, ykd .ekSu - fmfkar k, tall" iypr ffi," maf,dhh uD

ia:r yd maf,dahh ;ka;= - tajdfha lD;H meye,s lrkak'
maf,dah mglh
maf,dah mglfha jHqyh
fmfkar k, tallhl iy iypr ffi,hl iQlI
a u
a jHqyh oelaug bf,lafg%dk
a
wKalaISh PdhdrEmhl wk ,o rEmhla'
maf,dahu ;=<ska ldnksl wdydr mixl%uKh f hka;%Kh

my; lreKq we;=<;a jk m maf,dah mixl%uKfha jeo.;a wxY meye,s
lrkak'
O wjia:dj, fo Ydjg u mjykh h yels u
mixl%uKh jk jH m%udKh iy mjyk f.h b;d wl u
iuyr Ydlj, mjykh jk r o wl u
rd ,nd .ekSu i|yd fmd,a u,a ;e,Su jeks wjia:d WodyrK jYfhka
.kska mjykh jia;sl mSvkhla hgf;a is u
my; oelafjk lreKq biau;= lrka maf,dah mjykh meye,s lrkak'
mixl%uKh wdrN flfrk mglh m%Njh f,i o" wjidk flfrk
mglh wmdhkh f,i o yekafjk nj
iqlafrdaia fyda wfkl=;a jH mj;l ffi, k jQ lrKh jQ iypr
ffi, uska fmfkar k< fj; il%h
s f,i mjD;a;h
s Yla;h
s jeh lrka
idkaK wkql%uKhg reoaO Ydjg Y%djh lsu - maf,dah ner lsu
(Phloem loading).
maf,dah ner lsf m%;sM, jYfhka fmfkar k<fha djHh Njh jeu
iy ta uska fmfkar k<fha c, Njh wvq u' f iu hdno ffY,ufhka
c,h fmfkar k<h fj; we;=`M fjka th ;=< wl jia;sl mSvkhla
yg .ekSu
mSvk Nj wkqlu
% Khla Tiafia m%Njfha isg wmdhkh olajd ialkaO m%jdyhla
ls%hd;aul f'
wmdhkfha maf,dah yr lsu (Phloem unloading) k jQ ilSh
% lsh
% dj,shlska
jH mgl fj;g bj;a flfrk w;r" t uska fmfkar k<fha djH
Njh wvq " c, Njh je " fmfkar k<fha isg ffY,u fj; c,h
.uka lsu
79

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'5 ( i;=ka f.a ixirK moaO;sj, ixOdkh uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02hs'
bf.kq M, (
jD; yd ixjD; ixirK moaO;s ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'
tal iy oa;aj ixirKh ms<s| ia;r lrhs'
oa;aj ixirKfha jeo.;a ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'

tal iy oa;aj ixirKh meye,s lsug iqiq rEm igyka iy pd igyka
Nd; lrkak'
ixirK moaO;s wdldr iy l%u ms<sn| f;dr;=re idys;H .fIKhla uska
/ia lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
tal iy oa;aj ixirKh ms,sn| wod< im;a ûqs; iy bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkg
imhkak'
isiq wkdjrK bm;a lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
Ih wka;.;h wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkql%uhla wkqj ia;drKhl
fhfokak'

i;=ka f.a mjyKfha wjYH;dj
Tlaiscka yd fmdaIH jH wjfYdaIKh flfrk uOHia:dkfha isg Nd;
flfrk uOHia:dkh olajd mjykh l< hq;= f' wmjH" neyer flfrk
uOHia:dk lrd mjykh l< hq;= f' fjk;a jHo m%Njfha isg isref
O ia:dkj,g mjykh l< hq;= h' i;a;j a foayfha ish fldgia fj;g;a"
bka bj;g;a" jH mjykh l< hq;= nj wjOdrKh l< hq;= f'
tal ffi,sl kaf.a Yla;s wjYH;dj yd jH .uka l< hq;= r wvq ksid
jH mjykh is flfrkafka irKh usks'
ixirK moaO;s uq,ska u oerE i;=ka jYfhka wefk,Svdjka .; yels u'
i;=kaf.a m%Odk ixirK moaO;s
WodyrK iys; j jD; iy ixjD; ixirK moaO;s meye,s lrkak'
WodyrK iys; j tal iy oa;aj ixirK moaO;s meye,s lrkak'
m%Odk ixirK moaO;s w;r we;s fjkial i|yka l< hq;= f'
80

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 6'1'6 ( ksidf.a ixirK moaO;sfha jHqyh tys lD;Hj,g olajk
ld,fo ( 10 hs'
bf.kq M, (
rer ixirK moaO;sh iy jid moaO;sh ia;r lrhs'
yDofha jHqyh iy lD;Hh meye,s lrhs'
yD;a pl%fha ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
oahq;a lka;= fLd igyka .%y lrhs'
ia;dr mSvkh (diastolic pressure) iy wdl=xp mSvkh (systolic pressure)
meye,s lrhs'
wOHd;;sh (hypertension) iy ukaod;;sh (hypotension) yD;a ikd, (cardiovascular)
frda.j,g ;=vq fok ;;a;aj jYfhka ia;r lrhs'
lsgl ixirKh iy lsgl Ouks wjysr fuka we;sjk wdnd; ;;a;aj
myohs'
m: Y,H lu" jD; yD;a Y,H lu iy yoj;a noaO ls ia;r lrhs'

ksia rer ixirK moaO;sh ms<sn| im;a ûqs; iy bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkg
imhkak'
ksia rer ixirK moaO;sh inkaO idrdxYhla f.dv keSug isiqka fhduq
lrkak'
Ih ikaOdrh we;=<;a bm;a lsula i|yd isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
Ih wka;.;h wdjrKh jk m iqiq wkql%uhla Tiafia ia;drKhl
fhfokak'

ksia mjyk moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;H
ksia rer ixirK moaO;sh mDIaGjxYsl ixirK moaO;sfha uQ,sl ie,eiafuka
mKduh jQjls' th yDoh" rer jdyskS yd rerfhka iuka; h'
mDIaGjxYsl ixirK moaO;sfha uQ,sl ie,eiau ^Woh fmaYsuh yDoh" Woh uyd
Ouksfhka mek ksk mdYal Ouks jl% hq.,a yh inkaO iEfok uOH"
;ks mDIah Ouksh' isrer mqrd O m%foaY yd wjhjj,g rerh fnodyefrkqfha
fuu mDIah Ouksfhka yg.kakd Ouks u.sks&
81
udkj rer ixirK moaO;sh yd jid moaO;sh

rer ixirK moaO;sh
uQ,sl ie,eiafuka mDIaGjxYsl rer ixirK moaO;sj, is we;s fjkial
mDIaGjxYsl rer ixirK moaO;sfhys uQ,sl ie,eiau rEm igykla uska
ksrEmKh l< hq;= w;r" th ixjD;" oa;aj ixirK moaO;shla nj wjOdrKh
l< hq;= h'
rer ixirK moaO;shl uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl .;s.=K
ixirKh jk ;r,h - rerh
fmdmh - yDoh
rer jdyskS
rer ixirK moaO;sh ;=< fuu ix>gl ixOdkh we;af;a rerh iy mgl
;r,h w;r jH yqjudrej ldhlaIu f,i is lr .ekSug hs'
jid moaO;sh
jid moaO;sh iuka; we;af;a mfhda,i kd,sld" jid flaYkd,sld iy
jid .e;sj,sks'
wdikakfha mj;sk foayfha udxY fmaYs ixfldapkh uska fuu jdyskS
f;/mSfuka jid ;r,h fifuka .,d hhs'
foayh mqrd ys we;s jid jdyskS Yd, m%Kd, folla idohs' t k ol=Kq
jid m%Kd,h iy Wria m%Kd,h hs'
YsIag iy YsIag fkd jk m%;sYla;s m%;spdr oelaug jid moaO;sh Wo f'
yDofha jHqyh iy lD;Hh
rEm igyka weiqka yDofha msysu" jHqyh iy lD;Hh meye,s l< hq;= h'
yD;a fmaYs
yD;a pl%h
tla yDo iaMkaokhla imQK jk ld,h ;=< wkql%l is ud,djla
f,i yD;a pl%h meye,s l< hq;= h'
lKsl wdl=xph
fldaIsl wdl=xph
mQK yD;a ia;drh
yD;a lka;= fLd igyk
fmaYsckH W;af;ackh uska yD;a ixfldapkh
ihsfkdyD;a lKsl .egh" lKsl - fldaIsl .egh iy ysia f.a l<U
(bundle of His) " mlskaf ;ka;= ia;r lsu
oHq;a lka;= fLd igykla ,nd .kafka foda,fkalaIhlsks' yD;a fmaYs mg,
yryd is jk oHq;a Nj fjki foay mDIaGhg i l< bf,lafg%dav uska
,nd .; yels h' foay ;r, iy mgl fyd| oHq;a ikakdhl jk neka tu
oHq;a Nj fjki uska we;s lrk rgd foda,fkalaI ;srhl oel .;
yels h'
82
ECG igykl we;s f;dr;=re" tk ;rx. rgd iy pl% w;r ld,dka;r o"
pl%j, fldgia o mlaId lsfuka yD;a fmaYsj, ;;a;ajh ms<sn| f;dr;=re ,nd
.; yels h'
wdl=xp yd ia;dr mSvkh (systolic and diastalic pressure) meye,s lrkak'
rer jdyskSj, ;a;s u; rerfhka we;s flfrk mSvkh f,i rer mSvkh
fldaIsld ixfldapkh fuka rerh uska uyd Ouksfha ;a;s u; we;s
flfrk mSvkh - wdl=xp mSvkh
fldaIsld bys,afuka rerh uska uyd Ouksfha ;a;s u; we;s flfrk
mSvkh - ia;dr mSvkh
idudkH jeyshl=f.a rer mSvkh 120/80 mm Hg f'
fuh ia;S% mqreI Ndjh" jhi" ojfia ld,h" ls%hdld;ajh" udkisl wd;;sh iy
bhj wkqj fjkia jk nj'
rer mSvkh idudkH iSud ;=< mj;ajd .ekSug odhljk idOl - yD;a
m%;sodkh" rer kd, ;=< we;s rer mudj" Ouks ia;drKh yd
ixl+pkh" Ouks ;a;sj, m%;Hdia:;dj" Ysrd Tiafia yDohg kej; .,d tk
rer mudj'
w;Hd;;sh yd ukaod;;sh
w;Hd;;sh yd ukaod;;sh we;sug ;=vq h yels fya;= iy tajdfha M,mdl
ms<sn|j yq~ska meye,s l< hq;= h'
lsgl ixirKh yd lsgl Ouks wjysr f M,mdl'
uy Ouksfhka mek ksk ol=Kq iy j lsgl Ouks uska Ouks rerh
yDohg imhhs' Ysrd rerh lsgl fldagrh fj; kej; f.k tkq ,nk
w;r" th ol=Kq lKsldjg jD; f' Ysrd rerh fldgila fl,ska u l=vd
ud. Tiafia yDofha l=r ;=<g we;= f'
lsgl Ouks wjysr jQ g tajdg rer iemhqu wvqjk w;r" ta uska yDofha
iuyr yD;a fmaYS fldgiaj,g rer iemhqu u| fuka tajd ls%hd rys;
fuka Wria indOh (angina) kka yekafjk mmqf fokdjla we;s f'
ksis l,g fuu ;;a;ajhg m%;sldr fkd l<fyd;a wjysr jQ jdysksfhka
rerh iemfhk yD;a fmaYS Tlaiscka m%udKj;a f,i fkd ,eu ksid
urKhg m;a h yels h' fujeks ;;a;ajhla yDohdndOhla f,i yekaf'
fuys m%;sM, jYfhka yDofha iaMkaok oauh widudkH fjka M,odhS
fmdmhla f,i ls%hd lsfuka j<lS'
83
fud<h jeks wfkl=;a jeo.;a wjhjj,g m%udKj;a Tlaiscka iemhqula

fkd ,e hdfuka yDohdndO udrdka;sl h yels h'
yDoh wdY%s; Y,Hlu
m: Y,H lu" jD; yoj;a ie;al yd yDoh noaO lsu'
yDoh yd inkaO Y,Hlu .Kkdjla is flf'
lsgl Ouks wjysr jQ g tu m%foaYh u yer rerh ixirKh lru i|yd
mdofhka ,nd.;a Ysrdjla Nd; lsu m: Y,Hluhla hkqfjka yekaf'
yDofha lmdgj, fodaI we;s jQ wjia:dj, jD; yDo ie;alulska wod< fodaIh
ksje/ l< yels h'
yDofha ls%hdj ksis f,i bgq lr .; fkdyels ugug j, we;ak" fud<h
kdY u ksid h .sh mqoa.,hl= f.ka laIKsl j ,nd.;a kSfrda.S yDohla noaO
lrkq ,ef'
84

uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'1'7 ( rerfha ldh Ndrh uid n,hs'

ld,fo ( 06 hs'
bf.kq M, (
rerfha ixhq;sh meye,s lrhs'
ksid f.a Yajik jKl i|yka lrhs'
wfkl=;a i;=ka f.a Yajik jKl i|yka lrhs'
Yajik jdhQka yd wfkl=;a jH mjykh ia;r lrhs'
rerfha wfkl=;a lD;H i|yka lrhs'
rer .sKSu meye,s lrhs'
rer .K meye,s lrhs'

ksid ;=< rerfha ldhNdrh ms<sn| im;a ûqs; yd bf,lafg%dksl& isiqkg
imhkak'
wod< Ih ikaOdrh wdjrKh jk m lreKq fm< .eiaug isik
q a .kajkak'
bm;a lsula i|yd isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
wod< Ih ikaOdrh wdjrKh jk m ia;drKhl fhfokak'

rerfha ixhq;sh - rer ffi, wdldr" tajdfha jHqyh iy m%Odk lD;Hh
ksid f.a Yajik jKl'
mDIaGjxYSkaf.a rer jKlh - ysfud.af,daka
wfkl=;a ka f.a rer jKl
ysfud.af,daka" ysfudihkska" laf,dfrdalarefjdka iy ysfudt;%ska
Yajik jdhq iy wfkl=;a jH mjykh iy rerfha wfkl=;a lD;H
frda. ksYaph i|yd fuj,ula jYfhka rer mlaId
^l%u yd WmlrK wod< fkdf'&
85
rer .sKSu
ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate)
rerfha ridhksl ixhq;sh
g%hs.a,sirhsv
ms;a; jKl
.afldaia
ysfuda.af,dka m%udKh
m%;sfoay - fvx.=" HIV" nrjd
rer ffi,j, iajNdjh - ;e,iShd" oEle;s yeve;s r;= rerdKq
rer .K
A, B, AB iy O rer .K' Rh idOlh iy rer mdr,hkj, tys jeo.;alu'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ksoYl $ wdlD;s$ rEmigyka Nd;fhka ksia ixirK moaO;sh wOHhkh
lsu'
86
tallh 7 - iudfhdackh yd iuia;sh
ksmqK;dj 7'1'0 ( kaf.a iudfhdackh yd iuia;shg wod< jHqy yd

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'1 ( iudfhdack ls%hdj,sh yd Bg odhl jk moaO;s ms<sn|
uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
iudfhdackfha wjYH;dj idlPd lrhs'
iudfhdackhg odhl jk moaO;s ia;r lrhs'
iudfhdackh i|yd rer ixirK moaO;sfha odhl;ajh idlPd lrhs'
iakdhq moaO;sfha iy wka;rdi. moaO;sfhys iudk;d yd wiudk;d i|yka
lrhs' îudfhdackhg wod< j&

W;af;acj,g m%;spdr oelau ms<sn| j isiq w;aoelS isysm;a lrjkak'
.%ka: yd wka;cd,h (Web resources) Nd;fhka my; f;dr;=re tla/ia
lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
iudfhdackh i|yd wjYH;djh
iudfhdackh i|yd rer ixirKh moaO;sfha odhl;ajh
iakdhq moaO;sfha yd wka;rdi. moaO;sfha iudk;d yd fjkial
fidhd.;a Ih lreKq bm;a lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh lrka iqiq wkqms<sj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

iudfhdackfha wjYH;djh
iudfhdackhg odhl jk moaO;s
Ydl fuka fkdj i;=kag iudfhdackh i|yd tlsfklg inkaO kuq;a
fjkia moaO;s folla we;'
1 iakdhq moaO;sh
2 wka;rdi. moaO;sh
iudfhdackh i|yd rer ixirK moaO;sfha odhl;ajh
wka;rdi. moaO;sh m%Kd, rys; jk w;r tys Y%djhka rer m%jdyhg
ksoyia lrhs'
iakdhq moaO;sfha iy wka;rdi. moaO;sfhys fjkial yd iudkl
îudfhdackhg wod< j&
87

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'2 ( i;=kaf.a iakdhql ixOdk ie,eiau ms<sn| ia;drKh
lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
i;=kaf.a iakdhq ixOdk j. rgd ia;r lrhs'
wdlD;s" rEm igyka yd wfkl=;a wod< im;a Nd; lr i;=kaf.a iakdhql
ixOdkj, ,laIK j.= .; lrhs'

isiqkayg tal ffi,sl" nyq ffi,sl" wmDIaGjxYS yd mDIaGjxYS kaf.a rEm
igyka yd mska;+r fmkajkak'
ndysr ,laIK lSmhla ykd.ekSug isiqkayg mjid" ndysr ,laIKj,
O;ajh yd ta wkqj wNHka;r ,laIKj, wfmalaId l<yels fjkial yd
moaO;sj, ixOdkh ms<sn| j idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
my; Wmfoia isiqka i|yd h'
Tng ,e we;s ka i<ld n,kak'
wend" f,dhd
wlaud m;e,a,d" .ev,d
f.dfn,a,d" lerfmd;a;d
mies,a,d" ydjd
fuu kaf.a iakdhq ixOdkfha uQ,sl ,laIK i<ld n,kak'
we;s kaf.a iakdhql ixOdk rgd ikaikaokh lrkak'
Ih ikaOdrh bm;a lsulg isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh lrka" iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

i;=kaf.a iakdhql ixOdk j.
iamkaka yer ish nyqffi,sl i;=ka iakdhq ffi, iys; iakdhq cd,hla
Wmfhda.s lrf.k ndysr mirfha yd foayfha ;;a;ajh ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla
/ia lrhs' tu f;dr;=re ilia lr" ifudaOdk lr foayfha fmaYS yd .%kaj,g
ix{d ksl=;a lrhs'
88
tal ffi,sl - iakdhquh ixOdkhla ke;' W;af;acj,g m%;spdr oelaf

yelshdj we;' ffi,h m%;s.%dylhla yd ldrlhla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
nyq ffi,sl
ksvdhd - iakdhq ffi, likh' nyqO%eh kshqfrdak yd Wmd.u iys;
iakdhq cd,hla we;' uqyq u,aj, ikakhk m: we;' m%;s.%dyl likh'
ma,fy,akaf;ia - >k wkajdhdu iakdhq rcq" foayfha mQj fl<jr
uia;sIal .ex.a,shd hq.,hla fyda iakdhqj,hla ixOdkh fuka -
YSIKh" m%;s.%dyl likh - wlaIs ,m" ixfol ffi,
wek,svd - uia;I
s l
a .ex.a,h
s d" oa;aj Woh iakdhq rcqj" Woh .ex.a,h
s d"
iuyr i;=kaf.a fhdaO iakdhq ;ka;=" m%;s.%dyl Wod( weia yd ixfol
ffi,
wdf;%dfmdvd - wfk,svdjkag jvd likh jQ iakdhq moaO;shla we;'
uia;sIal .ex.a,shu we;' fydka likh jQ O j.fha m%;s.%dyl
we;' Wod( weia" iamYl" uDY
fudiald - fydka likh jQ iakdhq moaO;shla we;' .ex.a,shd iy
iakdhq ;ka;= we;' m%;s.%dyl wjhj we;' Wod( fydka likh jQ weia
tlhsfkdvfgd- wh iakdhq rcq yd iakdhq cd,h
fldafgd - ;ks" mDIah" kd,dldr iakdhq rcqj mQj m%foaYh fud<h
iEug Yd, we;' l%ufhka ixlSK;dj je we;' laISrmdhSkaf.a
by<;u ixlSK;dj we;'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
wdlD;s$ rEm igyka Nd;fhka i;=kaf.a iakdhq moaO;sj, rgd wOHhkh
lsru
S '
89

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'3 ( ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha o< jHqyh yd lD;H uid
n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh yd m%Odk fldgia meye,s lrhs'
uOH iakdhq moaO;sh ia;r lrhs'
mhka; iakdhq moaO;sh ia;r lrhs'
iajhxidOl iakdhq moaO;sh yd tys lD;H ia;r lrhs'
iakdhq moaO;sfha iuia; ldhh i|yka lrhs'
lsh jH" wka;cd, im;a (Web Resources) yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka
my; f;dr;=re fiug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
udkj iakdhq moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgiaj, jHqyh yd lD;H
udkj iakdhq moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgiaj, jHqyh yd lD;H bm;a lsulg
isiqka iQodk lrjkak'

ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh yd m%Odk fldgia
uOH iaakdhq moaO;sh
fud<h iqIqkdj
ksidf.a fud<h kshqfrdak ,shk .Kkdjlska hqla; jk w;r tys

lD;Huh jYfhka ixOdkh jQ m%foaY we;'
90
iqIqkdj hkq" fud<fha isg lfYarej ;=<ska ysfok iakdhq /yekls'

th mg, ;=klska jg we;'
iqIqkdj m%Odk l,dm follska hqla; jk nj meye,s l< hq;= hs'
iqIqkdj " foayh yd fud<h w;r by<g iy my<g mKsjqv ifma%IKh
jk m%Odk ud.hhs'
g wu;r j iqIqkdj m%;Sl ls%hd" fmaYSj, laIKsl wksPdkq. ls%hd
md,kh lrhs'
mhka; iakdhq moaO;sh
lmd, iakdhq iqIqkd iakdhq
mhka; iakdhq moaO;sh iuka; jkafka iakdhq yd .ex.a,shj,sks'

iakdhq hkq" ^fndfydag pd,l yd ixfol kshqfrdak foj.fhkau hq;=&
/yeka wdldr wlaik iuQyhls'
.ex.a,shd hkq" kshqfrdakj, ffi, foayj, tl;=jls'
lmd, iakdhq yd iqIqkd iakdhq ms<sn|j flfhka ia;r lsu'
iajhx idOl iakdhq moaO;sh
wksPdkq. ls%hd md,kh lrk mhka; iakdhq moaO;sfha fldgila
f,i iajhxidOl iakdhq moaO;sh ms<sn| j meye,s l< hq;= h'
rEm igykla wdOdrfhka iajhxidOl iakdhq moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgia
fol jk wkqf.S yd m%;Hdkqf.S moaO;sj, idudkH ixOdkh
meye,s l< hq;= h'
wkqf.S yd m%;Hdkqf.S iakdhq moaO;sj, m%;spdr ,ehsia;= .; lrkak'
idudkHfhka tla moaO;shlska we;sjk n,mEj,g m%;sreoaO n,mE
wksla moaO;sh u.ska we;sjk nj fmkajd h hq;= hs' tfuka u wkqf.S
iakdhq moaO;sh u.ska foayh yis wjia:djlg iQodk lrk nj
fmkajd h hq;= hs'
iajhx idOl iakdhq moaO;sfha iuia; ldhh ^wkqf.S yd m%;Hdkqf.S&
iudfhdackh yd iuia;sh i|yd j. lshkq ,nkafka iakdhq moaO;shhs'
91

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'4 ( iakdhq wdf. ckkhu yd ifma%IKh isjk
wdldrh .fIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh ia;r lrhs'
kshqfrdakj, jHqyh meye,s lrhs'
wdYs%; ffi, meye,s lrhs'
kshqfrdakj, ldhsl oHdj meye,s lrhs'
Wmd.uhla ia;r lrhs'
iakdhq ifma%Ilj, ldhNdrh ia;r lrhs'
m%;Sl pdmh meye,s lrhs'

isiqka kshqfrdak .ek okakd foa uika mdvfuys kshqla; lrjkak'
O uQ,dY% .fIKh lr" my; f;dr;=re fidhd bm;a lsug isiqkaj
fhduq lrjkak'
kshqfrdakj, jHqyh
wdYs%; ffi,
kshqfrdakj, ldhluh
m%;Sl pdmh
Wmd.u
iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

ksidf.a iakdhq moaO;sfha ixOdkh
kshqfrdakj, jHqyh
kshqfrdakh iakdhq moaO;sfha uQ,sl jHqyuh tallh f,i i,lkq ,nhs'
mDIaGjxYS pd,l kshqfrdakhl uQ,sl jHqyh" ffi, foayh" wlaik yd
wkqYdld ia;r lsu
wdYs%; ffi,
kshqfrd.a,shd
92
kshqfrd.a,shd u.ska kshqfrdakj,g jHqyuh yd lD;Huh f,i iydh f'

kshqfrdak ixLHdjg jvd kshqfrd.a,shd ixLHdj oi .=Khla muK
jeh'
Yajdka ffi,
uh,skSN+; wlaik
kshqfrdakj, ldhsl oHdj
Na+, K+ j, wlS%h irKh yd ilS%h mjykh wdY%fhka wlS%h Njh
mj;ajd .kakd wldrh meye,s lrkak'
wlS%h Njh
ffi,fha ma,diaud mg,h ^wlaik mg,h& fomi ckkh jk Nj
fjkihs' nysiaffi,Sh ;r,hg idfmalaIj ffi,fha we;=<; oHq;a
RK f,i wdfrdamKh we;' ma,diau mg,h oHq;a f,i O%ejkh
we;' mg,h fomi we;sjk fuu Nj fjki wlS%h Njh f,i ukskq
,nhs' ^wdf.hla ifma%IKh fkdjk g&
kshqfrdakhl wlS%h Njh - 70mV muK f'
wlS%h Njh idOl ;=kla u; r|d mj;S'
1 nys#affi,Sh ;r,hg idfmalaIj ffi,h ;=< we;s fYaIs; whkj,
idkak fjkial
2 Na+, K+ i|yd ma,diau mg,h olajk jrKSh mdr.uH;dj
3 Na+, K+ fmdmh
ls%hd Njh
ls%hd Njh isjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
ls%hd Njhl ld, iSudj ,s ;;amr folls
wj ;=kls - O%ejKh" m%;sO%ejKh" WmO%ejKh
wlaikfha ma,diau mg,fha we;s Na+, K+ kd, (Channels) wdY%fhka
O%ejKh ia;r lrkak'
foay,sh w.h f,i ykajk tla;rd wj w.hlg Njh <d jQ g
ls%hd Njhla ckkh f'
ls%hd Njh m%pdrKh
jrla wdrN jQ g" wlaikh f.a .uka lrk iajhx m%pdrK O%ejK
;rx.hla f,i ls%hd Njh .uka lrhs'
m%;sO%ejK l,dj
WmO%ejK l,dj
wdf.hla hkq" .uka lrk ls%hd Njhls'
93
wlaikh ;=<g Na+ we;= fuka we;sjk n,mEu u.ska ls%hd Njh
wlaikh Tiafia m%pdrKh f'
fuh Ok wdfrdamKhla we;s lrk w;r" Odrdj .e,Su i|yd ia:dkSh
mm:hla we;sjkafka fuu ls%hd m%foaYh yd jydu bfhka we;s RK
f,i wdfrdams; jQ wlS%h m%foaYhla w;rh'
ia:dkSh mm:j, Odrdj .e,Su u.ska wlS%h m%foaYj, mg, Njh wvq
lrhs' fuu O%ejKh u.ska Na+ j,g olajk mdr.uH;dj jelr ls%hd
Njhla ksmojkq ,nhs'
ls%hd Njhla we;s jQ jydu kej; ls%hd Njhla ckkh fkdf' fuu
ld, iSudj wkiaij ld,h f,i yekaf'
fuu.ska wdf. ikakhkh m%;Hdj; u j<lajkq ,nhs'
Wmd.u
iakdhqjla yd fmaYshla jeks WoamH ffi, folla w;r we;sjk lD;Huh
ikahla f,i Wmd.uh ia;r lrkak'
Wmd.u j.(
kshqfrdak - kshqfrdak
kshqfrdak - lxld, fmaYS
kshqfrdak - ixfo m%;s.%dyl
fndfyda Wmd.uj, mQj yd mYap Wmd.u ffi, w;r Wmd.u ysoei k
mgq ysoeila we;' Wmd.u ysoei yryd irKh jk ridhksl ifma%Il
u.ska mQj Wmd.u mg,fha isg mYap Wmd.u mg,hg ix{d ksl=;a lrhs'
iakdhq ifma%Il wdldr ;=k i|yka lrkak'
we%k,ska$ tmsfk*aka" fkdwerask,ska$ fkdtmsfk*aka iy weisghs,a
flda,Ska
weisghs,a flda,Skaj, ldhNdrh muKla i|yka lrkak'
pd,l kshqfrdakj,ska ksoyia jk ridhksl ifma%Ilh jkafka weisghs,a
flda,Skah' (Ach)
tajd Y%djh fuka miq bj;a h hq;= h' fuh is lrkq ,nkafka Wmd.u
ysoeig Y%djh jk weisghs,a flda,Ska tiagfia k tkaihsufhkah'
Wmd.uhla yryd wf. ifma%IKh
1' mQj Wmd.u mg,hg ls%hd Njh ifma%IKh u
2' Ca2+ ilS%h j we;=<g .e,Su ^Wmd.u n,anhg&
3' weisghs,a flda,Ska uqod yeu
94
4' mYap Wmd.u mg,hg weisghs,a flda,Ska irKh u

5' weisghs,a flda,Ska tys we;s m%;s.%dyl wKqj,g neu
6' mYap Wmd.u mg,h whkj,g we;s mdr.uH;dj fjkia f' mYap
Wmd.u mg,fha ls%hd Njh we;s f'
7' m%;s.%dyl - weisghs,a flda,Ska ixlSKh |jeu
8' weisghs,a flda,Ska + m%;s.%dylh weisghs,a flda,Ska - m%;s.%dyl
ixlSKh
weisghs,a flda,Ska tiagfia
weisghs,a + flda,Ska <

9' weisghs,a flda,Ska fjka u ksid" weisghs,a flda,Ska m%;s.%dyl ixlSKh
wdmiq m%;sls%hdj is lrhs'
iakdhq wdf. ifma%IK f.h my; i|yka idOl u; r|d mj;S'
wlaikfha IalNh - IalNh jejk g whk .e,Sug we;s
wNHka;r m%;sfrdaOh wvq f' tg ls%hd
Njfha m%f.h je f'
wlaikh uh,skSN+; u - uh,skSN+; wlaikj, ls%hd Njh ckkh
jkafka /kah .egj, muKla neka ls%hd Njh m%pdrKh f
f.h jeh'
m%;Sl pdmh
mDIaGjxYS iakdhq moaO;sfha lD;Huh tallh jkafka m%;Sl pdmhhs' m%;Sl
lsh
% djla ir, W;af;achlg we;sjk idfmalI a j laIKsl wksPdkq. m%;p
s dr
rgdjls' fuu m%;spdrh laIKsl" wfmalaIs; p,khls' fud<fha bPdkq.
uey;aula ke;' wdYajdih" m%dYajdih jeks Yrfha isjk fndfyda
ls%hd hdukh jkafka m%;Sl pdm u.sks'
m%;Sl pdmhla wju f,i kshqfrdak ;=klska iuka;hs'
wNsjdyS$ ixfol kshqfrdakh
wmjdyS$ pd,l kshqfrdakh
wka; kshqfrdakh
ixfol kshqfrdak u.ska m%;s.%dyl wjhj isg uOH iakdhq moaO;shg wdf.
ifma%IKh lr" Wmd.uh yryd wka; udOH kshqfrdakhg inkaO f'
pd,l kshqfrdak u.ska uOH iakdhq moaO;sfha isg fmaYS yd .%ka ^ldrl&
fj;g iakdhq wdf. ifma%IKh lrhs'
95

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'5 ( ksia fud<fha jHqyh yd lD;H .fIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ksia fud<fha m%Odk fldgia ia;r lrhs'
ksia fud<fha m%Odk fldgia tajdfha lD;H yd inkaO lrhs'

isiqka ksia fud<h .ek okakd lreKq uika mdvfuys kshqla; lrjkak'
udkj fud<fha m%Odk fldgia yd lD;H ms<sn| O uQ,dY%j,ska f;dr;=re
fidhd" iqiq rEm igyka iys;j bm;a lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'

ksia fud<h kshqfrdak ,shk .Kklska iuka; jk w;r" lD;Huh
jYfhka fldgiaj,g ixOdkh we;'
uia;sIalh" ;e,ui yd yhsfmd;e,ui l<, mQj fud<fhka likh
we;'
is foayh yd r;= kHIah l<, uOH fud<fhka likh we;'
wkquia;sIalh" jefrda,s fia;=j yd iqIqkd YSIlh l<, wmr fud<fhka
likh we;'
fukskamg,
uOH iakdhq moaO;sh fukska mg, k mg, ;=klska wdjrKh we;'
ndysr mg,h - ysia ln,g nekq oe jrdYsldj
we;= mg,h - iakdhq mglhg wdikakj we;s ;=kS kdxY=ldj
cd,dldr mg,h - by; ia:r fol w;r mj;S'
Wm cd,dldr wjldYh - uia;sIal iqIqkd ;r,fhka ms we;s w;r rer
jdyskS yd inkaOl mgl /yekaj,ska fjka we;'
uia;sIal fldaIsld iy uia;sIal iqIqkd ;r,h
fud<h ;=< uia;I s l
a fldaIl
s d kka yekafjk m%idrKh jQ l=yr y;rls'
fuu l=yr ms we;s ;r,h uia;sIal iqIqkd ;r,hhs'
fuu ;r,fhaa je m%udKhla iqIqkd uOH kd,h yd uia;sIal fldaIsld
;=< we;'
uia;sIal jDka;h
jefrda,s fia;=j
wkquia;I s l
a hg bfhka" uOH fud<hg my<ska iqIq kd YSIlhg by<ska
msysghs'
96
>k kshqfrdak ialkaOhla yd ;ka;=j,ska iuka; fuh wkquia;sIalfha

wOf.da, inkaO lrk md,ula idohs'
lD;H (-
by<g yd my,g .uka lrk f;dr;=re ifudaOdkh lrhs'
fmkye,s jd;kh hdukh lsu
iqIqkd YSIlh
fud<fha b;du jeo.;au fldgils' tys Yajik uOHia:dkh yd yD;ajdyskS
md,k uOHia:dkh msysghs'
lD;H (-
yD;a iamkaok f.h yd iamkaok n,h hdukh lrhs'
rer mSvkh md,kh lrhs'
yD;a iamkaokh yd Yajik f.h flfrys n,mEula we;s lrhs'
lsiq hdu" leiai" .s,Su yd jukh wd wksPdkq. m%;Sl md,kh
lrhs'
ueo fud<h
by<skA msys uia;sIalh;a my<ska msys jefrda,s fia;=j;a w;r msysghs'
iakdhq ffi, ldKav yd iakdhq ;ka;=j,ska iuka;hs' uia;sIalh" fud<fha
my< fldgia yd iqIqkdj tu.ska inkaO lrhs'
lD;H (-
wlaIs fmaYsj, m%;Sl ls%hd md,kh lrhs'
oDYH yd Y%jK W;af;acj,g m%;p s dr jYfhka ysi" f., yd lf|ys we;sjk
m%;Sl
lKsksldf m%udKh" wlaIs ldpfha m%udKh yd yevh fjkia lsu
wkquia;sIalh
jefrda,s fia;=jg msgqmiska uia;sIalfha wmr fldgig jydu my<ska
msysghs'
wO f.da, follska iuka;hs'
w;sYhska ixj,s;hs'
u;=msg OQir jH yd .eUqka Yaf; jH we;'
lD;H (-
bPdkq. fmaYSj, iudfhdackh" bhj yd ;=,H;dj
uia;sIalh
m%Odk fldgia folls - ndyslh yd ucdj
uia;sIalfha o< jHqyh
LKald y;rlska iuka;hs - ,,dg" mdYaj" YxLl" wmr lmd,
u;=mg s iakdhq ffi, foay jk OQir jH o .eUqka iakdhq ffi, ;ka;j= ,ska
iuka; Yaf; jH o we;'
uia;sIal ndyslh ixj,s; yd mLdj,ska hq;= h' ^mDIaGh je lsug&
uia;sIal ndyslh m%foaY ;=klska iuka;hs'
ixfol" pd,l yd ix.d m%foaY
97
lD;H (-
udkisl ls%hd jk u;lh" nqoah" j.lSu" fya;= oelau" is;Su" iodpdr
ye`.u
S " bf.kSu wdh md,kh lrhs'
ixfol m%;s.%yKh - fokdj" iamYh" WIaK;ajh" oDIah" Y%jKh"
ri" .kaOh
bPdkq. fmaYS p,k wdrNh iy md,kh
ix.d m%foaY u.ska ixfol f;dr;=re ykdf.k .%y lrhs'
;e,ui
iakdhq ffi, yd ;ka;= ialkaO follska iuka;hs' uia;sIal wO f.da,
;=< lef,dai foayhg(Corpus Callosum) jydu my<ska ;=kajk fldaIsldf
fomi msysghs'
ixfol f;dr;=re ifudaOdkh lr fud<fha Wiia uOHia:dk fj;
hjhs'
yhsfmd;e,ui
iakdhq ffi, ldKav lSmhlska hq;= h' ;e,uig my<ska yd bosfhka
mshqghg jydu by<ska we;'
fydafudak Y%djh" iajhx idOl iakdhq moaO;sfha md,kh ^l=i.skak"
msmdih" WIaK;aj hdukh" yDoh yd rerjdyskS" wdrlaIK hka;%K&
98

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'6 ( kaf.a O ixfoS jHqyj, ls%hdld;ajh .fIKh

lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
udkj ixf jHqy meye,s lrhs'
udkj ixfoS jHqyj, uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl m%ldY lrhs'
ixfoS wjhj j. ia;r lrhs'
i;=ka f.a f;dard.;a ixfoS jHqy ms<sn| ia;drKh lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdj,sh (

udkj ixf jHqy$ i;a;ajhskaf.a m%;s.%dyl ms<sn| mska;+r yd fhda
oYk fmkajd tajdfha jeo.;alu biau;= lrkak'
YsIHhka my; i|yka wdldrhg fyda fjk;a W; wdldrhlg lKavdhj,g
fnokak'
ridhksl m%;s.%dyl
WIaK;aj m%;s.%dyl
wdf,dal m%;s.%dyl
ialkaO m%;s.%dyl
mSvk m%;s.%dyl
lmk m%;s.%dyl
fokd m%;s.%dyl
wlaIs ,m" ir, wlaIs" ixhqla; wlaIs
rEm igyka" wdlD;s fyda wod< m%Nj ûqs; fyda bf,lafg%dksl& Nd; lr
i;=kaf.a f;dard.;a ixfol jHqyhka wOHhkhg i,ikak'
my; i|yka lreKq biau;= jk fia Tjqka bm;a lsj,g fhduq lrkak'
lD;H
msysu
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh
lrkak'

ksidf.a ixfol jHqy ^m%;s.%dyl&
wNHka;r fyda ndysr mirj,ska ,efnk f;dr;=re u; kaf.a lsh
% dld;ajh
r|d mj;sk nj meye,s lrkak' fhl=f.a ls%hdld Ndjfha fyda yeisf
fjkiaula i|yd fya;=jk tjeks f;dr;=rla W;af;achla k fjhs'
99
W;af;achla m%;s.%ykh lr .ekSug fya;=jk Yrfha we;s fYaIs;

wjhjhla m%;s.%dylhla k fjhs' iuyr g ffi, fyda iakdhq w.%
m%;s.%dyl f,i ls%hd lrhs'
m%;s.%dylj, my; i|yka ,laIK we;s nj oelah hq;= h'
1' fYaIs; W;af;achla m%;s.%yKh lsu i|yd tajdfha jHqyhka ksudKh
we;'
Wod( wd>%dK" wdf,dal" WIaK;aj
2' tajd tla wdldrhl Yla;s m%fNaohla iakdhq wdf.hla njg mKdukh
lrk jHqyhka fjhs'
3' fYaI wdldrj, ffi,j,ska hqla; fjhs'
Wod( wd>%dK$ri
4' ieug u iakdhq moaO;sh iu. inkaOh
5' ixf m%;s.%dyl ffi,j,ska hq;= h' W;af;achl wju foay,sh w.hl
m%;spdr olajhs'
6' wkqj;kh
O wdldrj, W;af;ac m%;s.%yKh i|yd O wdldrj, m%;s.%dyl we;'
ridhksl m%;s.%dyl
ridhksl jH ksid we;sjk W;af;ac m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
Wod( wd>%dKh yd ri
ieugu jH c,fha djKh ixfol ffi, W;af;ackh lrhs'
ri m%;s.%dyl
rEm igykl wdOdrfhka ri wxl=rhl jHqyh ia;r lrkak' y;r
j.hl ri m%;s.%yKh lsug fya;=jk jHqyhka fjys jHdma; we;s
wdldrh fmkajd fokak' ri we;s lsu i|yd fya;=jk jH ixfol
ffi,j, laIq wx.=,sld wjg mj;sk Yaf,aIau,fha h ixfol ffi,
lrd irKh fjhs'
wd>%%dK m%;s.%dyl
wd>%dK ixfokh we;s jkafka jd;h u.ska jHdma; lrk jHhka u.ska
jk w;r tajd wd>%dK wmsfofha we;s Yaf,aIu
a ,fha h wd>%dK ixfol
ffi, W;af;ackh lrhs'
;dm m%;s.%dyl
WIaK;ajh u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
ksidf.a r*sks foaydKq by< WIaK;aj u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
l%jqia wka; n,an my;a WIaK;ajj,g ixf h'
f foj.hu pufhaa msysgd we;'
yf msysgd we;s ksoyia iakdhq wka; o WIaK;aj fjkiaj,g ixfh'
m%ldY m%;s.%dyl
wdf,daalh u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
wefiys m%ldY m%;s.%dyl ffi, oDIa;dkfha idkakh we;'
wefia we;s m%ldY m%;s.%dyl ffi, jkafka hIa yd fla;= ffi, h'
fla;=
hIa
100
ialkaO m%;s.%dyl
foayfha isjk ia:dmkhka" Yo" wd;;s yd iamYhka ys mSvkj,g
ixfh'
ksidf.a iq mSvkj,g" ixf iamY m%;s.%dyl ffi," yf mDIaGhg
b;d wdikakj msysgk w;r" tys l=vd" ksoyia iakdhq w.% o we;'
fjd wmspufha fyda frdauj,g inkaO j mj;shs'
Wod( uhsiak foaydKq ( iamYhg ixfh' ul,a u~,
mSvk yd m%idr m%;s.%dyl
meisks foaydKq pufha msysghs' ika" Lkavrd" fmaYs yd w;=kqnykaj,
o we;'
lmk m%;s.%dyl
iamY m%;s.%dyl fndfydauhla lmk m%;s.%dyl f,i o ls%hd lrhs'
fokd m%;s.%dyl
iu u;=msgg wdikakj we;s fYaI iakdhq w.% j.hls'
laISrmdhskaf.a lKYxLh ms<sn| j flfhka idlPd lrkak'
fjk;a i;=kaf.a yuqjk m%;s.%dyl j.
tal ffi,Sh i;=ka o wdf,dalhg ixf kuq;a m%ldY m%;s.%dyl uq,skau
likh jQ i;a;ajhka is,kagfgdjka nj oelah hq;= h'
^ksoiqka( f,dhkaf.a wlaIs,m&
my; i|yka lreKq idlPdf wjOdrKh h hq;= h' "wlaIs ,m" hkqfjka
ykajk wdf,dal ixf ffi, ksoe,sjdiS me;,s mKqjkaf.a we;'
fjd m%;sn fkdidohs'
wfk,svdjkag yd fudialdjkag ir, weia we;'
wdf;%dfmdvdjkag ixhqla; weia we;' tajd Tuehd ^wCIsld& hk kka
ykajk tall lSmhlska iE we;' ^ksoiqka( lareiagdfihd" bkafilagd&
maf,dfmdvdjka" lsf,dfmdvdjka yd wrlaksvdjka ir, weia iys; h'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
rEmigyka $ wdlD;s $ pd igyka Nd;fhka i;=kaf.a f;dard.;a ixf
jHQy wOHhkh lsu'
101

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'7 ( ksia wefiys yd lfkys jHqy tajdfha lD;Hj,g olajk
bf.kq M, (
ksia wefia uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
ksia lfka uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'

ksia wei yd lk ms<sn| j oekqu w;a lru i|yd m%Yak lSmhla wikak'
mj;sk im;a Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; i|yka lreKq fiug fhduq lrkak'
ksia wefia uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;Hh
ksia lfka uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;Hh
ksia wefia$ lfka rEm igyka yd wdlD;s Nd; lrka tajdfha jHqy
wOHhkhg bv i,ikak' ^m%dfhda.sl ls%hdldrlula f,i is l< yel'&
Tjqka fidhd.;a lreKq mka;sh bfha bm;a lsu i|yd Wmfoia fokak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkql+, j ia;drKh
lrkak'

rEm igyka Wmfhda.S lrf.k ksia wefia o< jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s
lrkak'
ksia lfka o< jHqyh yd lD;H rEm igyka Wmfhda.S lrf.k meye,s
lrkak'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
pd igyka" rEmigyka yd wdlD;s Nd;fhka ksia wefiys yd lfkys
jHQy wOHhkh lsu'
102

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'8 ( ksidf.a wka;rdi. moaO;sfha ldhNdrh Yaf,aIKh
lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrl wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
ksidf.a wka;rdi. moaO;sfha msysu yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
m%;sfmdaIs hka;%K yd wka;rdi. moaO;shg tajdfha we;s wod<Ndjh meye,s

lrhs'

uqs; %jH yd bf,lafg%dksl m%Nj Nd; lr YsIHhskayg my; i|yka
wka;rdi. jHqy ms<sn| f;dr;=re fiug Wmfoia ,nd fokak' ^lKavdh
ls%hdldrlula W; h'&
yhsfmd;e,ui
mshqg .%kah
;hsfrdhs .%kah
merd ;hsfrdhs .%kah
;hsuia .%kah
wjDlal .%kah
,eka.yeka msld
m%ckfkakashka
wka;rdi. moaO;shg wod< j RK m%;sfmdaIS yd Ok m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kj,

f;dr;=re fiug bv i,id fokak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m W; wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh
lrkak'
103

udkj wka;rdi. moaO;sh
iqfYaIS j wka;rdi. f,i muKla ls%hd;aul jk ishu wjhjhka

wka;rdi. moaO;shg we;=<;a h'
my; i|yka .%kaj, jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrkak'
yhsfmd;e,ui" mshqgh" ;hsfrdhsvh" merd;hsfrdhsvh" ;hsuia .%kah"

wjDlal .%kah" ,eka.yeka msld yd m%ckfkakashka ^jDIK yd n
fldaI&
;j rg;a jeu
Ok m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh
idOlh jeu ksjer lsf hka;%Kh
RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh
ksh; ugu ksh; ugu
idOlh wvqu ksjer lsf hka;%Kh
Ok m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh
;j rg;a wvqu
104

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'9 ( foay wNHka;r mirh ksh;j mj;ajd .kakd wdldrh
uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
wNHka;r yd ndysr mirj,g wod< j iuia;sh meye,s lrhs'
foay WIaK;aj hdukh" rer .afldaia ugu hdukh yd wdi%e;s Odkh
u.ska ksidf.a iuia;sh hdukh lrk wdldrh meye,s lrhs'

iuia;sh i|yd wlaudf ldhNdrh meye,s lrhs'

iqiq WodyrK f.kyer mdka iuia;sfha m%fhdack biau;= lrkak'
iqiq im;a Nd; lr my; lreKq ms<sn| f;dr;=re fidhd bm;a lsug
bv i,ikak'
iuia;sh
wNHka;r yd ndysr mir
ksidf.a iuia;sh
foay WIaK;aj hdukh
rer .afldaia ugu hdukh
wdi%e;s Odkh
iuia;sfhys ,d wlaudf ldhNdrh
lrkak'
105

iuia;sh
foayh ;=< ksh; wNHka;r mirhla mj;ajd .ekSu f,i iuia;sh w:
oelah yel'
iuia;sh ;h mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd w;HdjYH fjhs' iuia;sh mj;ajd
.ekSu iu. mDIaGjxYS foayh ;=< ls%hd;aul jk fndfyda hduk ls%hdj,s ne

mj;S'
wNHka;r yd ndysr mir
ffi,j,g meje;au i|yd udOHh imhkakd jQ ffi,j,
wdikak;u mirh tajdfha wNHka;r mirh jkafka h'

i;a;aj yd Ydl foay wjg mirh tajdfha ndysr mirh f'
ksidf.a iuia;sh
wNHka;r mirh ksh;j mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd mDIaGjxYSka f.a foay ;=<
ls%hd;aul jk md,l moaO;shla RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh kka yeka f'

md,kh h hq;= idOl u.skau iuia;sfha ksjer lsf hka;%Kh
wdrN fjhs'
idOlfha ksh; RK m%;sfmdaIS hka;%Kh

ugu by< hdu
iuia;sl mrdih
^foayfha ksh; ugu&
idOlfha ksh;
ugu my< hdu
106
wNHka;r mirfha mj;sk md,kh h hq;= m%Odk idOl jkafka;

ridhksl idOlj, idkaKh
Wod( .afldaia" whk
c,h yd djHhka ys mej;sh hq;= idfmalaI m%udK
WIaK;ajh
foay WIaK;ajh hdukh
idudkH foay WIaK;ajh 36.90 C (98.4 F0)
foay WIaK;ajh hdukh lsfuys ,d RK m%;f
s mdaIS hka;K
% hla lsh
% d;aul
f'
WIaK;ajh wvqjk g we;sjk m%;spdr
ksoyia iakdhq wka; yd l%jqia n,an u.ska m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
Shunt Vessels
yf mhka; rer jdyskS ixfldapkh lrhs' w;sfl ;dmh ksmou"
mjD;a;sh ls%hdj, f.h je fjhs'
^;hsfrdlaik
s "a we%k,ska Y%djh jeu yd wlaudf ,sm
s v
s Tlail
s rKh
je fjhs'&
frdau Woa.dul fmaYs ixfldapkh fjhs" fj,Su isfjhs'
WIaK;ajh jejk g we;sjk m%;spdr
ksoyia iakdhq wka; yd r*sks foaydKq u.ska m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
frdau yu u; je;sr isu" yf mhka; rerjdyskS ia;drKh"
oyh oeu" mjD;a;sh ls%hdj, f.h wvq lsu ^;hsfrdlaiska"
we%k,ska Y%djh wvqjk w;r wlaudf ,smsv TlaislrK f.h wvq
fjhs'&
foayfha WIaK;aj p,k yhsfmd;e,ui u.ska ykd .ksh's u;=mg
s we;sjk
WIaK;aj fjkia if we;s m%;s.%dyl u.ska m%;s.%yKh lrhs'
ksidf.a foay WIaK;aj hdukfha bPdkq. odhl;ajhla o mj;shs'
Wod( WKqiqu oefkk g mjka ie,Su" iS;, oefkk g jl=gq u yd
WKqiq wej,ska foayh wdjrKh lr .ekSu'
rer .afldaia ugu hdukh
ksia rerfha idudkH .afldaia ugu 80-120 mg per 100 cm3 fjhs'
107
fuu w.hg jvd rer .afldaia ugu je jQ g;

1' CO2 yd H2O njg | jeu ^ffi,Sh iajikh&
2' .a,hsfldcka njg m;a isref ix; u
3' fo njg mj;kh foayfhaa fo ix;fha .nvd lsu
.afldaia hdukh i|yd laISrmdhS isref we;s iuia;sl ls%hdj,sh
wdi%e;s Odkh
ksidf.a rer ma,diaudf mudj;a" ma,diaudf yd mgl ;r,fha;a
djKh we;s jHj, idkaKh;a" mgl ;r,h;a ksh;j ;nd .ekSu
wdi%e;s Odkh u.ska is fjhs'
fuh uQ,sl l%u follska is fjhs'
1' c, m%udKh md,kh
2' foayhg ,nd .kakd jQ yd neyer lrkakd jQ ,jK m%udKh md,kh
klg mqoa.,hl= ,nd .kakd jQ yd msg lrkakd jQ ,jK yd c,h
m%udKh Yaf,aIKfha uQ;% ksIamdokh jeo.;a jk nj fy<s we;'
wdi%e;s Odkhg fya;= jk hka;%K jDlal ;=< ls%hd;aul ug ADH
fydafudakh Wmld f'
iuia;sh mj;ajd .ekSf ,d wlaudf ldhNdrh
wlaudf ldhNdrh iudf,dapkh lsf wNHka;r mirfha fN!;sl
iajNdjh yd ridhksl ixhq;sh hdukhg Yd, odhl;ajhla wlaudfjka is
jk nj fmkajd h hq;= h' my; i|yka lreKq fuys biau;= h hq;= fjhs'
1' .afldaia ugu hdukh
2' ,smsv wka;.;h hdukh
3' w;HjYH fkdjk weuhsfkda w, ixYaf,aIKh
4' I yrKh
5' foay WIaK;aj hdukh i|yd ;dmh ksIamdokh
6' ,sx.sl fydafudak | jeu yd bj;a lsu
7' ysfud.af,dka | jeu yd bj;a lsu
8' rerh ix; lsu
9' gka A, D, E, K ix; lsu
10' rer fm%daka ixYaf,aIKh
11' fldf,iafgfrd,a ixYaf,aIKh lsu
12 hQhd ksmou
108

lD;H uYkh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'1'10 ( ksia if uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H wkafIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ksia yf uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
ksia yf uQ,sl ia;r ia;r lrhs'

fj wv u.ska ,nd .kakd jQ f;dr;=re" m.Kl wdOdrfhka is lrk
bm;a ls (Powerpoint Presentations) u.ska fyd fjk;a m%Njj,ska ,nd
.kakd jQ W; f;dr;=re Nd; lrka my; oelafjk lreKq biau;= lrkak'
ksia yf uQ,sl ia;r
frdau
.%ka
m%;.
s d% yl
yf lD;H
lrkak'

my; i|yka lreKq we;=<;a jk m ksia yf jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s
l< hq;= h'
udkj if uQ,sl ia:r
wmspuh yd puh k jQ fldgia follg fnh yels nj
ue,ams.Sh ia;rh we;= ia;r lSmhlska wmspuh iE we;s nj
pufha iS;, m%;.
s d% yl" WIaK;aj m%;.
s d% yl" iafkay Y%d .%k
a " frdau Woa.dul
fmaYS" wOYaph foh" iafo .%ka" rer jdyskS yd iakdhq w.% msysgk nj
109
yf lD;H
1' ixfol wjhjhla f,i
2' foay WIaK;ajh mj;ajd .ekSu
3' iafkayY%d .%k
a Y%dj u.ska yu u;=mg
s yd frdau c, frdaOlj yd iqkuHhj
mj;ajd .kshs' nelahdj,ska wdrlaId lrhs'
4' iafo .%ka WIaK;aj hdukhg yd nysiai%djhg Wmld f'
5' c,kfhka yd UV lsrKj,ska wdrlaId lsu
6' nysiai%djh
oyh f,i iafo .%kaj,ska yu u;g Y%djh jk ;r,h w;sfl c,h yd
,jK orhs'
oyh oeu u.ska foayhg wkjYH jH bj;a jk ksid yu nysiai%dh
jHqyhla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
110
tallh 8 - nysiai%djh
ksmqK;dj 8'1'0 ( ksfrda.S os meje;aula Wfoid nysiai%d moaO;sfha odhl;ajh

Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 8'1'1 ( kaf.a mjD;a;Sh yd nysiai%d jH w;r inkaO;d

f.dv k.hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (
nysiai%djh iy tys jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
nysiai%d jH yd mjD;a;Sh w;r inkaO;djh ia;r lrhs'
khsg%ckSh nysiai%djfha wka;M, meye,s lrhs'
by; wka;M, nysiai%djh lsf jdis iy wjdis ixikaokh lrhs'
wka;M, iy j;ajk mirh w;r inkaO;djh ia;r lrhs'
nysiai%djfha fjk;a wka;M, i|yka lrhs'
CO 2
ms;a jKl

my; oelafjk nysiai%d M, ms<sn| j f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiq lKavdh
fhduq lrjkak'
NH3 " hqhd
hQla w," l%shkhska
CO2" ms;a jKl
my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrka bm;a lsula i|yd isik
q a fhduq lrjkak'
by; wka;M, nysiai%djh lsf jdis yd wjdis
wka;M, yd j;ajk mirh w;r in|;dj
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh
lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (

isrefrka mjD;a;Sh wmjH bj;a lsf l%shdj,sh nysiai%djhhs' CO2, H2O, NH3
isref ksmofjk nysiai%d jH jk w;r rKh fkdjQ wdydr" wdydr
ud.fhka bj;a lsf l%shdj,sh jk u, my lsu nysiai%djh f,i fkdie,fla'
111
fuu wka;M, bj;a fkdl<fyd;a tajd isrerg I iys; f'

fm%daka yd kHIa w, mjD;a;sh u`.ska n, Niauhla jk wefudakshd yd .afldaia
u.ska n, w,hla jk CO2 o wka;M, f,i ,ef' tuksid w, Niau wkqmd;h
fjkia f'
w, Niau wkqmd;h fjkia u ksid fm%daka wiajdNdlrKh isf'
nysiai%d M, bj;a lsu Yrfha iuia;sh mj;ajd .ekSug odhl f'
ish i;=kaf.a khsg%ckSh nysiai%djfha m%:u M,h NH3 f'
nysiai%d jH iy mjD;a;Sh w;r we;s inkaO;djh
ldfndyhsf%g
iajdhq Yajikfha CO2 iy H2O ksmof'
ksjdhq Yajikfha ,elala w,h ksmof'
foh
iajdhq Yajikfha CO2 iy H2O ksmof'
fm%daka
w;sla; weuhsfkda w, weuhskayrKfha NH3 ksmof'
wlaudf ks;hska pl%h yryd hQhd ksmof'
kshqlaf,hsla w,
kshqlaf,hsla w, mjD;a;sfha NH3 ksmof'
khsg%ckSh nysiai%djfha wka;M,

NH3
hQla w,h
hQhd
l%shkhska
by; wka;M,j, jHqy Nd;fhka my; lreKq wjOdrKh lrkak'
by; wka;M, nysiai%djh lsf jdis iy wjdis
wefudakshd
iakdhq moaO;shg w;sYhska Iodhlhs'
irKh u.ska foay mDIaGfhka bj;a l< yel
jdis
Yrfhka ldnka ydksula is fkdf' ^jHqyh Nd;fhka
meye,s lrkak&
kHIa w, yd wefudakshd w,j, m%:u w;=re M,h wefudakshd ksid
ixYaaf,aIKh i|yd Yla;sh wjYH fkdf
wjdis
c,fha w;sYhska djHhhs tneka NH3 nysiai%djh i|yd jemqr c,h wjYH
f'
Wod ( c,c wmDIaGjxYSka" mDIaGjxYSkaf.a c,c lSg wj" h u;aiHhka
112
hQhd
wefudakshdj,g idfmalaIj c,fha djH;djh wvqh'
Inka wvqhs
jdis
wefudakshdj,g idfmalaIj I iys; Ndjh wvq ksid ;ekam;a
lr ;nd .; yelsh'
nysiai%djh i|yd wvq c, m%udKhla iEfyk neka c,
ixrlaIKh is f'
wjdis
ldnka je m%udKhla ydks f' ^jHqyh Nd;fhka meye,s lrkak'&
hqhd wlaudfjys ixYaf,aIKh l< hq;= neka Yla;sh wjYH f'
Wod ( iqyqUq,a we*shdjka yd laIsrmdhska
hQla w,h
djH;dfjka wvqh
jdis
wefudakshd yd hqhdj,g idfmalaIj I nka wvqhs'
foayh ;=, .nvd lr ;nd .; yel'
nysiai%djh i|yd c,h wjYH ke;' tneka c, ixrlaIKh by<h'
wjdis
ldnka ydksh by<h
Wod ( lDka" mlaISka" Wr.hska
l%shkhska
l%shka | fy,Sfuka iEfok M,hls' l%shka fmaYsj, jeo.;a fldgils'
ls%hkhska Yrfhka neyer lsu imQKfhkau jl=.vqj,ska isf'
nysiai%djfha fjk;a wka;M,

CO 2 - Yajik wjhj fyda fmkye,s u.ska neyer lrhs'
ms;a jKl - wlaudf ixYaf,aIKh jDlal yd wdydr ud.fhka
neyer lrhs'
113
ksmqK;dj 8'1'0 ( ksfrda.S meje;aula Wfoid nysiai%d moaO;sfha

odhl;ajh Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 8'1'2 ( kaf.a nysiai%d jHqyj, O;ajh uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
i;=kaf.a O nysiai%d jHqy ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
rEm igyka wdOdrfhka i;=kaf.a O nysiai%d jHqy ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh (

wka;cd,h" .%ka: jeks O im;a wdY%fhka my; oelafjk nysiai%d jHqy
inkaOj f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
fidhd .;a f;dr;=re wkqj nysiai%d jHqyj, O;ajh wOHhkh i|yd isiqka
fhduq lrjkak'
foaydjrKh
ixfldapl la;l
is`M ffi,
jDlalsld
ue,ams.Sh kd,sld
y; .%ka
iafo .%ka
,jK .%ka
isiqka bm;a lsula i|yd iQodk lrjkak'

Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqm<
s f
s j,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'

foay ;=, isjk ridhksl m%;sl%shd ksid ksmofjk wmjH fndfyda g
foayhg I neka tajd foayfhka flfia fyda neyer l< hq;=h' mjD;a;Sh
wmjH foayfhka neyer lsu nysiai%djh kka yekaf' nysiai%djh isjk
jHqy nysiai%d mDIaG k f'
114
nysiai%d jHQy îQlaIau jHQyh wjYH ke;'&
foay mDIaGh
idfmalaIj ir, jHqyhla ork kaf.a foayj, we;s ffi," mirh iu`.
iDcq inkaO;djhla mj;S' f ksid Tjqkaf.a nysiai%d jH irKh u.ska
jydu foayfhka bj;a f'
ixfldapl la;l
Amoeba, Paramecium iy fjk;a tal ffi,sl fm%daiagdjkag ixfldapl
la;l k jQ l=vd mg,uh u ffi, ma,diaufha we; fuh bkashsldjls'
is`M ffi,
tal ffi,Sh nysiai%d jHqyhls' me;,s mkqjkaf.a we;'^ Platyhelminthes &
jDlalsld
.evkag foayfhka msg;g iy foayh ;=,g jD; jk jDlalsld k jQ
kd,sld moaO;shla we;' fuh nyq ffi,Sh kd,dldr jHqyhls' rer ixirK
moaO;sh yd inkaO we;' kso( wefk,svdjka - .ev,a mkqjka
ue,amS.Sh kd,sld
lDkaf.a ^ Wod ( lerfmd;a;d & nysiai%d wjhj jkafka ue,amS.Sh kd,sldh'
y; .%ka $ iamYl .%ka

biaika ^ Crustacea jka& f.a yuq f' wkakfi%da;hg bfhka" ysig Wohj
Yd, y; .%ka hq.,la msysghs' foay ;r, iy foayfhka wmjH bj;a lsug
odhl f'
iafo .%ka
ksidf.a iu mqrdu yuqf' pufha msysgk weUreKq kd,dldr .%ka iuQyhla
jk fjd iafo kd,hlg inkaO isrlska foay mDIaGhg jD; f'
,jK .%ka
lrosh mlaISka uqyq c,h mdkh lr" ,jK .%ka u`.ska ,jK nysiai%djh lrhs'
,jK .%ka hq.,la lrh mlaISka yd lrh Wr.hkaf.a weia wdikakfhaa
msysghs'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
pd igyka yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka i;=kaf.a m%Odk nysiai%d jHQy
wOHhkh lsu'
115
ksmqK;dj 8'1'0 ( ksfrda.S meje;aula Wfoid nysiai%d moaO;sfha

odhl;ajh Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 8'1'3 ( ksia nysii

a d% moaO;sfha o< jHqyh yd l%h
s dld;ajh ms<n
s |
uYkh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
ksidf.a uQ;%jdyskS moaO;sfha jHqyh iy lD;Hh ia;r lrhs'
ksidf.a uQ;%jdyskS moaO;sfha fldgia ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
ksia jDlalj, msysu" jHqyh iy rer iemhqu i|yka lrhs'
jDlalfha fldgia rEm igykl fmkajhs'
jDlaldKqj jDlalfha jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i meyeos,s lrhs'
uQ;% iEf l%shdj,sh ia;r lrhs'
wdi%e;s Odkh" rer pH hdukh" tf;%dfmdhska yd kska Y%djh" rer
mudj yd rer mSvkh mj;ajd .ekSu idlPd lrhs'
jDlalj, l%shdld;ajh flfrys fydfudakj, n,mEu ia;r lrhs'
ksia nysiai%d moaO;sh wdY%s; iq,n wdndO i|yka lrhs'
wdndO je<elau i|yd .; hq;= l%shdud. ia;r lrhs'
frda. ykd .ekSf ^ksYapfha & uQ;%dj, ldhNdrh meye,s lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl(

ixrlaIs; ksoYk" ilrKh wdh Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; lreKq biau;=
lr fmkajkak'
ksia nysiai%d moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgia
ksia nysiai%d moaO;sfha jHqy-lD;H inkaO;dj
jDlaldKqj jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i
uQ;% iEf l%shdj,sh
fydfudak u.ska md,kh
m%Odk iuia;sl wjhjh jDlalh nj
my; lreKq inkaOfhka f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'

jDlal wYauh ^.,a& yd uQ;%dY .,a
wdndO je<elau i|yd .; hq;= l%shdud.
uQ;% mlaId wdY%fhka f,v frda. ykd .ekSu
isiqka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m fhda.H wkqm<
s f
s j,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
116

ksia uQ;% moaO;sfha m%Odk fldgia
jDlal hq.,
uQ;% jdyskS hq.,
uQ;d% Yh
uQ;% ud.h
jDlalj, ksmofjk uQ;%" neyer lsu i|yd uQ;% jdyskS Tiafia uQ;%dYhg hjkq
,nhs' uQ;%dYfha uQ;% ;djld,slj .nvd f' uQ;% ud.h" uQ;%dYfha isg msg;g
ysfok kd,hls'
jDlal
jDlalj, msysu
Wor l=yrh ;=<" uyd m%drhg my<ska" lfYarej fomi" Wria yd l
lfYareld w;r ugf" m%;sWorPhj ^WorPohg msg;ska&" foayfha
wmr ;a;shg wdikakj msysghs"
j jDlalh" ol=Kq jDlalhg uola by<ska msysghs'
rer iemhqu
jDlalj,g rerh iemfhkqfha uyd Ouksfha isg jDlalSh Ouks yryd jk
w;r jDlalfha isg wOr uyd Ysrdjg jDlalSh Ysrd u.ska rerh f.k hhs'
jDlalfha o< jHqyh

jDlal fndax c yeve;s h'
jDlal m%djrfhka wdjrKh we;'
jDlalfha wNHka;rh m%Odk fldgia follska iuka; f'
ndysrj jDlal ndyslh yd Bg we;=,;ska jDlal uPdjhs'
.=ld wvx.= ksid jDlal ndyslh lkslduh iajrEmhla .kshs'
jDlal ucdj" jDlalSh msrvj,ska iuka; jk w;r f jDlalSh msrv
,s; iajNdjhla .kshs'
jDlalSh msrvj, w.% fY%daKsh foig Ydk; we;' jDlal fY%daKsfhka uQ;%
jdyskS wdrN f'
jDlalSh msrv w;r ndysl mglj,ska iEkq jDlal ia:N msysghs'
jDlal fY%daKsh yryd jDlalSh Ouks iy Ysrd .uka lrhs'
jHqyuh yd lD;Huh tallh f,i jDlaldKqj

jDlaldKqjl jHqyh - wkalaISh jHqyh
tla jDlalhla ;=< wkalaIsh jHqy jk jDlaldKq ,shkhla muK we;'
117
jDlaldKqjl fldgia ;
fndauka m%djrh
wr ixj,s; kd,sldj
fykaf,a mqvqf wjfrdayK ndyqj
fykaf,a mqvqf wdfrdayK ndyqj
r ixj,s; kd,sldj
jDlaldKq j. folls'
ndysl jDlaldKq
claIaG ucd jDlaldKq
jDlalh ;=< fjd msysgk ia:dk fjkia f' ndysl jDlaldKq msysgkafka
jDlal ndyslfha mhka; m%foaYfha muKs' tajdfha fykaf,a mqvq flh'
claIaG ucd jDlaldKq we;af;a jDlal ucdj ^ndyslh yd ucdj fjka jk

ia:dkh& wdikakfha h' tajdfha fykaf,a mqvq b;d .= jk w;r ucdf
.eUqrg ys we;'
jDlaldKq .Kkdjla tla ix.%dyl m%kd,hlg jD; f'
.=ldj yd fndauka m%djrh tlaj ue,amS.Sh foaydKqj kka yekaf'
jDlalj,g rerh iemfhkafka jDlalSh Ouksfhks' jDlaldKqjl .=ldjg

we;=ug fmr bka YdLd f,i yg.kakd Ouks o wNsjdyS Ouksld o Tiafia
.=ldjg rerh we;= f' ^wNsjdys - foig" wmjdyS - bj;g&
fndauka m%djrh fldamm

a yeve;sh' .=ldj kka yekafjk rer flaYkd,sld
cd,hla fndauka m%djrh ;=< msysghs'
.=ldf fmug Ndckh jQ rerh wmjdyS Ouksldj Tiafia;a jDlaldkqf

kd,sld wdY%;
s j we;s flaYkd,sld cd,hla Tiafia;a .uka .kS' fuu flaYkd,sld
cd,h mkd,dldr flaYkd,sld f,i yekaf' fuu flaYkd,sld" wr yd
r ixj,s; kd,sld yd fykaf,a mqvqj jglr msysghs'
mkd,dldr flaYkd,sldj, we;s flaYkd,sld " ucdf we;s ix.%dyl m%kd,h

yd fykaf,a mqvqj,g iudka;rj .uka lrhs' fuu flaYkd,sld cd,h u.ska
rerh kej; idudkH ixirKhg hjkq ,nhs' fuys foayhg wjYH jH we;'
118
uQ;% iEu
uQ;% iEf jDlaldKq ;=< l%shdj,s ;=kla isf'
1' w;smY%djkh
2' jrKSh m%;sfYdaIKh
3' i%djh
w;smY%jkh
fndauka m%djrfha l=yrh ;=,g wl mSvkhla hgf;a rerh fmu isf'
fmu isjkafka .=l flaYkd,sld ;a;s iy fndauka m%djrfha we;=,; ;a;s
yryd h'
fufia fm hk ;r,fha c,h" .afldaia" weuhsfkda w," hQhd" gk"
T!IO O whk yd fydafudk wdh wvx.= f'
ma,diau fm%dak yd rer ffi, fufia fmug ,la fkd f'
jrKSSh m%;sfYdaIKh
.=l fmrKfha we;s iuyr jH jDlaldKqf kd,sld jgd we;s rer
flaYkd,sld cd,hg m%;sfYdaIkh f'
wr ixj,s; kd,sldj
c,h 80] muK wdi%e;sh u.ska wksjdhfhkau m%;sfYdaIKh f' f i|yd
Yrfha we;s c, m%udKfha lsis n,mEula ke;'
Na+ " .afldaia" weuhsfkda w, il%shj m%;sfYdaIKh f'
Cl-" HCO-3" hQhd iy K+ wl%shj m%;sfYdaIKh f'
fykaf,a mqvqf wjfrdayK ndyqj
c,h wl%shj wdi%e;sh u`.ska
Na+ il%shj
fykaf,a mqvqf wdfrdayK ndyqj
Na+ il%shj
Cl- wl%shj o m%;sfYdaIKh f'
r ixj,s; kd,sldj
ADH we;s g c,h m%;sfYdaIKh f'
Na+ il%shj o
HCO3- iy Cl - - wls%hj
ix.%dyl m%kd,h
ADH we;s g c,h wl%shj (4.5%) m%;sfYdaIKh f'
H+ whk i%djh
ADH we;sg WmrswNsidrsl uQ;% idohs'
i%djh
jDlaldkqf rer flaYkd,sldj, we;s iuyr jH jDlaldkqf kd,sld ;=<g
i%djh f' H+, K+, NH4+, l%shkSka" T!IO" gka B
jDlal l%shdld;ajh flfrys fydafudakj, n,mEu
ADH - jDlaldkqf r ixj,s; kd,sld iy ix.%dyl m%Kd, u;
n,mdhs' rerfha c, m%;sY;h wvq jQ g ADH i%djh je
rerhg c,h m%;sfYdaIKh by< hhs'
119
we,afvdiagfrdaka - fidah yd c,h m%;sfYdaIKh je lrhs'

rerfha ,jK idkaKh ^wdi%e;s mSvkh & wvq jQ g we,afvdiagfrdaka i%djh
u jef'
Na+ nysia ffi,Sh ;r,fha we;s jeo.;a jHhls' idudkH rer mudj iy
rer mSvkh mj;ajd .ekSug fjd wjYH f'
jDlal u.ska ,jK yd c,h wjfYdaIKh W;af;ackh lsu ksid"
we,afvdiagfrdaka u.ska idudkH rer mudj iy rer mSvkh mj;ajd .kS'
jDlalfha fjk;a lD;H ^jDlal m%Odk iuia;sl wjhjh jYfhka &

wdi%e;s Odkh
rerfha ksh; wdi%e;s mSvkhla mj;ajd .ekSu
' rer pH w.h hdukh
fydfudak i%djh
tf;%dfmdhska - r;= rer ffi, ksmou je lrhs'
rer mSvkh yd rer mudj mj;ajd .ekSu'
ksidf.a uQ;%jdyskS moaO;sh wdY%s; wdndO

uQ;%dY .,a iy jDlal .,a
uQ;%j, we;s ,jK wjlafIam iEfoa' m%Odk jkafka le,aish Tlaif,a
iys; .,a jk w;r hqla w,h wjlafIam iEfok .,a o we;'
fya;= h yels idOl
uQ;%.,a iys; f mjq,a b;sydih
fm%daka wl wdydr .ekSu
c,h m%udKj;a ;r mdkh fkdlsu
jhi wjq 20 - 50 w;r by; ;;a;aj nyq, h'
j<lajd .ekSug .; yels l%shd ud.
jemqr c,h mdkh lsu
frda. ksYapfha uq;%j, ldh Ndrh
UFR - Urine Full Report
Urine Culture Report
120
tallh 9 ikaOdrKh yd p,kh
ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieleiS we;s moaO;s yd p,k

l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'1 ( i;=kaf.a iels,s moaO;sj, jHqyh yd lD;H uid n,hs'
bf.kq M, (
i;=kaf.a yuqjk m%Odk iels,s j. m%ldY lrhs'
jia;sl iels,af,a ixOdkh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
nys# iels,af,a ixOdkh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
wNHka;r iels,af,a ixOdkh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
ksidf.a wia yd ldf,acj, wkalaISh jHqyh meye,s lrhs'
iels,s moaO;sfha lD;H ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sh (

fok ,o iels,s j. yd wod< WodyrK wjOdrKh lrka idlPdjlg fhduq
lsu'
iels,s moaO;sh yd wod< my; i|yka lD;H ms<sn|j nqoa l,nk ieishlg
isiqka fhduq lsu'
ikaOdrKh
wdrlaIdj
p,kh
le,aish .nvd lSu yd ksoyia lsu
fmdiafma .nvd lsu yd ksoyia lsu
rer ffi, ksIamdokh lsu
YsIHhka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak' W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq
ia;drKh lrkak'

i;a;aj rdcOdksfha m%Odk iels,s wdldr ;=kla we;' Wod ( jia;sl iels,s" nys#
iels,s" wNHka;r iels,s
jia;s iels,a, -tlsfklg reoaO f,i l%shd lrk fmaYS ia;r follska hq;a
^jD;a;dldr yd wkajdhdu& foay ;a;sfhka wdjrKh jQ wjldYhla ;=< wka;.;
foayfhka Y%djh jQ ;r,hla jia;sl iels,a,la f,i l%shdlrhs'
fmaYs ixfldapkh yd ;r,fhys we;sjk mSvkfha ixhqla; m%;sM,h" hdf.a
ixprKh yd yevh flf n,mdhs' Wod ( wfk,svdjkaf.a isf,dal ;r,h
121
nys#iels,a, - wdf;%dfmdavdjkaf.a th lhska j,ska iE we;s ksiaffi,Sh

jHqyhls' fm%daka ^lDka& yd le,aish ldnfkaj,ska ^lariafishdjka &
oe we;s" p,kh i|yd ;=kS" wefok iq mg, ork" c,kh je,elaug b
iys; ndysr ia;rhla iys;" jOkh i|yd yej yeu wjYH jk" fmaYS ksfYkhg
m%ir ork" l=vd kag ikaOdrKh yd ixprKh i|yd ldhlaIu jQ
Wml%uhla bka ie,fia'
ndysr iels,a,la ork ka ldKav Wod ( wdf;%dfmdvdjka
ndysr iels,a,la ork fjk;a ldKav i|yd WodyrK fokak'
ndysr iels,s wdldr yd tajdfha lD;H ia;r l< hq;= fjhs'
le,aish ldnfkaj,ska ie we;s ndysr iels,s Wod ( fudiald
wia ;, Wod ( Wr.
ffhdaf,ahdjka
wNHka;r iels,a, - fndfyda i;=kaf.a ikaOdrl moaO;s wNHka;r iels,s fjhs'
Wod ( iuyr tal ffi,sl fm%diagd ^ffhdaf,ahd&" iamkaka" iuyr
fudiald yd mDIaGjxYSka
wia fyda ldf,acj,ska ks;" fmaYs ksfIKh is lrk" mglj,ska
hq;"= Tjqka ;=< jOkh jk fjd oe jHqyhkah' wia w;r we;s O
ika nkaOks wdOdrfhka ksh; j ia:dk.; mj;shs'
Wod ( mDIaGjxYSka
le,aish ldnfka ;, - tlhsfkdvfgd
wia - fldafgd
ldf,ac - fldaafvgd
ksidf.a wia yd ldf,ac mglj, wKalaISh jHqyh ia;drKh lrkak'
iels,s moaO;sfha lD;Hka'
ikaOdrKh - iEu iels,a,laau foayfha oe rduqj idok w;r wd;;s n,
yd imSvk j,g m%;sfrda fjhs' tajd foayfha yevh mj;ajd .ekSug
Wmld fjhs'
wdrlaIdj - tajd u.ska ishq wNHka;r bkashka wdrlaId fjhs'
p,kh - foayfha fmaYS i ug W; oe nj ,nd fok jHj,ska
iels,a, ksudKh we;'
fmaYsj,ska fufyhh yels ,Sjr f,i iels,s fldgia l%shd;aul fjhs'
fuh isjkg p,kh isfjhs'
le,aish .nvd lsu yd ksoyia lsu
iuyr fydfudak u.ska le,aish whk iels,af,a .nvd lsu yd ksoyia
lsu hdukh lrhs' rer le,aish ugu m%Yia; w.hg jvd by< .sh
g wiaj,Ca ++ ,nd .ekSu fydfudak u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
tf,iu rer Ca++ ugu m%Yia; w.hg jvd my< .sh g wiaj,ska
Ca++ ksoyia lsu fydfudak u.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
rer ffi, ksmou - weg j,
122
ksmqK;dj 9'1'0 ( kaf.a ikaOdrKh i|yd ieliS we;s moaO;s yd p,k

l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'2 ( ks i df.a wdla I l wegiels , a f ,a jHq y h yd lD;H
wkafIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
udkj iels,af,a ixOdkh ia;r lrhs'
wdlaIl iels,af,a fldgia ,hsia;= .; lrhs'
ysialnf,a yd lfYaref O fldgiaj, o< jHqyh tys lD;Hhkag inkaOj
wOHhkh lrhs'

fhda mg$ mska;+r fyda pd igyka fmkajd my; i|yka lreKq u;=jk m
idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
i;a;aj rdcOdksfha O iels,s moaO;s
p,kfha iels,s moaO;sh Wmld u
udkj iels,s moaO;sh wdlaIl iels,a, yd .d;% iels,a, hk fldgia
follg fnh yels h'
my; i|yka Wmfoia YsIHhka l%shdldrlj, ksr; lru i|yd h'
ksia iels,s moaO;sfha my; we;s fldgia ms<sn| wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
ysialn,
lfYarej
mY= yd Wr;,h
my; Wm YSI hgf;a iels,s moaO;sfha fldgia we;s im;a Wmfhda.S
lr f.k .,md .ekSfuka miqj Tng we;s f;audj ia;drKh lrkak'
tla tla fldgfia wia ixOdkh we;s wdldrh
lD;Hhg wod< j tajdfha jHqyh
tla tla fldgfia we;s fYaI ,laIK
my; we;s lD;Hhkg wod<j my; i|yka fldgiaj, odhl;ajh
idlPd lrkak'
ikaOdrKh
wdrlaIdj
p,kh
le,aish .nvd lsu yd ksoyia lsu
bm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrkak'
W; wkqms<sfj<lg Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh lrkak'
123

wdlaIl iels,a,
ysialn,
lfYarej
mY+ yd Wr;,h
.d;% iels,a,
fL,d
.d;%d
ksidf.a wdlaIl iels,a,
ysialn, - ysialn, fldgia follska hqla;h
1' lmd,h
2' jla;%
wia 22lska iuka;h
lmd,h wia 08ka iE we;'
,,dg wia 1

mdYaj lmd, wia 2
wmrlmd, wia 1
ia;r wjYH ke;
YxLl wia 2
dia 1
lS,dia 1
lmd, Od;dj 1'5 l

ysia lnf,a lD;Hhka
fud<h wdjrKh yd wdrlaIdj
weia" wd>%dK wjhj" ueo lk yd we;=,a lk wdrlaId lsu
iqIqkdj msgug ud.hla i,ika uyd h lmd,fha wOrj we;'
uyd h fomi iqug f.da,dldr ^ wmr lmd, ikaOdkh & ikaOdk m%ir
hq.,la we;' ysia ln, by, my, p,kj,g bv i,ika tajd we,ia
lfYarej iu`. ikaOdkh fjhs'
rkaO% - m%i;
Q f
s ha ysil
a nf,ys ueo imSvkj,g bv i,ik uD mg,uh
m%foaYhs' jhi wjq 1 - 2 oS fjd wia u.ska m%;sia:dmkh fjhs'
m%Odk rkaO% ykajd tajdfha msysu olajkak'
fldagrl - ,,dg" lS,dN" dia yd W!Oj ykql wia ;=< msysgk jd;h
ms wjldYhhs' tajd kdih iu`. inkaO w;r mlaIauOr
Yaf,aIau, mg,hlska wdia;rKh we;'
124
lD;Hhka 1' lgy`v wkqkdo u

2' uqyqfKa yd lmd,fha wiaj, nr wvq lsug
3' lfYaref by< fl<jr u; ysialn, myiqfjka ;=,kh lsug
m%Odk m%ir
h ykqj ^wfOda ykqj &
a. ikaOdk w.% m%irh
YxLl - wfOdaykql ikah idoka YxLl wiah iu`. ikaOdkh
fjhs'
b. ;=Kavdldr m%irh
fmaYs yd nkaOks inkaO ug mDIaGh imhhs'
lmd,h
a. wmr lmd, ikaOdk w.% ^ tla hq.,hla &
we,ia lfYarej iu`. wi ikahla idoka wmrlmd, wiafha "
lmd,hg wOhj msysghs'
YxLl wiafha we;s m%ir

a. pQpqldldr m%irh
lkg msgqmiska we;s fmaYS ksfIKh i|yd
b. lS,dN m%irh
fmaYs ksfIKhg ^fmaYs iug&
c. hq. m%irh
fmaYs ksfIKh i|yd hq.jl%h iEu msKsi YxLl wiafhka yg
.ksh's
jlaa;% m%foaYh
wia 14 ka hqla;" w;r lmd,hg my,ska msysghs'
Wv ykqj lmd,hg inkaOj we;'
oe ;,a, wiauh yd uD ;,a, ldf,ah f' tu.ska kdid l=rh uqL
l=yrfhka fjka fjhs'
h ykqj p,kh l< yel'
wfOda ykqj lmd,h iu`. ikaOdkh fjhs' h ykqj p,kh i|yd fmaYS
iu i|yd we;s mDIaGh imhkqfha hq. jl%hhs'
lfYarej
fhj ieliqKq lfYareld 33ka iuka;" Yla;su;a" iqkuH oKavls' foayh
yd ysig ikaOdrKh imhhs' fuh fjka fjka jYfhka msys wl%uj;a wia
24ka hq;=h' bka myla noaOj ;%sldiah idohs" y;rla noaOj wkq;%sldiah
idohs' lfYaref m%Odk lemS fmfkk m%foaY y;rla we;' ff.% ^7& Wria
^12& l ^5& ;%sldial ^5& g wu;rj wkq;%sldiah wu;rj msysgd we;'
125
lfYaref jl% y;rla we;'

1' ff.%
2' Wria
3' l
4' ;%sldial
fuu jl% wdldr folls

1' m%d:l
2' oa;shsl
l,,fha we;af;a tla jl%hla muKla nj ia;r lrkak'

m%d:l jl%
oa;shsl jl% we;sf m%d:l jl% Wria yd ;%sldial m%foaYj,g iSud
fjhs'
mQj foig wj;,h
oa;shsl jl%
Wm;ska miqj we;sfjhs' Wm;ska udi ;=klg muK miqj m%:u ff.% jl%h
we;sfjhs' tg orejdg ysi iDcqj tih yelsfjhs'
fojk jl%h Wm;ska udi 7 - 8 w;r we;s f' <orejdg l| fl<ska ;nd
.ekSf yelshdj we;sfjhs'
oa;Shsl jl% mQj foig W;a;, fjhs'
rEm igyka Nd;fhka by; lreKq meye,s lrkak'
jl%j, m%Odk lD;Hh iDcq bhj mj;ajd .ekSuhs' lfYaref wfkl=;a

l%shdjka jkafka
1' iqIqkdj wdrlaId lsu
2' iqIqkd iakdhq" rer jdyskS yd jid jdyskS i|yd lfYarel u.ska
wjldY iemhSu
3' foayfha p,kj,g bv ie,iSu
4' ysia ln, ord isu
5' wka; lfYarel u`v,a u.ska lmk wjfYdaIKh yd iqIqkdj wdrlaId
lsu
6' mY= yd fL,dj,g ikaOdkh ug ie,iSu
lfYareld j.
rEm igyka Nd;d lrka oYSh lfYareldjl jHqyh meye,s lsu yd
wfkl=;a lfYareldj, O;ajhka tajdg fya;= iys;j meye,s lsu'
126
wka; lfYareld uv,

lmk wjfYdaIlhla f,i l%shd lsu" 'uv, ,siaid hdu' je,elau i|yd
nr bis,Sf ksjer wdldrh fmkajd u
mY= yd Wr ;,h
Wri ;=, we;s wjhjj,g wdrlaIdj iemhSu i|yd mY= hq.,a 12la yd
Wr;,hla we;s nj fmkajd h hq;=h' rla;dkq ksIamdokh i|yd Wr;,fha
jeo.;alu i|yka l< hq;= h'
wdlD;s yd rEm igyka Nd; lrka ysia lnf,a yd lfYaref o< jHqyh tys
lD;Hhkag ork inkaO;djh meye,s l< hq;=h'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
wdlD;s" rEmigyka yd ksoYl Nd;fhka ksia ysia ln, yd lfYaref
o< jHQyh tys O fldgiaj, lD;Hj,g wod< j wOHhkh lsu'
127

l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'3 ( ksidf.a .d;% wegiels,af,a jHqyh yd lD;Hhka

wkafIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( ld,fo 06 hs'
bf.kq M, (
udkj iels,af,a ixOdkh ia;r lrhs'
.d;%d iels,af,a fldgia ,hsia;= .; lrhs'
wdlD;s yd mska;+r Nd;fhka iels,af,a o< jHqyh tys O fldgiaj,
lD;Hkag inkaO lr" meye,s lrhs'

YsIHhkag .d;% iels,af,a fldgia wdoYkh lrka my; i|yka lreKq
biau;= jk m idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
.d;% iels,a, .d;% yd fL,d follska iE we;'
nr tiu" p,kh" .%yKh" ikaOdrKh yd weu jeks lD;Hhka i|yd
.d;%j, jHqyfha we;s wia wkqj;kh we;'
W; lD;Hhkaj,g wod<j my; i|yka ud;Dld Tiafia bm;a lsulg
isiqka fhduq lrkak'
ud;Dld
mQj .d;%h
wmr .d;%h
Wr fL,dj
fY%daKs fL,dj
lD;H
ikaOdrKh
wdrlaIdj
p,kh
.%yKh
Yla;su;a nj
bhj
weu
rer ffi, ksIamdokh
Ca2+ yd PO43- ix; lsu
YsIHhka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak'
128

.d;% wegiels,a,
fL,d follska yd .d;% j,ska .d;% weg iels,a, iE we;s nj fmkajd h
hq;h
= '
Wr fL,df yd fY%daKs fL,df o< jHqyh tajdfha lD;Hhkag wod<j
meye,s l< hq;=h'
.eyeKq yd ms fY%daKs fL,dj, fjki meye,s l< hq;=h'
mQj .d;%fha jHqyh ia;r lsu yd .%yKh" nr tiu yd mq`M,a mrdihl
p,kh i|yd mQj .d;%fha jHqyh wkqj;kh we;s wdldrh fmkajd u'
Yla;u s ;a Ndjh" iDcq foay bhj" weu" foayfha nr ord .ekSug inkaOj
wmr .d;%fha jHqyh ieliS we;s wdldrh'
by; lD;Hhkag inkaOj mdofhys jl% meye,s l< hq;=h'
iqkuHNdjhg ^ flexibility & inkaO mQj .d;%fha jHqyh meye,s l< hq;=h'
.af,fkdhsv l=yrfha mj;sk wimQK f.da, l=yr ikah fkd.eUqrh' th
Yd, mrdihl p,kj,g bv i,ihs'
mQj .d;%fha my, fldgi W;al=ck yd ksl=ck fmkajhs'
m%.kavdiafha r fl,jr ikaOdk mDIaG folla we;s w;r" bka tlla jk
YSIlh wrdiah i|yd jk w;r lmamsh wkajrdiah i|yd h'
YsIlh u; wrdiafha YsIhg N%uKh h yel' fuhg bv foka ueKsla
lgqf yia: l+jdia ikaOdkh jkqfha wrdiah iu`. muKs'
ms<su,a udmg we`.s,a,
udmg we`.s,a,g wfkl=;a we`.s,s iu`. ,nl ;,hl p,khg bv i,ik
fYaI ikahla wod< y;a;l=p wiah yd m,jeks yia;l=fpdam wiah
w;r we;' fuh udmg we`.s,af,a ms<su,a Ndjhg fya;=fjhs' fuh ksidg
iqfYaI jQQ ishq .%yK ^h:d;;H .%yK & j,g fya;= fjhs'
wdndO yd widudkH;d
wia ffjjjh
wia mglh laIh u wia ffjjjhhs'
ikaj, p,k yelshdj wvq lrhs' wia hdj,g o fya;=h yelsh'
wia ffjjjhg fya;=jk idOl
fydfudak wiu;=,s;;dj ^ wd;j yrKfha &
wia mjodyh'
ikaj, we;s ikaOdk ldf,ac l%ufhka ;=kS wia laIh hhs'
fuys m%;sM,hla f,i fokdj we;s f'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
ksoYl" wdlD;s yd rEmigyka Nd;fhka ksidf.a Wr fL,dj" fY%daKs
fL,dj yd .d;%d wegiels,a, wOHhkh lsu'
129

l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'4 ( i;=kaf.a ixprK jHqy .fIKh lrhs'

ixprKfha p,k wdldr ia;r lrhs'
jHdcmdo" mlaIau" lYsld yd fmaYsj, jHqy rEm igyka u`.ska meye,s
lrhs'
fhdacs; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh (

m.Klh wdOdrfhka lrk bm;a lsula wdOdrfhka my; i|yka lreKq
biau;= l< hq;=h'
p,kh hd" wjhj yd ffi,Sh hk ugj,ska isf'
imQK hdu tla ia:dkhl isg ;j;a ia:dkhlg p,kh u
ixprKh k f'
ixprKfha jeo.;a l
WodyrK iys;j ixprK wdldr ia;r lsu'
îlrKh - Animation &
isiqkaj bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak'
W; wkqms<sfj,lg wod< Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh lrkak'

p,kh my; ugj,ska is f'
ffi,Sh
wjhj
hd
imQK hd h ia:dkhl isg ;j ia:dkhlg p,kh u ixprKhhs'
ixprKfha Nd; ls
wdydr fidhd .ekSug
f,damslhkag f.dre fuka je,lSug
jHdma;shg
kj" W; jdiia:dk fidhd .ekSug
m%ckk ldhh i|yd ka tla/ia ug
130
ixprK wdldr
jHdcmdo îQlaIau jHQy wjYH ke;'&
wendldr ffi, jk wend yd NlaIl iq rerdKq
ffi,j,g tajdfha yevh fjkia l< yels w;r ta u; Tjqkaf.a
p,kh mdol we;' ffi,h p,kfha ;r,uh wka;#ma,diauh
.,dhdu u`.ska oe nysIama,diaufha ;djld,sl fkre we;s lrhs'
fuh jHdc mdohls'
lYsld wdOdrfhka is lrk p,k îQlaIau jHQy wjYH ke;'&
lYsld yd Y=l%dKq ffi,j, j,s. jeks lYsld wdldr jHqy tajdfha
m%pd,kh ,nd .kafka lYsldf mdofha isg w.%h olajd we;s lrkq
,nk oal ;rx.dldr p,kj,sks' fuys hd reoaO Ydjg
p,kh f'
mlaIau wdOdrfhka is lrk p,k îQlaIau jHQy wjYH ke;'&
merishf.a isf' iEu mlaIauhlau foayfhka iDcqj ysfoa'
yn,aj,ska p,kh jk fndagqjla wdldr p,khla
olajka hd bhg p,kh lsf iEu mlaIauhlau 1800lg
wdikak pdmhl p,khla olajhs' fuu p,khka imQK lsf
mlaIauh uq,a msysugu m;afjhs' fuys mlaIauh iDcqNdjfhka f;dr
ksid keug ,laf'
fmaYS wdOdrfhka is lrk p,k
ixfldapkh yd bys,a ug yelshdj we;s fmaYs ;ka;= f,i yekafjk"
fmaYs ffi,j,ska fmaYshla iE we;' foayhg ikaOdrKh iemhSf
yd p,kj,g bv ie,iSf iels,a, fmaYS iu`. tlaj l%shdlrhs'
131

l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'5 ( O fmaYs mglj, uQ,sl jHqyh yd ldhsl oHdj
wkafIKh lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
fuu l%shdldlru wjidkfha YsIHhd ;
fmaYs mglfha uQ,sl jHqyh yd ldh luh ia;r lrhs'
fmaYs mglfha uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl .;s.=K meye,s lrhs'
fmaYs j. m%ldY lrhs'
fmaYs mglfha uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;H meye,s lrhs'
idfldhrhl jHqyh meye,s lsu yd lxld, fmaYs ixfldapkfha uQ,sl
hka;%Kh meye,s lrhs'
imK iQ;%sld jdofha uQ,sl ixl,am meye,s lrhs'

ilik ,o lod Wmfhda.S lr.k fmaYS mglfha uQ,sl ,dlaIKsl .;s.=K
biau;= l< hq;=h'
ilik ,o lod wKalaIfhka kslaIKh lrka O fmaYs mglj, rEm
igyka weug isiqkag u`. fmkah hq;=h'
isks` fmaYs
yD;a fmaYs
lxld, fmaYs
my; i|yka lreKq biau;= jk whqka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
lxld, fmaYs p,kfha uQ,sl hka;%kh yd ifldhrfha jHqyh
imK iQ;%sld jdofha uQ,sl ixl,am
bm;a lsula i|yd YsIHhka iQodk lrkak'
W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

fmaYs mglh
O fmaYs mgl wdldr
isks fmaYs
yD;a fmaYs
lxld, fmaYs
132
lxld, fmaYS isks fmaYS yD;a fmaYS
yevh - tlsfklg ;l= rEmS" fl" is,skavldr YdLkh

iudka;rj ieliqKq" YdLkh ke;' we;'
.=" is,skavldr" YdLkh
fkdjQ
tl fmaYs ;ka;=jlg tal kHIal tal kHIal

^ffi,h&kHIa
iuqyhla we;'
^tla tla ;ka;=f
mDIaGhg wdikakj
kHIa msysgd we;'
f,aL orhs f,aL fkdorhs' f,aL orhs'
idfldhr we; idfldhr ke;' idfldhr we;
wka;ria:dms; uv,a wka;ria:dms; uv,a wka;ria:dms; uv,a we;'

ke;' ke;'
iakdhq m%odkh iajhxidOl iakdhq iajhx idOl iakdhq

uOH iakdhq moaO;sh iy moaO;sfhks moaO;sfhks
mhka; iakdhq
moaO;ssfhks
iakdhq ckH iakdhq ckH fmaYs ckH
rsoauhdkql+, ixfldapk iuyrla rsoauhdkql+,h rsoauhdkql+, ixfldapk

ke;' iuyrla rsoauhdkql+,
ke;'
myiqfjka vdm;a f' fika vd vd m;a fkdf'

m;af'
bPdkq. wksPdkq. wksPdkq.
133
fmaYs mglfha ,dlaIKsl .=Kdx.

1' ;kH;djh
2' m%;Hia:;djh
3' WoamH;dj
4' ixfldapH;djh
;kH;djh
weug fyda ixfldapkhg we;s yelshdj
m%;Hia:;djh
weug fyda ixfldapkhg Ndckh fuka miqj kej; uq,a . ,nd .ekSug we;s
yelshdj
WoamH;djh
W;af;ach ,nd .ekSug yd m%;spdr oelaug we;s yelshdj
ixfldapH;djh
ixfldapkhg fyda fl ug we;s yelshdj
idfldahrfha jHqyh yd lxld, fmaYs p,kfha hka;%Kh'
fmaYs ieliS we;af;a l=vd fmaYs ;ka;=j,sks'
fmaYS ;ka;= ieliS we;af;a fmaYs fl;s k l=vd tallj,sks'
wkajdhduj ieliS we;s iQ;%sld foj.hlska fmaYs fl;s iuka;h' tajdhska
tla j.hla isyskah' wfkla j.h >klh'
isyska iQ;%sld welaka hk fm%dakfhka o >kl iQ;%sld ufhdaiSka hk fm%daka
j.fhka o ieliS we;'
fmaYs fl;a;l fuu iQ;%sld ;=kS m wdldr rgdjlg ixOdkh we;'
;o meye;s mh jk A mh >kl iQ;%sld tl u; tl msysfuka iEoS we;'
,d meye;s mh jk I mh isyska iQ;%sldj,ska muKla iuka;h' I mh
welakaa iQ;%sldj,ska muKla iuka;h'
A mfha iQ;%sld tl u; tl w;sPdokh fkdjk ufhdaiSkaj,ska muKla
iE m%foaYh H l,dmhhs'
,d mdg mh ueo we;s fLdj Z fLdjhs'
fmaYS ;ka;=jl tl Z fLdjl isg wkqhd; Z fLdjg we;s jHqyh kej; kej;
msysghs' ^ mqkrdj;kh &
fufia mqkrdj;kh jk jHqy idfldhr k jk w;r" fmaYh
s l ixfldapkhg
odhl jk l=vdu fldgi fuhhs'
134
H l,dmh I mh
A mh welaka ;ka;=
ufhdiska ;ka;=
Z fLdj Z fLdj
M fLdj
lxld, fmaYs ;ka;=jl iQlaIu jHqyh
fmaYs ixfldapkfha imk iQ;%sld isoaOdka;h

ufhdaiSka iQ;%sld "ysila" iys; h'
welaka iQ;%sld nkaOk m%foaY iys; h'
ixfldapkh i|yd ATP w;HjYH h'
fmaYsh ixfldapkh u ufhdaiSka iQ;%sld u;ska welaka iQ;%sld ,siaid hdu ksid
is f'
ATP Nd;d lr ixfldapkh jk g wre mh jk A mfhys . fjkia
fkdfjhs' H l,dmh yd I mfha . wvqfjhs'
welaka iQ;l
s% d ufhdaiSka iQ;%sld
n, myr ^Power Strokes)

fmaYsh ixfldapkh jk g ifldahrfha uOH foig welaka iQ;%sld imkh
fjhs' bys,ajk g uOH foiska bj;a fjhs'
yria fia;= ^ Cross bridges & idoka ufhdaiSka YSI welakaj, nkaOk
ia:dkj,g ifjhs'
ilS%h f yria fia;= uOH foig we;=,g ke fl" m%n, myrla we;s lrhs'
135
fmaYs ixfldapkh
B<`. nkaOk ia:dkh iu`. inkaO u i|yd YSI ksoyia lr .ekSug ATP
wjYH fjhs'
wkqhd; n, myr .Kkdjla u.ska ie,lsh hq;= m%udKfhka fmaYsh ixfldapkh
u is lrhs'
ATP rys;j ufhdaiSk YsI nkaOk ia:dkj,ska ksoyia fkdfjhs'
>k i%;%sld ûfhdaiSka & fLdj
ufhdaiSka i%;%sld
isyska i%;%sld
ufhdaiSka
welaka
ysi
welaka iQ;s%ldjlska ksoyia jQ

ufhdaiska ysilg ATP inkaO f'
ATP c,fokfhka ufhdaiSka ysi

ti f'
le,aishj, iydfhka ufhdiska ysi

welaka inkaOl ia:dkhlg inkaO f'
Z fLdf kj msysu
n, myr u`.ska welaka iQ;%sldj

,siaid hhs'
136

l%u uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 9'1'6 ( Ydl j, ikaOdrKh yd p,k wdldr ms<n

s | wkafIKh
lrhs'
bf.kq M, (
Ydlj,g ikaOdrKh iemfhk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
Ydl p,k meye,s lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh(

wka;cd,fhka" fmd;aj,ska yd fjk;a m%Njj,ska f;dr;=re ,nd f.k
wod< lKavdh my; oelafjk ud;Dld ms<ns | bm;a lsj,g iQodk lrkak'
wdj;s p,k
ikakuk p,k
idjir p,k
m%d:l yd oa;Shsl Ydl foayj, ikaOdrKhg fya;=jk Ydl foay ;=,
wvx.= mgl
YsIHhka bm;a lsulg iQodk lrkak'
W; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih ikaOdrh ia;drKh lrkak'

Ydl ia:djrh' ^tl ;ekl /|S msysghs & Ydl p,k fndfyduhla jOk p,k
olajk w;r tajd fyka isfjhs'
wdj;S p,k hkq m%;spdrfha Ydj W;af;ackfha Ydj u.ska ;SrKh jk jOl
p,k j.hls'
m%Ndj;S m%;spdr
.=re;ajdj;S m%;spdr
iamYdj;S m%;spdr
wdj;S p,kj, Tlaiskaj, lD;H
Ydl p,kj, Tlaiskaj, ldh Ndrh
Tlaiska ixYaf,aIKh yd jHdma;sh
Tlaiska yd .=re;ajdj;kh
137
idjir p,k
fuu p,k Chlamydomonas jeks fm%diagd jkaf.a fydka kslaIkh
l< yel' Wiia Ydlj, ckaudKqj, o oelsh yelsh'
ikakuk $p,k idudkH ugulg wdf,dalu;a u" wd;djh" WIaK;ajh
jeks ksYa; Ydk;shla rys; W;af;ac j.j,g Ydl m%;spdr olajhs' fjd
ikakuk p,khs' ksoiqka ( u,la msmSu yd yels,Su
iamY ikakuk
iamYh i|yd jQ ikakuk p,k
ksd ikakuk
iuyr fis j. wdf,dalh we;s g jD; u yd wdf,dalh ke;sg ^wf
& yels,Su" l;=reuqrex.d m;% w\qf oS yels,Su'
138
tallh 10 - m%ckkh" jOkh yd likh
ksmqK;dj 10'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh suid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1 ( kaf.a m%ckk rgd uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
w,sx.sl m%ckkfha sO wdldr WodyrK iys; j ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
oa,sx.slNdjh" tal,sx.slNdjh" fl!udfrdaoaNjh" ckaudkq iEoSu yd ixfiapkh
flfhka ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl

dldrl:
O m%ckk rgd ms<sn| uQ,dY% ûqs;$soHq;a& YsIHhkag imhkak'
jeo.;a lreKq Wlyd f.k idrdxYhla lsu i|yd isiqkag wjia:dj imhd fokak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS ms<sn|j bosm;a lsrSulg .kajkak'
jeo.;a lreKq u;= lsu i|yd Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

m%ckkh hkqfjka woyia jkafka l=ulaoehs ia;r lsrSu'
my; i|yka lreKq tys wka;.; h hq;= h'
tu fYaIfha u kj mrmrdjla ksmou
th cSka f.a uQ,sl ,laIKhla jk nj
fYaIfha meje;au bka ;yjqre jk nj
m%ckkfha wdldr folls'
w,sx.sl
,sx.sl
,sx.sl yd w,sx.sl m%ckkh WodyrK iu`. sia;r lsrSug yd tajdfha jdis" wjdis
oelaug yelshdj YsIHhka iska ,nd f.k ;sh hq;= h'
w,sx.sl m%ckkh - ;ks ckl ffi,hlska $hl=f.ka m%fKsl j ij iu
cks;hl= fyda ffi,hla fyda wkQkkh u`.ska we;s lsrSu w,sx.sl m%ckkhhs'
LKavkh
m%fKsl j ij iu cSka we;s lsrSu i|yd ;ks cSshl= wkQkkh is lrhs'
oaLKavkh
nyqLKavkh
139
oaLKavkh
ujq ffi,hg ijiu iudk ys;D ffi, folla we;s lsu i|yd tal ffi,slhka
wkQkkfhka is lrk m%ckkh hs'
kso ( Paramaecium, Amoeba, Bacteria
nyqLKav
a kh
;ks ud;D ffi,hla wkQkk j fnoS ujq ffi,hg ijiu ys;D ffi, Yd,
.Kkla we;s lsu
kso ( Plasmodium
wxl=rKh
ckl foayfhkaûd;D foayfhka&$ffi,hlska yg.kakd fkreula f,i we;s jOkh
ckl foayfhka$ffi,fhka fjka kj fhl= we;s lsuhs'
kso (hSia" ksvdhdjka ^.Kdjdi iEoSf oS ckl hd f.a foayhg inkaOj mj;S'&
lvlvu
fhl= len,s lsysmhlg le we;s jk fldgiaj,ska kj ka we;s u
Wod ( Planaria, Ribbon worm, Spirogyra
w,sx.sl cdKq$jHqy ieoSu
tal fyda nyq fyda kHIal tall$jHqy u`.ska os,Sr iQ;%sld" iQ;%sldldr nelahd fyda
iuyr ka f.a iqyqUq,ka we;s lsu
Wod ( fldks cdKq" Marchantia ys f.ud"
,sx.sl m%ckkh
reoaO ,sx.sl ka we;s lrk ckaudKq ydu u`.ska kj cks;hska ys lsu
oa,sx.sl Ndjh
mqx yd cdhd ckaudKq ksmoug fya;= jk mqx yd cdhd ,sx.sl jHqy fyda mqx yd
cdhd ckaudKq tlu hl= ;=< iEu'
Wod( .ev,d" jo Ydl
tal,sx.sl Ndjh
;ks hl= jDIK fyda n fldaI fyda oeu$mqx fyda cdhd fyda ckaudKq fjkia
ka ;=< ksmou'
Wod ( ksid" uvq
fl!udfrdoaNjh
fYaIs; wdldrhl m%ckkhls' ixfiapkh fkdjQ nhlska ia;%S ,sx.sl i;a;ajhd
kj cks;hl= ksmouhs'
Wod ( ueiaid" iuyr lgqiq j.
ckaudKq iEoSu
ckaudKqjla hkq fYaIs; jQ tal.=K" tal ffi,sl m%ckl ffi,hls' weksud,shd
rdcOdksfha W!kkfhka ckaudKq ksmojk w;r" fndfyda fm%diagdjka yd Ydl
rdcOdksfha ka ckaudKq ksmojkqfha ckaudKq Ydlh u`.ska$wkQkkfhks'
140
ckaudKq yd fuka hqla;dkqjla iEoSu ixfiapkh hs' ixfiapkfha wdldr folls'

ndysr
wNHka;r
ndysr ixfiapkh
mqreI ,sx.sl hd ckaudKq ndysr mirhg ^c,hg& ksoyia lrk w;r
ixfiapkh tysoS isf' ixfiapkh ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfhka neyerj is fjhs'
Wod ( fndfyda wial uiqka yd WNhka
wNHka;r ixfiapkh
ia;%S m%ckl ud.h ;=<g ms hd iska ckaudKq we;=,a lrk w;r" ixfiapkh
tys oS isfjhs' ckaudKq c,kfhka j<lajd .ekSu i|yd idudkHfhka fN!l
mirj, oS is f'
Wod ( lDka" Wr.hka" mlaISka" laISrmdhSka" Ydl rdcOdksfha idudlhka
,sx.sl yd w,sx.sl m%ckkfha jdis yd wjdis
,sx.sl m%ckkh
jdis
m%fKsl m%fNaok ksmojd mKduhg u`. mdohs'
wjdis
cks;fhl= ksmoug ka fofofkl= wjYH u
os.= ld,hla jeh u
w,sx.sl m%ckkh
jdis
;ks ckl hl=g muKla is l< yels u
ujq hdg m%fKsl j ijiu cks;hka ksmou
Yd, cks;hka ixLHdjla tljr ksmoh yels u
wjdis
m%frdayKh i|yd iqiq ia:dkhla fkdue;s fuka fndfyda g m%frdayKh is
fkdf' ^cdKq&
141
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( kaf.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'2 ( mqreI m%ckk moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hhka uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
mqreI m%ckk moaO;sfha jHqyh iy lD;H ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
Y=l%dKq ckkfha m%Odk mshjr flfhka ia;r lrhs'
Y=l%dKq ffi,hl jHqyh yd lD;Hh ia;drKh lrhs'
Y=l%fha ixhq;sh m%ldY lrhs'
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sfha fydafudakuh hdukh oyd oelau i|yd
.e,SuS igykla w|shs'

dldrl:
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sh yd wod< rEmigyka$wod< wfkl=;a im;a jH
isiqkag wOHhkhg bv ,nd fokak'
Tjqkg ksidf.a Y=l%dKq yd jDIKfha uQ,sl mgl oHd;aul jHqyh
wOHhkhg bv i,ikak'
mqreI m%ckl moaO;sh yd inkaO w;sfl .%ka ms<sn| f;dr;=re imhd
.ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS mka;shg bosm;a lsu i|yd os.kajkak'
wod< Ih lreKq wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'
sIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

mqreI m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh
m%Odk jHqyh yd lD;Hh w;r inkaO;dj my; i|yka mos ia;r l<
hq;= fjhs'
jDIK yereKq g ish u jHqy Wor l=yrh ;=< msysgd we;'
jDIK fldaI - jDIK wdjrKh lr f.k isk ifuka ieKq ndysr
uh jDIK fldaIh hs'
lD;Hh - m%Yia; mos Y=l%dKq ksIamdokh" tajd i j mj;ajd .ekSu
yd ^ta i|yd idudkH foay WIaK;ajhg jvd 1 -2 0C wvq j mej;Su
W;h'&" wdrlaIdj
jDIK - hq.,uh" j,dldr f' th ;=< ishq w;sYh jYfhka
ixp,s; Y=l%Orkd,sldj,ska iuka; wkqlKald we;'
lD;Hh - Y=l%dKq yd fgiafgdiafgfrdaka ksIamdokh'
142
Y=l%Or kd,sld
Y=l%dKq iNjhg fya;= jk" ffi, ia;rhlska iuka; ckl wmsPohla
Y=l%Or kd,sld ;a;sfha we;' tys wkqms<sfj,ska hq;a ffi, ieliqula oelsh
yelsh' Y=l%Or kd,sld ;=< Y=l%dKq ckkfha O lik wjia:dj,g wkqj
ieleiqkq ffi, wkqms<sfj, my; i|yka mos fjhs'
1 ndysr u ckl wmsPoh (2n) iy i'fgd,s ffi, ^sertoli cells&
2 Y=ldKq ud;D ffi, (2n)
3 m%d:l Y=ldKq ffi, (2n)
4 oa;shsl Y=ldKq ffi, (n)
5 m%dla Y=l% (n)
6 Y=ldKq (n)
i'fgd,s ffi,
Y=l%dKq ckkfha O wjia:dj, miq jk ffi, j. i'fgd,s ffi,j,g
ne|S mj;sk w;r tajd Y=l%Or kd,sld ;a;sfha isg kd,sld l=yrh olajd
ys mj;shs'
lD;Hh -
bkayska Y%djh lsu
fmdaIKh iemhSu ^Y=l%dKq ckkfha O wjia:dj, mj;sk ffi,
i|yd&
Y=l%dKq ord isu
f,a.a ffi, ^wka;rd, ffi,&
Y=l%Or kd,sld w;r we;s wka;rd, wjldYj, mj;shs'
lD;Hh - mqreI ,sx.sl fydafudakh jk fgiafgdiafgfrdaka Y%djh
lsu'
Y=l%dKq ffi,hl uQ,sl jHqyh yd lD;Hh
s
th wKalaISh" os.e ffi,hla jk w;r" ysi" f.," uOH fldgi" yd j,s.fhka
iuka;hs'
ysi
me;,s" jD;a;dldr f" Yd," tal .=K kHIahla wka;.;h'
kHIah u`.ska hqla;dKqj lrd mS;D ,laIK ifm%aIKh i|yd ms;D
m%fKsl jH ord isu'
ffi,Sh l%shdjka hdukh lsu'
w.%foayh lrKh jQ ,hsfidfidauhls'
tys wKavfha ma,diau mg,h rKh$wKavfha ma,diau mg,h kso
hdug wjYH c,fol tkaihsu jk yhfrdksfia" %maiska iy
fmmaiska we;'
143
uOH fldgi
uhsfgdfldka%hd Yd, ixLHdjla ord ishs'
wKavh foig msyskd hdug wjYH Yla;sh ksmojhs'
f.,
ysi yd uOH fldgi w;r we;s ixl=pkh hs' f.f,ys fika%fhda,
hq.,la we;' tajd tlsfklg ,nlh' tl fika%fhda,hlska wdrN
jk wdlaIl iQ;%sldj j,s.fha fl,jr olajd je we;'
th lYsldj idohs'
j,s.h
th .= lYsldjls"
wKavh foig msyskSug wdOdr fjhs'
Y=ldKq wKavh ;=<g we;= ug Wmld fjhs'
^9 + 2& wdldrhg laIqkd,sld tys wka;.; fjhs' tys 3$4 la ma,diau
mg,fhka wdjrKh we;s w;r wdjrKh fkdjQ m%foaYh wjidk
fldgihs'
wKav ffi,h lrd msyskd hdug wjYH m%pd,k hdka;%Kh imhhs'
Y=l%dKq ickfhka miqj Y=ldKqj, j ld,h meh 48 - 72 ls'
Y=l%dKq ckkh i|yd osk 72l muK ld,hla .; f'
^Y=l%dKq ud;D ffi,j,ska Y=l%Or kd,sld ;=< oS mK; Y=l%dKqjla iEoSug&
Y=l%dKq ckk l%shdj,shg my; i|yka wjia:d wvx.= fjhs'
l,, jDIKj, we;s uQ,sl ckaudKq ffi, Y=l%dKq ud;D ffi, ^2n& njg
fNaokh fjhs'
fh!jfkdaoh wdrNfha oS kej; kej;;a wkqkkfhka fnfoka m%d:l
Y=ld% Kq ffi, ^2n& idohs'
m%d:l Y=l%dKq ffi, ^2n& W!kkfha m<uq Ndckfhka fnoS tal .=K
oa;shsl Y=l%dKq ffi, ^n& ksmofjhs'
ieu oa;shsl Y=l%dKq ffi,hla u W!kkfha fo jeks Ndckfhka fnoS
m%dla Y=l% ^n& idohs'
m%dla Y=l% mK; Y=l%dKq njg fNaokh fjhs'
fuu l%shdj,sh fh!jfkdaofhka we/ jhia.; jk ;=re mejef;hs' FSH
u`.ska Y=l%dKq ckkh wdrN fjhs' LH, FSH iy fgiafgdiafgfrdaka
Y=l%dKq ckkh mj;ajd .k hdu i|yd wjYH fjhs'
wmsjDIKh
jDIKj,ska wdrN Y=l%kd,fhka wjika jk o`.r .eiqKq kd,hla jk
w;r jDIKj,g iamYj mj;S'
lD;Hh - Y=ld% Kq .nvd lr ;nd .ekSu" Y=ld% Kqj, ldhsl oHd;aul mK;sh
is lsu" ^Y=ldKqj, p,Ndjh we;s u yd ixfiapk yelshdj ,nd .kshs'&
Y=l% ;r,fhka fldgila Y%djh lsu
144
Y=l% kd,h
kd, folls' Y=l% wdYhsldj, isg mefKk kd, iu`. tla tla wmsjDIKfhka
mek k`.sk Y=l% m%Kd, inkaO fl ick m%Kd,h idohs'
lD;H
wmsjDIKfha isg uQ;% ud.h lrd Y=l%dKq mjykh
.nvd lsu
ick m%Kd,h - tla tla Y=l% wdYhsldj ;=< we;s ;r,h" ick m%Kd,
;=<g ksoyia lrhs' uQ;%dYfhka mek k`.sk kd,h iu`. inkaO uQ;% ud.h
idohs'
lD;Hh - Y=l% wdYhsld ;r,h mjykh lrhs'
uQ;%ud.h yd YsYakh
uQ;%ud.h - uQ;%dYfhka mgka f.k mqr#ia .%kah yryd YsYakhg msfihs'
lD;Hh - Y=l%h yd uQ;% hk foj.hu mjykh lrhs'
YsYakh
is,skavrdldrhs' iamkauh Woa.dul mgl êrectile tissue& yd uQ;% ud.h
iys; fmaYsuh jHqyhls'
lD;H - Y=l%h fhdaks ud.h ;=<g ickh lsu
- uQ;% mjykh$uQ;% neyer lsu
mqreI m%ckl moaO;shg wod< jQ w;sfl .%ka
Y=l% wdYhsld
hq.,uhhs" Y=l% kd, iu`. inkaO fjhs'
Y=l%fhka Yd, u mudjla ksIamdokh fjhs' Yaf,aIau, iys;
laIdh ;r,hls' *arlafgdaia" fm%diagd.a,ekaka yd gka C wvx.= h'
lD;H (-
fhdaks ud.fha wd,sl nj WodiSk lrhs'
iafkaykh
Y=l% wdYhsld ;r,h Y=l%dKq i|yd Yla;s m%Njhls'
Y=l%dKqj,g msyskSu i|yd udOHhla imhhs'
mqr#ia .%ka
;ks .%kahls' uq;%dYhg jyd u hka uQ;% ud.h jgd msysghs' Yaf,aIau,
yd iq`M f,i laIdh Y%djhla ksmojhs'
lD;H -
fhdaks ud.fha wd,sl;dj WodiSk lrk w;r iafkaykh lrhs'
uq;% ud.fha b;s we;s uQ;%j, wd,sl;dj WodiSk lrhs'
Y=l%h
Y=ldKq" wms jDIKh yd w;sfl ,sx.sl .%kaj, Y%djh tla j .;a g
th Y=l% hhs'
,s ,Sgrhl Y=ldKq ,shk 20 muK we;'
idudkHfhka jrlg 2 - 5 ml ickh flf'
145
lD;H - Y=ldKq i|yd ;r,uh udOHh imhhs'

fhdaks ud.fha wd,sl nj WodiSk lrhs'
mqreI m%ckl moaO;ssfha isqjk fydafudakuh hdukh
Y=l%dKq ckkfha fydafudakuh hdukh

yhsfmd;e,ui yd mQj mshqgh u`.ska md,kh lrhs'
yhsfmd;e,uh GnRH uqod yhs' (Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone)
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) yd Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Y%djh i|yd
GnRH u`.ska mQj mshqgh W;af;ackh fjhs'
FSH u`.ska Y=ldKq ckkh W;af;ackh lr m%dla Y=l%j,ska" mK; Y=l%dKq
likh imQK lsu i|yd i'fgd,s ffi, W;af;ackh flfrhs' ^Y=l%dKq
ckkh weru&
f,a.a ffi, fgiafgdiafgfrdaka Y%djh i|yd W;af;ackh lsu LH u`.ska
isf'
tu ksid fuu fydafudakh ^LH & wka;rd, ffi, W;af;acl fydafudakh
f,i ykajhs' (Interstitial Cells Stimulating Hormone)(ICSH)
Y=l%dKq ud;D ffi," Y=l%dKq njg jOkh yd likh" fgiafgdiafgfrdaka u`.ska
W;af;ackh fjhs'
fgiafgdiafgfrdaka Y%djh by< hdu u`.ska yhsfmd;e,uiska GnRH Y%djh wvq
fjhs'
fuys m%;sM,hla f,i LH yd FSH ugu my< niS' LH Y%djh wvq lsu i|yd
fgiafgdiafgfrdaka o Rcqj u mQj mshqgh u; n,mdhs'
Y=l%dKq ckkh je YS>%;djlska isjqfjd;a i'fgd,s ffi, bkayska Y%djh lrka
FSH Y%djh wvq lrhs'
Y=l%dKq ckk f.h wvq jQ g bkayska Y%djh is fkd jk w;r FSH u`.ska
Y=ldKq ckkh W;af;ackh fjhs'
wKalaIh hgf;a Y=l%Or kd,sldjl$jDIKhl mgl oHd;aul jHqyh mlaId
l< hq;= fjhs'
oa;shsl ,sx.sl ,laIK we;s u yd mj;ajd .ekSu" m%ckl moaO;sfha ish u
fldgiaj, jOkh fgiafgdiafgfrdaka u`.ska W;af;ackh fjhs'
m%dfhda.sl mrSlaIKh (
wdlD;s yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka mqreI m%ckl moaO;sh wOHhkh lsu'
146
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( ka f.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'3 ( ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;H ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
wKafvdaoaNjfha m%Odk mshjr yd tys fydafudakuh hdukh flfhka ia;r lrhs'
ksia nfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh ia;drKh lrhs'
fh!jfkdaofha oS isjk fjkial ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
wd:j pl%fha isjk jHqyd;aul fjkial yd tys fydafudakuh hdukh oyd
olajhs'
wd:jyrKh flfhka ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha rEmigyka yd wod< wksl=;a uQ,dY% wOHhkhg isiqkag bv
i,ikak'
n fldaIfha yd nfha uQ,l
s mgl oHd;aul jHqyh yd wd:j pl%fha fydafudakuh
hdukh ms<sn| wOHhkhg YsIHhka fhduq lrkak'
isiq wkdjrK mx;shg u bosm;a lsug Wkka lrjkak'
wod< wkql%uhlg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sfha jHqyh yd lD;Hh
uq`M moaO;shu fY%daKsh ;=< wka;.;h' rEm igykaj, wdOdrfhka tys uQ,sl
jHqyh meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
m%Odk jHqy yd wod< lD;H w;r inkaO;dj ;=< my; i|yka lreKq
wka;.; h hq;= h'
n fldaI
hq.,uh" wduka yeve;s h'
n yd ia;%S ,sx.sl fydafudak ksmojhs' - Biag%cka yd fm%dfciagfrdka
wdf,dal wKalaIh hgf;a n fldaIhl yria lvl jHqyh mlaId lrkak'
mef,damSh kd,$n m%Kd,
r fl<jr mqkS,dldr jrhla yd wr fl,jr .NdIhg inkaO jQ kd,hls'
mlaIauOr wmsPohlska wdia;rKh we;'
147
oa;shsl wKavh yd fudre,dj .NdIh lrd mjykh lsu

ixfiapkh is u
.NdIh
fmhd yeve;s" fmaYsuh wjhjhla jk w;r f., iEoSu i|yd wOr j mgq fjhs' .e
f., yryd fhdaks ud.hg fhduq fjhs' ia;r 3lska iEoS we;'
tkafvdfu%hu îa;N+; wmsPohlska wdia;rKh fjhs'&
ufhdafu%hu îsks fmaYsuh&
fmfu%hu ^;ka;=uh inkaOl mglhls'&
l,,h wfrdamKh yd N%EKh ord isu' m%iQ;sh i|yd ixfldapk we;s lsu'
fhdaks ud.h
m%ckk moaO;sfha ndysr yd wNHka;r wjhj tlsfklg inkaO lrka mj;sk
ia;N+; wmsPohlska wdia;rKh jQ fmaYsuh kd,hls' jrhg wdikakj Yaf,aIau,
Y%d ffi, we;' ore Wmf;a oS Wm;a u`. idohs' ixi.fha oS YsIakhg Y+l% ;r,h
ksoyia lsug ud.h idohs'
wKafvdaoaNj l%shdj,sh rEmigyka wdOdr lr f.k meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
N%EK n fldaI" wKav ud;D ffi, ^W!f.dakshd& orhs' m%iQ;shg wdikakj
bka iuyrla m%d:l wKav ffi, njg m;a f'
N%EK likfha oS m%d:l wKav ffi, iEfok w;r tajd uq <ud ld,h mqrd u
W!kkfha I m%dla l,df mj;shs'
fh!jfkdaofhka wdrN iEu udihla mdid u tla m%d:l wKav ffi,hla
ne.ska W!kkfha I Ndckh imQK lrhs' tys oS is jk wiudldr ma,diau
Ndckh ksid l=vd O%eh foayhla ^n& yd Yd, oa;shsl wKav ffi,hla ^n&
ksmojhs'
oa;shsl wKav ffi,h Y+l%dKqjla u`.ska kso hdf oS muKla W!kkh II
Ndckh is mK; nhla yd fo jk O%eh foayh ksmojkq ,nhs'
wd:j pl%h
wKav ksmou Wm;g fmr N%EKfha n fldaIj, is jqj o tla tla wKavfha
wjidk likh imQK jkafka jeys ld,fha oS ixfiapkhlg miqj h'
Wmf;a oS nfldaI foflys u 2 000 000 muK m%d:l iHqksld mj;s .%dmS
iHqksldj mqmqrd oa;shsl wKav ffi,h nfldaIfhka ksoyia u nfudapkh
f,i ye|skafjhs' fh!jfkdaofha isg ^wjq'12 muK ld,fha& jrlg tla nfldaIhla
ne.ska l%shd;aul f' wd:jyrKh f;la ^wjq' 45 - 55& osk 28g jrla fuh isfjhs'
mef,damSh kd,fha mqkS,dldr jrfha we;s mlaIah l%shdj ksid uqod yereKq nh
mef,damSh kd,h fj; weo .kq ,nhs' nfha je r likh is jkafkaa wKav
ffi,h Y=l%dKqjla iu`. yd u
148
is jqk fyd;a muKS' ixfiapkh is fkdjqk fyd;a osk 3g muK miqj fhdaks ud.h
Tiafia th foayfhka msgfjhs' nh uqod yefuka miqj mqmqrk ,o .%dmS iHqksldj"
mSs; foayh njg likh fjhs' fuh wka;rdi. .%ka:shla f,i l%shd lrhs' wd:j
pl%fha oS n fldaIfha yd .NdIfha tkafvdfu%hf is jk fjkia l meyeos,s
l< hq;= h' tys oS rer .; LH, FSH fm%dfciagfrdaka yd Biag%cka ug fjkia jk
wdldrh o wd;j pl%h md,kfha oS fuu fydafudakj, ldhNdrh o meyeos,s l<
hq;= h'
my; i|yka lreKq we;=<;a jk mos nhl jHqyh yd lD;Hh meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
wKalaISh kuq;a foayfha we;s Yd,;u ffi,j,ska tlls'
f.da,dldrh
ksrkakh ^cdkakh ke;& - ujf.ka fmdaIKh jk neks'
tal .=Kh
meh isy;rl ; ld,hla we;'
ud;D m%fKsl jH iys; h'
- ud;D m%fKsl ,laIK hqla;dkqjg ,nd fok w;r ffi,sh l%shd hdukh lrhs'
,hsfidfidauj, ^ndysl lKsld& yd ,smsv |s;s iys; >k ffi, ma,diauhla we;'
- ixfiapkfha oS ndysl m%;sl%shdj wdrN lrhs'
ma,diau mg,h$cdkak mg,h u`.ska wdjrKh we;'
- wdrlaIdj
cdkak mg,hg msg;ska mcdkak wjldYh we;'
- O%eh foay i|yd wjldYhla imhhs'
mcdkak wjldYhg msg;ska wffi,Sh wdjrKhla jk mEos l,dmh we;'
- nyqY=l%dKq m%dma;sh j,lhs'
W!kkfha oS bj;a jk w;sfl jKfoay r|jd .ekSu i|yd O%eh foay jeo.;a
fjhs'
mEos l,dmfha Y=l%dKq i|yd fYaI m%;s.%dyl m%foaY we;'
- w.% foay tkaihs fuu m%;s.%dyl ia:dk kdY lr ouhs' Y=l%dKqj,g ;jrg;a
mEos l,dmhg ne|Sug fkd yels fjhs'
mEos l,dmhg mska ffi,Sh wh uql=gh we;'
nfldaIj, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
os.h" me;,sh" wduka yeve;sh'
ckl wmsPohla we;' ^tal ia;h ir, >kdldr wmsPohls&
mxcrh" ucdj yd ndyslfhka iEoS we;'
ndyslfha m%Odk jYfhka O lik wjia:djkays mj;sk iHqksld" >kj
weysreKq inkaOl mgl" mS; foay yd Yaf; foay we;'
ucdf m%Odk jYfhka ,sys,a inkaOl mgl" rer jdyskS yd iakdhq we;'
iHqksld - m%d:l iHqksld" .%dmS l+m$mK; iHqksld
149
m%d:l iHqksld
m%d:l wKav ffi,hla ^2n& yd th jg flfrk ;ks iHqkl
s d ffi, ia;rhlska
hqla; h'
.%dmS iHqksld
m%d:l wKav ffi,h W!kkfha m<uq Ndckh we;' ;r,hla ms iHqksld
l=yrh" iHqksld ffi,j,ska jg we;' ixfiapkhg Ndckh h yels
oa;shsl wKav ffi,h ^n& r|jd .k is' Biag%cka ksmou m%Odk lD;H h'
mS; foayh
.%kauh ffi,j,ska iuka; h' ly meye;sh' uOHfha l=yrhla we;'
Biag%cka yd fm%dfciagfrdaka ksmojhs'
Yaf; foayh
wl%Sh ;ka;=uh mglhlska iuka; h'
ckl wmsPoh - >kdldr wmsPofhka iEKq ;ks ffi, ia;rhls'
l,, ckl wmsPofha uQ,sl ckaudKq ffi, wkQkkhg Ndck fuka n
ksmou wdrNu'
Wmf;a oS m%d:l iHqksld ,shk 2la muK nfldaIj, we;'
wd:jyrKh
ldka;djl f.a jhi wjq'45 - 55 w;r ld,fha oS FSH yd LH j,g we;s ixfoS;dj
wvq u ksid nfudapkh yd wd:j pl%h k;r uhs'
m%dfhda.sl mrSlaIKh (
wdlD;s yd rEm igyka Nd;fhka ia;%S m%ckl moaO;sh wOHhkh lsu'
150
ksmqK;dj 10'1'0 ( ka f.a m%ckk l%shdj,sh uid n,hs'
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'4 ( ixfiapkfha isg Wm; f;la wod< l%shdj,s ms<sn| uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, (
ixfiapkh is jk ia:dkh m%ldY lrhs'
ixfiapk l%shdj,sh wKalaISh ugfuka ia;r lrhs'
wfrdamKh meyeos,s lrhs'
l,, nkaOh" l,, mg, yd fmlks jef,ys jHqyh yd lD;Hhka ia;r lrhs'
.NksNdjh yd tys ld,iSudj ia;r lrhs'
.NksNdjfha ff;%udisl ;=< N%EKfha isjk m%Odk fjkia l m%ldY lrhs'
ysu yd Bg wod< Ok m%;sfmdaIK l%shdj,Ska ia;r lrhs'
likh jk l,,hg wdrlaIdj iy fmdaIKh iemhSu;a l,,h ord isu;a
isjk wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
m%iQ;s l%shdj,sh idrdxY lrhs'

dldrl:
ixfiapkfha isg ysu f;la l%shdj,sh wvx.= fmd;a yd wfkla uQ,dY% YsIHhkag
imhd fokak'
YsIHhka wOHhkh lrk ,o foaa idrdxY lsug Tjqkg Wmldr lrkak'
ixfiapkfha isg Wm; f;la jd;djla iEoSug Wmfoia fokak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a lreKq mx;sh bosfha bosm;a lsulg wjia:dj i,id fokak'
wod< wkql%uhlg Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

wKalaISh ugka ixfiapk l%shdj,sh wkqms<sfj,ska oelau
ia;%S m%ckk ud.h ;=< Y=l%dKq ;ekam;a u;a iu`. tys wvx.= Y%dj ksid" Y=l%dKq
ffi,j, ma,diaud mg,fha wKql ugf fjkia l /ila isf' f u`.ska
Y=ld% Kq ffi,j, p, Ndjh je fjhs' fuu ixiso
a h w il%h
s lrKh (capacitation)
f,i ykajhs' fuu Y=l%dKq wh uql=gfha ffi, w;ka kso f.dia meosl,dmfha
m%;s.%dyl m%foaY iu`. inkaO fjhs' f u`.ska Y=l%dKq ffi,fha w.% foayfhka
yhfrdksfia yd fm%d
a fhaia ^Wod( %mi
a k
s &a uqod yeu isf' ^fuh w.%foay m%;l
s h
s% djhs'&
n ffi,fha cdkak mg,fhka tkaihsu ksl=;a lsu" iy Y=l%dKqf ysi cdkak
mg,h iu`. yd u is wfkl=;a Y=l%dKq we;=`M u je<flhs' ^nyq Y=l%dKq m%dma;sh&
151
Y=l%dKqf ysi n ffi,fha ffi, ma,diauhg we;=`M fjhs' mhka; m%foaYfha

mj;sk ,hsfidfidau ^ndysl lksld& cdkak mg,fhka msg;g tkaihsu ksoyia
lsu ksid meos l,dmh .K" ;o nyqY=l%dKq m%dma;sh j<lhs' ^ndysl m%;sl%shdj&
Y=l%dKqf we;=`M u" oa;shsl nfha fojk W!kk Ndck mshjr imQK lr
fojks O%eh foayh ksl=;a lr ^mcdkak wjldYh g ksoyia lrhs'& mk; nh
iEoSug fya;= fjhs' fojk O%eh foayh jydu mydks hk w;r kHIafha
jKfoayj, o`.r .eiqkq iajNdjh wvq u ksid kHIah m%idrKh fjhs' fuu
wjia:df oS Y=l%dKq kHIah yd oa;shsl wKav ffi,fha kHIah" m%d.a kHIa f,i
ykajhs'
mqx m%dla kHIah ia;%S m%dla kHIash iu`. yd fjhs' ixfiapkfha ieneka u isjk
l%shdj fuh hs' iEkq kj kHIah jKfoay lg, folla ork w;r tla lg,hla
nfhka o wfkl Y=l%dKqfjka o ,efnhs' fuu oa.=K ffi,h (2n) hqla;dkqj k
f' kj kHIah" jydu wkqkkfhka fnfohs'
wfrdamKh
mef,damh
S kd,fha my<g .uka lrk hql;
a dkqj wkqkkfhka lsym
s gla fnoS fudre,dj
f,i ykajk l=vd ffi, f.dkqj idohs' fudre,dj" ,diag fldaIaGh f,i
ye|skafjk ;r,hla ms l=yruh ffi, f.da,hla iEoSug m%;sixOdkh fjhs' th
wdjrKh lrk ;ks ffi, ia;rh fmdaI,diagh k jk w;r thska yg .kakd
fmdaI ,diah wx.=,sld" .NdI tkafv%dfu%hug i ug wdOdr fjka is jk
fuu l%shdj,sh wfrdamKhhs' wfrdamKh ixfiapkfhka 7 jeks oskfha oS wer 14
jeks oskfha oS imQK fjhs' ud;D rerdYj, isg fuu wx.=,sld yryd fmdaIl jH
wjfYdaIKh u isfjhs' laIq wx.=,sld iys; wmsPohlska tu wx.=,sld wdia;rKh
jk w;r th wjfYdaIK mDIaGfha flaI;%M,h je lsug fya;= fjhs'
l,, nkaOh
laISrmdhskaf.a muKla yuqfjhs' ka fofofkl=f.a ffi,j,ska iNjh jk
tlu wjhjh fuhhs ûj iy N%EKh&' fuh m;kYs,s w,ska:fldah l,,
nkaOhlak fjhs' l,, nkaOh u~,dldrh' .NdI ;a;sfhka" fldahfuka
yd w,ska:fhka iEoS we;' .NdI ;a;sfha we;s ud;D rer wjldYj,g" flaI
kd,sld mq~q ork we`.s,s jeks m%ir ^fldah wx.=,sld& fkrd we;' ud;D yd N%EK
rerh Y% fkdfjhs' fuys we;s ;=kS ndOlh yryd ir, irKfhka yd il%sh
mjykfhka jH yqjudre fjhs'
Tlaiscka" c,h" .afldaia" wefkd w," ,smsv" iuyr fm%daka" Lksc" gka yd
fydafudak ud;D rerfhka N%EKh ,nd .kshs' m%;sfoay j. lsysmhla fT!IO
152
ûoHidr we;=`Mj& jhsri ^fymghsia B" refn,a,d&" I jH" is.r u" jeks jH
ujf.a isg N%EKhg .uka l< yel' N%EKfhka ujg c,h" hqhd" CO2 yd
fydfudak .uka lrhs' l,, nkaOh uq,a ld,j, oS hCG o miqj fm%dfciafgfrdak"a
Biag%cka yd l,, nkaO ,elafgdacka ksmojk wka;rdi.S jHqyhla o fjhs'
l,, nkaOfha lD;Hhka
uj yd N%EKh w;r jH yqjudrej
wka ; rdi. ^Bia g % c ka " fm% d fcia g frdka " udkj l,, nka O ,ela f gda c ka "
fldafhdaksla f.dkefvdfg%da*ska& lD;Hhla bgq lrhs'
N%EKh ujg inkaO lsu
iuyr jHj,g ndOlhla f,i l%shd lsu
fjkia jQ rer .K yd Rh idOlj,g wod< j is h yels rerh le
.eiSj,ska j<lajd .ekSu yd ud;D ixirKfha we;s idfmalaIj wl rer mSvkh
u`.ska N%EKhg h yels ydks j<lajd .ekSu
l,, mg,
fmdaI ,diagfha ndysr ffi,j,ska yg.kakd m%ir ^fmdaI ,diag wx.=,sld&
tkafvdfu%h ;=<g hef' wx.=,sld yryd fmdaIl wjfYdaIKh fjhs' we;=
ffi, mskavfha ffi, fnfohs' l,,h fkdkj;ajd jefvk w;r ndysr;u mgl
l,,djdrh yd cdkak uh idohs' l,,djdrh u`.ska ;r,h wvx.= l=yrhla
^l,,djdl l=yrh& wdjrKh flfrk w;r l,,h tys wj,nkh mejf;ka
hdka;%sl ydksj,ska wdrlaId lrhs' cdkak uhg meyeos,s lD;Hhka ke;s w;r
miqj l,, nkaOh ;=< .s,S hhs'
y;rjeks l,, mg,h jk w,ska:h l,,fha miq nvjef,ka yg f.k fldahu
iu`. b;d im f,i inkaO l,, nkaOh iEoSug odhlfjhs'
fmlks je,
N%EKh yd l,, nkaOh w;r inkaOh we;s lrk /yekhs'
.Nks Ndjh yd tys ld,iSudj
nh ixfiapkh jq wjia:df isg tu ia;%sh .NkS nj ie,flhs' ixfiapkfha
isg Wm; olajd ld,h .e ld,hhs' ksidf.a th i;s 40 la muK fjhs'
tla tla ff;%udislh ;=< N%EKfha isjk m%Odk fjkial
ieu udi ;=kl ld,iSudjla ;=<u isjk likfha m%Odk wjia:d m%ldY l< hq;=
h' my; i|yka lreKq biau;= jk mos l,, lik wjia:dj, mska;+r fmkah hq;=
h'
;=ka jk udih wjidkfha N%EKh 7'5 cm os.h" 25 - 30 g nr h' weia mQK jYfhka
jOkh we;' weis msh yd we;' kdih likh we;' ndysr lkafm;a;
msysghs' .d;%d imQKfhka je we;' ksh likh we;' m%Odk rer jdysKS
likh we;s w;r yDo iamkaokh ykd .; yel' foayfha wksl=;a fldgiaj,g
wkqmd;slj ysfiys Yd,;ajh je h'
153
yh jeks udih wjidkfha N%EKh 25-35 cm os. h' idudkHfhka 550 - 700 g nr h'
weismsh fjkaj we;' weismsh likh we;' yu /,s .eiS mj;shs' ysi Yd, h'
uqyqfka udkj ,laIK we;s w;r ysiflia je mj;S' foayh ishq frdau j.hlska
wdjrKh we;' fndfyda wia wiaNjh we;' foayfha wksl=;a fldgiaj,g
idfmalaIj ysfia ;snq iudkqmd;sl nj wvq h'
kj jeks udih wjidkfha ^40 i;s& N%EKh 50 cm os.ska hq;= jk w;r idudkHfhka
3000 g muK nr h' ysfia Yd, iajNdjh wvq u ksid ysi yd foayh jvd;a
iudkqmd;sl we;' ;snQ ish
q frdau ye,S we;' we`.s,s w. olajd ksh je we;' jDIK
fldaIhg jDIK wjfrdayKh we;' ishu wjhj moaO;s fyd|ska likh we;'
rkaO% yer ysialnf,a wia wiaNjkh we;' i;s 40lg miq Wm; isf'
Wm;
N%EKh tla;rd m%udKhlg ^.NdIfha m%udKhg idfmalaIj& jOkh jQ miq Wm;
isfjhs' l,, likfha 16 jeks i;sfha isg l,, nkaOfhka Biag%cka yd
fm%dfciagfrdaka ksmofjhs' ufhdafu%hf Tlaisfgdaiska m%;s.%dyl we;s u Biag%cka
u`.ska W;af;ackh fjhs' ysug jydu l,ska fm%dfciagfrdaka ugu YS>%fhka
my< nishs' N%EKfha yd ujf.a yhsfmd;e,uiska uqod yk Tlaisfgdaiska yd
.NdIfha Tlaisfgdaiska m%;s.%dyl fya;=fjka ufhdafu%hf m%n, ixfldapk we;s
u W;af;ackh fjhs'
Tla i s f gda i s k a u`.s k a l,, nka O h W;a f ;a c kh ls u fya ; = f jka ks m ofjk

fm%diag.a,ekaka o ufhdafu%hf ixfldapk we;s lrhs' fuu ixfldapk ksid
N%EKh fhdaks ud.h Tiafia msg;g ;,af' N%EKfha ysi yd fmaYs ixfldapk u`.ska
.NdI ;a;sfha yd .e f.f,ys m%idr m%;s.%dyl W;af;ackh lrhs' ysu isjk
;=re u ufhdafu%hf ixfldapkh os.ska os.g u isu i|yd je jefhka
Tlaisfgdaiska yd fm%diag.a,ekaka ksoyia lsu i|yd W;af;ackh u f u`.ska is
fjhs' Ôk m%;sfmdaIs hdka;%Kh&
154
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'5 ( orejdf.a fmdaIKh yd likh uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
bf.kq M, (
kd, yd Lkald moaO;s wjOdrKh lrka ia;k .%kaj, o, jHqyh yd lD;Hh
ia;r lrhs'
ls ksIamdokh yd ickh ûqod yeu& yd wod< iakdhq yd fydafudak md,kh
meyeos,s lrhs'
u lsj, m%Odk ixrpl m%ldY lrhs'
u lsj, m%Odk lD;H m%ldY lrhs'
fnda;,fhka ls fmu g jvd ujq ls oSf jdisodhl ;;a;aj fpkh lrhs'
O <ore yd <ud wjj, m%Yia; ldhsl yd udkisl jOkh i|yd wdydr" WKqiu
q "yd
/ljrKfha jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
orejdf.a jOkh yd fmdaIKhg wod< fmd;a yd m;%sld isiqkag imhd fokak'
ia;k.%kaj, jHqyh yd lD;H" lsj, m%Odk ixrpl yd ujq ls oSf m%Odk jeo.;a
l ms<sn| idlPdjlg isiqka fhduq lrkak'
fmd;a msxpla idod mx;shg bosm;a lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak'
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'

ia;k .%ka
ia;k .%kaj, ls Y%djh jk .%ka we;' .%ka iEoS we;af;a ls Y%djh lrk ffi,
j,sks' ls Y%djh lrk ffi,j,ska iEoS ls Y%d moaO;s 15 -20 muK we;' iEu
moaO;shla u ls .nvd lrk LKald rdYshlska ^.ld& iEoS we;' kd, yd .ld
isks fmaYs yd fo ffi,j,ska jg we;' LKald$.ldj,ska m%kd,j,g o
bkamiq tu m%kd,j, Y%djhka wdYj,g$fldagrl o uqod yefrk w;r tu wdY Yd,
m%kd, yryd fjk fjk u ^;k mq~qj u;& jD; f'
mqvqj yd ta jgd jQ wh, m%foaYfha iamY ixfoS m%;s.%dyl msysgd we;'
155
ls ksmou yd ls uqod yeu yd wod< iakdhql yd fydafudakuh md,kh

idudkH ia;%shlf.a yhsfmd;e,uiska Y%djh jk ^PIF& fm%d,elaka ksfYaOk idOlh
- Prolactin Inhibiting Factor ksid mqj mshqgfhka fm%da,elaka Y%djh ksfYa;j
mj;shs'
.NkS ld,h ;=< mshhqrej, m%udKh Yd,f ' laIr

S .%k
a jOkh fm%dfciafgfrdaka
u`.ska o m%Kd,j, jOkh Biag%cka u`.ska o md,kh fjhs'
mQj mshqgfhka Y%djh jk fm%da,elaka yd l,, nkaO ,elafgdacka ls ksIamdokh

yd wod< h' .Nks ld,h uq,af,a fm%dfciagfrdakaj, meje;au ksid fm%da,elaka
Y%djh ksfYa;j meje;afuka ls Y%djh u is fkdfjhs' l,, nkaOh bj;a u
ksid Wmf;a oS Biagc
% ka yd fm%dfciagfrdaka ug my<j mj;sh's f ksid fm%d,
a elala
Y%djh ;j rg;a ksfYa;j fkd mj;shs' tu ksid .ld ls Y%djhg W;af;ackh
fjhs' mqvqj yd wh, m%foaYfha we;s m%;s.%dylj,ska werfUk iakdhq wdf. iqIqkdj
Tiafia yhsfmd;e,uig ifm%aIKh tu`.ska wmr mshqgh" Tlaisfgdaiska Y%djhg
W;af;ackh fjhs' f ksid .ld wjg isks fmaYs ;ka;= ixfldapkh is m%kd,
yd wdY ;=<g yd miqj mqvqj Tiafia ndysrg ls uqod yeu is fjhs'
ls Wrd u ksid we;s jk W;af;ackh u`.ska fm%d,elakaa uqod yeu yhsfmd;e,ui

fj;g hefjk fjk;a m%;Slhla ksid isfjhs'
uq,a mYapd;a <ud ld,h ;=< fmdaIKh

<orejkag udi 6la muK jhi jk f;la ujq lsfrka muKla fmdaIKh l< hq;=
h' tu ld,fha oS jOkh i|yd wjYH jk ish u fmdaIl wjYH ksh; m%udKj,ska
ujq lsfrys wvx.= h' udi 6 isg wjq'2 olajd w;sfl wdydr o iu`. ujq ls oSu os.g
u lrf.k hd hq;= h'
udi 6 oS wO >k wddyr ykajd osh hq;= h' wO >k wdydr i|yd n;a" w;dm,a
yd OdkH j. Nd; l< yels h' tajdg t<j`M o tl;= l< hq;= h' fuu jhfia
oS m<;=re o oSu is l< hq;= h'
w;sfl wdydr wdrN lr udi 2la muK .; jk ;=re <orejdg isjrla muK tu
>k wdydr ,nd osh hq;= h' udi 8-9 muK jhi jk g fuu jdr .Kk 4-6la
muK je lsu ksfoaY flf'
jir folla muK jhia jk g orejd mjqf,a wks;a wh .kakd wdydru .ekSug
mqyqKq l< hq;= h'
156
<orejdf.a yd <uhdf.a udkisl jOkh

<orejd os.= ld,hla wdydr" WKqiqu yd wdrlaIdj i|yd foudmshka u; hefma' Wmosk
wjia:df oS iakdhq moaO;sh we;=<;aj <orejdf.a fndfyda moaO;s wmk; ;;a;ajfha
mj;sk w;r uq,a udi lSmh ;=< f.j;a jOkhla fmkajhs' bmoSfuka miq uq,a udi
lSmh ;=< <orejd b;d YS>% udkisl jOkhla fmkajhs' <orejd b;d blaukska ;udg
w,a,d .; yels O jia;= yeisrug yelshdjla ,nd .kakd w;r idudkHfhka udi
11-14 muK wjidk jk g ysfia yd w;a mdj, p,k md,kh lr .ekSug;a ms<f s j,ska
ys| .ekSug" isg .ekSug yd wdOdrhlska f;drj weoSug yelshdj ,nd .kshs' udi
folla muK jhi jk g <orejdg O iajrj,ska y~ ke`.Sug yels jk w;r
m%:u jir ;=< oS u l:d lsf yelshdj ,nd .kS' jir follaa muK jhia jk g
idudkHfhka jpk 200l muK jpk ud,djla orejdg we;'
wfkl=;a laISrmdhska yd ii|k g ksia fYaIfha udkisl jOk ld,h b;d

wl h' fuh fud<fha wl ixlSK;ajh yd inkaOh' fuu ld,h uq`M,af,a u
foumsh wdrlaIdj ie,fik w;r wOHdmkh yd O mqyqKqj ,nd oSu o is flf'
fuh mKdufha oS udkj j.hdf.a id:l;ajh i|yd w;sYhska bjy,a we;'
157
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'6 ( m%ckl fi!LH ms<sn| i;su;a fjhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
fh!jfkdaoh yd inkaO foayfha isjk m%Odk fjkia ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
.NkS Ndjfha uQ,sl ,laIK m%ldY lrhs'
.NkS Ndjh ykd .ekSf mlaId ia;drKh lrhs'
mjq,a ixOdkh yd tys jeo.;a l m%ldY lrhs'
.e .ekSu je<elaf l%u wod< ldhsl oHd;aul l%h
s dj,s iu`. ixlaIm
s ;
a j inkaO
lrhs'
,sx.slj ifm%aIKh jk wdidok frda. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'

dldrl:
ud;D frday,a" ,sx.dY%s; frda. ms<sn| idhk yd mjq,a ie,iq uOHia:dkj,ska m%ckl
fi!LH ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;= lr .ekSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
m;%sld" fmdaiag yd fmd;a msxp idoka m%oYkhla ixOdkh lrjkak'

fh!jfkdaoh yd wod< j foayfha is jk m%Odk fjkial'
GnRH Y%djh je u ksid is jk FSH iy LH i%djfha by< hdu" fh!jfkdaofha
oS ldhsl yd udkisl fjkia l /ila we;s lr,Sug fya;= f' fuu m%ckl bkaSh
W;af;acl fydafudak u`.ska is lrk ,sx.sl fydafudak Y%djfha jeu ksid
m%ckl moaO;sfha mK; u yd oa;shsl ,sx.sl ,laIK we;s u f.j;a lrhs'
.eyeKq <uhskaf.a jOk f.h je "wjq' 12-13 w;r ld,fha oS m%:u wd;jh is
f'
m%Odk Ydl fjkial
m%ckl moaO;sh mK;sh lrd <`.d fjhs'
wd:j pl%h yd n fudapkh werfUhs'
mshhqrej, jOkh isu
fY%daKs yd lsys,s m%foaYj, frdau jOkh fjhs'
Wl=, m<,a u yd Wi jef" f.h jefjhs'
wOYaph fo ;ekam;a jk m%udKh je fjhs'
ysiflia jeu isu'
158
jhi 13 - 14 w;r oS ms <uqkaf.a m%:u i Y=l%dKq fudapkh is fjhs'

ms <uqka ;=< m%Odk Ydl fjkial
wia yd fmaYsj, jOkh yd Wfiys yd nfrys lemS fmfkk jOkhla isu
iajrd,h Yd, u yd lg y~ .eUqre u
uqyqK" lsys,s" mmqj" Worh yd fY%daKs m%foaYfha frdau jOkh
YsYakh" mqr#ia .%ka yd jDIK fldaI Yd, u
Y=l%Or kd,sld mk; u yd Y=l%dKq ksmou
Wrysia m<,a u
.NkS Ndjfha uQ,sl ,laIK
.Nks Ndjh yd wod< fydafudakuh fjkia l ksid m%Odk jYfhka my;
i|yka m%;sM, we;s fjhs'
wd:jh k;r u
WoEik frda.S nj ^jukh" Tlaldrh" lerle,a,&
we;e wdydr i|yd oe wdYdjla iy$fyda we;e wdydr i|yd wm%sh njla we;su
mshhqrej, we;s jk uD nj
ixfiapkfhka osk 14 isg uQ;%j, o osk 10g miqj rerfha o hCG mej;Su
uQ;% my lsf jdr .Kk je u
iuyrekaf.a mshhqrej, wh, m%foaYfha meyeh fjkiau
iuyrekag u,noaOh we;su
.Nks Ndjh ykd .ekSu i|yd mlaId
rerfha yd uQ;%j, mj;sk hCG m%udKh u; uQ,sl jYfhka mok f'
.NkS ia;%shlf.a rerh hCG idkaKh je f'
14 jeks oskfhka miq uQ;%j, o 10 oskfhka miqj rerfha o hCG mej;Su
.NkS ia;%shlf.a m<uq udi ;=k ;=< hCG rerfha by< j mej;S miqj wvq fjhs'
Wm;a md,kh
im;aj, we;s iS; Ndjh ksid mj;sk im;aj, ;sridr Nd;h i|yd mjq,l
m%udKh iSudu iqiq nj m%ldY we;' mjqf,a idudlhka ixLHdj iSud
lsug$ore Wm;a m%udo lsu flf foudmshkaf.a wdl ;;a;ajh o n,mdhs'
Wm;a md,k l%u - Wm;a md,k l%u u`.ska wkjYH ms,sis| .ekS je<fla'
iq,N" ;djld,sl l%u jkafka"
.s,k
s fm;s - ldka;djka i|yd Biagc
% ka yd fm%dfciagfrdka by< idkaKhlska
mej;Su ksid iHqksld mK; u yd wfrdamKh ksfYaOkh f' FSH yd LH
iDK m%;sfmdaYs f,i fuys oS ksfYaOkh jk w;r .ef., Yaf,aIauh >k u
o fya;= fjhs'
Wm;a md,k fldmq ^fldkavuh& - mqreIhka i|yd
Y=l%dKq m%fYkh je<lSu'
159
IUD ^mh& - ldka;djka i|yd

wfrdamKh kj;hs' .NdYfha we;s jk m%ody ;;a;j
a hka f i|yd fya;f
= jhs'
Depo Provera ldka;djka i|yd
1' tkafvdfu%hu ;=kS u ksid wfrdamKh je<lSu
2' .ef., Yaf,aIau,fha >klu wl u ksid Y=l%dKq we;=`M u je<lSu
3' n fudapkh je<lSu
iq,N iar l%u
mqreIhska i|yd - jdfi;al Y,Hluh
Y=l%dKq ksoyia lsu kj;shs'
ldka;djka - mef,damSh kd, .eg .eiSu
.NdYhg n msiSu je<lSu
j| Ndjh
m%ckl wjfha miqjk hqj,lg Wm;a md,k l%u Nd; fkdlr l%uj;aj
ixi.fha fhko ^wd:j pl%fha ire ld,h ;=<& jirlg miq o ms<sis| .ekSula
is fkduhs'
orejl= ms<sis| .ekSu ms<sn|j ffjoH oHd;aul Wml%u

foayfhka neyer oS n yd Y=l%dKq wdikakj ;ekam;a lsu u`.ska ixfiapkh
myiq lsu yd l,,h .NdYh ;=< ;ekam;a lsu;a is lrhs'
160
,sx.slj ifm%aIKh jk wdidok

ifm%aIKh jk
wdidokh jHdcklhd frda. ,laIK
m%Odk l%uh
f.dfkdahdj Neisseria ,sx.sl mskaf.a -
gonorrhoea inkaO;d uq;% msglsf oS we;sjk
ûjf.ka orejdg wmyiq;dj yd oe,a,"
Wmf;a & fu!;% ,sx.sl ud.fhka
ierj iys; ly meye
i%djhla msgu'
f iu`. u WK iy
ysiroh
ldka;djkag -
mef,damSh kd, ierjj,ska
msu" j| Ndjh
isms,sia Treponema ,sx.sl foa y fha kEu ia : dkhl

pallidum inkaO;d" ^fhdaks ud.h" f;d,a" we`.s,s"
ujf.ka orejdg ;kmqvq& jK fyda ,s
^Wmf;a& ^fokdld fkdjk jK& we;s
u" WK" if l=Iag
taia HIV ,sx.sl wdydr reh yd nr wvq u"

inkaO;d" foay WK" oS>ld,Skj mj;sk
^k;= lr.;a udkj
;r, yryd
m%;sYla;s m%;sYla;s h<s leiai'
^rerh" uia;=&
W!k;d W!k;d Lymphoma - ^jid moaO;sh
jdkqyrKh
iy,laIKh& jhsrih fkdjQ tkak;a wdY%s;j&" m%;sYla;slrK
lgq" ujf.a isg moaO;sfha |jeula f,i
N%EKhg .Nks ksfudakshdj yd fjk;a
iufha " ore frda. we;sf'
Wmf;a " u ls
u.ska
,sx.sl ,sx.sl m%foaY jgd

,sx.dY%s; Herpes
inkaO;d fokdld leis,a,la iys;
ymSia simplex
jhsrih jK" iuyr wjia:dj, oS
WK'
161
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'7 ( Ydl m%pdrK l%u m,odhS f,i fhdod .ekSf yqrej ,nhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
Ydlj, jOl m%ckk l%u flfhka meyeos,s lrhs'
jOl m%ckkh" ,sx.sl m%ckkfhka fjkia jk wdldrh olajhs'
Ydlj, jOl m%pdrK l%u m%ldY lrhs'
m%pdrKh i|yd w;= len,s" wxl=r noaOh yd ls,s noaOh Nd; lsu flfhka ia;r
lrhs'
Ydl mgl kd,ia:j mj;ajd f.k hdf ;dlaIKhla f,i Ydl mgl frdamKh
ykd .kshs'
Ydl mgl frdamKfha Nd; lrk fmdaIl udOHj, we;=<;a ix>gl ,ehsia;= .;
lrhs'
mgl frdamKfha oS Ydl jOl jHj, lD;H i|yka lrhs'
mgl frdamKfha Nd; lrk O wdrNl Ydl fldgia i|yka lrhs'
laIq m%pdrKfha mshjr flfhka ia;r lrhs'
laIq m%pdrKh we;=`Mj mgl frdamK ;dlaIKfha fhoS i|yka lrhs'

dldrl:
Ydlj, O jOl m%pdrK jHqy tl;= lrk f,i YsIHhkag mjikak'
tajd kslaIKh lr tu jHqyj, ,laIK ykd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
l|ka len,s lemSu" noaO lsu yd mgl frdamKh jeks Ydl jOl m%pdrK l%u
fmkau i|yd mfhaIK uOHia:dk" uQ,sl wOHhk wdh;kh yd lDIslu ldhd,
jeks ia:dkj,g flaI;% pdld ie,iq lrkak'
isiqka ,nd .;a oekqu u; bosm;a lsula iQodk lrkak'
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'

Wiia Ydlj, w,sx.sl m%ckkfha oS b;d u iq,n wdldrh jkafka jOl m%pdrKhhs'
Ydlj, jOl fldgia u`.ska m%pdrl jHqy ksmojhs'
162
ffrfidau" fldau" n,an yd ialkaO wdlkaO jeks N+.; l|ka f i|yd l%shd lrhs'
fmdf<dj ugfuka ;sria f,i Odjl jOkh f' jdhj fldgiaj,ska n,a, mek
k`.shs' l|g wu;rj wksl=;a Ydl fldgiaj,ska wd.ka;=l wxl=r mek k`.shs' iuyr
tajd wdydr ix; lrka wys;lr ld,j, oS fkdkeiS j;a ug ld,;rK tall
f,i l%shd lrhs'
ffrfidau
;sria f,i jefvk N+.; l|ka h' fndfydag u;= msgg wdikakj jef' jdhj
m%frdayh" Y,al m;%" iqma; wxl=r" uq,a yd wd.ka;=l uq,a iys; hs' Wod (- Musa,
Zingiber, Curcuma, Canna.
fldau
isria f,i jefvk fl m%idrKh jQ N+ .; l|ls' jdhj m%frdayh" Y,al m;%"
iqma; wxl=r" uq,a yd wd.ka;=l uq,a orhs' Wod( Colocasia, Alocasia, Gladiolus
n,an
m%idrKh jQ m;% mdo ork fl N+ .; l|ls' Wod ( Allium, Crinum.
Odjl
isria Ydl lf|ys llaISh wxl=rj,ska mek kef`.k mdYal YdLd fmd<jg u;=
mska" ;sriaj jefvk w;r ta u`.ska wd.ka;=l uq,a yd kj m%frday yg .kshs'
Wod( Centella, Cyperus, Pistia
ialkaO wdlkaO
ix; wjhjhla f,i l%shd lsug bosuqk YdLkh jQ N+.; l|ls' tajdfha Y,alm;%
yd iqma; llaISh wxl=r msysghs' ld,;rK jHqy f,i l%shd lrhs' Wod ( Solanum
n,a,
jdhj l|lska yg .efkk llaISh wxl=r jOkfhka we;s jk m;% iys; l=vd
YdLdjlaa miqj m%Odk Ydlfhka fjkaj kj Ydlhla ksmojhs'
Wod(- Annanas, Dioscoria
wd.ka;=l wxl=r
Ydl l|kaj,ska yer Ydl jOl jHqyfha m;% jeks fjk;a fldgiaj,ska we;s jk
kj Ydl njg likh h yels wxl=rhs'
Wod (- Bryophyllum, Begonia
Ydl m%pdrK l%u
w;= len,s
llaISh wxl=r iys; l| len,s lD;%su f,i mfia isgqu' iuyr wjia:dj,
Tlaisk Nd; lrhs'
Wod (- Manihot, Ipomea, Camelia, Rosa
163
wxl=r noaOh
uQ, moaO;sh iys; Ydlhlg fjk;a Ydlhlska ,nd .;a llaISh wxl+rhla noaO
lsu
noaO lrkakd jQ wxl=rh wkqch hs' th .%dylhg noaO flf' .%dylh O m%fNao
follg wh;a fyda lsgq inkaO;d iys; fYaIj,g wh;a h yel'
fuu l%shdj,sfha oS llaISh wxl=rhla iu`. Ydlhl fmd;a;la m%fifuka bj;a
lr" uqjy;a msyshl wdOdrfhka .%dyl Ydlfha fmd;a; m,d jD; lr leh
iamY jk f,i noaOh is lrhs' tu ia:dkh fyd|ska noaO mj,ska fj,d wkqch
.%dylhg inkaO ug bv yhs'
O m%fNaoj, uQ,moaO;s iu`. l|ka inkaO lsu" ujq Ydlfha u ,laIK iys;
j f.fhka m%pdrKh lsug yels u jdisodhl ;;a;ajhls'
Wod ( m<;=re Ydl jk Mongifera, Rosajeks is;=re Ydl
ls,s noaOh
wxl=r noaOhg fndfydarg iudk h' wxl=rhla fjkqjg wkqch f,i ls,a,la
fhdod .kshs'
Ydl mgl frdamKh
jdKqy; lD;%su ;;a;aj hgf;a frdamK udOHhkays kd,ia:j Ydl mgl fldgia
jOkhg ie,iSuhs'
W; ;;a;aj imhd ka g fndfyda Ydl ffi,j, mQK Ydlhla we;s lsu i|yd
iuq,ckk Njhla we;'
frdamK udOHhl jOl jHj, ldh Ndrh
ihsfgdlhskska yd Tlaiska ffi, Ndckhg yd fNaokhg odhl fjhs' uq,a
jOkhg Tlaisk o l| jOkhg ihsfgdlhskska o jeo.;a h'
frdamK udOHhl ix>gl w;r c,h" wldnksl fmdaIl" ldnka m%Njh ^fndfyda
g iqfl%daia&" Ydl jOl jH yd wksla wjYH ldnksl ixfhda. we;'
jOkfha ,dlaIKsl .;s ,laIK ksKh jkafka Tlaisk yd ihsfgdlhskska
wkqmd;fhks'
mgl frdamK l%shdj,sh wdrN lsu i|yd wdrNl Ydl ^mQjlh& f,i Ydlhl
O fldgia jk w.%ia: yd mdYal wxl=r" l|ka" m;%" fKq yd l,, fldgia
fhdod .; yel'
udOHfha jdkqy; Ndjh mj;ajd .ekSu yd wmQ;s ;;a;aj w;HjYH fjhs'
lsklh hkq Ndckh jk fNaokh fkdjQ" mgl frdamKfha oS mQjlfhka
ksmojd .kq ,nk ffi, ialkaOhhs'
frdamK udOH yd ;;a;aj W; mos yiqrejd .ekSu u`.ska lsklfhka uq,a yd l|ka
we;s u fm%arKh l< yel'
164
laIq m%pdrKfha mshjr yd l%shdms<sfj<

laIq m%pdrKfha oS mgl frdamK l%shdj,sh u`.ska Ydl rdYshla ,nd .efka'
W; mQjlhka êxplants& ,nd .ekSu" W; frdamK udOHhka jdkqy; ;;a;aj
hgf;a ms<sfh, lsu" l%shdj,sh wdrN lsu" m%frday we;su fm%arKh lsu"
m%frday .=Kkh" uq,a we;su fm%arKh yd mir foaY.=Ksl ;;a;ajj,g .e,fmk
mos me,Eh ieliSu laIq m%pdrKfha mshjr fjhs'
laIq m%pdrKfha jdis jkafka tlu m%fKs oYh iys; Ydl Yd, ixLHdjla ,nd
.ekSu' wvq ld,hl " wvq bv m%udKhlska foaY.=Ksl ;;a;ajj, n,mEulska
f;drj Ydl ,nd .ekSu'
jH c fkdidok Ydl m%pdrKh" ksfrda.S Ydl ,nd .ekSu wdh hs'
laIq m%pdrKhg wu;r j mgl frdamKfha wfkl=;a Nd; w;r wYS; ;;a;aj
hgf;a cklma,diau ixrlaIKh' cdk m%;sixfhda; Ydl ksmojd .ekSu" tal .=K
Ydl ,nd .ekSu o fjhs'
165
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'8 ( fN!l ;hg olajk wkqj;k ia;r lsug Ydlj, jk
pl%j, m%jK;d fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 10
bf.kq M, (
w,sx.sl m%ckkh yd iei|Sfuka ,sx.sl m%ckkfha jeo.;al ia;r lrhs'
ckaudKq ksmojk tal .=K ckaudKq Ydl mrmrdj cdKq ksmojk oa.=K cdKq
Ydl mrmrdj" mrmrd m%;Hdj;khg odhl jk nj meyeos,s lrhs'
fN!l Ydlj, mKdufha oS tal.=K ckaudKq Ydl mrmrd laISK f.dia fN!l
mirhg wkqj;khla f,i oa.=K cdKq Ydl mrmrdj m%uqL jk nj meyeos,s
lrhs'
fN!l ;hg olajk wkqj;k meyeos,s lsu i|yd Pogonatum, Nephrolepis,
Selaginella, Cycas yd oYSh wdjD; clhl m%ckkh yd jkpl%j, we;s jeo.;a
,laIK fhdod .kshs'

dldrl:
wod< Ydlj, ksoYl" iar lod" msx;+r yd ia;r imhd fokak'
tla tla Ydlfha jk pl% f.dv kexug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
Tjqkaf.a fidhd .ekS bosm;a lsulg wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos iqiq wkqms<sfj<lg ia;drKh lrkak'

Ydlj, ,sx.sl m%ckkh
fndfyda fN!l Ydl ,sx.slj fukau w,sx.slj o m%ckkh lrhs' f iEu
l%uhlu jdis fukau wjdis o we;'
ixfiapkfhka miqj jk pl%hl W!kkh m%udoj isu fya;=fjka oa.=K
mrmrdjla we;s fjhs' tal.=K ckaudKq Ydl mrmrdj we;s lsf oS W!kkfhka
cdKq ksmou oa.=K mrmrdf is fjhs'
iEu fN!l Ydlhl u j| ffi, ia;rj,ska wdjrKh jQ m%ckl jHqy we;'
^ckaudKqOdks yd cdKqOdks& ixfiapkfhka miqj we;s jk hqla;dkqj ckaudkq
Ydlh ;=< /|s ckaudkq Ydlfhka fmdaIKh ,nk l,,h njg m;afjhs'
f.dv u id:l f,i .KdjdislrKh u i|yd mKdl l%shdj,sfha oS oa.=K
mrmrdj wkqj;k we;s lr f.k we;'
166
fN!l Ydl mKdl l%shdj,sfha oS jk pl%j, ckaudkq Ydl mrmrdj laISK

cdKq Ydl u; hemSf ;;a;ajhla c Ydlj, oelsh yels h'
fN!l Ydlj, jk pl%j, O;ajh
my; i|yka Ydlj, jk pl% wOHhkfhka tajd fN!l ;hlg jvd;a
fyd|ska mKduh we;s nj wOHhkh lrkak'
Wod ( Pogonatum, Nephrolepis, Selaginella, Cycas yd oYSh Anthophyta
(Angiosperm) Ydl
Pogonatum j, cSjk pl%h
cdKq" m%dla;%ka;h" mqx yd cdhd ckaudKq Ydl" wdlsf.dakshd" weka;hd" Y=l%dKq"
wKavh" l,,h" hqla;dKqj" cdKqYdlh" hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r
lrkak'
by; wjia:d fN!l mirhl j;aug fldf;la rg wkqj;kh we;aoe hs
idlPd lrkak'
cSjk pl%fha O wjia:d ksfhdackh lrk jOl iy m%ckl jHqyj, rEmigyka
we;=`Mj iia;rd;aul ia;rhla isik
q a iska u;l ;nd .ekSu wfmalI
a d fkdflf'
Nephrolepis ys jk pl%h
cdKq Ydlh" fidri" cdKqOdksh" cdKq" m%dla;,i" wdlsf.dakshd" weka;hd"
Y=ld% Kq" wKavh" l,,h" hql;
a dkqj hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r lrkak'
idlPd lrkak'
a d fkdflf'
Selaginella ys jk pl%h
cdKq Ydlh" ixfla;=j" uyd cdKqOdks" laIq cdKqOdks" uyd cdKq" laIq
cdKq" cdhd ckaudKq Ydlh" mqx ckaudKq Ydlh" Y=ld% Kq" wKavh" l,,h" hql;
a dkqj
hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r lrkak'
Iu cdKql;dj c ,dY mKduh u flfrys n,md we;s wdldrh ia;r
lrkak'
idlPd lrkak'
a d fkdflf'
167
Cycas ys jk pl%h
cdKq Ydlh" mqx cdKq Ydlh" cdhd cdKq Ydlh" ixfla;=j"
laIq cdKq m;%h - laIq cdKqOdks" laIq cdKq" mqx ckaudKq Ydlh" Y=l%dKq"
uyd cdKq m;%h - uyd cdKq Odks" nh" cdhd ckaudKq Ydlh" wKavdKqOdks"
wKavh" hqla;dKqj" l,,h" ch hk wjia:d weiqfrka jk pl%h ia;r lrkak'
idlPd lrkak'
a d fkdflf'
oYSh imqIam Ydlj, (Anthophyta) jk pl%h

mKdl l%shdj,sfha oS imqIam Ydlj, jk pl%h f.dv u mirhl meje;au
i|yd wkqj;kh jqKq wdldrh flfhka meyeos,s lrkak'
fN!l mirj, oS Yd, O;ajhla iys; w;sYhska u id:l O jdiia:dkj,
.KdjdislrKh jQ Ydl ldKavh ksfhdackh jkafka imqIam Ydl u`.sks'
168
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'9 ( imqIam Ydlj, ,sx.sl m%ckk l%shdj,sh yd inkaO jHqy yd
lD;H ms<sn| wkafIKfha fhfohs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
mqIamhl jHqyh yd lD;H ia;drKh lrhs'
imqIam Ydlj, mrd.kh yd ixfiapkh ia;r lrhs'
c yd M,j, likfha jeo.;alu m%ldY lrhs'
md;fkdaM,kh WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrhs'
c m%frdayKfha oS isjk m%Odk fjkia ia;r lrhs'
c iqma;;djfha jeo.;al m%ldY lrhs'

dldrl:
oYSh mqIam fldgia wvx.= mqIam isiqkag imhd fokak'
uq;
s yd bf,lafg%dksl uQ,dY% u`.ska isik
q g
a mrd.kh" ixfiapkh" c yd M, likh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla/ia lsug mjikak'
tla/ia lr.;a f;dr;=re mok lrf.k mejreula ilikak'
bosm;a lsulg isiqka iQodk lrjkak'
Ih lreKq wkdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj<lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'

imqIam Ydlj, m%ckkh
mqIamfha jHqyh yd lD;H
mqIam uxc yd mqIamj, iia;r b.ekaula n,dfmdfrd;a;= fkdf' mqIamhla ia;r
lsf oS Nd; jk nyqo," noaOo," uql=g" wmso," fKq" wmsPdhdx.s" mcdhdx.s"
wfOdachdx.s mqIam talfldaIah yd nyqfldaIah hk tajd ykajd fokak' ^mqIam
igyka yd mqIam iQ;% b.ekau wjYH fkdf'&
mqIam yd M, imqIam Ydlj,g ,dlaIKslh
mqIamhl oYSh jHqyh ia;r lrkak' th ixfla;=j iu`. ixikaokh lrkak'
uksh yd o, m;% j| m;% fjhs' fKq laIq cdKqm;% jk w;r wKvm uyd cdKq
m;% fjhs'
fKqf mrd. ksIamdokh u yd ksoyia lsu ia;r lrkak'
oYSh nfldaIhl jHqyh ia;r lrkak' nhl jHqyh" cdhdckaudKq Ydlfh$$a
l,, fldaIfha likh ia;r lrkak'
169
mrd.kh yd ixfiapkh
mrd. lksldjl oYSh jHqyh yd mrd.kh i|yd tajd f.k hk wdldrh ia;r
lrkak'
h mqIamhl mrd. tu mqIamfha u l,xlh u; ;ekam;a u iajmrd.kh f,i
w: olajkak' h mqIamhl mrd. tu Ydlfha fjk;a mqIamhl l,xlh u;
;ekam;a u fyda tlu fYaIfha fjk;a Ydlhl mqIamhl l,xlh u; ;ekam;a
u mrmrd.kh nj w: olajkak'
fndfyda Ydl mrmrd.khg wkqj;kh we;s kuq;a fndfyda taljdIsl Ydl
^Wod ( & idudkHfhka c ksmojkafka iajmrd.kfhks' mqIamhl idudkH
,laIK jk meyeh" iqj| hkdosh mrmrd.k hdka;%K i|yd jdis odhl fjhs' ta
yereKq g iuyr mqIam mrmrd.kh i|yd fYaI wkqj;k orhs'
mrmrd.kfha jeo.;al meyeos,s lrkak' mrixfiapkh" mrmrd.kfha m%;sM,h
fjhs' fYaIh ;=< cdk Y% u mrixfiapkh u`.ska is fjk w;r kj m%fKsl
ixl,k we;s lrka fYaIh ;=< m%fKsl m%fNaok we;s u je lrhs' mqIamj,
we;s fndfyda wkqj;k meje;au i|yd jeo.;a fjhs'
l,xlh u; mrd. m%frdayKh yd ixfiapk l%shdj,sh isjk wdldrh meyeos,s
lrkak'
oa;aj ixfiapkh hkq l=ula oehs meyeos,s lrkak' tys jeo.;alu myod fokak'
l,,h" c yd M,j, likh

nhlska chla we;s jk wdldrh meyeos,s lr" cfha fldgia ykajkak'
nfldaIhlska M,hla we;s jk wdldrh iy oYSh M,hl fldgia ia;r lrkak'
mdf;fkdaM,kh
ixfiapkhlska f;drj n fldaIhla M,hla njg likh u h' tajd ;=< c
likh fkdf'
iuyr mqIamj, fuh iajdNdlj isjk w;r ^flfi,a& iuyr tajdfha Ydl
jOl jH fhoS u`.ska isf' ôs yd fodv&
md;fkdM,kh" mdf;fkdaN a jfhka fjkia jk w;r fuys oS ixfiapkhlska f;drj
ksire c ksmofjhs'
c m%frdayKh yd c iqma;;dj
ch" M,h ;=< m%frdaykh je<lSu i|yd mk; f h wjhl" ch ;=<
l,,h likh ksfYaOkh fjhs'
c,h" Tlaiscka yd W; WIaK;aj iemhqko fndfyda cj,g m%frdayKh fkd
mej;Sf hdka;%k we;' c iqma;;djg fya;= ia;r lrkak' Wod ( ksfYaOl ;su"
oe$>k cdjrK" c,hg wmdr.uH cdjrK ;su wdoS jYfhka'
c m%frdayKh ia;r lrkak'
c,h wjfYdaIKh u" tkaihsu il%sh u" ix; wdydr ip,u u`.ska l,,fha
YS>% jOkhla isfjhs' th cdjrK w;ka c uQ,h my<g jOkh u`.ska
m%ldY jk w;r cdxl=rh RK .=re;ajdj;s nj o c uQ,h Ok .=re;ajd;s nj
o fmkajhs'
170
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'10 ( jOkfha oS iy likhfha oS Ydl jOl jHj, ldhNdrh

uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
Ydl jOl jHj, idudkH ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
m%Odk Ydl jOl jH k lrhs'
Ydl ;=< Tlaiska" .snfr,ska" ihsfgdlhskska weisisla w,h yd t;s,Sskaj, lD;H
m%ldY lrhs'
lDIsludka;fha oS Ydl jOl jHj, fhoS meyeos,s lrhs'

dldrl:
Ydl jOl jH ms<sn| f;dr;=re /ia lr .ekSug yd tajdfha lD;Hhka ,ehsia;=.;
lsug isiqkag mjikak'
bosm;a lsulg bv fokak'

jOl jHj, idudkH ,laIK yd fydafudakhlg fok w: oelau" Ydl jOl
jH u`.ska iEySulg m;a fkd lrkafka ukaoe hs meyeos,s lrkak'
iq,N iajdNdl Tlaiskh bkafvda,a weisla weish" ,m m;% yd l| w.%ia:j,

ksmojhs'
tal osYdk;slj uDia;r ffi, Tiafia mjykh fjhs' Tlaiska ys idudkH
iajdNdl lD;H f,i ffi, oslau" w.%ia: m%uqL;dj mj;ajd .ekSu" wdj;Ss
p,k hdukh lsu" m;% m;kh ksfYaOkh" lehf l%shdld;ajh W;af;ackh"
M, yd uq,a jOkh fm%arKh" hkdosh fjhs'
iajdNdl ihsfgdlhskska" wekska yd inkaO ixfhda. jk w;r Ydl uQ,w.%j,
yd Ndcl mglj, ksmo ffY,u Tiafia ifm%aYkh f' iajNdl lD;Hhka
jkafka m%frday jOkh f.j;a lsu" w.%ia: m%uqL;dj ksfYaOkh" m;% jDoaO;dj
m%udo lsu" Tlaiska iu`. wka;l%shd lrka ffi, Ndckh fm%arKh hs'
171
.sfn,ska$.sfnr,sla w,h" ,m m;%" uq,a yd m%frdaykh jk cj,ska ksmo"

uDia;r Tiafia mjykh fjhs' lD;H jkafka l| oslau f.j;a lsu" c
m%frdaykfha oS tkaihsu il%sh lsu'
weisisla weis ÂBA& uQ,d.% fldmqf iy wmk; cj, ksmof' ffY,u
Tiafia mjykh fjhs' c m%frdaykh ksfYaOkh" c,h W!k ;;a;ajj, oS mqld
jeiS hdu" fi!uH l,dmSsl rgj, isisr R;=f oS wxl=r jOkh yd leh
l%shdld;ajh ksfYaOkh lrhs'
t;s,Sska
M, yd iuyr mglj, uDia;r ffi,j, ksmo uDia;r yd maf,dahu Tiafia
mjykh fjhs' l| os.k
s a je lsu" M, boSu fm%r
a Kh" iuyr Ydlj, mqIm
a l
s rKh"
M, yd m;% m;kh i|yd jeo.;a fjhs'
iajdNdl jOl jH fukau Bg iudkj l%shd lrk ixYaf,aIs; lD;%Su jOl
jH o lDIsludka;fha oS fhdod .kshs' lemQ l|kaj,ska uq,a yg .ekaug IBA
Nd; lrhs'
mdf;fkdM,kh iy M, likh W;af;ackh i|yd lD;%su TlaiSk Nd;h'
2"4 - D yd MCPA j,ame,E kdYl f,i Nd;h' lemQ m;% yd u,a mr fkd je
ld,hla ;nd .ekSug ihsfgdlhskSka Nd;h' l|kaj, os.ska jeu yd c
m%frdaykh W;af;ackhg .snfr,ska Nd;h' M, boSu W;af;ackhg t;s,Sska
Nd;h'
172
ksmqK;d ugu 10'1'11 ( Ydl jOkfha oS yd likfha oS isjk wNHka;r yd ndysr

fjkia mlaId lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
Ydl foayfha m%d:l jHqyh meyeos,s lrhs'
tal cm;%s yd oac m;%S jOkfha fjkial ykd .kshs'
m%d:l yd oa;shsl jOkfha fjkial ykd .kshs'
m%d:l Ydl foayfha jOl m%foaYj, jHqyh meyeos,s lrhs'
jOl m%foaYj, mgl fNaokh jk wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'
oac m;%S yd tal c m;%S l|ka yd uq,aj, m%d:l jHqyhkays o< mgl jHqyh oyd
olajhs'
l| yd uqf,ys oa;shsl jOkh meyeos,s lrhs'
oa;shsl jOkfhka miqj l|l yria lvl jHqyh wKalaIhlska kslaIKh lsf
oS olakd wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'

dldrl:
ilik ,o lod" wod< fmd;a hkdosh Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; i|yka tajdfha iia;r
igyka" fLd igyka yd tajd ms<sn|j igyka ,sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
lf|a yd uqf,ys w.%ia:fha jHqy
talc yd oacm;%S lf|a m%d:l jHqy
talc yd oacm;%S uq,aj, m%d:l jHqy
bosm;a lsula i|yd isiqkag Wmldr lrkak'

Ydl foayfha m%d:l jHqyh
fhl=f.a likhg wod< j h<s ialkaOfha fyda mudf isjk wm%;sj;H
jeu jOkh f,i ykajhs' fuh ffi, ixLHdj jeu yd fndfydag
inkaOh'
kaf.a jOkfha we;s jeo.;alu;a" Ydlj, jOkh" i;=kaf.a jOkfhka
fjkia jk wdldrh;a olajkak'
173
jdIsl Ydl ksh; jOkhla o" nyq jdIsl ldIah Ydl wksh; jOkhla o
fmkajhs' Ydlj, fldgia ksh; jOkhla orhs'
jOl m%foaY Ydlj, m%d:l jHqyfha ia:dk.; we;s wdldrh" w.%ia:" mdYal
yd wka;ria: Ndcl
Ydlj, l| yd uq, w.%fha jHqyh" w.%ia: Ndcl" ffi, Ndckh jk m%foaY"
ffi, oslajk yd ffi, fNaokh jk m%foaY" Ndcl mglj, ixOdkh'
l| yd uq, w.%ia:j, m%d:l mgl Ndcl mgl we;s lsf oS fNaokh jk
wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
nfrys" osf.ys fyda mudf je u u`.ska Ydlhl fyda Ydl fldgil jOkh
kSu" jOk jl%
iqiq Ydl fldgia fhdod f.k h<s nr" os." mudj hk mrd;s mlaId lrka
mlaIKd.drfha oS jOk f.h uek m%;sM," m%ia;dr u`.ska ksrEmkh lrkak'
oacm;%S yd talcm;%S l| yd uqf,ys m%d:l jHqy
wKalaIfhka fmfkk wdldrhg m%d:l l| yd m%d:l uq, yrialvj, O
mgl wdldr ykdf.k tajdfha lD;H yd jHdma;sh wOHhkh lr" rEmigyka
weùg fhduq lrkak'
Ydlj, oa;shsl jOkh

oacm;%S l| yd uqf,ys ikd, lehu" j,al lehu yg.kakd wdldrh
yq~ska ia;r lrkak'
ikd, lehf yd j,al lehf l%shdld;ajh ia;r lrkak'
oa;shsl jOkfhka miqj oacm;%S l|l O mglj, jHdma;sh yd lD;Hhka
meyeos,s lrkak'
oej" jOl j," M,h yd wrgqj" oe oej yd uD oej j, uQ,sl ,laIK meyeos,s
lrkak'
m%fhda.sl mlaIK
oacm;%S yd talcm;%S m%d:l uqf,a yd m%d:l lf|a yrialv fo wOHhkh
lsu'
oacm;S% Ydl lf|a ldIaGfhys wKalaIsh iy ufyalaIH jHqyh wOHhkh lsu'
174
tallh 11 - wdfKsh
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKS oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'1 ( fukav,af.a mlaIKj, oHd;aul moku uid n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha oS YsIHhd;
taldx. uqyqu" taldx. mlaId uqyqu" oajhdx. uqyqu" oajhdx. mlaId uqyqu" nyqO
mlaIK uqyqu meyeos,s lrhs'
taldx. uqyqu w: olajd" fukav,af.a m<uqjk kshuh meye,s lrhs'
oajhx. uqyqu w: olajd" fukav,af.a fojk kshuh meyeos,s lrhs'
nyqO uqyqj, m%fKsoY iy rEmdKq oYj, wkqmd; l,ska ks.ukh lrk
wdldrh fmkajhs'

dldrl:
fukav,af.a mlaIK ia;r lsug mrs.Kl bm;a ls (power point presentation)

iy fjk;a uQ,dY%hka m%fhdackhg .kak'
fukav,af.a mlaIK ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla/ialsug Wmfoia fokak' tfia lr
my; i|yka lreKq wdjrKh jk f,i bm;a lsug fhduq lrjkak'
taldx. uqyqu
oajhx. uqyqu
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lsug w;aje,

taldx. uqyqu
f.j;= uE Ydl ms<n
s |j fukav,af.a mlaIK ms<n
s | fl ia;rhla olajd fukav,a
iska lrk ,o taldx. uqyqula iia;rj olajkak' ^Wod- Wi iy & mriamr
,laIK hq.,a 7 la ms<sn|j fukav,a iska mfhaIK lrk ,o w;r tys iudk
m%;sM, ms<sn| jd;d we;' Tyq ,nd.;a m%;sM, ms<sn|j imsKavk igykla ,nd
fokak'
my; i|yka jpkj, f;areu meye,s lrkak' (Pure lines'& kquqyq fm," mriamr
,laIK " taldx. uqyqu" mriamr uqyqu" cklhd" m%cks;h" F1 iy F2 mrmrd
175
2nd
;ukaf.a fidhd .ekS ia;r lsu i|yd fukav,a iska lrkq ,enQ l,ams;
meyeos,s lrkak' Tyqf.a l,ams;j, mok jQfha m%uqL;dj iy hqla; uhs' m%fKs
idOl" we,S," iuhq.aul" Iu hq.aul" m%fKs oY" rEmdkq oY" ks,Sk" m%uqL hk
jpk meyeos,s lrkak'
taldx. mlaId uqyqu
Tyqf.a l,ams;h ksjer oehs fidhd ne,Sug taldx. mlaId uqyqu fukav,a Nd;
lf<a h' Tyqf.a ;lh iy mlaIK m%;sM, ia;r lrkak'
mlaId uqyqu" hkq ljfo @ fuh ms<s uqyq ^Back crosses) j,ska fjkiajk
wdldrh olajkak'
cdk iy we,S,
cdk iy we,S, ykajd fokak' fuu jpk fukav,af.a mlaIKj,g miqj
ykajdfokq ,enqj;a fukav,af.a uQ,Ou ykajdug tajd fhdokq ,ef'
fukav,af.a m<uqfjks kshuh"(-
m%fKsl - cdkuh ,laIK ;SrKh lrk idOl mj;skafka hq.,a jYfhks ^we,S,&
ckaudKq iEoSf oS tajd hqla; f' tneka tla cka u dKq j l we;a f ;a tla
we,S,hls'
fukav,af.a mlaIKj, m%cks; wkqmd;j, jeo.;alu olajkak' 3(1 iy 1(1 wkqmd;
iNd;d f ir, kS;S j,g wkqj we;sjk nj meyeos,s lrkak'
oajhx. uqyqu
fukav,a iska lrk ,o oajhx. uqyqula ia;r lr tys m%;sM, meyeoss,s lrkak'
ish oajhx. uqyqj, F2 m%cks;h 9 ( 3 ( 3 ( 1 wkqmd;hg rEmdKq oY we;s lrhs'
fukav,af.a iajdkj hqla; f l,ams;h ykajkak'
F2 m%cks;h hgf;a 9(3( 3(1 wkqmd;hka ,efnk wdldrh ia;r lsug mk fldgqj
(Punnet Square) m%fhdackhg .; yels h'
oajhx. uqyqu ms<sn| mlaId uqyqu
fukav,a iska iajdk hqla;u ms<sn| l,ams;h oajhx. uqyqu ms<sn| mrSlaId
uqyqu u.ska mlaIdlr ;yjqre lsu ia;r lrkak'
fukav,af.a fofjks kshuh(-

mriamr ,laIK ;SrKh lrk we,S, hq., ^fcdavq& m%ckkfha ksoyiaj hqla;
f' hq.,l we;s tla we,S,hla fjk;a hq.,l kEu we,S,hla iu`. inkaO
f'
nyq O ,laIk ms<sn| uqyqu'

iajdk hqla;u ms<sn| kshuh cdk follg jvd je w.hka i|yd ia;drKh
l< yelsh' uqyqj, m%fKs oY iy rEmdkq oY wkqmd; uQ,sl ixLHdkh wkqj
l,ska Wml,amkh l< yelafla flfia o hkak ia;r lrkak'
176
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'2 ( ,laIK wdfKs.; u i|yd jKfoayj, odhl;ajh .%y

lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
bf.kq M, (
wkqkk Ndckfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'
W!kk Ndckfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'
W!kk Ndckfha jKfoayj, iajdk hqla; u isjkafka flfia oehs
ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdldrl (

W!kkh iy wkQkkh wOHhkh i|yd O rEm igyka" iar lod iy oHq;a
udOH myiql isiqkag imhd fokak'
W!kk Ndckh yd wkQkk Ndckfha jeo.;alu fidhd ne,Sug YsIHhskag
Wmfoia fokak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a foa bm;a lsug fhduq lrjkak'
l%udkql+, wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'

m%fKsfha jKfoay moku
fukav,af.a m%ldYk wkdjrKhg fmr jKfoay" ffi,j, W!kk iy wkqkk

Ndck wKalaI u.ska kslaIKh lr O oHd{hska iska ia;r lr
;snqKs' WodyrK f,i m%fKsh ms<sn| jKfoay jdoh ika iy fndfj hk
fofokd iska bm;a lrk ,' fukav,af.a m%fKsl idOlj, yeisu iy
jK foayj, yeisu ms<sn| meye,s lrkak'
wkqkk Ndckh
wkQkk Ndckfha m%fKs oHd;aul jeo.;alu ia;r lrkak'
W!kk Ndckh
W!kk Ndckfha jKfoayj, iajdk hqla; u iy iajdk ixrpkh
isjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak' W!kk Ndckfha m%fKs oHd;aul jeo.;alu
ia;r lrkak'
177
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'
11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'3 ( udkj fukav,Sh ,CIK m%fKs.; jk rgd mlaId lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 01
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu yeoEfuka miq YsIHhd (
udkj fukav,Sh ,CIK lsysmhla i|yka lrhs'
fm<je,a igyka u.ska ksia mjq,aj, fukav,Sh m%fKs ,CIK Yaf,aIKh lr
tys m%;sM, ms<sn| mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

dldrl:
ksid ;=< mj;sk fukav,Sh ,CIK fmkaug O m%Njhka Nd;
lrkak'
isiqkag fm<je,a igyka ,ndfokak'
fm<je,a igyka Yaf,aIKh lsug bv " mjq,aj, fukav,Sh m%fKs
,CIKj, m%;sM, ms<sn| mqfrdal:kh lsug i,iajkak'
YsIHhkag ;uka iska fidhd.;a lreKq bm;a lsug i,iajkak'
ksh; ms<sfj,lg wkqj iia;rj olajkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje, -

ksidf.a fukav,Sh m%%fKs ,CIK
ksidf.a f.a fukav,Sh ,CIK i|yd fmd WodyrK jk j frda,a lsu"
weKq lka fm;s" Widow's peak" luq,a j, .eiSu" w;af,a iDcqj msys udmg
we`.s,a, wdh u`.skA meye,s lrkak'
fm<je,a igyka mjq,aj, fukav,Sh m%fKs ,laIK Yaf,aIKh lsug iy

m%;sM, l,ska oelaug fhdod.kq ,ef' WodyrK u.ska fuh f.kyer oelau
lrkafka flfiaoehs ia;r lrkak'
178
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'4 ((fukav,Sh kshuhkaf.ka wm.ukh jk m%fKsl rgd .%y

lsug W; ixl,am iy uQ, Ou Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu ksu lsfuka miq YSIHhd (
fukav,Sh fkdjk m%fKs ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
fukav,Sh fkdjk m%fKs ,laIKj,g WodyrK i|yka lrhs'
wimqK m%uqL;dj" iy m%uqL;dj" nyq we,S,;dj" cdkj, wka; ls%hd" nyqcdk
m%fKsh iy cdk m%;snoaOh hk fukav,Sh fkdjk m%fKs ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
ksidf.a ,sx. ksKh ia;r lrhs'
ksidf.a ,sx. m%;snoaO ,laIK i|yka lrhs'

dldrl:
fukav,af.a mlaIK iy tajdfha m%;sM, ms<sn| w;aoelS kej; isys .kajkak'

fj wv iy fmd;a Wmfhda.S lrf.k my; i|yka lreKq .ek f;dr;=re
fiug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
wimQK m%uqL;dj
iy m%uqL;dj
nyq we,S,;dj
cdk wka;ls%hd
nyq cdk m%fKsh
cdk m%;snoaOh
Ih lreKq .ek bm;a lsula i|yd YsIHhska iqodk lrkak'
ksh; ms<sfj,lg wkqj iia;rj lreKq oelaula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,

we;e m%fKs ,laIKj, rgd ir, fukav,Sh kshuj,ska wm.ukh fjhs' uqy
q j,
3(1" iy 9(3 ( 3(1 hk wkqmd; fkd,efnk wjia:d we;' my; i|yka fukav,Sh
fkdjk m%fKs ,CIK WodyrK iys;j ia;r lrkak'
179
2nd
wimQK m%uqL;dj
Mirabilis Ydlfha u,aj, jKh we;su ia;r lrkak' F1 kue;s Iu
hq.aulhd foudmshkag jvd fjkia h' F2 wkqmd;h 1(2(1' wimqK m%uqL;dj
we;sjkafka wehsoehs ia;r lrkak'
iym%uqL;djh - fuh ksidf.a M yd N rer .K iy A iy B rer .K weiqfrka

meye,s lrkak' fuys fuu we,S, folu m%uqL jk w;r Iuhq.aul wjia:df
fmkakq lrkqfha we,S, fol u.skau ksudKh lrk ,laIKh h'
nyq we,S,;dj
ksidf.a A, B, O rer .K weiqfrka fuh meye,s lrkak' we;e cdkj, we,S,
follg jvd ;sfnk nj;a .ykhla ;=, fuu we,S, idfmalaIj by< ixLHd;hlska
;sfnk nj;a ia;r lrkak' fuu we,S, m%uqL fyda iy- m%uqL;dj fmkakql<
yels h'
cdkj, wka;ls%hd
cdk wka; lsh
% d O wdldrhg isf' wNsNjkh" m%uL
q wNsNjkh" ks,k
S wNsNjkh
hk fjd ia;r lrkak' ks,Sk wNsNjkh i|yd" Lathyrus odoratus mqIam jKh
WodyrK jYfhkq;a" .DydYs%; l=l=<kaf.a msydgqj, jKh" m%uqL wNsNjkhg
WodyrK jYfhkq;a olajkak' wNsNjkh ms<sn| fjk;a WodyrK lSmhla ia;r
lrkak' WodyrK f,i " hkaf.a foay jKh" m%fKs.;jk wdldrh" Lathyrus
odoratus mqIm
a jKh m%fKs .;jk wdldrh White Leghorn f.a msydgqj, jKh
iy White Wyandotte j.fha l=l=,kaf.a msydgqj, jKh m%fKs .;jk
wdldrh yd 9(3( 3(1 wkqmd;h " fuu WodyrKj, fjkiajkafka flfiaoehs
olajkak'
nyqcdk m%fKsh
WodyrK foka .=Kd;aul .;s ,CIK ykd.kak' tla rEmdkq oYhla ,nd.ekSu
i|yd cdk lsysmhla fndfyda iudkj iy wdl,kj ls%hd lrk g tys m%;sM,hla
jYfhka we;sjk rEmdkq oYh m%udKd;aul iajNdjfhka hqla;h' nyqcdk m%fKs
,CIK we;s lrk cdk fndfyda g iajdkj hqla; jk w;r" tajdfha we,S,
m%uqL;djh fmkakq lrhs' tlsfklg imqKfhka m%;sreoaO foudmshka w;r
uqyqula jQ g F2 mrmrdf ldKavj, ,laIK jHdma; u isjk wdldrh ia;r
lrkak' cdk ixLHdj wkqj ldKav ixLHdj ks.ukh jk wdldrh olajkak'
Ydl" i;=ka iy udkjhdf.a nyqcdk m%fKs ,CIKj, jeo.;alu ia;r lrkak'
180
2nd
cdk m%;snoaOh
cdk m%;snoaOh ia;r lrkak' uqyqj, bka we;sjk n,mEu WodyrKhlska
ia;r lrkak' m%;snoaOh fiug mlaId uqyq fhdod .kakd wdldrh ia;r
lrkak' cklhka iy m%;sixfhda; m%cks; ia;r lrkak' W!kk Ndckfha
wj;rK ixLHd;h iy m%;sixfhda; ixLHd;h w;r inkaO;dj meye,s
lrkak' m%;snoaOh iy wj;rKh we;sjk wdldrh rEm igyka u.ska meye,s
lrkak'
udkj ,sx. ksKh

X iy Y jKfoay u.ska ia;S% mqreI nj ;SrKhjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak' tfiau
iudk ixLHd;j,ska ia;S%ka iy mqreIhka we;sjkafka flfia oehs meye,s lrkak'
,sx. m%;snoaO m%fKsh

,sx. m%;snoaO ,laIK ia;r olajkak' ySfuda*s,Shdj WodyrKhg f.k ksia
mjq,aj, tu wdndOh m%fKs.; jk wdldrh ms<sn| ia;r lrkak' wfmalaIs;
m%;sM, fkd,eug fya;= yd ,e we;s m%;sM, ia;r lrkak' ,sx. m%;snoaO ,laIK
mskag muKla iSud we;af;a ukaoehs ia;r lrkak'
181
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdf uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'5( m%fKsfha wKql moku uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
bf.kq M, (
DNA j, fN!;sl iy ridhksl ,CIK ia;r lrhs'
cdkj, jHqyh ia;r lr jKfoay w;r we;s inkaO;dj meye,s lrhs'
cdkj, lD;H iy fm%dak ixYaf,aIK hka;%Kh idlPd lrhs'

dldrl:
DNA j, jHqyh ms<sn| YsIHhskaf.a oekqu kej; isys .kajkak'

fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh ms<sn| uqs; iy oaHq;a f;dr;=re YsIHhskag ,ndfokak'
my; i|yka lreKq Wlyd .ekSug i,iajkak'
DNA m%;sj,s;h
RNA j. - m-RNA t-RNA , r-RNA
fm%dk ixYaf,aIKh hka;%Kh
Tjqka iska fidhd.;a lreKq bm;a lsug YsIHhskag Wmfoia fokak'
ksh; wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje, (-

DNA
wKql jHqyh" ridhksl iy fN!;sl ,CIK ia;r lrkak' NIau wkqmd;j,
jeo.;alu " wkqmQrl mg" iaaiajdNdlrKh iy iiajdNdlrKh' DNA u.ska
UV wjfYdaIKh hk fjdfha jeo.;alu' ffi, ;=< DNA iajhxm%;sj,s;h
isjk wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
jKfoay iy cdk
jHqyh wkqj cdk hkqq l=ula o hs ia;r lrkak' tajd jKfoay j, /f.k
hkafka flfiaoehs meye,s lrkak' jKfoay hkq .= odu DNA wKq jk w;r"
histone fm%dak iu. ;ka weisreKq wKqf' fYaIhl f.fkdau (genome) a
hkqfjka woyia jkafka l=ula oehs meye,s lrkak'
182
2nd
cdk m%ldYkh iy fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh

cdkhl joHd;aul ldhh l=ula oehs meye,s lrkak' fm%dakhl m%d:l
jHqyh cdkhla u.ska ;SrKh f' cdk iy fm%dak w;r inkaO;djla we;'
DNAj, NIau wkqms<sj, u.ska fm%dakfha wefkda w, wkqms<sfj, ;SrKh f'
m%fKs fla;h
m%fks fla;hla hkq l=ulaoehs meye,s lr tys uQ,sl ,laIK" idj;% iajNdjh iy
tys we;s jeo.;alu" wdrNl fla; iy wjika fla; meye,s lrkak'
RNA
jHqyuh iy lD;Huh w;ska DNA iy RNA fjkiajkafka flfia o@ rRNA ,
mRNA iy tRNA hk RNA j. ;=fkys lD;H fm%dak ixYaf,aIKhg wod<j"
ia;r lrkak'
fm%dak ixYaf,aIKfha hka;%Kh

msgm;a lsu yd mj;kh hk ls%hdj,Ska fol ms<sn| fl meye,s lsula
lrkak' fmd,sfmmaghsv iEf RNA fmd,sufia" rhsfndfidau iy tRNA j,
lD;H flfhka meye,s lrkak'
183
2nd
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'6 ( lD;s u.ska isjk m%fKs ixhq;sfha fjkiau kaf.a
meje;au flfrys n,mdk wdldrh ;=,kd;aulj .%y lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
lD;sj,g fya;=jk idOl ia;r lrhs'
lD;s j. iy tajdg WodyrK m%ldY lrhs'
mKdufha lD;sj, jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
lD;s u.ska ksid ;=< we;sjk m%fKsl wdndO idlPd lrhs'

dldrl:
lD;s oelaug fj wv u.ska ,nd.kakd f;dr;=re iy rEm igyka Nd;d

lrkak'
lD;s ms<sn| f;dr;=re ,nd.ekSug YsIHhska fhdojkak'
;uka fidhd.;a foa bm;a lsug Tjqka fhduq lrkak'
ksh; wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,

lD;s
lD;s hkq l=ula oehs iy tajd we;sjk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
lD;s wdldr lsysmhls'
cdk lD;s
cdk lD;s isjkafka DNA m%;sj,s;fha NIau hq.,a f we;sjk fodaI ksidh'
jKfoay lD;s
jKfoay lD;s we;sjkafka W!kkfha jKfoay hq.,a f iy wj;rKh
isf we;sjk fodaI ksidh'
O lD;s j.
cdk lD;s - ks,Sk lD;s" m%uqL lD;s" udrl lD;s
ks,Sk lD;s Wod - ySfudms,shd" we,snj
m%uqL lD;s - nyq wx.=,sl;djh
udrl lD;s - ysfudams,Shdj
jK foay lD;s
Down's iskafv%dauh ^vjqkaia iy ,laIKh&
ffoysl lD;s - ms<sld
184
2nd
mKdufha lD;sj, jeo.;alu

lD;s u.ska jdisodhl iy wjdisodhl ,laIK we;sh yels h' .ykhl m%fNaok
we;sug lD;s m%Odk jYfhka n,mdhs' ;jo .ykhla ;=, we;sjk m%fKs m%fNaok
u; iajdNdl jrKh ls%hd;aul fuka mKduh isf'
lD;s ldrl
iajhx isoaO lD;s iy fm%a; lD;s w;r fjki olajkak' fm%a; lD;s we;su
flfrys UV lsrK" X lsrK iy lD;sldrl ridhksl jH fya;= f'
lD;s ksid isjk udkj m%fKs wdndO

WodyrK lsysmhla f.kyer olajka lD;sh ksid ksiqkag we;sjk m%fKsl
jYfhka isjk wdndO lsysmhla olajkak' fuhska we;e lD;s isjkafka ;ks
cdkhl lD;shlsks' WodyrK k we,s nj ykakavkaf.a frda.h (Huntingdon's
disease)" Cystic fibrosis, ;e,iShdj" oEle;s ffi, rla; ySk;djh iy ySfuda*,
S h
s djhs'
wfkla tajd isjkafka jKfoay ixLHdfjys fjkila isu ksidh' fmd WodyrKh
k vjqkaia iy,laIKh yd gk iy,laIKh" la,skaf*,ag iy ,CIKhhs'
m%fKs WmfoaYkh
m%fKsl wdndOj, cdkuh iajNdjh iy tajd wdfKs.; jk wdldrh ms<sn|j
tu wdndO we;s mqoa.,hkag iy mjqf,a idudlhskag Wmfoia iy iydh ,ndug
m%fKs WmfoaYlhkag yelshdj we;'
185
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( Nd;h i|yd m%fKs oHdfjys uQ,sl isoaOdka; .fIKh

lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'7 ( .ykj, cdk ixLHd;fha fjkia Nd;fhka ffcj

mKduh .%y lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIihd;
.ykh ;=< we;s cdk O;ajh fidhd n,hs'
cdk nyqrEm;djhg fya;= olajhs'
yd jhskan.a iu;=,s;;djh meye,s lrhs'

dldrl:
iajdNdl .ykhla ;=< cdk O;ajh idlPd lrkak'
cdk nyqrEm;djhg fya;=jk lreKq ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;= lr .ekSug YsIHhka
fmd<Ujkak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a lreKq bosrsm;a lsug fhduq lrkak'
ksh; wkql%uhlg wkqj iia;rj bm;a lsulg i,iajkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,

iajdNdl .ykhla ;=< m%fKsl O;ajhla we;s nj meye,s lrkak' .ykhl
idudlhskfa .a ,laIK inkaOfhka nyqrEm;djhla fmkajhs' lD;s" jK foayj,
iajdk hql;a u" W!kk Ndckfha wj;rKh u" wyUq wNsckkh wdh cdkuh
nyqrEm;djhg fya;=jk lreKq h' we,S,sl nyqrEmS;dj ir,h' cdk lsgqj hkafkys
woyi meye,s lrkak'
yd -jhskan.a iu;=,s;;dj
wyUq wNsckkh isjk m%fKsl ia;sl .ykhl cdk ixLHd;h fkdfjkiaj
mj;skafka flfia oehs yd jhskan.a ilrKh weiqfrka meye,s lrkak'
.ykhla ;=, mj;sk ir, fukav,Sh ,laIKj, m%fKs oY ixLHd;h" yd

jhskan.a ilrKfhka .Kkh l< yel'
fndfyda .ykj, yd-jhskan.a iu;=,s;;dj | jeug fya;= idOl jkafka"

lD;s " jrKh isu" wyUq fkdjk wNsckkh" mhgk " Yd, .ykhla ;=,
wyUq f,i isjk cdk .,khhs'
186
2nd
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'8 ( ffcj mKduh Yaf,aIKh lsug iajdNdl jrK jdoh
Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd;
mKdu ls%hdj,sh ia;r lrhs'
mKdufha jdo fol i|yka lrhs'
,eudlaf.a jdoh iia;rj olajhs'
iajdNdl jrK jdoh iia;rj olajhs'

dldrl:
YsIHhskag mKduh ms<sn| m%Odk jdo fol .ek oHq;a iy uqs; ,sms imhkak'
mKdu jdofha u; ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla /ia lsug YsIHhska fhduq lrjkak'
YsIHhka bm;a lsulg fhduq lrjkak'
ksh; ms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;r lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la'

iajdNdl jrKh iy mKduh
yd-jhskan.a iu;=,s;;djg n,mdk idOl" mKduh is lrk ldrl f' .yk
w;r isjk l%udKql+, fjkial fYaI we;sug fya;=fjhs' 19 jk Y;jIfha
j oHd{hska w;r mKduh is h yels hka;%Khla ms<sn| Wkkajla we;sh'
jeo.;a jdo folla bm;a lrk ,'
m; ,laIK Wreuf ,eudlaf.a jdoh

mirfha wjYH;d wkqj ka ;u ; ld,h ;=, wkqj;k we;s lr .kS' fuu
wkqj;k B<`. m%cks;hg ,nd fok w;r tu m%cks;fha ka jvd;a fydka
mirhg iqiq f,i wkqj;kh f' WodyrK lSmhla f.k yer olajka fuh
ia;r lrkak'
iajdNdl jrKh ms<sn| vdka - fjd,ia jdoh

pd,aia vdka iy Tyqf.a wOHhk .ek fl ia;rhla lrkak' vdka iy ri,a
fjd,ia mKduh ms<sn| iudk woyia bm;a lf<a h'
187
2nd
iajdNdl jrKh ms<sn|j Tjqka f.a u;h" iajdNdl .ykj, ksYa; ksrSlaIK
iy Wml,amk u; mok h' jeo.;a kslaIKhla jkafka (-
1' wl m%ckl yelshdj
2' .ykfha Yd,;ajfha ia;sl nj'
3' .ykh ;=, we;s O;ajh hk fjdh'
Wml,amk k
1' ; igk
2' Wf;dakak;sh
,CIK m%fKs.;u inkaOfhka vdka iy fjd,ia iska lsis woyia bm;a

lsrSula lr ke;' m%fKs oHdj ms<sn| oekg mj;sk oekqu" iajdNdl jrK
jdohg fndfyda fihska .e<fmk nj idlPd lrkak'
188
2nd
ksmqK;d ugu 11'1'9 ((je hqKql< Ydl yd i;a;aj m%fNao ,nd .ekSug jrKSh
wNsckk uQ,Ou Nd;d lsf yqrej ,nhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu ksu lsfuka miq YsIHhd;
Ydl iy i;a;aj wNsckkfha jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
Ydl iy i;a;aj wNsckkfha Wmfhda.S lr.kakd l%u lsysmhla i|yka lrhs'
wNsckk ;dlaIKfha m%fKs oHd;aul uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
wNsckk l%u j, O wdldr ms<sn| YsIHhskaf.a oekqu kej; u;lhg k.kak'

uqs; iy oHq;a f,aLk wdOdrfhka lD;%su jrKh" iydNsckkh" ysckkh
fouqyq" fYaIdka;r uqyq" nyq.=Kl" lD;s wNsckkh iy m%fKs lrKh
hk lreKq .ek ia;r tl;= lrkak'
bm;a lsula i|yd YsIHhska iqodk lrkak'
iqiq wkql%uhlg wkqj ia;r lsula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr ug w;aje,la

Ydl iy i;a;aj wNsckkh
fnda. iy .DydYs%; i;=ka i|yd fhdod.kakd wNsckk jevigykaj, jeo.;alu
ia;r lr tajd lDIsll b;sydifha bgql< ldh Ndrh meye,s lrkak' my;
i|yka Ys,amSh l%u iy tajd mok we;s cdk oHd;aul uQ,Ou flfhka
ia;r lrkak'
lD;%su jrKh
fuh lDIslufha b;d merKs iy jeo.;a Ys,amSh l%uhls' f ksid j.d fnda. iy
.DydYs%; i;=ka" Tjqkaf.a j,a oY j,g jvd fjkia we;'
iydNsckkh iy ysckkh
iajdNdl wNssckkh i|yd we;e Ydl wkqj;kh we;' lDIslufha Ys,amSh
l%uhla jYfhka iydNsckkfhys jeo.;alu iy m%fhdack ia;r lrkak'
189
2nd
fouqyq lsu
_ lDIslufha iy WoHdk oHdf tlu fYaIfha m%fNao w;r uqyq lsu iy
fouqyq lsu nyq,j isf'
_ fouqyq lsf m%fhdack ia;r lrkak'
_ m%fKsl h hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ulaoehs meye,s lrkak'
fYaIdka;r uqyq
wka;rdNsckkfha O fYaIj, cdkuh ndOl mj;S' tfy;a fuh we;e g
fjkiaf' O fYaI uqyq lsfuka kj fYaI we;slrf.k we;'
nyq.K
= l
iuyr Ydl iajNdjfhka we;sjQ nyq.=Kl f' nyq.=Kl Ydl lDIslufha ksmojd
we;' nyq.=Kl Ydl Tjqkaf.a ckl Ydlj,ska fjkiajk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
lD;s wNsckkh
lD;s fma%rKh lsfuka Ydlj, kj iy m%fhdackj;a ,CIK we;s l< yels h'
m%fKs lrKh
jvd fyd| fnda. iy i;=ka we;s lsu i|yd ;dlaIK l%uhla jYfhka Genetically
Modified ka ^m%fKslj lrKh lrk ,o& we;s lsug cdk ;dlaIKh Nd;
lsu YSs>%fhka je hqKq fjka mj;S' WodyrK lsysmhla f.k fuh idlPd
lrkak'
190
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'2'0 ( cdk ;dlaIKh ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr.kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'2'1( cdk ;dlaIKsl l%ufo yd Ys,aml%u ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk
lr .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
bf.kq M, (
DNA iu`. kd,ia: mlaIK idlPd lrhs'
DNA taIKj, Nd;hka iy tu ;dlaIKfha uQ,sl mshjr ia;r lrhs'
DNA m%;sixfhdack ;dlaIKfha l%ufo ia;r lrhs'
fhda; bf.kq b.eka ls%hdldrl

wKql m%fKs oHdf Ys,am l%u ms<sn| Power point bm;a lsulg
YsIHhka fhduq lrjkak'
fj wv" uqs; udOH wdh Wmldr lr .kska cdk ;dlaIKfha m%Odk mshjr
ms<sn| lreKq /ia lrjkak'
;uka iska fidhd.;a foa bm;a lsulg YsIHhka fhduq lrjkak'
ksh; wkq ms<sfj,lg wkqj ;jrg;a meye,s lsula lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la (-

cdk ;dlaIKsl l%ufo yd Ys,aml%u
DNA iy th ls%hdlrk wdldrh ms<sn| miq.sh oYl lsysmhla ;siafia tla /ia l<
oekq iNdrh" cdk ;dlaIKfha hqKqjg Wmld we;' f ksid j oHdj
keue;s Ih miq.sh ld,fha ;snqK ;;a;ajhg jvd fnfyka fjkia
;sf' cdk ;dlaIKh ms<sn| oekqula fkdue;sj kk j oHdj bf.k .;
fkdyels h'
DNA iu`. kd,ia: mlaIK
DNA j, we;s ridhksl iy fN!;sl ,laIK ksid oHd{hskag ffi,j,ska
DNA fjka lr" klrKh lr kej; j ffi,hla ;=<g y\qkajd ug
yelshdj ,e we;'
my; oelafjkafka j ffi, j,ska msg; DNA wOHhkh yd klrKh
lsf Nd; lrkq ,nk Ys,amSh l%u f'
(DNA ksiaidrKh yd DNA Blotting iia;rd;aulj wOHhkh wfmalaId
fkdflf'&
191
2nd
DNA ksiaidrKh lsu

nelahd frdamKj,ska DNA myiqfjka ksiaidrKh lr .; yels nj ixCIsma;j
i|yka lrkak' fjk;a ffi, wka;.;hka hlsu" DNA wjlafIamKh iy
flakamid lrKh" Wmfhda.S lr.kakd uQ,sl Ys,amS l%uf' >K;ajh wkqj D N A
fjkalr .ekSf fYaI Ys,aml%uhla jkqfha >k;aj wkql%uK flakamidlrKhhs'
DNA iu`. ls%hdlrk tkaihsu

ffi, ;=< DNA j, meje;au i|yd ta u; iajdNdlj lsh
% dlrk tkaihsuj,ska
iuyrla oeka Yd, m%udKj,ska ksIamdokh lrkq ,nk w;r" tajd mlaIKd.drj,
Nd;h i|yd jdKscuh jYfhka ,nd.; yels h' tkafvdakshqla,sfhaia" ,hsf.aia
iy fmd,sufia hk tkaihsu ;=fkys lD;H iy Nd; meye,s lrkak'
we.frdaia fc,a oaHq;d.ukh

fuh DNA wKq tajdfha Yd,;ajh wkqj fjka lsug ridhkd.drj, Nd; jk
nyq,j fhfok ir, ;dlaIK l%uhls' fuu ;dlaIKhg mok ;sfnk uQ,sl
l%ufoh iy uQ,Ou idlPd lrkak'
DNA Blotting
fuh fc,s udOHfha isg fmryka lvodis fyda mg, olajd oHq;d.ukfha DNA
wKq udre lrjk ;dlaIKhls'
DNA Probes iy uqyqlrKh

_ DNA probes hkq ksYa;j i<l=Kq lrk ,o DNA wKqh' fjd Bg iudk fyda
fnfyka iudk NIau wkqms<sfj,la we;s DNA wKq ykd.ekSug uqyq lrKh
lrkq ,ef' fuh DNA we`.s,s i<l=Kq iy cdk ykd .ekSf m%fhdackj;a
f' DNA uqyq lrK ls%hdj,sh i|yd iaiajdNdlrKh odhl f'
DNA we`.s,s i,l=Kq

DNA we`., s s i<l=Kq fyda DNATyping; mqo.
a ,hka" Tjqkf
a .a keoEhka" wmrdOlrejka
wdh ykd .ekSug oeka fnfyka Wmfhda.s lr.kq ,ef' fuhg mok
we;af;a mqoa.,hska ;=< we;s cdkm: ^loci& j, we;s m%fKsl O;ajhhs' fuu
l%ufofha m%Odk mshjr idlPd lrkak'
m%;sixfhda; DNA ;dlaIKh "

cdk bxfkare oHdjg mok we;af;aa O fYaIj,ska ,nd.;a DNA wKq Y%
lsfuka tla tallhla f,i ls%hdldrkakdjQ DNA wKqjla ,nd.ekSuh' fuu
l%uh uq,ska ykajk ,oafoa E.coli nelahd Wmfhda.S lrf.kh' m%;sixfhda;
DNA wKqjla hkq O kaf.ka ,nd.;a fouqy q DNA wKq tlg inkaOlrk
192
2nd
,o DNA wKqjls' my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn| oekqu fuu ;dlaIKh ykd.ekSug
wjYH f'
nelahd ma,diav (plasmid) iy jhsria f.fkdau ^genomes )

jKfoay jYfhka mj;sk plS%h DNA wKq nelahdj, we;' fjd iqkHIal
jKfoayj,g jvd fnfyka l=vd h' DNA, ysiafgdak iu`. ne fkdue;s w;r'
kHIa mg,hla o fkdorhs' ma,diav o jKdfoayj,g jvd l=vd plS%h DNA wKq
orhs' tajdfha cdk lsysmhla we;s w;r jejYfhka m%;sjl i|yd m%;sfrdaOh
oelau is lrhs' tajd ykd .ekSug ma,diav m%fhdackj;a f' jhsria f.fkdau
ma,diavj,g iudk jk kuq;a tajd wdidok ldrl f' DNA b;d myiqfjka
nelah ma,diav fyda jhsria j,ska fjkalr .; yelsh' flakadmidrkfhka
fyda fc, oHq;d.ukfhka DNA fjka lr .; yels h'
m%;sixfhda; DNA jdyl

ndysr cdk nelahdj,g /f.khdu i|yd ma,diav iy jhsria f.fkdau jdyl
f,i Nd; lrkq ,ef' cdkfha wod, fldgi fyda DNA j,ska fldgila odhlhdf.a
DNA j,ska ix.ukh lrhs' f i|yd iSud tkaihsu u.ska DNA lmkq ,ef'
lemQ DNA fldgia we.frdaia fc,a j, ;nd fjka lrk w;r tajdfha wjYH jk
cdk fldgi taIKh u.ska ykd .kq ,ef' fuh jhsri f.fkdauh iu`. fyda
ma,diavh iu`. fyda inkaO lsug iSud tkaihsuh iy DNA ,hsf.aia tkaihsu
Nd; f'
nelahd mKdukh
ndysr DNA wKq fyda cdk" nelahd ffi,j,g ykajdu nelahd mKdukh
k f' E Coli j,g fjk;a wd.ka;=l DNA iu`. neug yelshdj ,ndf
l%u ykajd we;' mKdukfhka miqj tajd fm%isj, f;dard .;a udOHhl
j.d lr fuu m%;sixfhda; DNA iys; iqiq E .Coli .kdjdi ykd .kS' f
i|yd m%;sjlj,g m%;sfrda i<l=Kq lrk ,o jdyl cdk Nd;d lrhs'
cdk laf,dakSlrKh
cdk laf,dakSlrKh hkq ndysr cdk Odrl ffi,;=<g mKdukh u.ska we;=,a
lsu iy tfia mKdukh lrk ,o ffi, j.d lsu' fuys wruqK (
1' laf,dakSlrKh l< cdk" .=Kkh lsu
2' laf,dakl
S rKh l< Odrlhdf.ka ,nd.;a cdkfhka idokq ,nk fm%d
a khla
ksiaidrKh iy ksIamdokh lr .ekSu'
193
2nd
ksmqK;dj 11'1'0 ( cdk ;dlaIKh ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 11'2'2( cdk ;dlaIKfha Nd; ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu ksufuka miq YsIHhd;
m%fKslj lrKh l, ka ia;r lrhs'
m%fKslj lrKh l, ka ffjoH oHdf " lDIslufha iy
ludka;j, fhdod .ekSu ia;r lrhs'
m%fKslj lsrKh l< ka Nd;h ms<sn| iudcfha .eg idlPd lrhs'

dldrl:
(GMO) m%fKslj lsrKh l< ka ms<sn|j WodyrK fmkakq lrk rEm

isiqkag ,nd fokak'
lDIsluh" ffjoH oHdj iy ludka; hk fCI;%j, m%fKslj lrKh l<

ka Nd;h ms<sn| f;dr;=re tla /ia lrk f,i isiqkag mjikak'
is;a weo.kakd bm;a lsula i|yd isiqkaj iqodk lrkak'
ksYa; wkqms<sfj,lg Ih lreKq iia;rj meye,s lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la:
cdkuh jYfhka fjkial< ka iy Tjqkaf.ka we;s m%fhdack

O lghq;= i|yd m%;sixfhda; DNA ;dlaIKh Wmfhda.S lr.kska fjk;a
kaf.ka cdk iys; fndfyda nelahd" Ydl iy i;=ka ksmojdf.k we;' uq,
CIq ka " Ydl" i;=ka iy udkj cdk /f.k" nelahd fYaI j,g ykajd
fok ,o cdk u.ska m%fhdackj;a fm%dak ksmojdf.k we;' Odrlhd jYfhka
nelahd fhdodf.k tjeks fm%dak Yd, m%udKj,ska ksmou iy msis lr
.ekSu jvd myiqh' l l,lg miq hSia ffi," i;=ka iy Ydl Odrl ffi,
f,i fhdod .ekSfuka fuu ;dlaIKh ixjOkh lrk ,' fjd fmdf
m%fKslj lrKh l, ka (GMO) f,i ykajhs' ' oekg lDIslufha oS"
ffjoH oHdf oS iy ludka;j, oS m%fKslj lrKh l< ka nyq,
jYfhka fhdod .kq ,ef'
194
2nd
lDIslufha
fjk;a fYaIj, m%fhdackj;a ,laIK ykajd ka Ydl m%fNao lDIslufha
Nd; lrkq ,ef' Wod - b`.=" fidahd" lmq iy Canola j. f' lDka f.ka jk
ydksj,g m%;sfrda Ydl ksmojd .ekSug Bacillus thuringiensis hk nelahd
cdk fhdodf.k we;' Agrobacterium tumefaciens cdk fhdodf.k j,a
kdYlj,g m%;f
s rda jk m fNda. m%fNao ksmojd f.k we;' Erwinia nelahdj,
cdk fhdodf.k Carotene j,ska fmdfydi;a rka iy,a ksmojd we;' Ringspot
jhsrihg m%;sfrda mefmd,a ksmojd we;'
ffjoH oHdf
m%fKslj lrKh l< ka fhdodf.k O wdndO iy f,v frda.j,g
Nd;d jk fm%dak j. ksmojd we;' WodyrK lsysmhla k udkj bkaishq,ska"
udkj jOl fydafudakh" jOl frda fydafudakh" rerh le .eiSf idOl
bkagfmfrdka iy fymghsia m%;sfoaycklh hkdh'
ludka;j,
m%fKslj lrKh l< ka fhdodf.k tkaihsu iy ludka;j, Nd;d jk
fjk;a M, ksmojd we;' WodyrK k invertase, chymosin, amylase, pectinase iy
wdydr ludka;fha jeo.;a jk .agf jeks wdydr wdl,k jH^food additives
&'
m%fKslj lrKh l< ka inkaO iudh .eg

m%fKslj lrKh l< ka" fYaIfhka lDIs fNdA. f,i Nd;h ms<sn|j
fndfyda rgj, we;e wh frdaO;d olajd we;' fuu frdaO;djg mok
we;af;a wdpdr Ou" ffjoH oHd;aul iy mil fya;k
= h
a ' fCIa;j
% , m%fKslj
lrKh lrk ,o kaf.a Nd;fhka jk wjodku wju lr .eksug oHd{hska
iska iuyr jev ms<sfj, oekgu;a wkq.ukh lrkq ,ef'
f ksid we;s h yels m%Yak iy tajdg hyels ms<sh idlPd lrkak'
195
2nd
tallh 12 - mdil j oHdj
ksmqK;dj 12'1'0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'1 ( O ixOdk ug ;=<ska ffcjf.da,h ms<sn| Yaf,aIKfha

fhfohs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
mir oHdj wOHhkh lsf jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
mirfha cS ixOdk ugj, uQ,sl ,laIK f.dvk.hs'
m%Odk wffcj ixrpl ,ehsia;= .; lr" tajdfha m%Odk ,laIK i|yka lrhs'

dldrl:
mirfha ixOdk ug isiqka ,jd f.dvkxjkak'

iqiq rEmigyka Nd; lr mDfha iajNdjh ms<sn|j idlPd lrkak'
Ih lreKq meye,slr ug w;aje,la:

mir oHd;aul uQ,Ou ms<sn| oekqf jeo.;alu
j;udkfha udkj ixy;sh mdil .eg rdYshlg uqyqK we;' fuu
.egj, m%udKh yd ixlSK;dj fkka k jOkh fjka mDh u;
jhg ;ckhla njg m;a we;'
.=rejrhd iska j;udkfha ksia ixy;sh uqyqK we;s mdil .eg,q
,ehsia;= .; lrhs' fuu .eg i|yd id:l ms<sh fhug iqiq fhdackd
bm;a lsug tajd wOHhkh lsu jeo.;a h'
mirfha ixOdk ug yd tajdfha uQ,sl ,laIK
taffllhd" .ykh" m%cdj" mir moaO;sh" ffcj f.da,h ms<sn| ixl,am
.=rejrhd iska .ykh" m%cdj" mir moaO;sh" ffcj f.da,h hk tajdfha
,CIK meye,s l< hq;= hs'
taffllhd(
fYaIhl tla fhls' taffll ka Tjqkaf.a fndfyda wjYH;d i|yd
mirh iu. wka; ls%hd olajhs'
196
2nd
.ykh
.ykhla hkq tlu fYaIhlg wh;a tlsfkld iu. wka; ls%hd lrka
ksYa; m%foaYhl ksYa; ld,hl jik ka iuQyhls'
Wod - 2009 jif hd, cd;sl jk WoHdkfha is w,ska .ykh'
.ykhl ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak' ^.yk >k;ajh" .ykfha jOk f.h
wka;# fYaI ;r`.h'
m%cdj
ksYa; m%foaYhl" tlsfkld iu`. wka;ls%hd lrk O fYaIj,g wh;a
.yk iuQyhls'
Wod (- hd, cd;sl jfkdaoHdkfha i;a;aj m%cdj' fuu wka; ls%hdj,g
f,damSsh;dj" Ydl NlaIl;dj" iy inkaO;d we;=,;a f'
mir moaO;sh
m%cdjl" ish ka yd wffcj mirh;a" tlsfkld w;r we;s wka;ls%hd;a
we;=<;a ls%hdld$.;sl tallhhs'
Wod - jkdka;rh
ffcj f.da,h
mDfha we;s ish mir moaO;s we;=<;a Yd, ls%hdld moaO;shhs'
mDh
mDfha yrialvl my; ia;r ;=k kslaIKh l< yels h; yrh" m%djrh"
lfnd, ^weuqKqu n,kak&
lfnd, (- msg;u ia;rhjk fuh fjkia j.j, mdIdKj,ska hq;= h'
Ys,d f.da,h (- lfnd, yd m%djrfha by< fldgiska hq;= h' ^ 100 km
muK jk&
c,f.da,h (- id.rh yd h c,dYj,ska hq;= h' mDfha u;=msg 70]
la muK c,fhka jeiS we;' mDh u; we;s c,fhka
3] la muK h f'
jdhq f.da,h (- WIaK;ajh wkqj jdhqf.da,h fldgia y;rlg fjka l,
yels h' my;u ia;rfha isg wkqms<sfj,ska (
1' mj;s f.da,h
2' wmj;s f.da,h îa;r f.da,h&
3' uOH f.da,h
4' ;dm f.da,h
ld,.=Kh i|yd b;d jeo.;a jk c, jdIam yd laIq wxY= mj;s f.da,fha
muKla wvx.= h' fidaka ia;rh wmj;s f.da,fha msysgd we;' fidaka ia;rh
iqhhdf.ka ksl=;ajk UV lsrK Wrd.kS'
mD u;=msg isg tla tla ia;rj, idfmalaI Wi iy fuu ia;rj, WIaK;aj
iy mSvk fjkia u oelah hq;= hs'
197
2nd

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'2 ( mir moaO;sj, ix>gl yd ls%hdld;ajh .fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, (
mir moaO;sj, ixrpl ia;r lrhs'
ffcj yd wffcj ixrpl w;r inkaO;dj idlPd lrhs'
we;s mir moaO;shl wdydr odu yd wdydr cd, f.dv k.hs'

dldrl:
fjkia wdldrfha mir moaO;s oyd oelaug .e,S igyka yd iqiq rEm
igyka Nd; lrkak'
Wod - fN!l " h yd lrh mir moaO;s

mir moaO;sj, ,laIK ia;r lrkak'
by; mir moaO;sj, we;s wdydr odu yd wdydr cd, isiqka ,jd f.dv kxjkak'
isiqka ,jd fjkia mir moaO;sj, we;s mdil msrv f.dv kexug
i,iajkak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lrug w;aje,la (-

mir moaO;sj, jHqyh yd lD;H
mir moaO;sj, ixrpl
ish mir moaO;s m%Odk ixrpl follska hqla;h'
wffcj
ffcj
wffcj ixrplh
m%Odk ixrplj,; jd;h " c,h iy Wmia:rfhys fN!;sl yd ridhksl
jYfhka jeo.;a .=Kdx. rdYshla ffcj moaO;s flfrys n,mdhs'
Wod (- wdf,dalh" WIaK;ajh" jIdm;kh" ,jK;dj " pH
198
2nd
ffcj ixrplh (-
mir moaO;sj, m%Odk ffcj ixrpl (
m%d:l ksIamdol
mdfNdacl ^m%d:l iy oa;shsl&
kslafIam NlaIl ^fhdaclhkao we;=j&
Yla;s ixl%duK in|;d yd fmdaIK in|;d u; mir moaO;shl ffcj
ixrpl tlsfkl yd wka; inkaO;d mj;ajhs'
mdil ksfla;kh (-
mirfha $mir moaO;shl fhl= i;= ldh Ndrh'
mir moaO;shl Yla;sh .e,Su

iqhhd uQ,sl Yla;s m%Njh f' m%ldY iajhxfmdaISka mir moaO;sfha wfkla
ish kag wjYH wdydr m%Njh fyda ridhksl Nj Yla;sh ksmojhs'
m%d:l ksIamdokh hkq m%d:l ksIamdolhka iska fokq ,nk ld,hl
ridhksl Yla;sh f,ig mj;kh lrKq ,nk wdf,dal Yla;s m%udKhhs'
m%d:l ksIamdol;dj hkq ksIamdok f.hhs' talSh ld,hl " talSh
lafIa;%M,hl isk m%d:l ksIamdolhka iska ridhksl Yla;sh f,i
mj;kh lrk wdf,dal Yla;s m%udKhhs'
o, m%d:l ksIamdol;dj (GPP) hkq talSh ld,hl " tall lafIa;%hM,hl
m%d:l ksIamdolhka iska ridhksl Yla;sh f,ig mj;kh lrk
ishu Yla;s m%udKhhs' ^fuhg Yajik Yla;sh (R) we;=,;a h& fuh
kJm-2yr-1 j,ska fyda gm-2yr-1 j,ska olajhs'
Y=oaO m%d:l ksIamdokh (NPP) hkq talSh ld,hl talSh lafIa;%M,hl
m%d:l ksIm
a dolhka iska ;sr lrkq ,nk ffcj ialkaOhhs ^fuhg Yajik
Yla;sh (R) we;=<;a fkdf&
fuh kJm-2yr-1 j,ska fyda gm-2yr-1 j,ska olajhs'
GPP = NPP + R
Yla;sh" mir moaO;shl ka wkql%uhla ;=<ska tla Ydjlg muKla

ixl%duKh fjhs ^tal Yd;aul m:hl&
wdydr odu - mir moaO;shl $m%cdjla ;=< Yla;sh .,dhk fmdaIK inkaO;d
wkqms<sfj,
199
2nd
fmdaIS ugu - mir moaO;shl$ m%cdjl Yla;sh ixl%duKh jk wdydr

oduhl tla mshjrla
wdydr cd,h (- mir moaO;shl $m%cdjl O fmdaIS ugj,
wdydr odu tlsfkl yd inkaO fuka wdydr cd,hla ;efka'
tla fmdaIS ugulska ;j;a fmdaIS ugulg Yla;s ydkshla isjk ksid
wdydr oduhla mqrela 4 fyda 5 la blaujd fkd hhs'
idudkHfhka my; fmdaIs ugf isg B<`. fmdaIS ugug Yla;sh
ixl%duKh f 10] la muKla .uka lrhs' t neka 90] la ydks f'
mdil msrv
^mir moaO;shl fmdaIK inkaO;dj oyd olajk rEm igyka $ ;Sre
m%ia;dr& m%Odk j. ;=kls'
Yla;s msrv
ffcj ialkaO msrv
ixLHd msrv
ixLHd msrv yd ffcj ialkaO msrv iuyr wjia:dj, hl=re h
yels h' Yla;s msrv lsisgl;a hl=re fkdf'
mir moaO;sj, iajdNdl jH plS%lrKh

.=rejrhd iska ffcj-N+-ridhk pl% ms<sn| myod tajdfha jeo.;alu ia;r
l< hq;= h'
.=rejrhd iska ldnka" khsg%cka" fmdiamria yd c,dj;k pl% iqiq rEm
igyka Nd; lr meye,s l< hq;= h'
200
2nd

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'3 ( f,dalfha m%Odk fhdau ms<sn| uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
f,dalfha m%Odk fhdau j. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
fhdauj, jHdma;sh ia;r lrhs'
m%Odk ,dlaIKsl ,laIK Nd; lr fjkia j.j, fhdau j. fjkalr ykd
.ksh's

dldrl:
fhdauj, jHdma;sh fmkau i|yd iqiq oDYHdOdrl Nd; lrkak'

odYHdOdrl Nd;fhka isiqka iska fjkia j.j, fhdauj, ,laIK ykd
.ekSu'
fhdauj, idudkH ,laIK u;=lr olajkak'

fhdau hkq f,dalfha Yd, N+ m%foaYhla mqrd me;sreKq m%uqL jDlaI,;dh
u; j. l< m%dfoaYSh foaY.=Ksl idOl u.ska iy wod, mirhg wkqj;k
orkakd jQ kaf.ka ,dlaIKsl jQ m%Odk mir moaO;skah'
f,dalfha m%Odk fhdau wgla yd l=vd fhdau lsysmhla we;'
m%Odk fN!l fhdau
ksj;k jeis jkdka;r
ijdkd
ldka;dr
pmrd,a
fi!uH l,dmSh ;DK
fi!uH l,dmSh m,,a m;% ork jkdka;r
ghs.d ^fla;=Or jkdka;r&
;=ka d
m%Odk fN!l fhdauj, jHdma;sh iy m%Odk ,laIK ia;r l< hq;= h'
201
2nd

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'4 ( YS% ,xldf mir moaO;s ms<sn| wjfndaOh ;=<ska tajdfha
;sridr Nd;hg odhl fjhs
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
YS% ,xldf fjkia j.j, mir moaO;s ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
YS% ,xldf mir moaO;sj, ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
tla tla mir moaO;sfha msysu ykd .kshs'

dldrl:
YS% ,xldf mir moaO;s fmkaug oDYHdOdrl Nd; lrkak'

fjkia mir moaO;sj, we;s ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ykd .ekSug i,iajkak'
YS% ,xldf m%Odk mir moaO;s fjkalr ykd .; yels jeo.;a ,laIK
u;=lr olajkak'
mir moaO;sj, ;sridr Nd;h ms<sn| ia;drKhl fhfokak'
YS% ,xldf mir moaO;s

bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,sfha my; oelafjk mir moaO;s Nd; l< hq;= h'
jkdka;r
fjr<dYS%; mir moaO;s
ksj;k jeis jkdka;r
l<mq yd .x fudah
he<s Y% iody; jkdka;r
llr jkdka;r lfvd,dk
fldr,a mr
lgq mre yd , le,E
uqyq fjr<
;K
ijdkd uqyq ;DK fm;a ( sea grass
m;k beds)
wNHka;r f;;a
.x.d yd we< fod<
c,dY yd je
j.=re yd f.dfydre
,a
202
2nd

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'5 ( ffcj O;ajh ms<sn| oekqu tys ixrlaIKh i|yd fhdod
.ksh's
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
ffcj O;ajh" mir moaO;s O;ajh" fYaI O;ajh yd m%fKs O;ajh
w: olajhs'
jI ,shk 3'5 l muK ld,hla ;=, kaf.a mKduh yd jHdma;sfha m%;sM,hla
f,i ffcj O;ajh ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh ia;drKh lrhs'
udkj ls%hdldrl ksid YS>%;dj fnfyka by< .sh iajdNdl ls%hdj,shla f,i
kIagu ms<sn|j idlPd lrhs'
WodyrK iys;j IUCN j. ls w: olajhs'
f.da,Sh yd cd;sl ugj, ffcj O;ajh ixrlaIKh lsf wjYH;dj
u;=lr olajhs'

dldrl:
isiqka yg ;ud wjg mirfha isk rEmSh - fYaI ykd.ekSug i,iajkak'

jfha wdrNh yd ffcj O;ajfha mKduh oelaug m.Kl wdOdrfhka
is lrk bm;a ls ( Power point presentations) Nd; lrkak'
ffcj O;ajh iq/lSf jeo.;alu u;=lr olajkak'

ffcj O;ajh
fN!l" lrh" fjk;a c,c mir moaO;s o" we;= ish m%Njj, iy Tjqka
wh;ajk mdil ixlsKj, ka w;r we;s p,H;djhhs' ^fjkial h&
fuhg fYaIhla ;=<" fYaI w;r yd mir moaO;s w;r O;ajh wh;a h'
m%fKs O;ajh
tla fYaIhla ;=< mj;sk kaf.a m%fKs jHj, O;ajh hs' tneka
mirfha fjkiaj,g wkqj;kh ug kag yelshdj we;'
fYaI O;ajh
mdil m%cdjla ;=< we;s O;ajh ueksh yels kq oKavls' fuhg m%cdjla
;=< isk fYaI ixLHdj yd tajdfha idfmalaI nyq,;ajh we;=,;a h' ^m%fKs
O;ajh" fYaI O;ajhg mdol f'
203
2nd
fYaIhla hkq fmd ,laIK fndfyda ixLHdjla we;s tla ,laIKhla fyda
lsysmhlska fjk;a cSkaf.ka fjkiajk" iajdNdl ;;a;aj hgf;a wka;
wNsckkfhka $wka; wNsckkh lsf Njh we;s ire cks;hka ysl< yels
ka ldKavhls'
m%Odk j.SlrK ugj, isk ka weia;fka;= lr" oekg Ydl yd i;a;aj

fYaI ,shk 30 la muK isk nj oelaf'
mir moaO;s O;ajh

ffcj f,dalfha jdiia:dk" m%cd yd mdil ls%hdj,sj, O;ajhhs'
ffcj O;ajfha wdrNh" mKduh yd kIagu'

mDfha wdrNh
jir ,shk 4'5 g muK fmr mDh ie we;' tu ld,fha id.r" uydoam yd
ffc jH lsisjla ;s ke;' wdrNfha mDh oe huy,a ls%hdld;ajfhka hq;=
j jQ mdIdK f.da,hla f,i mej;s we;' l%ufhka mDh isis,ajk g jdIamYS,S
nj wvq f,day >k mDfha yrh ie we;' bkamiq ieye,a,q is,slduh mdIdK
u.ska mDfha lfnd, ie we;' wdrNl jdhqf.da,h yhsv%cka" khsg%cka jdhqj"
ldnkavfhdlaihs" c,jdIam" yhsvc
% ka i,a*hs" wefudakh
s d yd f;akj
a ,ska iuka;
we;ehs ie<fla' tu ld,fha jdhqf.da,fha Tlaiscka ;s ke;' tu ksid th
Tlaisydrl jdhqf.da,hla f,i yekaf'
jfha iNjh
jfha iNjh ms<sn| u;
1' ueu ms<sn| jdoh (-
ish`t ka iqfYaI n,Od fohka jykafia flkl= iska ujk ,o njg we;s
Yajdihhs' fuu u;h we;e wd. ^fYaIfhka ls%ia;shdks wd.u& u`.ska me;s
we;'
2' iajhxisoaO ckk jdoh (- kEu f,djloS w jHj,ska iajhxisoaOj jh
we;sjk njg we;s u;h'
iqiq ;;a;aj hgf;a oS wm;% jH u`.ska mkqjka" lDka yd hka jeks i;=ka
we;sjk njg fuu jdofha i|yka f'
3' Cosmozoic Theory wNHjHldYfhka mDhg jh meKs njg we;s u;hhs'
wog;a we;e oHd{fhda fjk;a .%yf,dalj, fyda iQh .%y uKav,hg msg;ska
ka isk njg u; m< lr;s'
mDhg ka meKsfha th u; m;s; jQ ka iys; W,aldjla fyda wkH
.%yf,dalhlska meKs wNHjldY hdkd u.ska nj Tjqka woy;s'
204
2nd
4' ffcj ridhksl mKduh ms<sn| jdoh

oHq;a ick yd iQh lsrK ksid wldnksl jdhq wKqj,ska wd jdhqf.da,fha
ldnksl wKq we;sh ' fuu jH id.r c,fha h m%:u wdldr we;sh'
wef,laiekav Tmdka ^1923& yd f' ' tia' ye,fka fuu u;h m%:ufhka
bosm;a lrk ,' iageka,s , ^1953& mrSlaIKd;aulj fuu jdoh ;yjqre lrk
,oS' Tyq iska wdos mDfha ;;a;aj ma,dial= ;=< wkqlrKh lrk ,oS'
jdhqf.da,fha ir, ldnksl wKq u.ska yhsfv%dldnka wefkda w, jeks ldnksl

jH id.rj, we;s ;sf hhs ie<fla' fuu m%;sl%shd i|yd wjYH Yla;sh iQh
lsrK u.ska ;on, oHq;a ick u.ska we;sjk wl=Kq" oe huy,a ls%hdld;ajh
yd lsrKYS,S jH laIh fuka we;sjk ;dmh u.ska ,ef'
wdos ld,Sk id.rh wd iQmhlaZ f,i (Primordial Soup) f,i ldnksl wKq u.ska
we;s we;ehs ie<fla' fuu ldnksl iQmh ;=< wefkda w, " khsg%cka NIau" ir,
iSks yd kshqla,sfhdaghsv wvx.=h' fuu wKq tla/ia ,smsv ;gqjlska jg we;'
fuu ixlSK wd ffi, njg mKduh we;' fuu ffi, jOkh" iajhx
m%;sj,s;u jeks ,laIK lSmhlska hqla; f' fuh jfha wdrNh f,i
ie,lsh yels h' uq,skau we;sjQ ka IufmdaIS" ksjdhq m%d.akHIalhka f,i
ie<fla' fuh is we;af;a wjqre ,shk 3'5 g muK fmrh'
ffcj O;ajfha mKduh
mD:sfha b;sydih myiqj i|yd hq. y;rlska yd wj 11 lska hq;a fY%aKshlg fnod
we;'
m<uq hq.fha isg hq. y;r my; oelaf (-
Archeozoic
Palaeozoic
Mezozoic
Cenozoic
Archeozoic hq.fha m%d.afla%h wjfha nelahd yd fm%diagdjka muKla ish

y' m%NdixYaf,aIl ka we;s Odx.SlrKh isjqfha jI ,shk 2'7 - 0'7 g
muK fmrh' uq,skau we;sjQ m%NdixYaf,aIl ka yg Tlaiscka ksmoug fkdyels
h' jdhqf.da,fha Tlaiscka m%udKh je" tajd whkSlrKhfuka fidaka
ia;rh ieoS we;'
iqkHIalhka uq,skau we;sjQfha wjqre ,shk ^1-1'5& g muK fmrh' tuksid

mDh u; jh f,i jI ,shk folla muK mej;sfha m%d.akHIalhka
muKls' fm%daiagdjka Odx.slrKhu yd ish`t m%Odk wmDIaGjxYS jxY we;su
jI ,shk 0'7 g muK fmr ish' tal ffi,sl iqkHIalhka nelahdjkaaf.ka
205
2nd
mKduh h' nyq ffi,Sl ldKavfha wdos;u nyqffi,sl ka id.rfha

mKduh h' ksvdhdjka ^fldr,a yd uqyq weksuks&" we;e wefk,svdjka yd
uq,au wdf;%dafmdvdjka ksoiqka h'
id.rfha is kaf.a Odx.SlrKh isu jI ,shk 700 l isg wo olajd

isf' mDIaGjxYslhkaf.a iNjh yd fudialdjka" %hsf,danhsgdjka yd
l%iafIshdjka we;su jI ,shk 500 g muK fmr ish' f.dv Ydlj,
.KjdiSlrKh;a jI ,shk 480 g muK fmr isjQ w;r" Tjqkf
a .a Odx.SlrKh
tu ld,fha isg wo olajd isf' f.dvf i;a;aj .KdjdiSlrKh jI ,shk
420 g muK fmr is h' Tjqkaf.a Odx.SlrKh wo olajd isf'
m%:ufhka f.dvug .sh mDIaGjxYSka WNhyq fj;s' f.dvu;a" c,h;a w;r

ixprKh lsf yelshdj Tjqyq os.gu mj;ajd .;ay' WNhka LKalSh jr,a
iys; u;aiHhkaf.ka iNjh h' Wod(- Latimeria
bka miq Wr.hka WNhkaf.ka iNjh h' Tjqyq fN!l ;h flfrys

imQKfhka wkqj;kh we;' Tjqka yg ta i|yd fYaIKh jq jHqyd;aul yd
ldhsl oHd;aul ,laIK we;' fuu ld,fhaoSu uQ,sl mdis yd mKdx.j, Wpu
ish' Wr.hkaf.ka mlaIk
S a we;sh' mshdir lsf yelshdj ksid fndfyda mlaIk
S g
a
mq`t,a f,i jHdma;ug yels ;sf' lDka uq,skau we;sjqfha carboniferous hq.fhaoS
jk w;r Tjqkaf.a O;ajh je we;' Yd, jeis jkdka;r" .ia mKdx." club
mosses yd m%:u jD;cl iys;j Ydl mq`t,a f,i carboniferous wjfha oS
jHdma; h'
j;udkfha Nd; lrk .,a w`.=re ks fndfydauhla fuu jkdka;rj,ska iEkq

tajd fjhs'
mhka ^jI ,shk 280 g fmr & wjfha oS fla;=Or .ia we;sh' Wr.hkaf.a
wkqj;S lsrK ksid g%heisl wjfha oS vhsfkdirhka w;sh' vhsfkdairhka
fidfidhsl hq.fha oS mDfha m%uqLhka h' tys Wp;u wjia:dj l%hsfiSh
wjfha oS we;sh' uq,au laIsrmdhska g%heisl wjfha oS we;sjQ kuq;a jI ,shk
.Kkla Tjqka wm%Odk ldKavhla f,i mej;=Ks' l%hsfiSh wjfha mqIam
msfmk Ydl yd kQ;k u;aiHhkaf.a wdrNh yd l,, nkaOh iys; laIsrmdhska
we;su ish'
mqIam iys; Ydlj, mq,a jHdma;sh yd Wpu wkqj;s lsrK ksid

ish'
206
2nd
laIsrmdhskaf.a wkqj;S lsrK we;su ksid g%heisla wjfha fYaI

.Kkdjla we;sh'
udkjhd kQ;k fYaIhls'Tyqf.a wdrNh jI 5"00"000 g muK fmr ish'
fYaI kIag u'(-

oekg isk fYaI iska fjkiau fyda kIagu ;=<ska kj fYaI i|yd bv
ie,ish hq;= h' tneka iajdNdl kIagu mKdl ls%hdj,sfha fldgila f,i
ie<fla'
kIagf YS>%;djg jvd mKdl YS>%;dj je h' tu ksid ld,h;a iu`. ffcj
O;ajh je we;'
kIagu hkq mDfhka $ ys u;ska fYaIhlg wh;a wjidk hd bj;auhs'
ffcj O;aj b;sydifhys uyd m;a ksid w;s Yd, ixLHdj,ska isjQ kIag
%f,danhsgdjkaf.a kIagu - mhka wjfha wjidkh ^jI ,shk 200
g muK fmr&
wefudksgdjkaf.a kIagu - ls%fiSh wjfha wjidkh ^jI ,shk 65 g
muK fmr&
vhsfkdirhka kIagu - ls%fiSh wjfha wjidkh ^jI ,shk 65 g
muK fmr&
udkj .ykh yd YsIagdpdrfhys jOkh;a iu`. ksid iska kIagf iS>%;dj
je lr we;'
j;udkfha ksid iska mDh u; ;u wdm;Hh m;=rd ;sfnk w;r" mDh
u; ksia n,mEfuka f;dr lsis mir moaO;shla ke;'
bos jir 30 ;=< fYaI w;=frka 5 - 10] la muK kIag h yels nj weia;fka;=
lr we;'
udkj .ykfha yd ksid iska Nd; lrk im;a mokf jOkh" lDIsluh"
ludka;" jkdka;r t<s lsu" m%jdykh" kd.lrKh jeks udkj uey;a
.Kkdjla u; r|d mj;S'
fuu ls%hdj,s mir moaO;sj, ls%hdld;ajh flfrys n,mdk ksid tu`.ska ffcj
O;ajhg ydks f'
ksia n,mE ksid ffcj O;ajh kIagug fya;= jQ idOl (-

jdiia:dk wysu yd tajd le fjka hdu" lDIsluh i|yd uyd mudKfhka
isjk jkdka;r t<s lsu" fj<|du yd ludka;" udkj ckdjdi msysgq u`.ska
ffcj-N+-ridhksl pl% fjkialr" fYaI flfrys n,mdhs' fksid" ffcj O;ajh
ydhkh isf'
207
2nd
wdl%uKsl fYaI (-
uq,a ia:dkfhka neyerj me;sh yels" foaYSh fkdjk fYaIhls' kj ia:dkj,
ia:djru ksid tu m%foaYfha foaYSh ffcj O;ajhg ydkslr n,mE we;'
foaYSh fkdjk wdl%uKsl fYaI u.ska mir moaO;sj, ie<lsh hq;= fjkial
we;s lrhs' mdil ;=,s;;djg ndOd lrhs' ;jo wd:sl ydks we;slrhs' wdl%uKsl
fYaI ykajd oSu iajdNdlj fyda wyUq f,i ish yels h'
my; oelafjkafka YS% ,xldjg wod< WodyrK lSmhls'

Lantana camara - .|mdk
Mimosa pigra (Giant sleeping plant - fhdaO ksosl=nd&
Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth - cmka cnr&
Chitala chitala - (Clown knife fish - udkakdjd&
Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium-Congress weed) md;Skh
s &
Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaI wmfNdackh-fndfyda Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaI ksid iska

w mfNdackh lrhs' ^m%Odk jYfhka wdydr i|yd &
Wod - lsUq,ka yd msUqrka iu i|yd we;=ka we;a o< i|yd" T!Ih Ydl T!IO
ludka;h i|yd
mir IKh
c,h" mi yd jd;h IKh mir moaO;sj, ls%hdld;ajh flfrys n,mdhs' ;jo
ixfoS fYaIj, ixLHdj wvqu fyda bj;a u o ish yelsh'
f.da,Sh foaY.=Ksl fjkia -
jdhqf.da,fha y;d.dr jdhQka udkj n,mE u.ska jeu ksid f.da,Sh WIaK;ajh
jeh yels h' mir moaO;sj, m%Odk fjkia ksid tu fjkiaj,g wkq.;
h fkdyels fYaI ke;s hd yels h'
lDIsluh ksid we;sjk m%fKsl ydhkh-j;udk lDIslufha oS by< M,odjla
,ndfok Ydl yd i;a;aj m%fNao iq ixLHdjla Nd; f' f ksid cdk O;ajh
ke;sf' jdiia:dk wysu yd idm%odhsl fYaI wj;ekau ksid cdk im;a
ke;su fyda m%fKsl ydhkh isf'
ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dm (- ^Bio diversity hotspots)

uhia iska ^1988& oS foaYSh ^wdfKsl& fYaIj, wl idkaKhla iys; yd tajdg
wl ;ckhla iys; m%foaY ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dm f,i k lr we;'
YAS% ,xldf ks;os. m%foaYfha fldgia jYfhka we;s f;;a jkdka;r fjd w;r
we;' iuia;hla f,i YS% ,xldj ^talfoaYsl& fYaIj,ska nyq, h'
208
2nd
YS% ,xldj yd bkaoshdf ngysr llr m%foaYh tlaj .;al< ol=Kq wdishdf m%Odk
ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dmhls'
f,dalfha ffcj O;aj WKqiq l,dm 25 la we;'
talfoaYsl fYaI
h rglg fyda m%foaYhlg fyda muKla iSud jQ fYaIhls' fuu fYaI f,dalfha
fjk;a m%foaYhl iajdNdlj yuq fkdf'
YS% ,dxlSh Ydl fYaI i|yd ksoiqka (-
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus ^fydr& yd Garcinia quaesita ^f.drld&
YS% ,dxlSh i;a;aj fYaI i|yd ksoiqka (-
Puntius nigrofasciatus (Black Ruby Barb - nq,;a ymhd yd Loris tardigradus
(Slender Loris - WK ymqjd&
foaYSh fYaI (-
ft;sydislj ykd.;a iajdNdl iSudjka ;=< we;s Ydl fyda i;a;aj fYaIhls' th
tu m%foaYfha iajNdl ffcj O;ajfha fldgils' fuu fYaI iajdNdlj h
m%foaYhl j;a f' ksidf.a ys;du;d isjk n,mEulska f;drj h N+f.da,Sh
m%foaYhlg meKSu yd jdih lsu is we;'
Wod - YS% ,dxlsl ksoiqka - Ophicephalus striatus (Snakehead&^,d& " Caryota urens
^ls;=,a&
foaYsl fYaI -
;u iajdNdl m%foaYfhka msg; N+f.da,Sh m%foaYhlg ykajdka fYaIhls'
Oreochromis mossambicus - ^;s,dmshd&" Hevea brasiliensis ^rn& tf,i YS%
,xldjg y\qkajd ka foaYSh fYaI f'
mhgk fYaI -
iD;= u.ska ;SrKh l< yd mqfrdal:kh l< yels f,i tla ;eklska ;j;a ;eklg
ixprKhu mhgkhhs' mhgkh ksid m%ckkh i|yd n,mdk wys;lr mdil
;;a;aj u`.yrjd .; yels h'
Wod (- Indian flycatcher - îq fros fydrd&

Indian Pitta - ^whd&
Barn Swallow - ^jeys,sysKshd&
209
2nd
wjYsIag fYaI -
j;udkfha yqfol,dj fyda iS;j mj;sk" tla;rd ld,hl oS mq,aj me;sr ;snQ
fYaIhl fYaIhkah'
Wod (-
Tuatara - kjiS,ka; l=vd m;a lSmhl muKla we;'
Ichthyophis glutinosus- ^mdo rys;" mKqjl= jeks foayhla iys; wdos l,ams;
WNh fhls&"
Lingula sp - ^,dmq fn,a,d& ;s%l=Kdu,fha ;U,.uqj fndlal
wdYS%;j jdih lrk fhls'
OchOd fYaI
fuu fYaI mdil idOlhla îxrlaIKh w;HjYH mir moaO;shla jeks&
ksfhdackh lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,ef'
fuu fYaI f;dard.kq ,nkafka wjodkug ,lau" is;a.kakd iq nj yd meyeos,sj

fmfkk ,laIK iys;u ksid fmd iydh yd ms<.
s ekSu ,nd .ekSug we;s yelshdj
i<ld h'
OchOd fYaI lSmhlg ,efnk m%isoah ksid iuia; mir moaO;sh yd thg
wh;a ka ixrlaIKhg yelshdj ,eu fuu ixl,amfha jeo.;a ,laIKhls'
Wod (- bkaoshdf fnx.d,s fldhd" kfha fhdaO mekavd" YS% ,xldf leys fn,a,d
uQ,ia:dk fYaI (-
fuu fYaI mir moaO;shl ia:djr nj yd ls%hdld;ajh flfrys jeo.;a ldh
Ndrhla bgq lrhs' fuu fYaIh bj;a l<fyd;a mir moaO;sh lvd jef'
Wod - wms%ldkq ijdkd j, Yd, Ydl NlaIlhka ^fYaIfhka w,s we;=ka& .ia
kdY lsu ksid ;DK fYaIj,g bv ,ef' fuu i;=ka fkdue;sj ijdkd
jk fm;la njg m;aug bv we;'
isiqkag YS% ,dxlSh mir moaO;sj, isk uQ,ia:dk fYaI lSmhla k lsug
mjikak'
IUCN r;= o;a; fmdf;ys y\qkajd oS we;s mos ;ckhg ,la jQ ka

Extinct (Ex) ;lafidakhla j| f.dia we;s njg i<lkq ,efnkafka tys wjidk
hd hf.dia we;s njg ie<lsh hq;= ;r ielhla fkdue;s jQ g h' Wod -
fvdafvda ûqreis osjhsfka jdih l<&
Wooly Mammoth ^W;=re weuldf jdih l<&
ol=Kq os. mre uehd ^ YS% ,xldf jdih l<&
210
2nd
Extinct in the Wild (EW)

;lafidakhla j.d lrk ,o" isrlrk ,o fyda tu kaf.a w;S; iSudjkaf.ka
ndysr m%cdjla f,i muKla j;a f k fuu .Khg wh;a hhs ie<fla'
Wod - iS fI,aia osjhsfka fhdaO bnd" YS% ,xldf Alphonsea hortensis ( Annonaceae
l=,hg wh;a Ydlhls&
Critically Endangered (CR)

jkdka;rj,ska j| hdf w;sYh by< wjodkula we;s njg ms<s.; yels fya;=
idOl we;s ;lafidakhla fuu lKavdhug wh;a f'
Wod - Macrognathus aral (ngfld< f;,shd&
Dermochelys coreacea (odr leianEjd&
Endangered (EN)
jkdka;rj,ska j|hdf b;d by< wjodkula we;s njg ms<s.; yels fya;= idOl
we;s ;lafidakhka fuu lKavdhug wh;a f'
Wod - Caretta caretta ^Tf. leianEjd&
Melursus ursinus ^j,yd&
Vulnerable (VU)
jkdka;rj,ska j|hdf by< wjodkula we;s njg ms<s.; yels fya;= idOl we;s
;lafidakhka fuu ldKavhg wh;a f'
Wod - Elephas maximus ^wdishdkq w,shd&
Near Threatened (NT)

;lafidakhka CR, EN, yd VU ldKavj,g wh;a fkdjk kuq;a kqre wkd.;fha
oS by; ldKaj,g wh;af wjodkula we;
Wod - Melanochelus trijuga ^.,a bnd&
Least concern (LC)

CR, EN, VU yd NT ldKavj, wh;a fkdjk ;lafidak fuu ldKavhg wh;a f'
Wod (- Crocodylus alustris ^ye, lsUq,d&
mq,aj jHdma; jqk nyq, ;lafidak fuu ldKavhg wh;a f'
DD (Data deficient)
;lafidakhla fuu ldKavhg wh;a jkafka tys jHdma;sh yd$fyda .ykfha ;;a;ajh
ms<sn|j m%udKj;a o;a; rys; u ksid h' tneka ta ms<sn|j iDcqj fyda jl%j
;lafiare l< fkdyel'
211
2nd
fuu ldKavhg wh;a ka ms<sn| j fyd|ska wOHhkh lr" j oHd;aulj fyd|ska

ykdf.k we;s kuq;a Tjqkaf.a jHdma;sh yd$fyda nyq,;dj ms<sn| o;a; fkdue;'
Wod - Mystus keletius ^m;a wxl=gd&
Not Evaluated (NE)

;lafidakhla fuu ldKavhg wh;a jkafka th ;ckhg ,lajQ fYaI ms<sn|j
we;s ksKdhl Tiafia ;lafiare lr" ldKav .; lr fkdue;s goSh'
Wod - Oecophyla smaragdina ôshd&
Chloroxylon swietenia ^nqre;&
ixrlaIKh lsf wjYH;dj

ixrlaIK ls%hdodufha m%Odku wruqK fYaI Wmu ixLHdjla os.= ld,Sk
j;au ;yjqre lsuhs' j| hdf ;ckhg uqyqK md we;s ka fYaIfhka iq/
lsh hq;= w;r" Tjqkaf.a m%ckk ls%hdj,sh fkdlvjd mj;ajdf.k hdug;a " Tjqkaf.a
meje;au ;yjqre lsu;a ish hq;= h'
ixrlaIKh wdldr follg is l< yelsh'
uq,a ia:dkj, is flfrk ixrlaIKh (- fuys oS fYaIfha wdrlaIdj yd
Tjqkaf.a m%ckkh iajNdl jdiia:dkfha oS ;yjqre flf'
uQ,sl jYfhka Yd, .ykhla yd m%udKj;a jQ;a" W; jQ;a jdiia:dk bvlvo
;sfnk njg j.n,d .; hq;= h'
Wod - wdrlaIs; m%foaY" mdrml f.j;=" wNh N+" iajdNdl rlaIs;" kaf.a
iajNdl jdiia:dkj,g kej; ykajd oSu'
.=rejrhd iska ;j;a WodyrK lSmhla ,ndosh hq;= h'
uq,a ia:dkj,ska neyerj is flfrk ixrlaIKh - ^;eka ixrlaIKh&
iajNdl jdiia:dkfhka neyer m%foaYhl is flfrk ixrlaIKfha oS" ta fYaIh
tys iajNdl mirfhka bj;g f.k iudk ;;a;aj fYaIfhka we;s l< ;eklg
f.k hkq ,ef' tys fYaIh fkdkeiS mejf;k fia;a" m%ckkh isjk fia;a
j.n,d .kq ,ef'
Wod - WoaNso WoHdk" i;afjdaoHdk" lafIa;% cdk nexl=" Captive breeding , cdk
im;a uOHia:dk'
.=rejrhd iska ;j;a WodyrK lSmhla ,ndosh hq;= h'
ffcj O;ajh ixrlaIKh i|yd odhljk iuq;"s .siq yd md,sfka;= mk;aj,
m%Odk ,laIK
CITES - wka;rdhg ,lajQ Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaIj, wka;cd;sl fj<|du ms<sn|
iuq;sh ^1975& isg ls%hd;aul f' fuu iuq;sfha wruqK Ydl yd i;a;aj fYaIj,
wka;cd;sl fj<|du Tjqkaf.a meje;aug ;ckhla fkdjk f,i mj;ajdf.k
hduhs'
212
2nd
fuu iuq;shg wkqj we;e fYaI wmkhkh i|yd mQj wkque;sh yd wmkhk
n,m;% wjYHhs' wmkhk n,m;%hla ,ndfokqfha tu fYaIh wmkhkh ;=<ska
Tjqkaf.a meje;aug ;ckhla fkdjkafka k muKs'
YS% ,dxlsl WodyrK - WKymqjd" osh n,a,d" yd fldhd
ffcj O;aj iuq;sh ^1992&

fuu iuq;sfha wruqK ffcj O;ajh iq/lSu" tys ix>glj, ;sridr Nd;h
iy idOdrK fukau iudkd;au;dfjka hq;=j cdk im;aj,ska w;ajk jdis N=la;s
|Suhs'
RAMSAR iuq;sh ^1971&

wka; cd;sl jYfhka jeo.;ajk f;;a ixrlaIKh ms<sn| iuq;sh f' fuh
fYaIfhka c,c mlaIs jdiia:dk ms<sn|j wod< f' YS% ,xldf /id f;;a
myla we;'
Wod - nQkao, cd;sl jfkdaoHdkh
ud .`. rlaIs;h
wdkkaodj je rlaIs;h
jkaldf,hs rlaIs;h
l=uk f;;a
Ydl yd i;a;aj ixrlaIK mk; (-

Ydl yd i;a;aj ixrlaIK wd{d mk; YS% ,xldf Ydl yd i;=kag wdrlaIdj
ie<iSu ms<sn| mk;ls' fuh 1937 oS ls%hd;aul u wdrN h' fuu mk; 1993 os
Ydl yd i;a;aj ixrlaIK mk;ska ixfYdaOkh h' tu`.ska iajNdl rlaIs; yd
wNhN+ msysgqug bvie,iSu o ta yd inkaO lghq;= ms<sn|j ls%hd;aulug o
bv i,id we;'
.=rejrhd iska YS% ,xldf we;s fjkia j.j, iajdNdl rlaIs; ,ehsia;=jla yd
WodyrK ,ndosh hq;= h'
213
2nd

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'6 ( mir ydhkhg ;=vq fok idOl md,kh lsu ;=<ska
mirfha .=Kd;aul nj /l .ekSug odhl fjhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (

mir IKh hk ixl,amh ia;r lrhs'
mi" c,h yd jd;fha Il j.=.; lr" tajdfha m%Njhka olajhs'
jd;h" c,h yd mi IKhfuka we;sjk n,mE ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
udkj YsIagdpdr ls%hdj,sh Tiafia ksia ls%hdldrlj,ska mirh flfrys we;s

n,mEu oyd oelau i|yd jHdmD;s jev-,sms " cdhdrEm" fmdaiagr tl;= lsu yd
bm;a lsu'
m%dfoaYShj we;s ydhkhg ,lajQ mirhl ;;a;ajh Wiia lsug jev igykla
ixOdkh lsu yd iyNd.su'
iqiq rEmigyka Nd;fhka mir ydhkhg ;=vq fok idOl ia;r lrhs'

mir IKh hk ixl,amh ykajd u; jH yd Yla;sh ydksodhl h yels
m%udKj,ska h mirhl ;su mir IKh f,i ykajhs'
mir IKh w: oelau
mirhg" tys fjfik kag yd mqoa.,hkag ydksodhl m%udKj,ska yd
ydksodhl h yels ld, mrdihla ;=< Yla;sh yd jH mirhg ksoyia u'
mir IKh mirfha iEu wxYhla flfrysu n,mdhs' ksid iska idok ,o
yd iajNdl mir moaO;s" j yd wj ix>gl
jdhq IKh
fi!LHhg ydksodhl yd mirhg wys;lr n,mE we;slrk yd iajdNdl"
ls%hdld;ajfha iu;=,s;;djhg " ndOd lrk m%udKj,ska jH yd Yla;sh ksoyia
u ksid jd;fha ;;a;ajh msySu u jdhq IKhhs'
my; jdhq Ilj, m%Odk m%Nj olajkak'
i,am vfhdlaihs " khsg%cka Tlaihs" ldnka fudfkdlaihs" yhsfv%dldnka"
wxY=uh jH" laf,dafrd*afrdaldnka" ldnka vfhdlaihs" fidaka
214
2nd
jdhq Il lSmhl wys;lr n,mE

jdhq Ilh n,mE
ldnkafudfkdlaihs rerfha Tlaiscka mjyk Od;dj wvqu"

W;af;ack ixcdkkh n, lsu" m%;Sl fika
isu" oDIahg ndOdlsu" ksu; we;su" fmaYS
iudfhdackh wvqu" Tlaldrh" .= ld,hla " by<
idkaKhl ldnkafudfkdlaihsj,g ksrdjrKh
fuka urKh mjd we;sh yelsh'
i,a* vfhdlaihs W.%" ksoka.; weu" fn%dkalhsia" t*SiSud"

(Emphysema), fmky ms<sld yd h inkaOhla
;su" w, jeis we;su - .=rejrhd iska w,
jeisj, n,mEu meye,s l< hq;= h'
khsg%ckaa Tlaihsv i,a*vfhdlaihsj,g iudk m%;sM, we;su' Bg

wu;rj rerfha Tlaiscka mjyk Od;dj wvqu
yd W.% mqmamqiSh fYda:h' ^Pulmonary oedema&
;;a;ajh' Wod- fmky ;=< ;r, tla /iau'
photochemical smog ^m%Ndridhksl OQldj&
we;su' .=rejrhd iska m%Ndridhksl OQldj,
n,mEu ia;r l< hq;= h'
yhsfv%dldnka m%Ndridhksl OQld we;s lsu" weiaj,

WoamH;djh" ksu;" iuyrla ms<sld ldrl h
yels h' iuyrla fmkyj, frda. we;sl< yels
h'
laf,dafrd*af,dfrdldnka fmd<j ugf ydksodhl ke;' kuq;a

jdhqf.da,fha fidaka ia;rhg ydkslrh'
.=rejrhd iska fidaka ia;rhg ydksfuka jk
n,mE ia;r l< hq;= h'
w;sla; ldnkavfhdlaihs y;d.dr wdprKh yd ys;,h WKqiqu"

.=rejrhd iska ys;,h WKqiq f n,mEu
ia;r l< hq;= h'
215
2nd
fidaka i;=kag yd Yajik frda.j,ska mSvd k

mqoa.,hkag ydkslrh' leiai" yqiau ysru"
fmky ls%hdld;ajhg ydksu" ksfudakshdjg
we;s m%;sYla;sh ysku" weu W.%u'
wxY=uh jH Yajik frda. ^weu&" iuyrla ms<sld ldrl h
yels h' mDh lrd m;s;jk iQh lsrK lmd
yeu'
c, Il yd tajdfha m%Nj yd n,mE
khsf%g yd fmdaiafmag
jHdckl ka
f;,a
ner f,day ( Bh ^Pb& rih" leh" wdiksla " m,sfndaO kdYl"
ffcj ydhkh fkdjk jH ^fmd,s;Ska&
.=rejrhd iska by; jHj, m%Nj yd tajdfha n,mEu ia;r l< hq;= h'
mfia Il" tajdfha m%Nj yd n,mE

lDkdYl
laf,dakSlD; yhsfv%dldnka ( DDT, Aldrin , Endrin wdh&
nyq laf,dakSlD; nhs*Skhs,a
ner f,day ^ Pd, Hg, Cd" As &
lsrKYS,s jH
fmd,s;ska yd ma,diala
.=rejrhd iska by; Ilj, n,mE ia;r l< hq;= h'
216
2nd
ksmqK;dj 12''0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'7 ( f.da,Sh mdil .eg ms<sn| oekqu hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd (

f.da,Sh mdil .eg ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
ys;,h WKqiqu" fidaka ia;rh ydhkh u" w, jeis i|yd odhl jk
idOl o" tajdfha n,mE o ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
jHdmD;s jev
f.da,Sh ugf mdil .eg ms<sn| bm;a lsula lrkak' nyq udOH
wdY%fhka l< yels k jvd;a iqiq h'

f.da,Sh mdrsirsl .eg,q
ys;,h WKqiqu - jdhqf.da,fha idudkH WIaK;ajh by< hka mj;S'
odhljk idOl - y;d.dr wdprKh" jdhqf.da,fha we;s CO2 " khsg%cka j,
Tlaihsv" f;ka " c, jdIam yd fidaka mdh u;g m;s;jk lsrKj,ska
fldgila kej; wjldYhg mrdj;khu j<lajhs' m%Odk y;d.dr jdhqj
ldnkavfhdlaihs f'
ys;,h WKqiq f n,mE (-
id.rfha c, mudj by<hdu ksid uqyq ugu l%ufhka by< hdu'
.= ld,Skj WIaK;ajh by<hdfuka .a,eishr yd O%eh ysu wdjrK
hu ksid uqyq ugu by< hhs'
jdhqf.da,Sh m%jdy" iq<x rgd" foaY.=Ksl idOl fjkiau yd jIdm;k
rgd fjkiah yels h'
lDIsldl ksIamdok flfrys n,mEu" jDlaI,;d j, ixhq;sh yd
jHdma;sh fjkiah yels h' jkdka;r" ;K yd ldka;drj, iSudjka
fjkiau'
ksh`. ;;a;aj jeu" jdud. i|yd b,au jeu'
c, .e,S jeu ksid jdiia:dk wysu" we;e fYaI kIagu
ish yels h'
le,E .sks we;su jeu u`.ska jDlaI,;d rgdjka fjkiau'
c, m%idrKh ksid fjr< Ldokh u yd fjr<dYS%; jr ludka;hg
ndOdu'
217
2nd
ksia .ykh yd fi!LHh flfrys WIaK;ajh ksid we;sjk frda. u.ska

n,mE we;su'
ixl%uKh ksid ksj;k l,dmSh frda. fi!uH l,dmsl m%foaYj,g
me;su'
fidaka ia;rh ydhkh
wmj;S fida k a ia ; rh ldhla I u wdjrKhla f,i ys r ef.ka ms g jk
mdrcnq, lsrK mDh u; m;s;u wdjrKh lrhs' th mDfha jh /l
.ekSug jeo.;a odhl;ajhla imhhs'
odhljk idOl - laf,darda*af,dafrdldnka ixfhda. uqod yeu
fidaka ia;rh ydksf n,mE

- wefia iqo we;su yd pu ms<sld we;su by< hdu ^mdrcnq, lsrK
lD;s ldrlhls'&
- m%NdixYaf,aIKhg ndOdu ksid j.djkays M,odj wvqu
- ldka;drlrKh
ôdhljk idOl yd n,mE ia;r lrkak&
w, jeis
ôdhljk idOl ia;r lrkak&
- f,day u<lv lEu
- ys.,a $f.dvke.s,s Ldokh u
- Ydl u.ska ner f,day wjfYdaIKh jeu"
khs%ldrl mdxY= ka wvqu'
m;% lymeye;su$ ms<siaiSu ksid m%NdixYaf,aIKh wvqu"

pH w.h wvqu ksid c,c ka f.a nyq,;djh wvqu"
mfia ire nj wvqu'
218
2nd
ksmqK;dj 12''0 ( ka yd mirh w;r wka; inkaO;d ms<sn| j oHd;aul

Yaf,aIKhl fhfohs'
ksmqK;d ugu 12'1'8 ( mir ixrlaIKh yd inkaO Odk yd iuq;s ms<sn|

i;su;a fjka mdil im;a ;sridr f,i Nd;h i|yd
fhduqfjhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 03
bf.kq M, (
f.da,Sh .siq " cd;sl kS;s moaO;s ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh oyd olajhs'
im;a ;sridr Nd;fhys we;s jeo.;alu idlPd lrhs'

dldrl:
iqiq m%ldYk Nd;lr YsIHhd ixrlaIKfhys we;s jeo.;alu ms<sn|j lshu
i|yd .kajkak'
mdil im;a ,ehsia;= .; lsug fhduq lrkak'
mdil im;aj, ;sridr Nd;h biau;= lr idlPd lrkak'

mir ixrlaIKh i|yd odhljk m%Odk iuq;s" ikaOdk yd md,sfka;= wK
mk;a
Basel iuq;sh
wk;=reodhl wmjH foaYiSudjka w;r mjykh yd neyer lsu" md,kh
lsu' I iys;" msmsfrkiq" Ldol yd frda. ldrl wmjH ksmou yd
l<ukdlrKfha we;sjk wys;lr n,mEj,ska udkj fi!LHh yd mirh
wdrlaId lsu fuys wruqKq f'
Marpol iuq;sh (-
ke u.ska isjk IKh je<elaf cd;Hka;r iuq;sh
Montreal ikaOdkh ^1987& ( fidaka ia;rh ydhkh lrk ix>gl ms<sn|j we;s
ikaOdkhls' .=rejrhd iska Montreal ikaOdkh ms<sn|j ia;r l< hq;= h'
Kyoto ikaOdkh
tlai;a cd;Skaf.a foaY.=Ksl fjkiaf ms<sn| mdoljHqy iuq;sh yd neKq
wka; cd;sl tl`.;djls' fuys m%Odk ,laIKh jkqfha y;d.dr jdhq
msglsu wvq lsu i|yd ldl rgj,a 37 la yd hqfrdamd ix.ufha rgj,aj,g
iSudld b,lal we;s lsuhs'
1990 jif ;snQ ugfuka 5] l m%udKhla ^2008-2012& mia wjqre ld,h ;=<
wvqh hq;= h'
219
2nd
cd;sl mdirsl mk; -

fuu mk;g wkqj uOHu mir wldh 1980 msysgqjk ,' fuu wldhg
mdil n,m;% ksl=;a lsu' ixjOk jHdmD;sj, mdil n,mEu ;lafiare
lsu ^ we.hS mmd u`.ska & yd inkaO mq,a n,;, we;'
mdil im;a ;sridr f,i Nd; lsf wjYH;dj

iajdNdl im;a" tfkod ;h yd wdl ixjOkh i|yd wjYH jH yd
Yla;Skaj, iajNdl m%Nj f'
iajNdl im;a (-
fyda w
mqkckkh l<yels yd mqkckkh l< fkdyels
m%;splS%lrKh l<yels yd fkdyels
oykhjk fyda oykhfkdjk
f,i j. l< yels h' by; j. i|yd WodyrK ,ndfokak'
iajdNdl im;a iSudiys;j Nd; l< hq;h
= ' WodyrK iys;j iajNdl im;aj,
w mdfNdackfhys n,mE olajkak'
iajdNdl im;aj, wu;a Nd;h wju lrk wdldrh ia;r lrkak'
;sridr Nd;h" ;sridr ixjOkh" tajdfha w:h" jeo.;alu yd WodyrK idlPd

l< hq;= h'
220
2nd
tallh 13 - CIq j oHdj
ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq cSkaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj

ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'1 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh yd iajNdjh ms<sn| .fIKfhys

fhfohs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 07
bf.kq M, (
CIq f,dalfha iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
CIq kaf.a j.SlrK O;ajh ia;r lrhs'
CIq kaf.a fmdaIK yd ldhll hdka;%Kh ia;r lrhs'
CIq kaf.a rEmSh yd m%ckk ,CIK ia;r lrhs'
m%Odk rEmSh wdldr y\qkd .ekSu i|yd oHd.dr mlaIK mj;ajhs'
ir, fmdaIH udOH (NA/PDA) idod" fhda.$rd idm,hlska wduq;=,kh lr" tys
wvx.= nelahd jK .kajhs'

dldrl:
ksoYl" lod yd rEm igyka isiqkag ,ndfokak'
uqs; fyda oaHq;a udOH weiqfrka nelahd" jhsri yd ,Sr inkaO uQ,dY%
imhkak'
by; CIqcSka j. ;=k inkaOj Tjqkaf.a fmd ,dlaIKsl ,laIK f.dkq
lsug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
lKavdh bm;a lsulg isiqka iqodk lrkak'
wod, Ih ikaOdrh imQK lsug i|yd ia;drKhl fhfokak'
Ih lreKq meye,s lsug w;aje,la (

CIq oHdj hkq msh weiska meye<sj kslaIKh l< fkdyels ka
ms<sn|j wOHhkhls'
CIq kag
- nelahd îhfkdanelahd we;=j&
- jhsri
- ,Sr
- fm%dfgdfidajd
- iQ;s%ldldr w,af.a yd tal ffi,sl w,af.a wh;a f'
221
2nd
CIq ka idudkHfhka 0'1 mm g jvd l=vd jk w;r msh weig fkdfmfka'
CIq ka uksk tall k

uhsfl%dgrh = 10-6
kefkda grh = (1 =10-6 m iy 1nm = 10-9m)
ksoiqka (
nelahd = 0.25 - 5
ihfkdnelahd = 1.0
hSia = 5.0 -10.0
iQ;s%lduh ,Sr = 5
jhsri = 20 - 300 nm
CIq ka Odldr mirj, olakg ,efnk w;r i;=ka fyda Ydl fuka fkdj
ffcjf.da,fha yeu ia:dkhlu olakg ,ef' Tjqka mfiys" jd;fhys yd c,fhys
o" 6 km la muK f;la by< jdhqf.da,fhys o olakg ,ef' ;jo Ydlj,;a
i;=kaf.a;a ksidf.a;a foay u;=msgo" ksidf.a yd i;=kaf.a fu!;% ,sx.sl" Yajik
yd wdydr ud.j, o olakg ,ef' WKq h W,am;a " Kq f,ajd" wl w, iys;
mirj,o" fmr,a" N+f;,a" i,a jeks yhsfv%dldnk iys; mir wka;j, o
Tjqka olakg ,ef'
CIq ka Odldr fmdaIK l%u fmkajhs' ksoiqka - Tjqka w;r fmdaIK l%u
i;rla olakg ,ef' fuu fmdaIK l%u tajdfha ldnka yd Yla;s m%Njh u; mok
f'
fmdaIK l%u Yla;s m%Njh ldnka m%Njh ksoiqk
1' ridhk - iajhx fmdaIl wldnksl CO 2 Nitrobacter

ridhksl jH Nitrosomonas
2' ridhk - IufmdaIl ldnksl ldnksl C fndfyda nelahd

ridhksl ,Sr" fm%dfgd
jH fidajd
3' m%NdxiajhxfmdaIl wdf,dalh CO 2 ihfkdnelahd

o i,am nelah"
y; i,am
nelahd
4' m%NdIufmdaIl wdf,dalh ldnksl C o fkdjk

i,a* nelahd
222
2nd
CIqka Tlaiscka flfrys olajk inkaO;djhkays O;ajhla fmkajhs'
ksoiqka - Tlaiscka flfrys olajk inkaO;dj wkqj CIq kaf.a ldhsl

oHd;aul ldKav y;rla ykdf.k we;'
a) iajdhq CIq ka - Acetobacter

b) ffjl,amsl ksjdhq CIq ka - Saccharomyces
c) wksjdh ksjdhq CIq ka - Clostridium
d) CIqjd;ld CIq ka - Lactobacillus
iuyr CIq ka yg wKql khsgr % cka ;srl< yels f' khsgc

% ka ;srlsu inkaOj
o Tjqka O;ajhla fmkajhs'
Wod (
iuyrla CIqkag fjk;a ka iu`. iy inkaO;d f.dvke`.Su u.ska N2
;sr l< yels h' Wod( Rhizobium yd rks, Ydl uq,"a iuyrla laIq ka ksoyia ka
f,i N2 ;sr lrhs' Wod( Azotobacter
CIqkaf.a jOl yd m%ckl f.h wlh' m%udKfhka l=vd u fya;=fjka

Tjqka by< mDIah j.M,$ mud wkqmd;hla fmkajhs' ka woyia lrkafka
mirh fj;ska fmdaIH jH wjfYdaIKh i|yd Yd, j.M,hla we;s njhs'
fhda.H mirhl fmdaIH jH we;=<g .,d tau;a" wm jH msg;g .,d hdu;a
f.j;a f' fuu ksid Tjqkaf.a mjD;a;Sh f.h wl f' ;jo ckk ld,h
^.ykh - fo.=K ug .; jk ld,h& wvqf'
hd ckk ld,h ^ meh j,ska&
E - Coli 0.35
Clostridium botulinum 0'58
Anabaena cylindrica 10.6
Acantha amoeba 11
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2
nelahdjkaf.a O rEmSh wdldr yd ieliS we;s wdldr

- nelahdjkaf.a lemS fmfkk jHqyd;aul ,laIKh k Tjqkaf.a yevhhs'
- uQ,sl yev wdldr ;=kla we;'
oKavdldr
f.da,dldr
ims,dldr
- oKavdldr ffi, neis,i f,io
- f.da,dldr ffi, fldlhs f,i o
- ims,dldr ffi, iams f,i o yekaf'
223
2nd
f.da,dldr nelahd ffi, ieliS we;s O iajrEm

- fldl=i
- maf,da fldl=i
- iafg%mafgd fldl=i
- iage*hsf,d fldl=i
- p;=Ialh
- idisfka
oKavdldr nelahd ffi, ieliS we;s O iajrEm

- maf,da neis,i
- iafg%mafgd ""
ims,dldr nelahd ffi, ieliS we;s O iajrEm

- fhda'
- iama
- iamhsfrdlSg
ihfkdnelahd
f;;ukh rod mj;sk mDIaGj, " fYaIfhkau jeisls,sj, lmrdre l< ;a;sj,"
isfuka;s f.j, iy mfiys olakg ,efnk ks,ajka fld< meye;s m%foaY
fndfydauhl ihfkdnelahd fYaI we;s ne myod fokak'
mfiys o h yd uqyq mirj,o ihfkdanelahd Yd, jYfhka me;sr we;'

we;e ihfkdanelahd WKqh W,am;a j,o jefvk w;r tajd ;dmld ^thermophilic&
f'
we;uqka ,Sr ^,hslk& yd Wiia Ydl wdYs%;jo jef'
yevh yd iajrEmh w;ska ihfkdnelahd Yd, O;ajhla fmkajhs' tajd tal

ffi,sl iajrEmfha isg .=" nyq ffi,Sh iajrEmh olajd O f'
fjdfha lIsldOr ffi, ke;s w;r iq;S%lduh fYaI imK p,k fmkakq
lrhs'
we;e ihfkdnelahdj, fyfgfrdisiag u.ska is lrk ls%hdj,s yd lD;H

ms<sn|j ia;r lrkak' ;jo ksh`.hg;a wl WIaK;ajhg;a m%;sfrda jQ >k ;a;s
iys; m%;sfrdaOl cdKq jk talhsfkgj, âkinete& lD;Ho ia;r lrkak'
ir, ffi, Ndckh u.ska yd lv lv fuka w,sx.slj muKla m%ckkh isf'
224
2nd
jhsri jHqyh
- jhsri m%dla kHIal fyda iqkHIal fyda fkdjk w;r tajd lsis ffi,Sh
ixOdkhla fmkakq fkdlrhs'
- m%udKfhka 20nm - 300nm olajd O jk w;r jhsri oel .; yels jkafka
bf,lafg%dak wKalaIhka Nd;fhka muKs'
- jhsri kshl
q f
a ,hsla w,h iys; uOH l=yrhlska o ta jgd jQ fm%d
a kuh wdjrKhla
jk lemaisvh ^Capsid & lska o iuka; f' lemaisvh" lemafidhr k jQ fm%dak
wKq ksYa; m%udKhlska ie we;'
- jhsri j.h wkqj DNA fyda RNA wvx.= f'
- Ydl wdidokh lrkakdjQ fndfydauhla jhsri RNA iys; f' b;du iS;
ixLHdjl DNA o wvx.=h i;a;aj jhsrij, DNA ^ymsia ismaf,laia& fyda RNA
^bka*afjkaid" c,NS;sld jhsrih" frfrd ffjri - HIV) o wvx.= h' nelaahd
wdidokh lrkakd jq jhsri ;=< DNA fyda RNA wvx.= h'
- jhsrij, fm%dak fldmqj Tjqkg ,dlaIKsl iu;shla ,nd foa' fuh mok
lrf.k jhsri j,g rEmSh mok folla ykdf.k we;' tajd k"
Icosahedral
Helical
- iuyr jhsri fmd,sfmdiafmd,smsv wdjrKhlska wdjrKh we;' Wod(-

frfg%d jhsri - fudjqka ;=, reverse transcriptase k jQ tkaihsuh we;' tu.ska
RNA - DNA njg msgm;a l< yel' Wod - HIV
- Odrl ffi,h ;=<g jhsri we;= fuka miq wdjrKh .e, f.dia ffi,h ;=,g
ksoyia flfrk tkaihsu tlla fyda lsysmhla jhsri lemaisv ;=, wvx.=h' jvd;a
iq,N jkafka fmd,sufia tkaihsuhhs' fuh jhsriaj, kshqlaf,hsla w, nyq
.=Kkh i|yd Wo f'
- O ,smsv ixrpl .Kkdjlau jhsri ;=< wvx.= h' ksoiqka ; fmdiafmd,smsv"

.a,hsfld,smsv yd fo w,
- iuyr jhsri wdjrK .a,hsfldfm%dakj,ska iEkq lKagl iys; h'
jhsrij, iajNdjh
- jhsri wksjdh mrfmdaIs;hka f' Tjqkag j;au yd m%ckkh is l, yelafla
mjD;s; Odrl ffi,fha fm%dak ixYaf,aIKh yd Yla;s ckl moaO;s Nd;hg
.ekSfuka muKls'
- Tjqka iajNdjfha b;d mq,a f,i jHdma;j we;s w;r" wfkl=;a CIq ka wdidokh
lsug o Tjqkg yelshdjla we;'
225
2nd
- Tjqka wksjdh mrfmdaIs;hka jk neka j.d l, yelafla i ffi, ;=,

muKls'
ksoiqka - l=l=,a l,,h
- iuyrla jhsri yg ixlSK jHqy we;'

ksoiqka - nelahd NlaIl jhsri
- jhsrij, m%ckkh
nelahd NlaIl jhsrihl jk pl%h
- Ydl yd i;a;aj jhsri j, jk pl% tl iudkh'

Ydl u;=msg ;=jd, fyda Ydl hqI u; fmdaIKh jk lDka ud.fhka Ydl ffi,
;=,g jhsri we;= f'
ms%fhdak
ms%fhdakj, iajNdjh
ms%fhdak fm%dakuh wdidol wxY=f'
jhsrij,g jvd l=vdh
kshqlaf,hsla w, fkdue;sj fudjqkag mej;Sug yd nyq.=Kkh ug yelsh' Tjqka
ms%fhdak fm%dak ieug Wojk CIsrmdhs cdkj, Wofjka nyq .=Kkh f'
CIsrmdhska yd mCISkag iEfok udrdka;sl fud<fha l%ufhka mrsydkshg fhduqjQ
(degenerative) frda. ;;a;ajhlg fuh n,mdk nj ykdf.k we;'
wdid; fud<h iafmdkauh iajrEmhla .kakd w;r isre iys; f' (Transmissible
Spongiform Encephalopathies)
ksoiqka - ksidf.a Creutzfeldt Jakob ^CJO &" .jhkaf.a Wu;= .j frda.h"
fuu frda. iuyrla - .jhkaf.ka ksidg ifm%aIKh h yel' ksidf.ka
ksidg ifm%I a Kh u mgl yd wjhj noaO lsf o wdid; rerh mdr,hkh
lsf o ish yels h'
,Sr
,Sr i;= ,laIK ^3 jk tallh n,kak&
,Sr j.SlrKh }
f;;a ldnksl jH" mdka " i" rdm;ajk t<j wdh u; jefvk mqia j. ,Sr
nj meye,s lrkak'
,Sr mDh u; isk m%Odk fhdaclhka f' fndfydauhla ,Sr uDf;damka
(Saprotrophes& jk w;r" ldnksl jH fhdackfhka Tjqka fmdaIKh ,nd.kS'
iuyrla ,Sr i Ydl yd i;=ka wdidokh lrka frda. we;s lrhs'
,Srj, idudkH ,laIK meye,s lrkak'
m%NdixYaaf,aIl fkdjk" p,kh fkdjk hqlefhdagdjka f'
w;= fnkq ishq kd,ldr ,Sr iQ;S%ld k kQ,a f.dkaklska ffi, foayh iuka;
f' fuu ,Sr iQ;s%ld tlaj .;a l, uhsiS,shu fyj;a ,Sr cd,h f,i ykajk
jHqyh idohs' ,Sr iQ;S%ld idjdr (Septate& fyda ksrdjdr (aseptate& fyda f'
226
2nd
- iuyrla tal ffi,sl f - (Saccaharomyces&

- oe ffi, ;a;sh lhska j,ska ie we;'
Iu fmdaIS" wjfYdaIl" fmdaIKh - foayhg msg;ska jk fmdaIl jH fl,skau
wjfYdaIKh lr .kq ,nkafka ,Sr u.ska ksmofjk nysia#ffi,Sh tkaihsu u`.ska
tajd rKh l, miqjh'
,Sr uDf;dam " mrfmdaIS fyda wfkdkHdOdrh ^,hslk yd ,SrluQ,& f'
ix; wdydrh msIagh fkdj .a,hsfldackah'
m%ckkh cdKq u.sks'
,Sr j.SlrKh i|yd my; lreKq uQ,l s jYfhka mok jk ne meye,s lrkak'
1' ,sx.sl m%ckkfha ,laIK" ,sx.sl cdKq" cdKqlr yd w,sx.sl m%ckkh
2' jOl ,Sr cd,fha rEmSh ,laIK
Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Allomyces, Rhizopus, Saccharomyces yd Agaricus

my; ldKavj,g wh;a h'
ls%fhduhsfldagd jxYh - Allomyces

ihsf.duhsfldagd jxYh- Mucor, Rhizopus
weiaflduhsfldagd jxYh - Saccharomyces, Asperigillus, Penicillium
neisfhduhsfldagd jxYh- Agaricus
laIqka wOHhkh lsu$ frdamKh lsu

wOHhkh i|yd laIqka mlaIKd.drfha j.d l< hq;= jkafka ukaoehs hkak
meye,s lrkak' lafIa;%fha mia kshehla kslaIKh lsfuka mfiys laIqka
wOHhkh l< fkdyels h' ksheh f.ke;a m<uq j frdamK udOHj, (Culture
media) j.d lsu wjYH f'
laIqka jOkhg wjYH fmdaIl" frdamK udOHj, wvx.= f' fmdaIH ta.d yd
w;dm,a fvlaiafg%dia ta.d" ms<sfj,ska nelahd yd ,Sr j.d lsug idudkHfhka
Nd; flfrk udOH folls'
fmdaIH ta.d w;dm,a fvlaiafg%dia ta.d
fmmafgdaka 10g w;dm,a 200g

udxY ksiaydrlh 10g .afldaia 20g
^yrla uia&
fidah laf,darhs 5g ta.d 15g
ta.d 15g
wdi%e; c,h 1000ml wdi%e; c,h 1000 ml
wjidk pH 7.2 wjidkpH 5.6
laIqj oHd;aul lghq;=j, Nd;hg .efkk ish u re NdKav" frdamK

udOH iy j fmdaIH djK ish,a, jdKqyrKh l< hq;= f'
227
2nd
O wjia:dj, jH jdKqyrKfha yd laIqka md,kh lsf Nd;

flfrk m%Odk l%u yd l%u Ys,am;a tajdfha m%dfhda.sl fh yd uQ,Ou;a meye,s
lrkak'
f;;a ;dmh
cSjdKqyrKh
mSvkh hgf;a yqud,h j'w`.$rd' 15" 121 0C ' 15 la
mSvk;dmlhla $mSvk W`kla Nd;h
frdamK udOH
meiaglrKh
w WIaK;aj fl ld, l%uh - 161 0F (71.7 oC) ;;a;amr 15 la
wvq WIaK;aj r|jd .ekSf l%uh - 145 0F (62.8 oC) ks;a;= 30 la
Wod - ls" jhska" h
kegu ^100 oC& iq Y,Hlu i|yd Nd; jk WmlrK" ie; (Scalpels)
re wOYaph iskac (hypodermic syringes)
h<s ;dmh
WIaK jdhq Wk" meh 1- 2 la 1600C hgf;a " re NdKav " fm is"
msfmgq
jD; oe,a,la ;=<" wdl%uK mqvqj oe,au'
fmu
;dmwia:dhs j yd c,h f l%ufhka jdKqyrKh flf'
mg, fmryka ^0.45 m) ;rf fmryka
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK
O laIq wdldr ykd .ekSu" nelahd yd ,Sr kslaIKh
ir, frdamK udOHhla ms<sfh, lsu ^fmdaIH ta.d& yd rd$fhda.
idm,hlska wdl%uKh lsu
ir, jKl Nd;fhka fhda. fyda rdj, isk nelahd jK .ekau
228
2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdld;ajh yd n,mE udkj

ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'2 ( wdidol frda.j,g wod< ixl,am yd uQ,Ou ms<sn| .fIKh
lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
frda. j,g wod< ixl,am meye,s lrhs'
frda.hla we;slsf ,d jHdcklhd i;= ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
m%pKav;d idOl meye,s lrhs'
jHdcklhka ksia isrerg we;=jk m%fY ud. i|yka lrhs'

dldrl:
wdfrda.HYd,d n,Odkaf.a Wo ,ndf.k frda. ms<sn| ilaIKhla lsug
isiqkag mjikak'
wdidol yd wdidol fkdjk frda. ,ehsia;= .; lsug isiqkag Wo lrkak'
wdidol frda. ms<sn| jeo.;a lreKq Wmqgd .ekSulg isiqkag myiql imhkak'
jeo.;a lreKq biau;= jk fia fhda.H m ia;drKhl fhfokak'

CIqka iy frda.
wdidol frda.hla hkq foayfha we;sjk jHqySh fyda ldhlh wdndOhla jk

w;r tys m%;sM,hla f,i frda. ,laIK keue;s oel ykd.; yels i<l=Kq
jOkh f'
CIq frda. iEu w;skau Iucd;Sh f' tajd foayfha we;s kEu wjhjhlg
n,mE we;slrk w;r f ksid O frda. ,laIK .Kkdjla we;s lrhs' f
ksid tajd iudk jkafka tajdfha fmd fya;=j jk jHdckl CIqka u.ska
muKs'
ksia foayfha idudkH CIq iuqodfha iajNdjh" me;su iy lD;H'
ksia isrer u; yd ta ;=< idudkH CIq iuqodhla jYfhka w;s Yd,

O;ajfhka hq;a CIqyq is;s'
229
2nd
ksfrda.S ksia isrer ;=<" CIqka Yd, ixLHdjla jdih lrk nj ^ 1 x 1014la
nelahd ffi, isk w;r" ksia isref wvx.= jkafka foay ffi, 1 x 1013 la
muKs'&
fuu CIqka idudkHfhka ksidg ydkslr fkdjk w;r iyfNdaka jYfhka
fyda jdis f.k fok f,i j;a f'
Wod - CISrmdhskag Ydl jH rKh lr ug iuyr CIqka bvi,ihs'
ksia isrer ksrka;rfhkau CIqka u.ska wdl%uKh lrkq ,nhs ^fYaIfhkau

nelahd iy jhsri&' tfukau iuyr fm%dfgdfidajd" ,Sr iy hSia o we;'
we;e CIqyq iu u; j;ajk w;r jefofklau isref jD; ia:dk j,ska
we;= kdih" W.=r" Yajik ud.fha by< fldgi" wdka;l
s% ud.h hk fjdfha
Yaf,aYau, mg, we;= wNHka;r mDIaGj,o jdih lr;s' Tjqyq fu!;% ,sx.sl
ud.fha o jdih lr;s'
ksfrda.S ksia isref wNHka;r wjhj yd mgl idudkHfhka CIqkaf.ka

f;drf'
idudkH CIq ka jefofkla u iyfNda ka f j;s ' iuyre wjia : djd"

jHdcklhka fj;a' mgl ydkshla jQ g fyda >ld,Skj m%;sjl Nd;h"
m%;sYla;s uOk T!IO Nd;h" u;ajH Nd;h iy wl fjfyi fya;=fjka
isref idudkH m%;sfrdaOh wvq .sh g Tjqyq isref wdidok we;s lr;s'
frda.j,g wod< ixl,am

frda.h ^wdidol frda.h&
CIq wdidokh" CIq M, yd CIq ls%hdld;ajh hk fjdfha
m%;sM,hka jYfhka ldhslj we;sjk n,;djhls'
jHdckl;dj
CIqka u.ska Odrlhd" wdidokh jQ l, tu Odrlhd ;=, frda. yg.ekau
i|yd CIqkag we;s yelshdj f' Odrl mgl ;=< CIqkaf.a jOkh
u wdidokh kka yekaf'
jHdcklhd
frda.hla yg.ekaf yelshdj we;s CIqyq
Odrlhd
foayh u; fyda foayh ;=< fyda mrfmdaIS kag jdih lsug bv i,ikakdjQ
hd'
mrfmdaIs;hd -
Odrlhd hkqfjka yekafjk fjk;a fhl= u; fyda tu hdf.a mgl
;=< fyda jdih lrka tu Odrlhdf.ka fmdaIH jH ,nd.kakd jQ fhls'
230
2nd
Odrlhd iy mrfmdaIs;hd w;r mir oHd;aul inkaO;djla f,i frda.

we;sf'
ksfrda.S kaf.a isrer u;=msg" mgl yd inkaOj;a " mirfha iEu ;eklu
mdfya;a CIqka iajNdlj j;a f' fudjqka w;=ka we;efula ydkslr
fkdf' tfy;a we;efula NjH jHdcklfhda fj;s'
CIqka yeu ;efklu jdih l< o tfiau Tjqka NjH jHdcklhka

jqjo ksiqka Tjqkaf.a ; ld,h mqrd wdidokh frda. we;s fkdf' ;jo
we;e jHdcklhka iska we;e whg wdidok we;s l< o" ;j;a iuyrlg
tfia fkdf'
f ksid frda.hla we;s lsf ,d jHdcklhdf.a we;e ,laIK iy

Odrlhdf.a we;e ,laIK n,mdhs'
jHdcklhkaf.a ksi`. .=K

m%pKav;d idOl
m%pKav;djh u.sk"a jHdckl;djfha m%udKh ;SrKh flf' we;e CIqka

wl m%pKav;djfhka hqla; f ^mefmd, jhsrih&' we;e CIqka
m%pKav;ajfhka wvqh'
jHdcklhd iy Odrlhd w;r inkaO;djh .;slh' wdidokh lrk laIq

ka ud;%dj m%pKav;djh fyda m%pKav;d idOl iy Odrl m%;sfrdaOh wkqj
th fjkia f'
CIq m%pKav;djh x ud;%dj

wdidol frda.h } Odrl m%;sfrdaOh ^ wdrlaIKh&
m%pKav;d idOl u.ska jHdckl;dj je oshqKq flfrk w;r CIqkag

ksia mgl jdiN+ lr.kska tajd wdl%ukh lsug;a idudkH foay
ls%hdld;ajhg ydks muqKqug;a bv i,ihs'
frda. yg.ekaf yelshdjg odhl jk fYaI ,laIK tlla fyda lsysmhla

ishu jHdcklhka i;=f'
wdl%uK;dj -
ksia ffi, iy mgl wdl%uKh fldg" mgl ;=, .=Kkh f yelshdj
f' ksid iu. Odrl - mrfmdaIS inkaO;djh f.dv kexu i|yd Odrl
mgl u;= m s g jdiN+ lr.ekS u g fyda Odrl mgl wdl% u Kh ls ug
jHdcklhdg yelshdj ;sh hq;=hs'
231
2nd
jHdcklhka u.s k a ks m ojk nys ( ffi,S h tka i hs u .Kkdjla u

wdl%uK;djhg fya;= f'
Wod -
fmdiaf*d,hsfmaia - i;a;aj ffi, mg, kdY lrhs'
(Phospholipase)
f,is;sfkaaia - ffi, mg,fha ,smsvj, f,is;ska ixrplh
(Lecithinase) c, fokh lrhs'
yhfrdksfia - ffi, w;r msysgk tajd tlsfkl ne| ;nk
(Hyalu ronidase) yhfrdksla w, ix>gl wdl%uKh lrka
foay mgl kdY lrhs'
OQ,lckl;djh -
ffi,j, idudkH ls%hdld;ajhg ndOd muqKqjk" OQ,l
^ toxins& hkqfjka yekafjk ffcjridhksl ksmoug CIq ka i;= yelshdj
f' fjd fm%dak fyda ,sfmdafmd,sielrhsv jk w;r Odrlhd flfrys
fYaIs; jQ ydkshla we;s lrhs' f ksid fjd ffcj I f,i y\qkajhs'
fjd wdldr folls'
wka; OQ,l - CIq ffi,hl fldgila jk fjd " ;dmia:dhs OQ,l
f'
kso( - Salmonella typhi ffi, ;a;sfha wvx.= ,ssfmdafmd,sielrhsv
nysIaOQ,l - fujd ;dm wia:dhs fm%dak OQ,l f' kegfuka fjd wls%h
f'
nysIaOQ,l j. ;=kls'
1' kshqfrdfgdlaisk - idudkH iakdhq wdf. ifm%aIkhg ndOd lrhs'
Wod - Clostridium tetani u.ska ksmojk OQ,lh'
2' tkagfrdfgdlaisk - wdudY wdka;%sl ud.fha ffi, widudkH
f,i W;af;ackh lrhs'
Wod - Vibrio cholerae u.ska ksmojk OQ,lh
3' ihsfgdfgdlaisk - tkaihsu u.ska myr Odrl ffi, urhs'
Wod - Corynebacterium diphtheriae u.ska ksmojk OQ,lh'
CIqka ksia foayhg we;=jk m%fY ud.
jHdcklhska" CIq frda. yg.kajkafka Tjqka ksYa; ud.hla Tiafia
ksia isrer ;=<g we;=fuka muKs'
wdudY wdka;%sl ud.h
Yajik ud.h
fu!;% ,sx.sl ud.h
iu u; we;s ;=jd,
m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh
c,h" frdamK udOH" re WmlrK" ;dm wia:dhS jH" wdl%uK lgq
jdKqyrKh lsf Ys,am l%u mqyqKq u'
232
2nd

ls%hdldrlj, id:l;ajh i|yd fhdod .kS'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'3 ( ksia foayfha wdrlaIl hka;%k ms<sn|j .fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, (
fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfhaa YsIHhd;
ksia foayfha CIq wdidokj,g tfrys wdrlaIl moaO;s ia;r lrhs'
ksia foayfha YsIaG fkdjk wdrlaIl hka;%K ia;drKh lrhs'
ksia foayfha YsIaG wdrlaIl hka;%K ia;drKh lrhs'
ilS%h yd wlS%h m%;sYla;sh ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
ksia foayfha wdrlaIl moaO;s ms<sn|j fi!LH ffjoH ks,Odjrfhla " uyck
fi!LH mlaIljrfhla iy fyo ks,Odkaa iu. ldKavdh idlPdjla fyda
iuka;%Khla ie,iq lrkak'
Tjqka bf.k.;a foa ms<sn|j bm;a lsulg iqodk jk f,i isiqkag
mjikak'
fidhd.;a foa uq mka;shgu bm;a lsug isiqkaj fmd<Ujkak'
iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKhl fhfokak'

ksia foayfha CIq wdidokj,g tfrys wdrlaIl moaO;s
NjH jHdcklhka isrerg we;=u yd ta ;=, ;yjqre u j<lajd,k

kSfrda.s Odrl isrerl we;s ,laIK
CIq wdidokj,g tfrysj ksia isrer ;=, wdrlaIl hka;%K we;' fuu
wdrlaIl hka;%K wdldr folls'
- YsIag fkdjk wdrlaIl hka;%K

- YsIag wdrlaIl hka;%K
YsIaG fkdjk wdrlaIl hka;%K

fjd kEu jHdckl fYaIhla flfrys Odrlhd wdrlaId lrkq ,nk w;r"
kEu idudkH ksfrda.S ksfil= ;=< ;sfnkakdjQ iajNdl wdrlaIl hdka;%K
f'
233
2nd
ksia foayfha YsIaG fkdjk wdrlaIl hdka;%K j, iajNdjh

iu iy Yaf,aYau, mg,h
foay ;r,j, wvx.= m%;sCIq jH
NCIl ffi,;dj
m%odyl m%;spdr
iu fN!;sl ndOlhla f,i ls%hd lrhs' if msg; flrka ia;rh fndfyda

CIqka we;=ug m%n, ndOlhla f,i ls%hdlrhs' CIq tkaihsu u.ska th
myiqfjka kdY fkdf' ifuka ksmofjk fia,hska" oyh" iafkay i%d .%ka:s
i%dj iy m%;sCIq jH iu u; jHdccklhka ;yjqre u j<lhs'
Yajik ud.fha Yaf,aIau, mg, u.ska Yaf,aIau, Y%djh lrk w;r" CIqka
fuu Yaf,aIau, u.ska r|jd .efka' Yajik ud.fha mCIuOr wmsPofha mCIu
ie,Su u.ska tu Yaf,aYau, W.=r foig ;,a lsfuka Yajik ud.h wdl%uKh
lrkakdjq CIqka bj;a lrhs'
wd.ka;=l wxY=ka Yajik ud.fhka bj;a lsug leiai iy lsiq Wo f'
CIqkaf.a whym;a jOkh j<lkakdjq m%;sCIq jH iy tkaihsu we;e
foay ;r,j, wvx.= f'
Wod - fgfhys iy lj, wvx.= ,hsfidihs nelahd ffi, ;a;s | ouhs'
,elafgdf*ka (Lactoferrin) l" Y=l%h" uls" ms; hk tajdfha fuh wvx.= f'
fuu ridhkslh" jHdckl CIqka yg w;HjYH jQ jOl uQ,jHhla jk
hlv iu`. nefuka jHdcklhkaf.a jOkh iSud lrhs'
wdudYhsl HCl u.ska wdydr iu`. mefKk fndfyda nelahd kdY lrkq
,nhs'
fndfyda widudkH ;;a;ajj, jukh iy mdpkh u.ska wys;lr nelahd
wdydr ud.fhka fkrmkq ,nhs'
fhdaks ud.fha jdih lrk nelahd u.ska ksmojk ,elala w,h ( L actic
acid) fndfyda jHdckl CIqkag wys;lrjQ mirhla ksudKh lrhs'
iQkHIal ffi,j, jhsri wdidok j,g m%;spdrhla jYfhka rerfhys
ksmofjk bkagf*frdka (Interferon) Odrlhd jhsri wdidokj,ska wdrlaId
lrhs'
NCIlffi,;djh - CIqka isref msg;ska we;s ndOlh kso f.dia
rer ixirK moaO;shg we;= jq l," rerfha;a" jid moaO;sfha;a isk O
ffi, u.ska tajd NCIlffi,;djhg Ndckh f'
Wod - kshqfg%dms," uydNlaIdKq
m%odyl m%;p s drh - Inflammatory response
wdidokhl fyda mgl ydkshl olajk idudkah; s m%;p
s drhhs' uq,a ia:dkfha
isg wdidokh me;sr hdu j<lajhs' m%odyl m%;spdrh my; ,laIK j,ska
iuka; f'
234
2nd
- wdid; ia:dkh r;=u

- wdid; ia:dkh bu
- wdid; ia:dkfha fokdjla oekSu
- wdid; ia:dkfha WIaK;ajh by, hdu
YsIaG wdrlaIl hdka;%K-

YsIGa wdrlaIl moaO;sh Odrl foayh ;=, lsh
% d;aul jkafka" jhsri" nelahd"
,Sr jeks msgia;r fhla " fyda mrd." ridhksl jH jeks wd.ka;=l jH
foayh ;=<g we;=fuka miqjhs' m%;sfoay ckl k jq fuu wdl%uksl hdg
fyda jHhg tfrysj m%;fs oay ksmofuka YsIGa m%;Y
s la;l
s rK m%;p
s dr wdrN
f' fuu YsIag m%;sfoay" m%;sfoay ckl iu. inkaO wdl%uksl CIqka
bj;a lr wdidokh j<lajhs' fuh m; m%;sYla;sh kka yekafj'
m%;sfoay hkq rerfhys yuqjk bhqfkd.af,dhq,ska f,i yekafjk

fm%dakhls'
HIV ûdkj m%;sYla;s W!k;d jhsrih&
ksia m%;sYla;slrK moaO;sh kdY lrhs' fu ksid tjeks mqoa.,fhl=
kEu frda.hla iE h hd yels h'
m; m%;sYla;sfha wdldr
iajdNdl ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh
iajdNdl wl%sh m; m%;sYla;sh
lD;s%u ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh
lD;s%u wl%sh m; m%;sYla;sh
ils%h m%;sYla;sh we;sjkafka fhl= ;udf.a m%;sfoay ksmojkq ,eu

ksidh' wlsh
% m%;Y
s la;h
s we;sjkafka mqo.
a ,fhl= iska ksmojd.ekSu fjkqjg
m%;sfoay ljr l%uhlska fyda mqoa.,fhl=f.a foayhg we;=fuks'
iajNdl ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh

irm" mefmd, fyda luq,a.dh jeks wdidokj, m%;sM,hla f,i fuu
m%;sYla;sh we;sf' h wdidol frda. ldrlhlg ^m%;sfoay cklhlg&
m%;spdr f,i jrl foayh u.ska ksmojkq ,enQ YsIag m%;sfoay ksid kej;
tu m%;sfoayckl u.ska we;sjk wdidok flfrys Odrlhd m%;sfrda f'
iajdNdl wl%sh m; m%;sYla;sh

ujlf.a m%;sfoay l,, nkaOh yryd N%EKhg ,efnk g fyda uls
u.ska ujf.a m%;sfoay w; Wmka orefjl=g ,efnk g tu m%;sfoay u.ska
;udf.au m%;sYla;s moaO;shla ls%hd;aul jk;=re iuyr wdidok frda. j,ska
orejd wdrlaId lrkq ,nhs'
235
2nd
lD;s%u ils%h m; m%;sYla;sh

iuyr frda. j,ska wdrlaIdu i|yd fn,ySk lrk ,o CIq ffi,
j,ska ksmojkq ,enQ tkak;a Nd; lrhs'
Wod - fmda,sfhda tkak;" BCG tkak;'
fuu CIq ffi, hkq m%;sfoaycklhs' fjd tkak;a u.ska foay.; l,

g ksmofjk YsIag m%;sfoay u.ska jHdcklhkaf.ka wdrlaIdj ,ef'
lD;%su wls%h m; m%;sYla;sh

fjk;a flfkl=f.ka ,nd.;a m%;sfoay tkak;a lsu u.ska wls%h m%;sYla;as
lD;s%uj ,ef' wyfnka wdidok ldrl foay.; we;s wjia:djl ks
m%;sfoay tkak;a lsfuka lD;%su wls%h m; m%;sYla;sh ,ef'
Wod - m%;sfggkia tkak; - (Anti tetanus Vaccine)

m%;sfia tkak; - (Anti Rabies Vaccine)
236
2nd

ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'4 ( CIq frda.$wdidok md,kh lsf l%u .fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
CIqka u.ska je<f|k frda. md,kh lsfuys ,d jHdidol iy m%;smQ;slj,
lhNdrh ia;r lrhs'
jHdidol iy m%;smQ;sl fjkalr ykajhs'
CIqfrda. md,kh lsfuys ,d m%;sjlj, ldhNdrh i|yka lrhs'
nyq, m%;sjl lsysmhl ls%hdld;ajh flfhka ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
CIqkaf.ka je<f|k frda. md,kh lrk l%u ms<sn|j" fi!LH ffjoH
ks,Odjrfhl= " uyck fi!LH mCIl jrfhl= iy fyo ks,Odkaa iu`.
lKavdh idlPdjla fyda iuka;%Khla ie,iq lrkak'
my; i|yka lreKq w<,d is;a weo.kakd iq bm;a lsula lsug isiqkag
myiql imhkak'
- jHdidOlj, Nd;h
- m%;smQ;sl j, Nd;h
- m%;Y
s la;l
s rKh
is;a .kakd iq bm;a lsula i|yd myiql imhd fokak'
iqiq wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKhl fhfokak'

CIqka u.ska iEfok frda. md,kh lrk l%u ms<sn| .fIKhl fhug isiqkag
wjia:dj fokak'
fndfyda CIqkag jHdckl Njhla we;s ksid wm j;ajk .Dyia: mirfha
CIqka md,kh lsu wjYH f'
jHdidOl Nd;h
jHidOlhla hkq jeisls<s f.u" jeks w mirj, fjfik CIq .ykhla
kdY lsug fyda .ykfha m%udKh wvq lsug Nd;d lrk ridhksl jH f' f
ridhksl jH Nd;d lrk idkaK wkqj tajd CIq kdYl fyda CIq ia;sl
h yels h'
Wod - mSfkda,a" ,hsfida,a" laf,daka ixfhda.
237
2nd
m%;smQ;sl Nd;h
m%;m
s ;Q ls hkq m%Odk jYfhka iu u;=mg s isk CIq .ykfha m%udKh wvql s ug
Nd;d lrk ridhk jH f'
Wod - we,afldfyd,a
m%;Ys la;l s rKh
lD;s%u ils%h m%;sYla;slrK yd lD;s%u wls%h m%;sYla;slrK l%u f,dalfha iEu
rglu CIqka u.ska we;slrk frda. j<lajd .ekSug mq,a mudkfhka Nd;d
flf'
CIqka u.ska je<f|k frda. iqj lsf l%u
m%;sjl
frda. ksjdrkh fyda iqj lsu i|yd ridhksl ixfhda. fhdod.ekSu ridhksl
ls;aidj hkqfjka yekaf'
m%;sjl iy fjk;a T!IO j. CIq wdidok frda. ksjdrkh i|yd
nyq,j Nd;d f'
m%;sjlhla hkq CIqka u.ska iajNdlj ksmojk fyda lD;s%uj
ixYaf,aYkh lrkq ,nk ridhksl ixfhda. f' fjd fjk;a laIqkag
wys;lr f'
Wod
- fmksis,ska - nelahd ffi, ;a;s ixYaaf,aYkh ksfYaOkh lrhs'
- lD;s%u isf*%dmaf,dlaiiska - nelahd DNA ixiaf,aYkh ksfYaOkh
lrhs'
- fmd,slaiska - nelahd ffi, mg,j, mdr.uH;djhg ydks
muqKqjhs'
- tf;%duhsiska - nelahd j, fm%dak ixYaf,aYkh ksfYaOkh
lrhs'
- lSfgdfldkefida,a $laf,d%uefida,a - ,Sr ffi, mg, ixYaf,aYkh
ksfYaOkh lrhs'
^wmf.a foayh ;=< m%;sYla;shla we;sjk ;=re fuu m%;sjl ksh; f,djg .;
hq;= h'&
238
2nd

ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'5 ( ludka; iy lDIsluh i|yd CIqka Nd;h ms<sn| uid
n,hs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, (
CIqka ludka;j, fhdod .ekSf jdis meye,s lrhs'
jdksc ksIamdok j, Nd;djk CIq ls%hdj,s ia;r lrhs'
jdkscj ksIamdok f,i Nd; jk CIq ksIamdos; ia;r lrhs'
jdkscuh ksIamdokj, m%fKslj lrkh l, CIqkaf.a Nd;h ia;drKh
lrhs'

dldrl:
ls wdydr ksIamdokh fyda iald.drhla jeks CIqka Nd; jk
ludka;Yd,djla kerug lafIa;% pdldjla iQodk lrkak'
ludka; iy lDIslufha CIqka Nd;h ms<sn|j uqs; fyda wka;cd,
uQ,dY% imhkak'
CIqka fhdod lrkq ,nk ksIamdok iy tla tla ksIamdokhg wod, CIqka
oelafjk igykla ms<sfh, lsug isiqkag mjrkak'
th mka;sfha ish,a,kagu bm;a lsug i,iajkak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk m ia;drKh lrkak'

ludka; iy lDIslufha CIqkaf.a Nd;h
CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a ls%hdj,s O ksIamdok i|yd fhdod.ekSf ft;sydisl
miqu
CIqka fidhd.ekSug fndfyda ld,hlg fmr isgu m%fhdackj;a lghq;= i|yd
CIqka Nd;hg f.k we;' ls%'mQ'6000 ;r wE; ld,fha nef,dakshdkqfjda yd
iqudhdkqfjda uOHidrh iEu i|yd hSia Nd;d l< y'
CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a mjD;a;sh ls%hdj,s Nd;fhka wdl jYfhka jeo.;a jH
Yd, mudkfhka ksIamdokh" ldl CIqj oHdf moku we;' ksia
j.hdf.a hym; msKsi" CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a M, fufia uQ,slj fhdod.ekSu wo
ffcj ;dlaIKfha tla wxYhla we;' ;dlaIKh fhdod.ekSf fya;f = jka CIqka
fhdod flfrk ludka; oshqKq we;s w;r tajd jvd;a mq,a we;'
239
2nd
ksidg m%fhdackj;a CIqka fhdod flfrk jdkscuh ksIamdos;

- CIq ffi,
- Tjqkaf.a mjD;a;sh ls%hd
- wka; M,
CIq mjD;a;sh ls%hd u.ska lrkq ,nk ksmo j,g wod< uQ,Ou
ldl CIqj oHdjg wod<j" CIqka jkdys b;d l=vd ridhksl ly,a
f,iska ie,lsh yelsf' wuq jH ^fmdaIl fyda Wmia:r& wka; M, njg mj;kh
lsf yelshdj CIqkag we;'
ldl CIq ls%hdj,shl m%Odk wx. fufia idrdxY l< yels h'
CIqhd + Wmia;rh > ksIamdok M, + wjfYaI iy wmjH
> ixY=oaO lsu
ksIamdokh
ludka;j, fhdod.efkk CIq ldKav jkafka
nelahd
,Sr
w,af.a
jhsri
ridhksl l%shdj,sj,g jvd CIqka fhdod.ekSf jdis
wl jOk f.h;a" O jH fyj;a Wmia;r rdYshla Nd;d lsug we;s
mjD;a;sh yelshdjka ksid" CIqyq ,dN wuq jH" m%fhdackj;a ksIamdok M,
njg f.fhka mj;kh lrhs'
fuu ridhksl mj;k fndfyduhla i|yd wl WIaK;aj" mSvkh iy

Yla;sh wjYH jk w;r iu; ldl l%u Wmfhda.S lr .kska tajd is
l<fyd;a wl Y%uhla o fhoug isf'
CIqka iy Tjqkaf.a ls%hdj,s Nd;fhka idokq ,enQ" jdkscj jeo.;a ksIamdok

oyia .Kkla we;' fjd ldKav lsysmhla hg;g we;=,;a l< yels h'
- wka;M, f,i CIq ffi, fhdod.ekSu'
- wka;M, f,i CIqkaf.a mjD;a;sh M, fhdod.ekSu
- wka;M, f,i CIq mjD;a;sh ls%hdj,s fhdod.ekSu'
- wka;M, ,nd.ekSug m%fKslj lrKh l< CIqka fhdod .ekSu'
jdksc ksIamdokj, CIq ffi, Nd;h

wdydr m%;smQrl jYfhka CIq ffi, Nd;d lrhs'
Wod - fm%dakj,ska ire ^;ks ffi, fm%dak& wdydr m%;smQrl jYfhka" hSia iy
w,af.a uy mudkfhka j.d lrkq ,ef' Wod( - Spirulina
240
2nd
fkdfhla frda.j,g tfrysj ils%h m%;sYla;slrKfha Nd;djk CIq ffi,

uyd mudKfhka jdksc ugfuka ksmojd we;'
Wod - fymghsia nelahd
CIqka fyda Tjqkaf.a ,sx.sl m%ckl jHqyhka wdydr f,i Nd;d f'
Wod - Pleurotus, Agaricus iy Lentinus
jdksc ksIamdok f,i CIq mjD;a;sh M,

uOHidh mdk-
B;hs,a uOHidrh" jhska" h iy rd hkq lfndyhsf%g Wmia:r
Saccharomyces cerevisiae hSia fYaIh u.ska uOHidr meiSug ,la lsf
,efnk mjD;a;sh M, f'
C6H12O6 hSia 2C H OH + 2CO2
> 2 5
t;s,a uOHidrh" rd" jhska " h" wrlal= iy ials ksIamdok ls%hdj,sfha
Nd;d jk O wdrNl jH o i|yka lrka tu jdKsc ksIamdok ls%hdj,s
ieflka ia;r lrkak'
- mdka ksIamdokfha meiSf ls%hdj,sfha ldh ia;r lrkak'
kdls ksIamdokh - mshjr follska isf'

- t;fkda,a ksmojd.ekSug ldfndyhsf%g meiSu
- t;fkda,a " weisla w,h njg TlaislrKh lsu
C2H5OH + O2 > CH3COOH + H2O
kdls ksIamdokfha Nd;djk O wuqjH i|yka lrkak'

kdls ksIamdokfha Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Acetobacter iy Gluconobacter
j, ldh Ndrh meye,s lrkak'
B;hs,a uOHidrh" weisla w,h njg mj;kh u" iajdhq ls%hdj,shls'
,elala w,h iy meiqkq ls ksIamdokh lsu
- ,elala w,h" jdkscj ksIamdokfha ia iy ng ludka;fha iEfok
wmjH Nd;d flfrk w;r Lactobacillus bulgaricus nelahdjo Wmfhda.S
lr.kq ,ef'
- uqojdmq ls iy fhda. jdkscj ksIamdokfha ,elala w, nelahd jk
L. bulgaricus iy Streptococcus lactis u.ska meiSu isf'
241
2nd
tkaihsu iy m%;sjl ksIamdokh

- jdksc f,i ksIamdokh flfrk we;e m%;sjl j." tkaihsu" CIqka
u.ska isflrk ixYaf,aYk ls%hdj,s mok jQ ludka; i|yd ksoiqka f'
- m%;sjl " tkaihsu" weuhsfkda w, iy ldnksl w, jeks O ldl
ksIamdok /ilau O CIqka Wmfhda.S lr.kska ksmojkq ,ef'
- tjeks ksIamdok M, lsysmhla iy tajd ksIamdokfha Wmfhda.s flfrk
CIqka i|yd ksoiqka lsysmhla fokak'
m%;sjl
fmksis,ska - Penicillium notatum
Penicillium chrysogenum
iafg%mafgduhsiska - Streptomyces griseus
fgg%dihsla,ska - Streptomyces aureofaciens
tkaihsu
weuhsf,aia - Aspergillus niger
- Aspergillus oryzae
- Bacillus subtilis
fi,shqf,aia - Aspergillus niger
.afldaia Tlaisfiaa-Aspergillus niger
bkajfia - Saccharomyces cerevisiae
,hsfmaia - Rhizopus sp.
fm%%dafhaia - Aspergillus oryzae
tkak;a ksIamdokh
fkdfhla frda.j,g tfrysj ils%h m%;sYla;slrKfha Nd;d flfrk
m%;sfoayckl .Kkdjlau jdksc jYfhka ksIamdokh flf' fjd w;=ka iuyrla
cdk ms<sieliqug ,lal, tkak;a f'
Wod - fymghsia B tkak;
- wl%hs m%;Y
s la;l
s rKfha Nd;d flfrk O m%;f s oay j." jdkscj ksIm
a dokh
Wod - msg.eiau frda.hg tfrysj msg.eiau m%;sOQ,lh
c,NS;sld frda.hg tfrysj bhqfkd.af,dhq,ska
fndhq,skshd OQ,lh
242
2nd
ffcj fmdfydr " ffcj m,sfndaOlkdYl iy Rhizobium wdl%uksl

iuyr CIq ka Wmfhda.S lrf.k jdkscj ffcj m,sfndaOkdYl ksmojd we;'
tfiau lDIsldl mfiys khsg%cka m%udkh je lsug rhsfidah
wdl%uksl ksmojd we;'
kQ;k lDIslufha m,sfndaOkdYl iy khsg%ckSh fmdfydr j. mq,a f,i
Nd;d flfrk w;r ridhksl m,sfndaO kdYl j, mq,a Nd;h ksid mir
IK .eg rdYshla mekke.S we;s nj meye,s lrkak' tfiau ridhkslj
ixYaf,aYs; khsg%ckSh fmdfydr j. mig tl;= lsuo mdilj ys;lr
fkdjk w;r ho o wl f'
kj CIq ;dlaIKh u.ska" ffcj m,sfndaOkdYl fyj;a lDkdYl f,i

yekafjk jl,am m,sfndaOkdYl ksmojd we;' fjd CIq ieliq j,ska
iukaa; jk w;r m,sfndaOhkag YsIag n,mE we;s lrhs'
Wod - Bacillus thuringiensis wka;iafmdar ksmojk nelahdjla jk w;r
fndfyda lD lSghkag jHdckl f' fuu nelahdj u.ska ksmojk
fm%dAk iaMl" m,sfndaO lD lSghkag Ijk w;r fjd w.%yKh jQ
l, tu.ska lSghkaf.a wdka;% mgl h lSghka kdY f'
jdKscj Nd;djk CIq l%shdj,s

fldfmdAia ksmou
- Ydl ksIamdokh je lsug" Ydl wjfYaI iy ftkaSh fmdfydr tl;= lsf
ms<sfj;a iy fldfmdaia iEu o CIq ls%hdld;ajh u; r|d mj;S'
- Ydl wjfYaI iy i;a;aj u, jYfhka fmdfydr f,i mig fhf fmdaIH
jH uqod yka fhdackh bgq lsf CIq ka i;= iajNdl fhdack
yelshdj m%fhdackhg .efka'
- fldfmdAia iEu hkq" WKqiq" f;;a" iajdhq ;;a;Aj hgf;a Y% CIq
.ykhla u.ska ftkash jH fhdackh lsuhs'
- by; i|yka lsk fyda jHhla mig tla lsf mfiys wvx.= iajNdl CIq
.ykj, ls%hdld;ajh m%fhdackhg .efka'
jjdhq ksIamdokh
- kshu jYfhka j jdhqj hkq ldnksl jH" Tlaiscka rys;j ffcj oHd;aulj
| oef ksmofjk jdhqjls' j jdhqj W;amdokh jkqfha j ckH jH
j,ska neka th ffcj bkaOk wdldrhls' ksjdhq rK ls%hdj,sfha m%Njh
wkqj j jdhq ixhq;sfha fjkial we;sf'
j jdhqf kshu ixhq;sh jkafka
f;ka" CO2, N2, H2 iy H2S h'
243
2nd
fldm jeks f,day ksiaidrkh

- hlv iy i,a*hsv wvx.= nd, j.fha f,damia j,ska ;U ksiaidrkh lr
.ekSu msKsih' Thiobacillus ferroxidans iy Thiobacillus thiooxidans hk
iajhxfmdaIs nelahd fhdod .efka'
- fuu yq ;u mjD;a;Sh ls%hdj,sj, i,amshqla w,h iy Fe3+ ksmojk w;r
f,damia TlaislrKh lr Cu, CuSO4 njg mj;kh lrhs'
- fuu ls%hdj,s CIq CIsrKh f,i yekafjk w;r CuSO4 djKh oaHq;a
fokh lsfuka fldm ksiaidrKh lr.kq ,ef'
fl ksmou
fmd,af,,s m,alsfuka fldyq ,nd .ekSf idm%odhsl ls%hdj,sh" Iucd;Sh
CIq cS .ykhla u.ska is flf'
Ydl m;% fl" l|kaj, fl wd O Ydl fl j. ,nd.ekSu" m,a lsu
^Retting& hk CIq ls%hdj,sh ^tkaihsu" m%Odk jYfhka fmlafkaia& u;
mok jk nj meye,s lrkak'
m,a lsu hkq ldIah lfòys fyda fjk;a Ydl jHhl fyda wvx.= fl
,sys,a lsf ls%hdj,shhs' fuu ls%hdj,sfha O ld,iSud uq,af,a Ydl jH
c,fha .s,ajd ;ef'
iajdhq fukau ksjdhq nelahd wh;a Iucd;Sh CIq ldKavhla fuu
ls%hdj,sfha iyNd.s f'
mir Il bj;a lsu" ffcj m%;slulrKh

ffcj m%;slulrKh (Bio - remediation) ffcj ydhkh jehqKq lsu
u.ska mir Il bj;a lsu wruqKq fldgf.k CIq kaf.a mdil
fh fya;=fjka ysjQ kj CIq ;dlaIKhls'
wmjH ydhkh lsu;a tajd bj;a lsu;a wod,j CIq ka i;= yelshdj
fuu ;dlaIKfha Nd;hg .efka' fuu ls%hdj,sh ffcj m%;slulrKh
kka yekaf'
ffcj m%;slulrKh hkq" CIq ka u.ska is flfrk W;afm%arK ls%hdj
Il u; ls%hdlr mir Il bj;a lsu fyda tajdhska isjk ydks bj;a
lsu u; mok jQ iajNdl fyda md,kh lrkq ,nk ls%hdj,shls'
fuu ffcj m%;slulrKh oekg
- c,c mirj,ska ftkash wmjH m%udkh wvqlr,Sug
- ldlj wdydr ieliq ls%hj,sfha iy ridhksl msh;a j,
msgjk Is; c,h fhdackh u f.j;a lsug
- c,c mirj,ska f;,a bysre bj;a lsug
244
2nd
- fldfmdaia iEu f.j;a lsug

- f,day ludka; wmjHj,ska lafrdah" f," rih jeks I f,day
j. bj;a lsug;a Nd;d f'
jdkscuh wruqKq i|yd m%fkslj lrKh l, ka Nd;h

- fydafudak" bkaishq,ska iy tkak;a
- cdk ms<sieliqulg ,lal, CIq ka Nd;d fldg bkaishq,ska iy udkj
jOl fydfudakh ksmojd we;'
- CIq ;dlaIKfha jvd;au kQ;k fh jkqfha frda. j,g m%;sldr i|yd
ls;aiSh T!IO ksIamdokf'
- iu; l%u u.ska udkj bkaishq,ska ksmou ho wl f' cdk
ms<sieliqug ,lal, nelahdjla jk E. coli Nd;fhka b;d ,dNodhs
f,i bkaishq,ska ksmou j;udkfha is flf'
- cdk ms<sieliqug ,la l< nelahd Nd;fhka jvd;a ldhCIu f,i
ksmojk ;j;a T!Ih ksIamdokhls" udkj jOl fydafudakh' l,ska fuh"
i;=kaf.a mshqg .%ka:sfhka l=vd m%udKj,ska ksiaidrkh lr ,nd .kakd
,'
245
2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'1'0 ( CIq kaf.a O;ajh" ls%hdldrs;ajh yd n,mE udkj

ksmqK;d ugu 13'1'6 ( lDIsldl lghq;= m%Yia; ugka mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd mdxY=
laIqkaf.a ls%hdld;ajh Wmfhda.S lr.kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, (
mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdjh" jHdma;sh iy ls%hdj,s ia;r lrhs'
jH plS%lrKfha oS fhdaclhka jYfhka mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdl
ldhNdrh meyeos,s lrhs'
khsg%cka pl%fhaoS iy ldnka pl%fha oS mdxY= CIq kaf.a fYaIs; lhNdrh
ia;drKh lrhs'
Ydl jOkhg wod<j mdxY= CIq kaf.a wka; ls%hd ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
mdxY= CIq ka ms<sn|j uQ,dY% isiqkag imhkak'

mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdjh" jHdma;sh iy ls%hdj,s ms<sn| f;dr;=re tl;=
;uka iska fidhd.;a foa ms<sn|j fmd;a msxpla ilia lsug isiqkaj
fhduqlrjkak'
Tjqka fidhd.;a foa bosrsm;a l< miq "ia;drKh lrkak'
mfiys Yd, CIq .yKhla j;ajk w;r mi u.ska CIq kaf.a meje;aug
m%udKj;a fN!;sl iy ridhksl mirhla tu.ska i,ihs'
mdxY= CIq kaf.a iajNdjh iy jHdma;sh
ksid wydr m%Njhla jYfhka Ydl u; imQKfhkau hemSu fndfyda rg

isf' Ydl fndfyduhlau mfiys uq,a nei we;s w;r" w;HjYH Lksc fmdaIl
rdYshlau Ydl uq,a u.ska mfika ,nd.kS' fuu fmdaIl uereKq Ydl iy i;a;aj
wjfYaIj,ska iy mdIdK u.skq;a uQ,drN f' fulS m%Njj,ska fmdaIl uqod,Su
fN!;sl ridhksl yd ffcj ls%hdj,s u.ska isf' tfy;a fmdaIl uqod,Sf
jvd;au jeo.;a fufyhla bgqjkafka mdxY= CIq kaf.ks'
246
2nd
O .Kj,g iy fYaIj,g wh;a jk os,Sr" nelahd" w,af.a iy jhsri jeks

O CIq yq mfiys j;a f' O ldKavj,g wh;a idfmalaI m%udK" mdxY=
mirh wkqj fjkia f'
idrj;a lDIsldl mil mdxY= CIq .yKh
j.h mia .a?uhg wvx.= ixLHdj

nelahd 2500 000 000
welafkdauhsisg 700 000
os,r
S 400 000
w,af.a 50 000
fm%dfgdfidjd 30 000
mfiys fN!;sl yd ridhksl mirh CIq kaf.a jOkh i|yd ksfrda.S

udOHhla f,i ls%hdlrhs'
mfiys wjldY wkqj;a tys wvx.= Lksc" fhdackh fjka mj;sk jH" c,h"
CO2, O2 iy N2 hkdoS ldnksl jH wkqj;a n,k l, CIq kaf.a jOkhg
m%udKj;a fN!;sl iy ridhksl mirhla mi u.ska i,ihs'
mfiys .eUqr wkqj" CIq kaf.a jHdma;sh O f' u;=msg ia:rj, " .eUqre
ia:rj, olakg ,efnkjdg je CIq ka ixLHdjla olakg ,ef' fufia
jHdma;ug fya;= meyeos,s lrkak'
.eUqr * iajdhq ksjdhq welafkdauhsisg os,Sr w,af.a

(cm) nelahd nelahd
3-8 7800 1950 2080 119 25

20-25 1800 379 245 50 5
35-40 472 98 49 14 0'5
65-75 10 1 5 6 0'1
135-145 1 0'4 - 3 -
* ka $mia .a?uhg x 103
Lksc plS%lrK ls%hdj,sfha oS mdxY= CIq kaf.a ldhNdrh

Ydl yd i;a;aj jH fhdackfha oS nelahd iy os,Srj, wvx.=
nys# ffi,Sh tkaihsu" ixlSK ldnksl jH ir, wldnksl jH ^Lksc&"
H2O yd CO2 njg | fy,hs'
fuu ls%hdj,sh LkscNjkh (Mineralization) kka ye|skafjk w;r Ydlj,g

wjYH fmdaIl jH iemfhk m%Odk;u ls%hdj,sh fuhhs'
247
2nd
fhdackh"
a) Ydl iy i;a;aj iqkanqka mD mDIaGfhka bj;a lsug Wo lrka fjk;a
Ydlj,g;a i;=kag;a j;a ug bv i,ihs'
b) mDh u; b;d iS; m%udKj,ska ;sfnkakd jQ Lksc m%;splS%lrKh lrhs'
iajNdl khsg%cka pl%fhys khsg%cka iy khsg%ckSh ixfhda. ffcj ridhksl

mKdukfha oS CIqkaf.ka bgqjk ldhNdrh meyeos,s lrkak'
- fm%dafhdaa,hsish
- wefkda w, ydhkh ^ wefudkslrKh&
- khs%lrKh
- khsy % rKh
- khsg%cka ;sr lsu
Ydl jOkfhys,d mdxY= CIqkaf.a wka; ls%hd

CIqka mfiys ksoyiaj jHdma; we;s w;r uq,a u; iy uq,a wdYs%;j j;ajk
CIqka Ydl jOkh flfrys O n,mE we;s lrhs'
ire mfiys " ukd mdxY= jHqyhlg ,dlaIKsl jQ ia:dhs mdxY= iudydr (soil Aggregates)
iEoSf ,d CIqka iyNd.s f' os,r
S iQ;l
%s d "welafkdauhsi
s ia iQ;l
%s d"fmd,sielrhsv
ue,sh j." nelahd u.ska ksmojk fij, hk fjd mdxY= iudydr iEoSfys ,d
iyNd.s f'
khsg%cka ;sr lsu" iy inkaO;d u.skq;a ^Rhizobium nelahd iy uQ,.e;s&"
iy fkdjk inka O ;d u.s k q ; a ^ks o e,a f ,a fjfik nela hd iy
ihfkdnelahd& hk fowdldrfhkau isf'
Wiia Ydl uq,a iy os,Sr w;r mj;sk os,Srl uQ, inkaO;d o Ydl jOkh flfrys
n,mdhs' f u.ska mfika djH fmdaIl $fmdiafmag tla /ia lr bka miq tajd
Ydlj,g udre lrkq ,ef'
mdxY= CIqyq bkafvda,a weisla w,h" .sfnr,ska iy ihsfgdlhkska jeks Ydl
jOl jH ksmojhs'
fnda. Ydl flfrys n,mdkakd jQ o tajd kdY lrkakdjQo Ydl jHdckl
CIqkaf.a m%Odk jdiiaa:dkho mihs'
Ydl uq,a u;=msg" uq,a wdYs%;j .K CIq .ykhla we;' fuu CIqka uQ,f.da,
nelahd (Rhizosphere bacteria ) fyj;a Rhizo bacteria hkqfjka ye|skaf'
fuu nelahd" fkdfhl=;a Ydl i%dj u; j;a jk w;r fjd w;=ka rdYshlau
Ydl jOkhg Wmldr jk jH iy Ydl jHdckl nelahdj, jOkh
ksfYaOkh lrkakd jQ ridhksl jH ksmojhs'
248
2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'2'0 ( mdkSh c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh mj;ajd .ekSu iy >k wmjH

l<ukdlrKh i|yd CIq j oHd;aul ixl,am yd uQ,Ou
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'2'1 ( mdkSh c,h yd wmc,h l<ukdlrKh i|yd CIq j

oHd;aul ixl,am iy uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 05
bf.kq M, ( fuu ls%hdldrlu wjidkfha YsIHhd(

c,h u.ska ifm%aIKh jk frda. ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
kd.l mdkSh c, msmy msh;l c,h msh lsf mshjr ia;r lrhs'
iajNdl c, m%Njj,g wm c,h uqodyef m%;sM, meye,s lrhs'
ldl wmc,h msh lsf m%Odk mshjr iy uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'
YS% ,xldf m%;shg wkqj wmc,h c, m%Njj,g tl;= lsf kS;suh iSud
,ehsia;= .; lrhs'

dldrl:
kd.l mdkSh c, msh;la iy ldl wmc,h msh lsf msh;la ne,Sug

lafIa;% pdldjla iqodk lrkak'
mdkSh c,h iy ldl wmc,h msis lsf uQ,sl mshjr iy uQ,Ou wvx.=
jd;djla ms<sfh, lsug isiqkag mjikak'
lKavdh ls%hdldrlula f,i c,h u.ska me;sfrk frda. ,ehsia;=jla isiqka ,jd
ms<sfh, lrjkak'
is;a weo.kakd iq bosm;a lsulg isiqkag iydh jkak'
Ih lreKqq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg ia;drKh lrkak'
mdkSh c,h" ldl wmc,h iy >k wmjHj,g wod, CIq j oHdj
mdkSh c,fha iajNdl m%Nj iy tajd IKh h yels l%u
fndfyda m%cdj,g;a" k.r iNdj,g;a mdkSh c,h iemfhkafka .x.d"Th" je wdoS

u;=msg c, m%Njj,ska iy <sx j,sks' fujeks iajdNdl c, iemhq ksfjiaj,ska
iy ludka;j,ska neyer flfrk wmjHj, wvx.= jHdckl CIq ka u.ska
IKh h yel'
249
2nd
fuu jHdckl CIq yq" ksidf.a;a" i;=kaf.a;a u, ud.fhka iajdNdl

c,dYj,g we;=jk w;r bla;s tu c,h mfNdackh lrkakkaf.a Yr
fi!LHhgo Tjqkaf.ka ydks we;sf'
c,h u.ska fndfyda g ifm%I a Kh jkafka" wdka;l

%s ud.h ;=, wdidok we;slrk
jHdckl CIq kah' kso (- ghsf*dhs iy merdghsf*dhs nelahd" fld,rd
nelahd " Entero virus iy w;Sidrh we;s lrk CIq ka
k.r iNd oHd.drj,;a" c, imdok uKav,fha oHd.drj,;a ks;sm;d flfrk

mlaId ms<sfj;a u.ska mdkSh c,fha .=Kd;aul nj ;yjqre flf' .=Kd;aul nj
ksKh flfrkafka " u,jH j,ska IKh fuka tlajk flda,sf*da (Coliform)
nelahd we;s ke;s nj wkqjhs'
kd.l mdkSh c,h msis lsf msh;l m%Odk mshjr
fuu ls%hd ms<sfj; u.ska ksidf.a mfNdackhg iqiq .=Kfhka hq;= c,h ksmojkq
,ef' fuys m%Odk mshjr ;=kla we;' g wu;rj we;e c, msh;j, .x.d c,h
m fm<lska my<g .e,Sug i,iajkq ,ef' ta u`.ska c,h jd;khu isf'
a) wjidokh
b) fmu
c) Ic kdYkh
a) wjidokh - fuh islrkq ,nkafka Yd, ;gdl ;=, ksh; ld,hla

c,h r|jd ;efuks' tu ld,h ;=,oS Yd, jHuh wxY= m;=f,a ;ekam;a
f' we, ^weksh i,af*a& tl;= lsfuka wjidokh jeflfrk
w;r tysoS wef,k iq`t wjlafIamhla iEfoa' f wdldrfhka fndfyda CIqka
fukau ishq wj,nk jHo bj;a flf'
b) fmu - je,s ;=,ska fmu is lrk w;r nelahd 99] la bj;a flf'
c) Ic kdYkh - fuys oS laf,daka Nd;fhka c,fhaa Ic kdYkh

lrkq ,ef' fuys oS Nd; flfrk laf,daka m%udKh" ksoyia laf,daka
0'2-2'0 mg/l l wjfYaIhla b;ss lsug m%udKj;a ;r h hq;=hs'
mdkSh c,hg wod<j ie,ls,a,g Ndckh h hq;= m%Odk lreK jHdcklhka

u.ska ifm%aIKh jk frda. Wkikaksmd;h" fld,rdj wdoS f' f ksid c,fhys
ikSmdrlaIl .=Khg wod,j tys wdrlaIs; nj ksKh lsug mlaId fidhd f.k
we;' Salmonella, Shigella iy Vibrio jeks jHdcklhka fidhd .ekSug ks;sm;d
Yaf,aIKh lsu m%dfhda.sl fkdf' Bg fya;= k
a) Tjqka b;d iq`t ixLHd jYfhka mej;Su ^jix.;hla fyda frda. me;srhdula
we;ak i&
b) tajd wkdjrKh lr .ekSug Ialr jk w;r ta i|yd je ld,hla .;u'
250
2nd
f ksid ksia u,j, ksr;=rej jdih lrk flda,sf*da nelahd keue;s tla;rd
iQpl fhl= Nd;fhka c,fha wdrlaIK $ fi!LHdrlaIK .=Kh ks;m s ;d mlaId
lrkq ,ef' fuu nelahdj iajdhq fyda ffj,amls ksjdhq" .a? iDK" wka;iafmdr
fkdidok" hIa yeve;s" meh 48 la ;=, ,elafgdaia meiSug ,lalr jdhqjla ksmojk
nelahdjls'
flda,sf*da nelahd ;sfuka ye`.fjkafka tu c,h ksia u,j,ska wm;%
we;s nj;a f ksid tajdfha fjk;a jHdckl CIq ka o isf yelshdj we;s
nj;a h'
flda,sf*da i|yd iu; mlaId Nd;d flf'
wmc,h
ksfjiaj, fyda ludka; Yd,dj, Nd;fhka miq c,h Is; c,h njg m;af'
wdydrj, yd fjk;a jHj, wvx.= ftkash wm jH Yd, m%udKhla" tk
ldfndayhsf%g" foh" fm%dak iy CIq ka fuu Is; c,fha wvx.= f'
fuu Is; c,h" iajNdl c,dYj,g uqodyeu ksid we;sh yels wys;lr
n,mE'
a) frda. ldrl CIq ka jHdma;u
b) ffcj ydhkh h yels jH iy tajd fhdackh fuka we;sjk
M, tla/ia fuka c,h IKh u'
c) tfia fhdackh f oS c,fha wvx.= Tlaiscka Yd, m%udKhla
m%fhdackhg .ekSu" c,rey ka flfrys n,mEula we;s lrhs'
^wl ffcj Tlaiscka b,au" by, BOD w.h &
d) .| we;s lrk ksjdhq fhdackhla isu'
f ksid Is; c,h" iajNdl c,dY fj; uqodykq ,eug fmr th ksh;
iu; ugulg ksis mos msh lsu fndfyda rgj, kS;suh wjYH;djhls'
IS; c,h msh lsf uQ,sl mshjr yd uQ,Ou
uQ,sl msh lsu ^m%d:l msh lsu&

Yd, mdfjk jH bj;a lsu
je,s bj;a lsu
f;,a yd .S%ia bj;a lsu
wjidok ;gdl ;=, >k jH ;ekam;a u
frdkafndr tl;= lr bj;a lsu ^rEm igyk - weuqKqu 314 msgqj n,kak&
fuys oS ffch ls%hdj,shla Nd;d fkdf'
uQ,sl mshf oS ftkaSh jH 25-35] l m%udKhla bj;a flf'
oaa;Shsl msh lsu

uQ,sl mshfuka miq msg;g .,dhk jH" oa;Shsl msh wjia:djg
we;= f'
251
2nd
fuu mshf oS iajdhq nelahdj, jOkh;a YS>% CIq Tlail

s rKh;aa
myiqlr,Su i|yd Is; c,h jd;kh lrkq ,ef' fuys oS
ilS%h l, fndr l%uh (Activated sludge)
ldka fmryka l%uh (Trickling filter)
hk l%u foflka tlla Nd;d f'
ilS%h l< fndr l%ufhaoS Is; c,h hdka;s%lj YS>%fhka jd;kh flf' ldka
fmrykal%uh Nd;fhaoS mdIdKuh jH ;gqjla u; Is; c,h" fika biSug
i,id bla;s th ldkaug i,ikq ,ef' fuu l%ufhaoS fmryka ;gqj u;
CIq ka jOkh ftkaSh jH TlaislrKh lrhs'
oa;Shsl mshf oS ftkaSh jH 75-95] l m%udKhla TlaislrKh flf'
fuu moaO;s ;=,ska .,d hk jH" bkamiq Ic kdYkh fldg iajNdl
c,dYj,g .,dhdug i,iajkq ,ef'
fuu msh l%u foflaoSu b;sjk frdkafndr ksjdhq frdka fndr mSrlhla
fj; hjkq ,ef tysoS isjk ksjdhq fhdackfhaoS tu frdkafndrj, wvx.=
ftkash jH wjidkfha oS f;aka iy CO2 njg m;a flf'
rKh jQ frdkafndr fmdfydr jYfhka Nd; l< yel'
252
2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'2'0 ( mdkSh c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh mj;ajd .ekSu iy >k wmjH

l<ukdlrKh i|yd CIq j oHd;aul ixl,am yd uQ,Ou
Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'2'2 ( >k wmjH m%;splS%lrKfha mdil yd fi!LHuh jeo.;alu

.fIKh lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
bf.kq M, (
>k wmjHj, iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
>k wmjH m%;splS%lrKfha mdil yd fi!LHuh jeo.;alu meyeos,s lrhs'
>k wmjH l<ukdlrKfha oS Nd; jk Ys,amSh l%u ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
uOHu mir wldh u.ska m%ldYhg m;a lr we;s w;a m;s%ld iy m%ldYk isiqkag
imhkak'
>k wm jH" tajd m%;splS%lrKfha mdil iy fi!LHuh jeo.;alu iy >k
wmjH l<ukdlrKfha os Nd; jk Ys,amSh l%u ms<sn|j jd;djla ilia lrkak'
bosm;a lsula i|yd isiqka fhduq lrkak'
fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj Ih lreKq ia;drKh lrkak'

>k wmjH
- >k wm jHj, iajNdjh
- ldnksl iajrEmfha wmjH jk Ydl jH" wdydrj, bj;,k fldgia" lvodis
wmjH" fmd,s;ska iy re wdosh >k wmjH f,i ie<fla'
- wdydr wmjH iy Ydl jH f.fhka ydhkh f'
- ma,diala "re iy lvodis f.fhka ydhkh fkdf'
>k wm jH m%;splS%lrKfha mdil iy fi!LHuh jeo.;alu
>k wmjH jD;j f.dv.eiSu" mdil .eg rdYshla we;s lrhs'
- tu ia:dk urejka fndajk ia:dk f,i jOkh fjhs'
- wmjHj, ksjdhq fhdackh ksid .| yuk jdhqka ksmof'
- >k wmjHj, ksjdhq fhdackfha m%Odk M,hla jkafka f;akah' th msmsfrk
iq neka wk;=reodhl f'
- lDka iy lDka;lhka jHdma; f'
- N+.; c,h" IKh h yel'
253
2nd
f ksid >k wmjH fyd|ska l<ukdlrKh l< hq;= h' >k wmjH u.ska w;sjk
.eg`t wju lr.ekSu i|yd l%u lsysmhla we;'
fjka lsu iy m%;splS%lrKh

fndfyda rgj, .Dyia: ldnksl wmjH jk uq`t;ekaf.a le,sli," Ydl fldgia"
ma,diala " re iy lvodis fjka fjka nyd j, tl;= flf' fjdhska
lvodis iy re kej; Nd;h i|yd m%;splS%lrKh flf'
ldnksl jH fhdackh lsu"

ffcj oHd;aulj fldfmdia iEoSu fyda rK ls%hdj,s Nd; lr Ydl jH"
bj;,k wdydr fldgia iy lvodis ksIamdok m%;splS%lrKh l< yel' m%;sM,h
f,i ,efnk ldnksl jH" lDIslufha oS fldfmdai a f,ig fyda N+ w,xlrkh
i|yd kej; Nd; l< yels h'
g wu;rj ls%hdj,sfha oS ksoyia jk wm jdhQka ^f;aka jeks & r|jdf.k ,sh
ckkh lsu i|yd Nd; l< yel'
ikSmdrlaIl N+ msr (Sanitary land fills)

jvd;a m%p,s; jQ wmjH bj;a lsf wdldrh f,i i<ld we;af;a th uQ,slj th
,dNodhSj >k wmjH bj;a lsf l%uhla neks' kd.l >k wmjHj,ska
mfyka y;rla u fuu l%ufhka neyer lrhs'
ikSmdrlaIl N+ msru hkq bxfkare ;dlaIK l%u mok lr.;a >k wmjH
neyera lsf l%uhls' fuys oS idudkHfhka wdka;sl fyda Wm wdka;sl ;Sre u;g
>k wm jH ia;r f,i m;=rejkq ,ef' fuys wruqK jkafka ia;r f,i me;sru
iy iqixys;j weisu u.ska wmjHj, mudj Yd, jYfhka wvq lsuhs' bka miq
mia u.ska fuu wmjH ia;r wdjrKh lrkq ,ef'
by, N+.; c,h we;s m%foaYj, N+ msr msysgqu fkdl< hq;=hs' ikSmdrlaIl N+
msrj, we;s fndfyda wmjH ffcj oHd;aul iy ridhksl ls%hdj,s u.ska
fhdackh >k" j iy jdhquh M, we;s lrhs'
254
2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'3'0 ( CIq ka wdydr flfrys we;s flfrk wdprK ch.ekSug

lghq;= lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 13'3'1 ( Is; wdydr u.ska je<f|k frda. ksjdrKh i|yd odhl fjhas'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 07
bf.kq M, (
wdydr krlaf oS isjk fN!;sl iy ridhksl fjkia meyeos,s lrhs'
wdydr krlau ksidf.a fi!LHh flfrys we;slrk n,mEu ia;r lrhs'

dldrl:
krla jQ wdydr idm, lsysmhla isiqkag imhd tajdfha is we;s fN!;sl
fjkial y\qkd.eksug i,iajkak'
wdydr u.ska je<fòk wdidok" wdydr krlaug n,mdk idOl" by; krla jq
wdydrj, is we;s ffcj yd ridhksl fjkia ms<sn|j f;dr;=re tl;= lsug
isiqkag mjikak'
wdydr krlau ms<sn|j bosm;a lsulg wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos fhda.H wkqms<sfj,lg wkqj ia;drKh lrkak'

CIq ka yd wdydr
ksidf.a mfNdackh i|yd ,o yels ish`tu wdydr jH Ydl yd i;a;j a iNjhlska
hqla; f'
mDh u; jk yeu wjldYhlu mdfya;a" Ydl fyda i;a;aj iNjhla we;s kEu
wdydr iemhqul;a CIq ka jdih lrk nj meyeos,s lrkak' wdydrj, iajNdl
CIq .ykhla wvx.= jk w;r wdydr w;m; .ef oS yd ieliq lsf oS tajd
iajNdl CIq kaf.ka IKh f'
CIq kaf.a jOkh i|yd frdamk udOHhla jYfhka wdydr jH ls%hd lrhs'
wdydrj, fmdaIH jH wvx.= nj;a" tu fmdaIH jH CIq ka rdYshlf.a jOkhg
wjYH jk nj;a meyeos,s lrkak'
f ksid fmdaIl ;enq idrh jeks CIq frdamk udOHhla f,i wdydr ls%hd
lrhs' fuu ;enq idrfha nelahd" hSia" mqia fYaI .Kkdjla jOkh f'
wdydr krla u hkq wdydr j, CIq ka jOkh uksid tu wdydr j, fN!;sl"
ridhksl iy j oHd;aul jHqy fjkia tajd mfNdackhg kqiqiq ;;a;ajhlg
m;auhs'
wdydr u; jefvk CIq ka IufmdaIS nelahd iy os,Sr f' fuu ls%hdj,sfha
oS f CIq yq " ldfndyhsf%g " fm%dak iy foh | fy,ka Tjqkaf.a jOkh
i|yd wjYH Yla;sh iy wfkl=;a wjYH;d ,nd.ks;s'
255
2nd
fuu ls%hdj,skaj,oS CIq ka u.ska i%djh flfrk weuhsf,aia" fm%dafhaia" ,hsfmaia

wdoS nys# ffi,Sh tkaihsu iyNd.s f'
fuys m%;sM, jYfhka wdydrfha wvx.= m%Odk ix>glj, ridhksl iy fN!;sl

.+K fjkia f'
wdydrfha isjk ridhksl mhdi meyeos,s lrkak'
mQ;N
s jkh (Putrefaction)
fm%dafhd,sl
fm%dak wdydr > wefkda w, + wefudakshd + H2S + wek
CIq ka
meiSu (Fermentation)
ielfrd,sl
ldfndyhsf%g wdydr > w, + uOHidr + jdhq
CIq ka
uqv
q u (Rancidity)
,sfmda,sl
fo wdydr > fo w, + .a,sifrda,a
CIq ka
wdydr j, isjk fN!;sl mhdi meyeos,s lrkak'

wdydr uDu" jKSNjkh" .=Kd;aul nj wvqu" fij, fyda ue,sh iEoSu
^fmd,sielrhsv&" I tl;=u'
g wu;rj frda. ldrl h yels ils%h CIq kaf.a Yd, .yK wdydrfha wvx.=
h yels h'
f ish lreKq ksid wdydrh ksidg mfNdackhg kqiqiq ;;a;ajhg m;af'
fkdfhl=;a ndysr idOl iy wdydrfha wvx.= wNHka;r idOl" wdydr krlau
flfrys n,mdhs'
ndysr fukau wdydrfha wvx.= wNHka;r idOl wdydr krlau flfrys n,mdk
wdldrh meyeos,s lrkak'
CIq kaf.a jOkh iy ls%hdld;ajh flfrys n,mdk kEu idOlhla" wdydr
krlau flfrys n,mdhs'
256
2nd
wNHka;r idOl
wNHka;r idOl hkq wdydrfhau wvx.= idOl f' my; oelafjk wNHka;r idOl
wdydr krlau flfrys olajk n,mEu meyeos,s lrkak'
1' pH
2' f;;ukh
3' fmdaIl m%udkh
4' j oHd;aul jHqyh
1' pH
fndfyda CIq ka fyd|skau jOkh jkafka pH 7.0 g wdikak ^6'6 -7'5& w.hka
;=<h' pH 4.0 g wvq udOHj, jOkh jk CIq ka ixLHdj b;d wvq h'
idudkHfhka mqia iy hSiaj,g mq`t,a pH mrdihla ;=< tk b;d my, isg b;d
by, (pH 2 -10& mrdihla ;=, jOkh h yel'
nelahd idudkHfhka pH ^5 -7& w;r jOkh f'
foy's (pH 1'8 - 2'0&"fodv (pH 3'6-4'3&" flfi,a (pH 4'5 -4'7& " jeks m<;=re j."
mqia iy hSia u.ska krla ug bv we;'
fndfyda uqyq wdydr" uia" yrla uia (pH} 5'1-6'2& l=l=,a uia (pH } 6'2 -6'4&" ud
(pH } 6'6-6'8&" ls (pH 6'3-6'5& nelahd "hSia iy mqia u.ska krla u is f'
2' f;;uk m%udKh

wdydr mrlaIKh lsf merKsu l%uh jk h<Su" f;;uk m%udKh wvq
lsu u; mok jk wdldrh meyeos,s lrkak'
wl f;;uk m%udkhla we;s uia" ud jeks wdydr nelahd u.ska krla
f'
wvq f;;uk m%udKhla we;s ial" mdka jeks wdydr mqia j. u.ska krla
f'
b;d wvq f;;uk m%udKhla we;s h<s ls ms" ms jeks wdydr nelahd
iy mqia u.ska myiqfjka krla fkdf'
Kq iy iSks wvx.= wdydr ^c,h m%udKh b;d wvqh& idudkHfhka krla
ug ,lajkqfha ,jKld nelahd ^Kq oeuq wdydr& yd wdi%e;ld iy
Y=Ialld" mqia iy hSia îSks iys; wdydr& u.sks'
257
2nd
3' fmdaIl m%udKh

c,h" Yla;s m%Njh" khsg%cka " gka iy Lksc ,jk CIq jOkh
i|yd w;HdjYH fmdaIl f'
fmdaIlj,ska ire wdydr myiqfjka CIq ka u.ska krla f'
Wod - ls" uia
4' j oHd;aul jHqyh

we;e wdydr j, iajNdl wdjrKh " wdydrh ;=<g CIq ka we;=`t u
iy ydks meKu j<lajhs'
Wod - m<;=rej, ndysr wdjrKh " ;a;r lgqj
ndysr idOl
ndysr idOl hkq wdydr yd CIq ka hk fofldgigu n,mdk mir
idOlhs'
1' .nvd lsrSf WIaK;ajh
2' mirfha idfmalaI wd;djh
3' mirfha ;sfnk jdhq iy tajdfha idkakh" (O2 iy CO2 )
CIq kaf.a jOkh flfrys mq`t,a WIaK;aj mrdihla n,mdk nj meyeos,s
lrkak' my, WIaK;ajj,oS jOkh fika isjk w;r" wdydr krla u o
fika isf' idudkH jgmsgdf WIaK;ajfha oS jOkh wl f.fhka
isjk w;r krlau o wl f'
flfia jqjo b;d my< WIaK;aj j,oS mjd ^kso' 40C& YS;ld nelahd u.ska
wdydr krla f'
mj;sk f;;ukh m%udKh CIq ka jOkh wdydr krlau flfrys n,mdk

jeo.;a idOlhla jk neka" wdydr .nvd flfrk mirfha idfmalaI wd;djh
b;d jeo.;a f'
wvq f;;uk m%udKhla wvx.= wdydr" by< idfmalaI wd;djhla we;s mirj,
.nvd fkdl< hq;= h' ukao h;a tu wdydr u.ska f;;ukh Wrd .ekSu fya;=fjka
CIq jOkh isjk neks'
wdydr u.ska je<f|k wdidok$ wdydr I
we;e CIq ka wdydr u; ksmojk O I jH iys; wdydr mfNdackhg

.ekSfuka wdydr wdidok iy wdydr I we;s f'
CIq ka u.ska krlaug ,lajQ wdydr mfNdackhg .ekSfuka frda.S h yelsh'
CIq yq wdydr ;=< jOkh " .=Kkh f oS CIq ffi, ixLHdjo je

lrka I ridhksl jHo ksmojhs'
258
2nd
wl f,i IS; wdydr mfNdackhg .kakd flfkl=" CIq ffi, Yd,

ixLHdjlao" I ridhksl o w.%yKh lsfuka frda.S h yels h'
fuu frda. wdldr folls'
w& wdydr u`.sakA je<f|k wdidok

wd& wdydr I
wdydr u.ska we;sjk wdidokj,oS krla jQ wdydr mfNdackh lrk mqoa.,hkaf.a

foayh ;=,g CIq ka we;=`t jOkh fjka .=Kkh jk w;r frda.hg
,dlaIKsl jQ frda. ,laIK we;s lrk I jH ksmojhs'
Wod - WK ikaksmd;h - Salmonella typhi
w;Sidrh - Shigella
fld<rdj - Vibrio cholerae
wdydr If oS" krla jQ wdydr j, CIq ka jOkfha oS ksmo jQ I jH wvx.=

jk w;r fuu I jH wvx.= wdydr mfNdackh lrk kEu wfhl=g fl
ld,hla ;=< frda. ,laIK my< f'
Wod - wdydr Iu - Staphylococcus aureus
fndhq,skshdj - Clostridium botulinum
idudkHfhka fuu frda. j. folu wdydr Iu ksid isjk nj mejfia'
259
2nd
ksmqK;dj 13'3'0 ( CaIq ka wdydr flfrys we;s flfrk wdprK ch.ekSug

lghq;= lrhs '
ksmqK;d ugu 13'3'2 ( wdydr mrlaIK l%u ffoksl lghq;= id:l lr.ekSu i|yd
fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 01
bf.kq M, (
wdydr mrlaIKh iy wdydr mrlaIKfha jeo.;alu meyeos,s lrhs'
wdydr mrlaIK l%u j,g wod< uQ,Ou ia;drKh lrhs'

dldrl:
mrlaIK l%u ms<n

s | oek .ekSug mrlaI;
s wdydr j. lsym
s hla /f.k kslaIKh
tu l%uj,g mok we;s uQ,Ou fudkjdoehs oek.ekSug isiqkag mjikak'
bosm;a lsula i|yd myiql i,ikak'
Ih lreKq wdjrKh jk mos ia;drKh lrkak'

wdydr mrlaIKh " tosfkod ;fha jeo.;a wx.hls'
wdydr mrlaIKh wjYH ukaoehs meyeos,s lrkak'
fndfyda wdydr j. mrlaIKh i|yd fYaI l%u wkq.ukh fkdlrkafka k
tajd" CIq ka u.ska myiqfjka fhdackh f'
b,au wNsNjd wdydr ksIamdokh jkg jemqr wdydr mrlaIKh l< hq;= h'
;dmh" wmQ;s Ys,am l%u " wvq WIaK;ajh" c,kh" ridhk jH iy lsrK fhdod
.kska CIq kaf.a jOkh iy ls%hdlda;ajh md,kh lsu u; wdydr l,a
;nd .ekSf l%uj, uQ,Ou mok we;'
iqiq ksoiqka iys;j" wdydr mrlaIK l%u mok we;s uQ,Ou meyeos,s lrkak'
wdydrhg CIq ka we;=`tu je<elau ^wmQ;s l%u&
wdydrj, CIq kaf.a jOkh iy ls%hdld;ajh je<elau'
wdydrj, CIq ka bj;a lsu fyda kdY lsu'
my; oelafjk wdydr mrlaIK l%uj,g by; uQ,Ou fhfok wdldrh meyeos,s
lrkak'
260
2nd
- ka lsu
- wmQ;s weysu - (Aseptic packaging)
- h<Su
- kq oeu
- kq oud h<su
- iSks tl;= lsu
- meiaglrKh
- .eiSu
- ridhk jH tl;= lsu
- lsrK mrlaIKh
- wvq WIaK;aj mrlaIKh
261
2nd
tallh 14 - jHjydl j oHdj
ksmqK;dj 14'1'0 ( ;fha .=Kd;aul nj je oshK

q q lr .ekSug j oHd;aul ixl,am
yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'1 ( c, moaO;shla l%udkql+, j mj;ajd .ekSf l%fudamdh uYkh
lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
c, j.d l%u ia;r lrhs'
j.d l< yels u;aiHhskaf.a ,dlaIKsl ,laIK meyeos,s lrhs'
u;aiHhskaf.a yd biaikaf.a O fYaI ykd .kshs'
c,d,hla iEoSug wNs,dYhla we;s lr .kshs'

dldrl:
lafIa;% pdld - c, j.d uOHia:dkhla yd c,d,hla kslaIKh lsug hdu
j.d lrkq ,nk kaf.a ndysr ,laIK oelaug wod< ksoYl yd rEmigyka Nd;h'
yels;r Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl Nd;h'

c, j.dj - c,c kaf.a ,dnd, wjia:d c,dYj, jOkhug i,iajd wiajekak
,nd .ekSuhs'
c, j.df wjYH;dj
ksia ck.ykfha jOkh yd c,c mirj,ska ,efnk iS; wdydr im;a
ie,ls,a,g .kska c, j.df wjYH;djh .=rejrhd meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
jeo.;a fm%dak m%Njhla jk u;aiHhska fYaIfhka u .%dh m%foaYj," idfmalaIj
wvq <lg c, j.dj u`.ska ,nd .; yels nj;a i|yka l< hq;= h'
fkdao lghq;= yd foaY ksuh Wmhd .ekSu i|yd c,c Ydl yd iqr;,a uiqka
j.d lsf wjYH;djh o meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
Y%S ,xldf j.d lrkq ,nk fYaI
biaika fYaI - Penaeus monodon ^l=regq biaid&"
Penaeus indicus ^bkaoSh lsbiaid&
wdydrhg .kakd
u;aiH fYaI - Oreochromis mossambicus ^fudiela ;s,dmshd&"
Oreochromis niloticus ^khs,a ;s,dmshd&
262
2nd
Catla catta ^le,d&

Labeo rohita ^frdayq&
Cirrhinus mrigala ^.d,a&
nyq, c,c Ydl - Cabomba , Ceratophyllum, Vallisnaria, Aponogeton
(fllh) Hydrilla, Pistia (oshmr~e,a)
ndysr ,laIK Nd; lrka fuu u;aiH" biaika yd Ydl fYaI ykd .ekSug
isiqkag yels h hq;= hs'
c, j.d l%u
m%Odk c, j.d l%u - iQlaIu
wO iQlaIu
ia;D;
nyd >k;ajh" w;sfl wdydr iemhSu" c,fha .=Kd;aul Ndjh mj;ajd .ekSu"
wiajekak fk,k l%u" M,odj wdosh mok lr f.k fuu l%u ii|kak'
j.d l< yels u;aiH fYaIj, ys;lr ,laIK .=rejrhd meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
talj.dj" nyqj.dj hkak meyeos,s lrkak' talj.djg jvd nyqj.df we;s jdis o
meyeos,s l< hq;= h' fya;= olajka nyqj.dj i|yd fhdod .ekSug iqiq u;aiH
fYaI ixl,k i|yka l< hq;= h'
Y%S ,xldf biaika j.df mdil n,mE
Y%S ,xldf biaika j.df mdil n,mE meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
iqr;,a u;aiHhska j.dj
nyq,j fhdod .kq ,nk fYaI - .mams" rkaud`M" ldmhka" .=rd" iafjdaf,a" fud,Sia"
ndia ^lshqkaia nd" ,ela rE nd&" takac,a ud`M'
ndysr ,laIK fhdod .kska fuu fYaI ykd .ekSug isiqkag yels h hq;= h'
c,d,hla mj;ajd .ekSu
my; idOl i,ld ne,sh hq;= h'
c,fha fndr;djh
Yd, c,c Ydl ;su
ma,jdx.j, nyq,;dj
c,fha WIaK;ajh
osh jQ O2 m%udKh
,jK;dj
pH
idudkH m;%;dj
isiqka Tjqkaf.a ksjfia fyda mdif,a c,d,hla mj;ajd f.k hdug Wkka l<
hq;= h'
m%fhda.sl mrSlaIKh
c,cS j.df Nd; lrk u;aiHhska biaika yd Ydl fYaI ykd .ekSu'
263
2nd

yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'2 ( m<sfndaO ydksh wju lr .ekSf l%u fhdackd lrhs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 08
bf.kq M, (
fmd,a yd j, m%Odk lD m<sfndaOhka ykd .kshs'
Wjfrys ,laIK ia;r lrhs'
wdidos; fnda. Ydl ykd .kshs'
iqiq uok l%u Nd; lrhs'

dldrl:
lafIa;% pdld - fmd,a mfhaIK wdh;kh
mfhaIK wdh;kh
m<sfndaOhdf.a ndysr ,laIK yd ydksh ms<n
s | wOHhkhg wod< ksoYl yd rEmigyka
Nd; lrkak'
Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl fhdod .kak'

m<sfndaOhd hkq ljfrlaoe hs meyeos,s lrkak' fuys oS wdl ydksodhs ugu yd
wdl foay,sh ugu flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
my; fmd,a m<sfndaOhkaf.aa ndysr rEmSh ,laIK" jk pl%fha wjia:d" ydksfha
iajNdjh" Wjfrys ,laIK" uok l%u meyeos,s l< hq;= hs'
r;= .=,a,d" l`M l=reKshd" fmd,a uhsgdjd'
fmd,a uhsgdjd Âceria guerreronis& ms<sn| my; ia;rh b.ekau i|yd Nd; l<
yels h'
Y%S ,xldf m<uq jrg jd;d jQfha 1997 oS l,amsh m%foaYfhks' j;udkfha osia;%slal
lSmhl me;s we;'
ykd .ekSug fhdod .; yels rEmSh ,laIK
l=vdh' m%udKh 0'1 - 0'2 mm muK f' msh weig meyeos,sj fkdfmfka' os.h'
mKq wdldrh' mdo hq.,a folla orhs' iq meye;s jk w;r" mdrNdIlh ^translucent&'
264
2nd
;a;r" YSY= wjia:d folla yd iqyqUq,a wjia:dj jk pl%hg wh;a f' .eyekq
i;d ;a;r 30 - 50 muK m%udKhla ouhs' ;a;r os,sfik" iq meye;s" f.da,Sh
yevh iys; tajdh' osk ;=klska muK ;a;r |S m%d.aYsY=jka msgf' B<`.
wjia:dj jk YsY=jka yejye,Sfuka iqyqUq,ka njg m;af'
;a;r isg iqyqUq,d njg m;aug osk 7-10 la muK .; f'
m%d.aYsY=jka " YsY=jka yd iqyqUq,ka hk wjia:d ish,a,u ydks lr;s'
uhsgdjkaf.a jHdma;sh uQ,sl jYfhka iq<`.ska isf'
ydksfhys iajNdjh yd Wjfrys ,laIK
frda. ,laIK M, u; ^kEu wjhl& kslaIKh l< yels h'
udi 3 - 7 muK jk M,j, nyq,j me;sr we;'
mmqIam fldgia hg fmdl=re f,i j;a jk w;r hqI Wrd fndhs' tu ksid
M,j,g ydks f'
m<uqj lymdgg yqre iqmdg" ;%sfldaKdldr me,a, oelsh yels w;r ^mmqIam
fldgia hg& miqj tajd Yd, Uqre meyef'
f,,af,a u;=msg ia;r h<s .e, hhs
M,fha likhg ndOd we;s u ksid M, m%udKfhka l=vd f' M, jeu yd
M,j, yevh widudkH ula isf' M,j,g wl ydkshla fuka M, u;
fkd.eUqre msmsula êrruptions& we;s f'
uok l%u
id:l yd os.= ld,Sk uok l%u ;ju fidhd f.k ke;' tneka ydksh wju
lsug;a" uhsgdjdf.a me;su md,kh lsug;a mshjr f.k we;'
wdidos; M, lvd mq`Miaid oeu
iqiq ridhksl l%u Nd;h - jhi udi 2 - 6 muK jk <m fmd,a j u;
fl,ska u oef;,a ^burnt engine oil & fhoSu' fuu`.ska M, u; isk uhsgdjka h
hhs'
fmd,a uhsgdjd nyq,ju jHdma; jkafka iq<`.k
s a fyda wdidos; <m M, yd fmd,af,,s
m%jdykh u`.sks' wiajekak fk,Sf oS iuyr uhsgdjka fmd,a M, u; isug
mq`Mjk' tneka M, fk miq tajd udihla muK ;nd m%jdykh l< hq;= h' ka
fjk;a m%foaYj,g frda.h me;s hdu wju f'
j, my; m<sfndaOhkaf.a iqyqUq,df.a ndysr rEmSh ,laIK" jk pl%fha wjia:d"
ydksfha iajNdjh" Wjfrys ,laIK yd uok l%u meyeos,s l< hq;= h'
Uqre me< lSvEjd f.dh ueiaid ly mqrela mKqjd
uok l%u
idm%odhsl l%u ridhksl l%u ffcj oHd;aul l%u
ifudaOdks; m<sfndaO md,kh
m%fhda.sl mrSlaIKh
YS% ,xldf iq,n f.dh yd fmd,a lD m<sfndaOhka wOHhkh lsu'
265
2nd

yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'3 ( mrfmdaIs;hkaf.ka isoqjk ydksh wju lr .ekSug j oHd;aul

oekqu yd wjfndaOh fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 06
bf.kq M, (
uef,ahd mrfmdaIs;hd" nrjd mrfmdaIs;hd iy fldl= mkqjdf.a wdidol wjia:d
ykd .kshs' Tjqkaf.a jk pl%h ia;r lrhs'
fuu mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a ifm%aIK l%u" wdidokfha ,laIK iy uok l%u ia;r
lrhs'

dldrl:
by; mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a jk jl%fha wjia:dj, mska;+r" PdhdrEm isiqkag iemhSu'
fuu mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a uok l%u ms<sn|j bosm;a lsulg isiqkag bv ie,iSu'
Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl Nd;fhka Ih lreKq wdjrKh lsug ia;drKhl fhfokak'

iqiq rEmigyka wdOdrfhka mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a iqyqUq,a wjia:dj, ndysr rEmldrh"
jk pl%h yd ifm%aIK l%u ia;r lrkak'
- uef,ahd mrfmdaIs;hd
- nrjd mrfmdaIs;hd
- fldl= mKqjd
jk pl%h ms<sn| j oHd;aul oekqu Nd;fhka mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a uok l%u

idlPd lrkak'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
YS% ,xldf isk uef,ahd mrfmdaIs;hd" nrjd mrfmdaIs;hd yd fldl= mKqjd hk
mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a frda. we;su yd jHdma;sh ms<sn| o;a; wOHhkh yd tu
mrfmdaIs;hkaf.a jk l%j, wj kslaIKh lsu'
266
2nd
ksmqK;dj 14'1'0 ( ;fha .=Kd;aul nj je oshqKq lr .ekSug j oHd;aul

ixl,am yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'4 ( j,ame<Ej,ska we;s h yels ydks wju lr .ekSug j oHd;aul
oekqu yd wjfndaOh fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
bf.kq M, (
Tyq$wehf.a mirfha ;sfnk nyq, j,ame<E ykd .kshs'
j,ame<E hkq fudkjdoehs meyeos,s lrhs'
j,ame<Ej, ,dlaIKsl ,laIK ia;drKh lrhs'
j,ame<E md,k l%u i|yd miq jk uQ,Ou ia;r lrhs'
O j,ame<E uok l%uj, jdis iy wjdis idlPd lrhs'

dldrl:
j,ame<Ej," ksoYl" mska;+r" PdhdrEm yd fj im;a isiqkag imhkak'
j,ame<E ykd .ekSug wi, we;s t<j`M j.djla" l=Uqrla fyda j;=hdhla jeks
ia:dkhlg hdug flaI;% pdldjla iQodk lrkak'
j,ame<Ej, ksoYl tl;= lsug isiqkag mjikak'
j,ame<E ykd .ekSu i|yd isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'
my; f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqkag mjikak'
- j,ame<E md,k l%u
- j,ame<Ej, .;s ,laIK
bosm;a lsula i|yd isiqkag bv i,ikak'
Ih wka;.;h wdjrKh lsug ia;drKhl fhfokak'

j,a m e<E
kqiqiq ia:dkhl jefvk me<Ehla" j,ame<Ehla f,i ye|skaf'
udkj l%shdld;ajhg ndOd jk mos ;r`.ld" fkdkeiS mj;sk^persistent&"
kdYld ^pernicious& jk iy tys m%;sM,hla f,i kqiqiq jk me<Ehls'
fuu me<E foaYSh fyda foaYSh h yels h'
fmdaIl" c,h" wdf,dalh yd wjldYh i|yd fnda. Ydl iu`. j,ame<E ;r`. lrhs'
fnda. yd j,ame<E w;r ;r`.h wiajekakg n,mdhs' ,nd.;a M,odf .=Kd;aul
Ndjh o wvq f'
j,ame<Ej, .;s ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak'
267
2nd
c,h" wdf,dalh" CO2 fmdaIl wdos im;a ldhlaIuj Nd;h'

jOl fldgiaj, m%n, jOkh Wod ( Cyperus, Salvinia, Eichhornia-Odjl
c ksmojk wjia:djg blaukska mK; u' Wod ( Parthenium, Eupatorium,
j.df j,ame< fndfyduhla
c ksmou nyq,u Wod ( Lantana, Eupatorium, Parthenium.
wys;lr ;;a;aj hgf;a c ksmof yelshdj Wod( Eupatorium, Parthenium.
je,k cj, os.= ld,Sk meje;au' Wod ( Eupatorium
ldhlaIu c jHdma;sh Wod( Lantana, Eupatorium, Cyperus iria, Vernonia
c m%frdayK f.h wlu' Wod ( Lantana, Eupatorium, Ageratum,Parthenium.
we,sf,dams;;dj îuyr tajdfha& - I ksmojka wfkla Ydl jOkh j<lajd
;r`.ld;ajh bj;a lsug we;s yelshdj' Wod ( Cyperus rotundus ^l<dre&
^fuu j,a me<Ej,g Nd; flfrk idudkH ku o yels iEu wjia:djl oS u
i|yka lrkak'&
j,ame<E md,kh
wdl n,mEu wju lsu i|yd j,ame<E uokh
j,ame<E md,khg my; foa oek .; hq;= hs'
j,ame<Eh ms<sn| f;dr;=re
j.SlrK oHdj iy ffcj N+f.da, oHdj
me;sf rgdj yd f.h
n,mE ms<sn| ;lafiarej
mdil f;dr;=re
md,kh ms<sn| f;dr;=re
j,ame<E md,k l%u ldKav y;rlg j. l< yels h' iEu l%uhla u idlPd
lr tla tla l%ufha jdis yd wjdis i|yka l< hq;= h'
fN!;sl md,k l%u

j,ame<E fN!;slj bj;a lsu fyda kdY lsu' l=Uqf fyda t<j`M md;a;sj,
j,ame<E w;ska Wrd bj;a lsu' Yd, m%foaYj, hka;% yd WmlrK Nd; l< yels
h'
jdis
os.= ld,hlg j,ame<E imQKfhka bj;a f'
fnda. ydksh wvq h'
jD;a;suh olaI;d wjYH ke;'
wjdis
ld,h .;f'
Y%uh wlj jehf'
N+.; l|ka iys; Ydlj,g fuh id:l fkdu
ridhksl md,k l%u
268
2nd
j,ame<Ej, jOkh ksfIaOkh lrk fyda j,ame<E kdY lsf yelshdj we;s
ridhksl jH jk j,ame<E kdYl fhoSu
jdis
ldhlaIu l%uhls'
idOdrK hou
wjdis
j,ame<E me;su je<elaug lSmjrla fhoSug is u
YsIag fkdjk j,ame<E kdYl fnda.hg o ydks l< yels h'
mi yd c,h IKh f'
ffcj oHd;aul md,k l%u
j,ame<E .ykh wvq lsug iajNdl i;=rka Nd;h
jdis
os.= l,lg md,kh f'
mir ys;ld h'
wjdis
Odrl YsIag jk fhl= f;dard .ekSug isf'
hou wlh'
iqiq hl= f;dard .ekSug os.= l,la .;f'
im%odhsl l%u
j.d l%ufohka iy mir oHd;aul l<ukdlrK l%u
Wod ( fnda. jeug iqiq ld,
fnda. j.d lrk l%u
fnda. >k;ajh
;r.ld fnda. j.d l%ufohka
fnda. udrej
c ;jdk l,a .;ug ie,eiau
fnda.h$j,ame<Efha mirh fjkia lsu
jdis
mir ys;ld h'
jdis
ld,h .;f'
m%dfhda.sl mlaIK (
f;dard.;a m%foaYhl O j,a me,E lSmhla ykd .ekSu yd rEmSh fYaI wkqj fjka
lsu'
269
2nd

yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'5 ( laIq ka ms<sn| j oHd;aul oekqu yd wjfndaOh Nd;fhka

laIq kaf.ka Ydlj,g isjk ydksh wju lr .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 02
bf.kq M, (
laIqka u`.ska Ydlj,g we;s lrk frda. ,ehsia;=.; lrhs'
tu frda. je<elaf l%u ia;r lrhs'
laIqkaf.ka isjk ydksh wju lsug j oHd;aul oekqu yd wjfndaOh Nd;
lrhs'

dldrl:
ue,u" msmqia" l=Kqu" ;%h iy wx.udrh wdosfhka n,mE we;s jQ Ydlj,
mska;+r isiqkag imhkak'
my; f;dr;=re /ia lsug isiqkag mjikak'
frda.ldrl ka
frda. ,laIK
je<elau
md,k l%u
bosm;a lsulg isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'

laIqkaf.ka we;s jk frda.
ue,
Ydlh ;=< idudkH c, .ukg ndOdfuka ^Y=k;dj ke;sfuka& we;s f'
ue,f ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak'
nelahd$os,Sr u`.ska we;sf'
nelahd ue,u - fld<j, Pseudomonas solanacearum u`.ska
os,Sr ue,u - ;lald,s j, Fusarium fYaI u`.ska
msmqia
os,Srj,ska we;s f'
Wod( rnj, msmqia Oidium heavea u`.ska
270
2nd
msmqia hkq m;%$l| u; jQ ;=jd, u; cdKqOdksOr ksid f;;ukh iys; ;;a;aj

hgf;a we;s jk iq fyda w`M mdg msmSuls'
fmd frda.,laIK i|yka lrkak'
l=Kq
nelahd u`.ska we;s f'
Erwinia carotovora k nelahdj Ydlj, mgl wdl%uKh lr" uD l=Kqu
we;s lrhs'
fmd frda. ,laIK i|yka lrkak'
;%h
jhsri u`.ska we;s f'
m;%j, ,dlaIKsl jQ lymdgg yqre me,a, yd jK jQ bosuqKq ,m we;su iy
fklafrdaiSh' iuyrg u,aj, o oelsh yels h'
Wod( msms[a[d" fld<" .ia,nq" flfi,a
wx.udrh
nelahd$os,Sr u`.ska we;sf'
j, m;% wx.udrh - Xanthomonas oryzae ^nelahd& u`.ska
frda. ,laIK meyeos,s lrkak'
j, fldmq wx.udrh - Rhizoctonia ôs,Srh& u`.ska
w;dm,aj, mYau wx.udrh - Phytophthora infestans ôs,Srh&
Ydlj,g laIqkaf.ka we;s jk frda. je<elau
ksfrdaOdhk ms<sfj;a" Ydl fyda Ydl jH ykajd oSu ;yk lsu u`.ska Ydl
frda. rg ;=<g we;=`Mu je<elau
fnod yeug fmr Ydl jH mlaIdjg ,la lsu
me< lsug m%:u jHdcklhka bj;a lsu
iqiq WodyrK iu`. meyeos,s lrkak'
laIqkaf.ka we;s jk Ydl frda. uok l%u
l%u flfhka meyeos,s lrkak'
uQ,slj l%u folls'
1' imQKfhka bj;a lsu'
2' frda.j,g m%;sfrda m%fNao wNsckkh lr .ekSu
imQKfhka bj;a lsu - jHdcklhd ;yjqre we;s g my; mshjr uokh
i|yd fhdod .; yels f'
1' frda.S Ydl bj;a lsu
2' fnda. udrej" lmamd lsu" iS iEu wdoS im%odhsl l%u u`.ska bj;a lsu
3' m%;sjl" os,Sr kdYl wdosh u`.ska jHdcklhka kdY lsu
frda.j,g m%;sfrda m%fNao wNsckkh lr .ekSu'
271
2nd

yd uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 14'1'6 ( j oHdj inkaOj kjH ;dlaIKj, Nd; ms<sn| oekqu
hdj;ald,Sk lr .kshs'
ld,fo ixLHdj ( 04
bf.kq M, (
j oHdf oS kefkda;dlaIKfha fhoS i|yka lrhs'
uQ,sl ffi, hkq fudkjdoe hs i|yka lr tajdfha m%Nj ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
udkj f.fkdau jHdmD;sfha fhoS yd m%;sM, i|yka lrhs'
uQ,sl ffi, ls;aidf yd jdis yd NjH m%fhdack i|yka lrhs'

dldrl:
my; f;dr;=re /ia lsrSug isiqkag mjikak'
kefkda;dlaIKh
udkj f.fkdau jHdmD;sh
uQ,sl ffi, ls;aidj
bosm;a lsulg u`. fmkajkak'

uQ,sl ffi, ls;aidj ^stem cell therapy &
uQ,sl ffi, hkq fNaokh fkdjQ ffi, jk w;r tajdg wkQkk Ndckh u`.ska
kej; w`M;a h yels h' ;jo tajdg O j.j, mgl njg fNaokh f
yelshdj we;' uQ,sl ffi, j. folls' ^l,, yd mK;& l,, uQ,sl ffi, ,nd
.kafka ,diagfldaIaGfha we;=`M ffi, ialkaOfhks'
mK; uQ,sl ffi, fndfyda mglj, we;s w;r tajdg kj ffi, ksmojd ydks
mQrKh l< yels h'
Wod( rerh" weg`M" fmlksje,
frdams; udOHj, kd,ia;slj oeka uQ,sl ffi, frdamKh l< yels w;r l,, fyda
mK; kag we;=`M lr mgl mqkckkh l< yels h'
udkj l,,j,ska uQ,sl ffi, ,nd .ekSf oS iodpdrd;aul Ndjh ms<sn|j o
ie,ls,a,la we;' fuu ffi, Odrlfhl=g$Odrl l,,hlg we;=`M l< g ta wjg
we;s ffi, iu`. wka;l%shdj wkqj tajdfha jer likh ksKh f'
272
2nd
fhoS
.j wNsckkfha oS fndfyda laf,dak ksmou ^multiple clones&
ydks jQ yD;afmaYs" ydks jQ iqIqkd kshqfrdak w`M;ajehd lsu" mdlskaikaia
frda.hg m%;sldr lsf " hkaf.a oshjehdjg m%;sldr lsf oS
rer uQ,sl ffi, ms<sld frda.Skaf.a weg`M kej; imQK lr .ekSug
fhdod .ekSu
jdis
ydks jQ fyda ke;s jQ udkj mgl kej; ,ndoSf oS yd cdk ls;aidf oS uQ,sl
ffi, fhdod .ekSug yelshdjla we;'
udkj f.fkdau jHdmD;sh ms<sn| ye|skau'

udkj f.fkdaufha imQK kshl
q ,
a f
s hdghsv wkqm<
s f
s j< ksKh lsu iy ishu
cdk is;sh lsug ;sfnk cd;Hka;r jHdmD;shls' ms<sld" oshjehdj wdos
fndfyda m%fKsl frda.j,g m%;sldr lsug yd tu frda. ykd .ekSug ka Wo
,nd .; yels h'
fuu jHdmD;sh 1990 oS uq,ska u msysg jQfha oHd{hka lKavdhula cd;Hka;r
udkj f.fkdau wkqms<sfj< ms<sn| ikaOdkh idod.;a wjia:df oS h' fuu fmd
uqo,a iemhQ W;aidyfha wruqK jQfha udkj f.fkdaufha wkqms<sfj< oek .ekSug
laf,dakfhka la,dakh m%fYhla Nd; lsuhs'
2004 oS o;a; wkqm<
s f
s j, m%ldYhg m;a h' bhqfl%duel êuchromatic& wkqm<
s f
s j<ska
99]la fuu wkqms<sfj<g oeka we;=,;a lr we;' ^fuu w.h fmr oS 95]ls'& NIau
100"000 lg 1la f,i" tys fodaI YS>%;djla êrror rate& we;'
jeo.;alu
imQK f.fkdaufha ^fygfrdfl%dueka we;=<;aj& mfhaIK boshg f.k
hd yels h'
cdk inkaO m%fKsl wdndO ykd.; yels h'
m%fKsl wdndO ykd .ekSf fuj, f,i DNA wkqms<sfj< fhdod .;
yels h'
tl cdkhlg jvd je ixLHdjl fodaI ksid we;s jk oshjehdj jeks iuyr
frda. i|yd fhduq h yels h'
fjk;a f.fkdau iu`. iei|S u`.ska f.fkdau mKduh ms<n
s | wfma wjfndaOh
oekgu;a fjkiafjka we;'
fhoS
frda. ykd .ekSu oshqKq u
frda.j,g m%fKsl fmrkeUqrej l,awe;sj wkdjrKh
273
2nd
DNA mok jQ custom drugs ^frda.shdg fYaIs;& ie,iq lsu

cdk ls;aidj iy fT!IO i|yd md,k moaO;s
udkj mKduh iy udkj oHdj ms<sn| wOHhkh
kefkda;dlaIKh
kefkdagr ^ 1nm } 10-9 m& j,ska ukskq ,nk b;d l=vd wxY= Nd; jk l%h
s dj,shls'
l=vd wxY=j,g b;d by< mDIaG mud wkqmd;hla we;s w;r tuksid Yd, wxY=j,g
jvd fjkia fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K we;' ^p f*auka& ^1959& k fN!;sl
oHd{hd f,djg kefkda;dlaIKh myod fok ,oS'
ffjoH oHd flaI;%fha oS frda. ykd .ekSug" je<elau yd m%;sldrh i|yd
kefkda;dlaIKh fhdod .; yels h'
je<elau i|yd
m%;slaIq wdf,am
m%;sjl wdf,amk oshr - nelahd" os,Sr jeks ydkslr laIqkag reoaOj
l%shd lrhs'
Y,Hd.dr" wdfrda.HYd,d yd Y,H WmlrK jdKqyrKh ^ghsfksh Tlaihs
yd oS fhdod f.k laIqka kdY l< yels w;r Y,H.drj, joHd;aul
oshr mej;Su j<lajd,hs'&
oS kefkda - wdf,amk oshr o laIqka we;=`M u je<elaug Y,Hd.drj,
fhdokq ,ef'
kefkda fmryka - oS" TiO2 fmryka jeks kefkda wxY= fmryka jhsri jeks
laIqka we;=`Mu j<lajhs' ^kso( SARS frda.Ska mlaId lsug fhdod .kshs'&
- SevereAcute Respiratory Syndrome
ykd .ekSu
WmlrKhla fhdod .kska ksjfia oS rer mSvkh" foay WIaK;ajh" kd
uekSu'
m%;l
s drh
fokd kdYl
weu i|yd fT!IO
HIVi|yd jdfc,a ^Viva gel& ^jhsri we;=`Mu je<elah yels h'&
ms<sldj,g m%;sldrh
kefkda frdfndajre fhdod .ksuska ridhksl ls;ail we;=`M lsu'
oshjehdj md,kh - foayhg inka; Wml%uhla ^device& u`.ska wjYH
ld,dka;rj, oS Yrhg wjYH bkaishq,ska m%udKh foayhg ksoyia flf'
^Nanoshells/needles& kefkda ljp$lgq
274
2nd
kefkda ljphla fmda,sfhda jhsrihlg jvd uola Yd, h' fuu ljpj,g
fnfy;a we;=`M lr foayhg tkak;a l< yels h' tg fuu ljp ms<sldldrl
ffi, jgd ldKav.; f' IR Nd;fhka T!IO oshlr ms<sldldrl ffi,
foig ksoyia l< yels h'
j oHd;aul frdfnda
frda.Skag m%;sldr lsf oS gka" fydafudak yd tkaihsu ksmoh yels h'
thg wu;rj tajdg IjH wjfYdaIKh lr f.k tajd Irys; jH njg
yerh yels h'
lD;%su wia
kefkda ixhq; ^nanocomposites& kq wia fjkqjg yd o;a msrug Nd; f'
275
2nd
;lafiarej yd we.hSu
276
mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau

bf.kqu-b.ekau iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%shdj,sfha jeo.;a ixrpl ;=kla nj;a bf.kqfuys
iy b.ekafuys m%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;= nj;a iEu .=rejrhl= iska
u o; hq;= meyeos,s lreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau
tlsfkflys ixjOkh flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixjOkh
flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a .=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ^ksrka;rfhka isjk& we.hS
uq,Ou wkqj we.hSu ish hq;af;a bf.kSu yd b.ekau flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh wdrNfha oS fyda ueo oS fyda w. oS fyda hk kEu wjia:djl
oS ish yels nj f;are .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh
we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl= bf.kqu" b.ekau iy we.hSu ms<sn| ixOdkd;aul
ie,eiaula fhdod.; hq;= fjhs'
mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<sfj, yq Nd. l%uhla fyda mlaIK meje;aula fyda
fkdf' th ykajkq ,nkafka isiqkaf.a bf.kSu;a" .=rejrekaf.a b.ekau;a je oshqKq
lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,nk ueosy;a ula jYfhks' fuh isiqkag mm j iska Tjqkaf.a
m%n,;d iy n,;d ykdf.k tajdg ms<sh fhdoka isiqkaf.a Wmu jOkh <d lr
.ekSug fhdod.; yels jevms<sfj,ls'
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ;=<ska wkdjrK l%shdj,shlg isiqka fhduq flfrk w;r"

.=rejrhd isik
q a w;r .ejfika Tjqka bgqlrk ldh kslaIKh lrka udf.damfoaYl;ajh
imhka lghq;= lsu mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<f s j, l%h
s d;aul lsf oS wfmalI
a d
flf' fuys oS YsIHhd ksr;=re j we.hSug ,lah hq;= w;r" YsIH yelshd ixjOkh
wfmalaIs; wkaoka isjkafka oehs .=rejrhd iska ;yjqre lrkq ,eh hq;= fjhs'
bf.kSu iy b.ekau u.ska ish hq;af;a isiqkag ksis w;aoelS ,nd foka tajd isiqka
iska ksis mos w;am;a lr f.k ;sf oehs ;yjqre lr .ekSu h' ta i|yd ksis udf.damfoaYh
iemhSu h' we.hSf ^;lafiare lsf& fhoS isk .=rejrekag ;u isiqka i|yd fohdldrhl
udf.damfoaYl;ajh ,nd osh yels h' tu udf.damfoaY fmdf ykajkafka m%;sfmdaIKh
^Feedback& yd bos fmdaIKh ^Feed Forward& hkqfjks' isiqkaf.a n,;d yd fkdyelshd
wkdjrKh lr.;a g Tjqkaf.a bf.kq .eg u.yrjd .ekSug m%;sfmdaIKh;a isiq
yelshd iy m%n,;d ykd .;a g tu olaI;d je oshqKq lsug bos fmdaIKh;a ,nd oSu
.=re ldhh fjhs'
bf.kq-b.ekak q l%hs dj,sfhaa id:l;ajh i|yd mdGud,df wruqKq w;frka ljr wruqKq
ljr ugka idlaid;a l< yels jQfha oehs ykd .ekSu isiqkag wjYH fjhs' we.hS
jevms<fs j, Tiafia isikq a <.d lr .;a m%K;d ug ksYp
a h lsu f wkqj .=rejrekaf.ka
n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk w;r isiqka yd foumshka we;= fjk;a wod< mdYjj,g isiq m%.;sh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re ikaksfokh lsug .=rejreka fhduqh hq;= h' f i|yd fhdod.; yels
fyd| u l%uh jkafka ika;;sl j isiqka we.hSug md;% lsug bv m%ia:d i,ik mdi,
mok lr.;a we.hS l%uhhs'
277
hf:dala; wruqK iys; j l%shd lrk .=rejreka iska ;u b.ekakq l%shdj,sh;a isiqkaf.a
bf.kq l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ldhlaIu lsu msKsi jvd fyd| ldhlaIu;dfjka hqla;
bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' f inkaOfhka isiqkag iy
.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fY ms<sn| m%fNao lsysmhla u;= oelafjhs' fjd fndfyda
l,l isg .=rejreka fj; Nd. fomd;fka;=j iska o cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska
o f;dr;=re imdokh lrk ,o l%ufo fjhs' tfyhska tajd inkaOfhka mdi,a moaO;sfha
.=rejreka fyd|ska oekqj;a we;ehs wfmalaId flf' tu m%fNao fufiah(
01' mejre 02' jHdmD;s
03' ilaIK 04' .fIK
05' kslaIK 06' m%oYk$ bosm;a lsu
07' lafIa;% pdld 08' fl ,s; mlaIK
09' jHQy.; rpkd 10' jD; .%ka: mlaIK
11' ksudKd;aul l%shdldrl 12' Y%jK mlaIK
13' m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrl 14' l:kh
15' iaj ksudK 16' lKavdh l%shdldrl
17' ixl,am is;shu 18' oa;aj ck,
19' ;a;s mqj;am;a 20' m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyka
21' m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a 22' jdo
23' idlPd uKav, 24' iuka;K %
25' laIKsl l:d 26' N+ld rx.k
ykajd oS we;s fuu bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u iEu tllau iEu Ihhla
inkaOfhka ieu Ihh tallhgu fhdod .; hq;= hehs wfmalaId fkdflfrhs' ;u
Ihhg" Ih tallhg .e<fmk m%fNaohla f;dard .ekSug .=rejreka oekqj;a h hq;=h; j.
n,d .; hq;= h'
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yj, .=rejrekag ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu
i|yd fhdod .; yels bf.kq-b.ekakq yd we.hS m%fNao ms<sn| i|ykla ;sf' tajd
.=rejreka iska iqiq mos ;u mka;sfha isiqkaf.a m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu msKsi fhdod .;
hq;= fjhs' tajd Nd; fkdfldg u. yeu isiqkag ;u Ydia;%sh yelshd fuka u wdfoksl
.;s ,laIK;a ufkdapd,l olaI;d;a ms<sn| jOkhla <.d lr .ekSu;a m%oYkh lsu;a
ms<sn| wvqmdvq we;s lrjhs'
278
bf.kq b.eka ls%hdj,sh > lsu
jdrh 1
we.hS ie,iqu 1
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - WmlrKh 01

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 1'1'3
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jd;dj
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ffoksl .eg`M i|Su i|yd oHd;aul l%uh

Nd; lrhs'
isiqkaf.a kslaIK l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( iqiq .eg`Mjla f;dard .ekSug isiqka

fufyhjkak'
oHd;aul l%uh Nd; lr .eg`M i|Sug u`.
fmkajkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 2

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idys;H uYkh
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ms<s.; yels m%Njj,ska f;dr;=re tla/ia lrhs'

wkalaISh Ys,am l%u ms<sn| isiqkaf.a oekqu
hdj;ald,Sk lr .ekSug os .kajhs'
f;dr;=re bosm;a lsug u;a l%u Nd;
lrhs'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( wkalaISh Ys,am l%u ms<sn| ms<s.; yels
f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug iqiq uQ,dY% fj; isiqka
fhduq lrjkak'
f;dr;=re bosm;a lsu i|yd Nd; l< yels
u;a l%u i|yd isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 3

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl mlaId
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( isiqkaf.a m%dfhda.sl l=i,;d by< kexu

;ud iska u mfhaIKd;aul l%ufo ie,iq
lsu
279
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( isiqka fj; iqiq wdydr im, imhka
Tlaisydrl iSks" ksTlaisydrl iSks" msIagh"
fm%dak yd ,smsv we;s$ke;s nj fiug fhduq
lrkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 4

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 2'2'3" 2'2'4
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( ldh idOk f.dkqjla ms<sfh< lsu'
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( o;a; tl;= lr ilid u;a wdldrhlg

.nvd lsf l%u ms<sn| oekqj;a f'
f;dr;=re bosm;a lsf l=i,;d jOkh lr
.ksh's
ffi, yd mgl ms<sn| jer wOHhkhg
osu;a f'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( O uQ,dY% imhka wod< f;dr;=re

;ldkql+, yd u;a wdldrhlg f.dkq
lsug isiqka fufyhjkak'
ffi, yd mgl ms<sn| jer wOHhkhlg
fhduq lrjkak'
we.hS ie,iqu 5

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 2'2'1" 2'2'2" 2'2'3" 2'4'3
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idlPd uKavmh
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( kaf.a Yla;s inkaO;d ms<sn|j .fIKh

i|yd isiqka os .kajhs'
idlPd u`.ska oekqu fnod .ekSf yelshdj
je oshqKq lrhs'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( iajNdjfha mj;sk Yla;s inkaO;d ms<sn|

fidhd ne,Sug iqiq uQ,dY%j,g isiqka fhduq
lrkak'
tu Yla;s inkaO;d Odldr ksrEmk Ys,am
l%u Nd; lsfuka bosm;a lsug u`.
fmkajkak'
280
jdrh 2
we.hS ie,iqu 1

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 3'1'6" 3'1'7" 3'1'8
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( lafIa;% igyka fmd;
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ka ykd .ekSu i|yd ndysr ,laIK Nd;

lrhs'
oHd;aul j rEm igyka weiqfrka f;dr;=re
ikaksfok lsf l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
kaf.a ndysr ,dlaIKsl .; ,laIK
weiqfrka Tjqka j. lrhs'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( flaj, fyda iuQy jYfhka isiqka ,jd
f;dr;=re tla /ia lrjkak'
fuu l%shdldrlu i|yd lafIa;% jd;d
ixOdkh lsu o jeo.;a f'
we.hS ie,iqu 2

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl mlaId ^Spot Test&
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( weksud,shd rdcOdksfha kaf.a O;ajh

ms<sn|j jer fidhd ne,Sug os .kajhs'
ndysr ,laIK Nd; lr ka ykd .ekSf
l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( mka;sfha we;s isiqka ixLHdjg wod<j m%Yak
ms<sfh, lrkak'
ish m%Yak i|yd wod< ksoYl iys; fi
ms<sfh, lrkak'
jrlg tla isiqjd ne.ska wod< ia:dkj,
/f|ka tla tla m%Yakhg ks;a;= tlla ;=< oS
ms<s;=re iemhSug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
ish u isiqka iEu m%Yakhlg u ms<s;=re we;s
njg j.n,d .kak'
281
we.hS ie,iqu 3

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( mejreu
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ksudKYS,S l=i,;d jOkh lsu

tla tla moaO;sfha l%shdld;ajh ms<sn|
bf.kSug Wkkaj je lsu
iyfhda.Sj lghq;= lsu i|yd isiqka os
.ekau
we.hS ie,iqu 4

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 6'1'1" 6'1'2" 6'1'3" 6'1'4" 6'1'5" 6'1'7
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%oYkh
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ksudKYS,S l=i,;d ixjOkh lsu

kslaIK yd Yaf,aIK l=i,;d jeoshqKq
lsu
iyfhda.Sj lghq;= lsu ms<sn|j os .ekau
bosm;a lsf l=i,;d jOkh lsu
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( wod< Ih lafIa;%j,ska iqiq f;aud f;dard

.ekSug isiqka fufyhjkak'
tu f;audj,g wod<j O m%oYk NdKav
fyda mqjre fyda wegejq fyda ilia lsug
isiqka u`. fmkajkak'
iqiq oskhl oS m%oYkh meje;aug wjYH
lghq;= imdokh lr fokak'
282
we.hS ie,iqu 5

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( laIKsl l:d
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( wod< ssIh ikaOdrh ms<sn|j we;s iQodku

mrSlaId lsrSu
woyia b;d u ksYa;j yd f;audjg wod<j
bosm;a lsf yelshd ixjOkh lsu
5'0 l%shd;aul lsug Wmfoia ( wdjrKh flfrk Ih ikaOdrh hgf;a

f;aud .Kkdjla ms<sfh< lr.kak'
tla tla f;audj fjk fjku lvodis ;Srej,
,shd frda,a lrkak'
fuu lvodis ish,a, fmhl oud wyUq f,i
f;dard.;a isiqfjl=g tu fmfhka f;audjla
f;dard f.k laIKsl l;djla meje;aug
Wmfoia fokak'
jdrh 3
we.hS ie,iqu 1

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 7'1'4" 7'1'5" 7'1'6" 7'1'7" 7'1'8" 7'1'9
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyk
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( f;dard.;a Ih ikaOdrh ms<sn| oekqu w.hhs'

fok ,o .eg`Mjlg ksh; wdldrhg jdl
ms<s;=rla f.dv kexug yelshdj je oshqKq
lrhs'
283
we.hS ie,iqu 2

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( lKavdh iuka;%K
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( wdydr rK moaO;sh" Yajik moaO;sh"

nysiai%d moaO;sh yd iels,s moaO;sh wdY%s;
wdndO ms<sn| iudch fj; f;dr;=re
ifm%aIKh lsug isiqka ;=< Wkkajla we;s
lsu'
tu wdndOj,ska je,lS isug wjYH wdl,am
f.dvke`.Su'
Y%jH oDIH wdOdr ksis f,i Nd; lsf
l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
we.hS ie,iqu 3

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jD; .%ka:
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( wka;rdi. .%ka ms<sn| f;dr;=re fiug

isiqka Wkka lrhs'
iqiq uQ,dY% u`.ska f;dr;=re Wmqgd .ekSf
yelshdj je oshqKq lrhs'
284
we.hS ie,iqu 4

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( ;=kajk jdrh i|yd wod< ksmqK;d ug
ish,a,'
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( fl m%Yak yd jHqy.; rpkd m%Yak
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( iuia;sh" iudfhdackh" nysiai%djh"

ikaOdrKh yd p,kh inkaO oekqu
we.hSug ,la lrhs'
fok ,o m%Yakhlg ksh; ,s; ms<s;=rla
f.dvke`.Sf yelshdj jOkh lrhs'
we.hS ie,iqu 5

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%oYkh
4'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( ixfok wjhj$jHqy ms<sn| .fIKh lsug

isiqka Wkka lrhs'
wdlD;s ;ekSu i|yd O jH myrKh
ms<sn| l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
bosm;a lsf l=i,;d jOkh lrhs'
ksudKd;aul ka;kh i|yd isiqka
fmd<Ujhs'
285
13 fYa%Ksh - jdrh 1
we.hS ie,iqu 1
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1 - we.hS WmlrKh 1

3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyk
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' f;dard .kakd ,o Ih ikaOdrfha
oekqu we.hSu
2' fok ,o .eg`Mjlg jvd W; jdl
ms<s;=r f.dvke`.Sf yelshdj je
jOkh lsu
we.hS ie,iqu 2

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 10'1'5" 10'1'6" 10'17"
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( iuka;%Kh ^lKavdh&
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' m%ckl fi!LH ms<sn| f;dr;=re
jHdma; lsug isik q a wNsfm%r
a Kh lsu
2' ixl=,;d u`.yer .ekSu ms<sn| l%u
Wmdh yd wod< wdl,am m%.=k lru
3' Y%jH oDYH wdOdrl ksjerosj Nd;h
i|yd l=i,;d jOkh lsu
4' u;a l%u Nd;fhka bosm;a ls
i|yd isiqka fhduq lsu
we.hS ie,iqu 3

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 10'1'8" 10'1'9" 10'1'10" 10'1'11" 10'1'12
3'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( jD; .%ka: mlaIKh
4'0 wruqKq ( 1' Ydl m%ckkh ms<sn| f;dr;=re /ia
lsug isiqka wNsfm%arKh lsu
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Umbilical Blood Vessels
Chorion

Amnion
Yolk Sac
Villus of Chorion frondosum

Allantois
Maternal Blood Vessels

The extra embryonic membrances
Hormonal interactions between the tests and anterior pituitary. LH

stimulates the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone and FSH stimulates the
Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules to secrete inhibin. Testesterone and
inhibin. in turn , exert negative feedback inhibition on the secretion of LH and
FSH respectively.

Chorion
Amnion
Umbilical cord
Chorionic
Frondosum
(fetal) Placent
decidus a
basalis
Matern Matern Uterine (maternal)
al al wall

Structure

of Placenta

Alveoli of milk gland
duct
Sinuses
Openings of ducts on nipple

Pigmented area (areola)
Supporting tissue
Adipose tissue
The human female breast showing the milk glands where milk is secreted and the ducts
and sinuses carrying milk to the nipple

Diagram of a section of an ovary showing the stages of

development of one ovarian follicle

^

Membranous
Capsomere
envelope
Sheath
Tail fiber
Capsid
Capsomere of Glycoprotein Glycoprotein
capsid
a) T-even
d) Tobacco c) Adeno virus b) Influenza virus bacteriophage
mesaio
virus

^

Representative sources of Antibiotic
MICROOGANISM ANTIBIOTIC
Gram-Positive Rods
Bacillus subtilis Bacitracin
Bacillus polymyxa Polymyxin
Actinomycetes
Streptomyces nodosus Amphotericin B
Streptomyces venezuelae Chloramphenicol
Streptomyces aureofaciens Chlortetracycline
(Aureomycin) and Tetracycline
Streptomyces erythraeus Erythromycin
Streptomyces fradiae Neomycin
Streptomyces noursei Nystatin
Streptomyces griseus Streptomycin
Micromonospora purpurea Gentamicin
Fungi
Cephalosporium Cephalothin
Penicillium griseofulvum Griseofulvin
Penicillium notatum Penicillin

Types of acquired immunity
TYPE OF IMMUNITY HOW ACQUIRED
Naturally acquired active immunity Antigens enter the body naturally; antibodies
and specialized lymphocytes are produced
Naturally acquired passive immunity (placental Fetus or baby receives antibodies from an
and milk transfer) immunized mother
Artificially acquired active immunity Prepared antigens in vaccines are introduced

into susceptible individual, who produces
antibodies and specialized lymphocytes
Artificially acquired passive immunity Immune serum is injected into susceptible

individual, who receives preformed antibodies

Summary of predominant normal flora found according to body site
^ D D
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d ^

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Some protein toxins produced by microorganisms
that cause disease in humans
Microorganism Toxin Disease Action
Clostridium Several Neurotoxins Botulism Paralysis, blocks
botulinum neural transmission
Clostridium -Toxin Gas gangrene Lecithinase
perfringens
-Toxin Collagenase
-Toxin Hemolysin
Clostridium tetani Neurotoxin Tetanus Spastic paralysis

(tetanospasm) interferes with motor
neurons
Tetanolysin
Hemolytic
Cardioxtoxin
Corynebacterium Diphtheria toxin Diphtheria Blocks protein
diphtheriae synthesis at level of
translation
Streptococcus Streptolysin O Scarlet fever Hemolysin
pyogenes
Streptolysin S Hemolysin
Erythrogenic Causes rash of scarlet
fever
Shigella dysenteriae Neurotoxin Bacterial dysentery Hemorrhage, paralysis
Staphylococcus Enterotoxin Food poisoning Intestinal
aureus inflammation
Aspergillus flavus Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxicosis Blocks protein

synthesis at level of
transcription
Amanita phalloides -Amanitin Mushroom food Blocks protein
poisoning synthesis at level of
transcription

Causative Agents for Some Common Diseases, by Portal of Entry
PORTAL CAUSAINE AGENT DISEASE INCUBATION PERIOD
OF ENTRY

Respiratory
tract
Gastro
intestinal
tract
Genitourinary
tract

Skin or

parenteral
route
All causative agents are bacteria, unless indicated otherwise. For viruses, only the viral group is given, except where the virus
has a name different from the disease it causes. ** These pathogens can also cause disease after entering the body via the
gastrointestinal tract.

Diseases caused by Exotoxins
DISEASE BACTERIUM MECHANISM
Botulism Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxin prevents transmission

of nerve impulses flaccid
paralysis results
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Neurotoxin blocks nerve impulse

that permits relaxation of one
skeletal muscle while the
opposing muscle is contracting
Gas gangrene and food poisoning Clostridium perfringens and One exotoxin (cytotexin) causes
other species of Clostridium massive red blood cell
destruction (hemolysis); another
exotoxin (enterotoxin) is related
to food and causes diarrhea
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Cytotoxin inhibits protein

synthesis, especially in nerve,
heart and kidney cells
Scalded skin syndrome, food Staphylococcus aureus One exotoxin causes skin layers
poisoning, and toxic shock to separate and slough off (scaled
syndrome skin): another exotoxin
(enterotoxin) produces diarrhea
and vomiting; still another
exotoxin produces symptoms
associated with TSS
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Enterotoxin includes diarrhea
Scarlet lever Streptococcus pyogenes Cytotoxins cause vasodilation

that results in the characterisc
rash
Travelers diarrhea Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Enterotoxin causes excessive

and Shigella spp. secretion of ions and water ;
diarrhea results

Comparison of selected characteristics of bacterial LPS toxins (Endotoxins) and

protein toxins (Exotoxins)
Characteristic LPS Toxin Protein Toxin
Chemical LPS- protein complex Protein

composition
source Cell walls of Gram-negative Gram-negative and Gram-positive
bacteria; released upon death and bacteria; excretion products of growing
autolysis of the bacteria cells or, in some cases, substances
released upon autolysis and death of the
bacteria
Effects on host Nonspecific Generally affects specific tissues
Thermostability Relatively heat-stable (may resist Heat-labile; most are inactivated at 60-
1200C for 1 hour) 800C
Toxoids No Yes
Lethal dose Large Small

Current Industrial Effluent Discharge Quality Standards
General Effluent Tolerance limits for Tolerance limits
standards for effluents discharged for effluents
Parameter Units
discharge to inland to marine coastal discharged on land
surface waters* areas* for irrigation
- 6.0 to 8.5 6.0 to 8.5 5.5 to 9.0
PH Range (at ambient temperature)
0
Temperature of Discharge C 40 45 -
Total suspended solids (TSS) practical doze of Mg/1 **50 ***150 -
a) Total suspended solids m 850 - -
b) Floatable solids m - 3 -
c) Settleable solids m - 850 -
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/1 - - 2100
Chloride (as Cl) mg/1 - - 600
Sulfate (as SO4) mg/1 - - 1000
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) - - - 10 to 15
Residual Sodium Carbonate mol/1 - 2.5
Per cent Sodium - -
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5 day, 200C) mg/1 **30 100 250
Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/1 **250 250 -
Oil and Grease mg/1 10.0 20 10.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/1 50.0 50.0 -
Phenolic Compounds (as phenol) mg/1 1.0 5.0 -
Colour Varies **** **** -
Surfactants mg/1 - - -
Cyanides (as CN) mg/1 0.2 0.2 -
Sulfides (as S) mg/1 2.0 5.0 -
Fluorides (as F) mg/1 2.0 15 -
Total Residual Chlorine mg/1 1.0 1.0 -
Arsenic mg/1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Boron mg/1 - - 2.0
Cadmium, Total mg/1 0.1 2.0 2.0
Chromium, Hexavalent mg/1 - - -
Chromium, Total mg/1 0.1 1.0 1.0
Copper, Total mg/1 3.0 3.0 -
Lead, Total mg/1 0.1 1.0 1.0
Mercury, Total mg/1 0.0005 0.01 0.01
Nickel, Total mg/1 3.0 5.0 -
Selenium, Total mg/1 0.05 0.05 -
Zinc, Total mg/1 5.0 5.0 -
Pesticides - Not detectable - -
Organo-Phosphorous Compounds (as P) mg/1 - 1.0 -
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (as Cl) mg/1 - 0.02 -
Radioactive Materials
a) Alpha emitters C/ml 10-7 10-8 10-9
b) Beta emitters C/ml 10-8 10-7 10-8

Primary sedimentation
tank
Activated
stage
Aeration tank
(figure 27.11)

Steps of typical sewage waste treatment. A particular system would use either activated sludge
aeration tanks or trickling filters, not both, as shown in this figure. The sludge is disposed of in
landfills or agricultural land. Microbial activity occurs aerobically in trickling filters or in activated
sludge aeration tanks and anaerobically in the anaerobic sludge digester.
Trickling filter method of secondary treatment. (a) The sewage is sprayed from the system of
rotating pipes onto a bed of rocks or plastic honeycomb designed to have a maximum surface area and
allow oxygen to penetrate deeply into the bed. Microorganisms grow on the enormous surface area,
forming a microbial slime layer that aerobically metabolizes the organic matter in the sewage tricking
down through the bed. (b) Diagram of a trickling filter system.

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