Procedures of Removing Defective Solid Rivet

Rivet plays a vital role in the aircraft structure. Any defects on the rivets can affect
the structural integrity of the aircraft thus leading to catastrophe damage. The following
procedure explains a basic method of rivet removal.

Always make sure the tools to be used is approved and in good condition. The
procedure for removing defective solid rivet is laid down in the aircraft maintenance manual
(AMM).

Start of by preparing the surface adjacent to the defective rivet. This is to avoid any
surface from damage caused by the defective rivet removal procedure.

Use appropriate tools and personnel protective equipment. Make sure the personnel
carrying out the task is well trained.

Carefully mark the centre of the manufactures solid rivet head with a centre punch.
This is to mark the centre and start for drilling.

Drill the manufactured rivet head with a drill of the same diameter as the rivet
shank. The rivet is drilled to the depth of the manufactured head.

Carefully knock off the drilled rivet head with cape chisel and prise out the rivet head
with a pin punch to fully remove the defective rivet head. Make sure not to damage or
scratch the adjacent surface of the rivet.

With support behind the aircraft sheet metal, punch out the remaining defective
rivet shank with a parallel pin punch of the same diameter as the rivet shank.

Care needs to be taken, during rivet removal, to ensure that the least possible
damage is done to the original hole and its surrounding structure. When removing rivets
from bonded assemblies it is essential not to apply shear loads, which are liable to part the
bond.

Make sure to observe the utmost care should be taken when drilling and punching,
to ensure that the original hole is not enlarged.

All maintenance personnel should bear responsibility to properly detect any damage
on the aircraft skin. An early detection on the structure especially on the rivets can help
prevent catastrophe disaster in the future.
General PrecautionsWorking in and Around Aircraft

Aviation industry is a highly hazardous environment. Any mistake can cause catastrophic
damage to both personnel and equipment. There are several general precautions that all
personnel must observe when working in and around aircraft.

Wear appropriate clothing. Wear suitable footwear to avoid scratching surfaces or

scuffing anti-corrosive treatments. Do not wear footwear with steel tips that could cause
sparks. Ensure that overalls are clean, intact and properly fastened and that the pockets are
sealed to prevent loose objects dropping into the aircraft structure. Do not carry
unnecessary loose objects in pockets. Do not wear jewellery. Do not carry any means of
uncontrolled ignition such as non-safety matches or lighters in or around aircraft. Ensure
you are in the possession of approved ear defenders and are wearing these on the line
when auxiliary power units or main engines are running in the vicinity.

Aircraft must be connected to an effective earth points before fuelling, de-fuelling,

fuel transfer or work on oxygen systems. Reliance on the conducting nose or tail wheels is
not normally considered sufficient in these instances. Other systems work may require that
the aircraft is connected to an effective earth and this will normally be indicated in the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual.

Approved fire extinguishers should be located where they are easily recognized and
easily accessible. Check that you know how to operate them.
Aircraft should be correctly chocked. Appropriate clean covers, blanks and locks are fitted
where necessary.

When operating aircraft systems on the ground, you need to be aware of the effect
this will have on the aircraft and any other systems that may be activated as a result of your
actions.
When operating flight controls, ensure that their movement is not obstructed by ground
equipment and they do not present a hazard to other personnel.

When connecting ground electrical power, hydraulic or pneumatic power to an

aircraft, ensure that the flight deck controls are not set to a position where equipment will
be activated to move unexpectedly and pose a hazard to other personnel or foul ground
equipment.

When disconnecting a component or system, the operation should be carried out in a

controlled manner to avoid dust, grit etc, from entering. Approved, clean blanks or caps
should be used where appropriate.

Replenishment equipment should be kept clean and only used with the fluid that is
dedicated for. All fluid containers should be kept sealed when out of use and contents
should not be used if contamination is suspected or the identity is in doubt.

Take care not to introduce corrosion or fatigue risks by scratching the aircraft paint
finish or scoring the aircraft structure through careless use of tools and equipment.
 Ensure that all work areas are clear of tools, equipment and debris before signing off
work. Do include the surrounding floor areas in your checks.

Fuel and oil spillages must be cleaned up immediately. Many of these fluids present
a fire risk and also create spongy regions if they impregnate the rubber of aircraft tires.

Ester base oils can strip cellulose and acrylic paints, and act as an irritant to human
skin. Contact with these oils is a major cause of dermatitis. Prolonged contact can lead to
more serious long-term health problems. Personnel should make use of barrier cream, wear
protective clothing and wash affected areas on the skin.

The maintenance organization should give training to the personnel in term of safety
at workplace while the staff should always follow all the rules. It is the responsibility of all
personnel and organization to ensure that everyone observe the safety precautions when
working in and around aircraft.
Storage of Compressed Gas Cylinders

Compressed gas cylinder is widely used in aviation industry such as Nitrogen, Oxygen or
Carbon Dioxide. These compressed gas cylinders pose serious hazards and potential for
simultaneous exposure to both mechanical and chemical hazards to the personnel and
equipment around them. Proper procedure to handle and store compressed gas cylinder
must be observed at all times.

Gas cylinders must be secured at all times to prevent tipping. Cylinders may be
attached individually to the wall, placed in a holding cage, or have a non-tip base attached.
Chains or sturdy straps may be used to secure them.

Compressed gas cylinders should be fitted with transportation caps over their stop
valves and be stored in unheated, well-ventilated buildings and not exposed to direct
sunlight. Cylinders containing flammable gases such as hydrogen or acetylene must not be
stored in close proximity to open flames, areas where electrical sparks are generated, or
where other sources of ignition may be present.

Oxygen cylinders, full or empty, shall not be stored in the same vicinity as flammable
gases. The proper storage for oxygen cylinders requires that a minimum of 20 feet be
maintained between flammable gas cylinders and oxygen cylinders, or the storage areas be
separated at a minimum, by a fire wall five feet high with minimum fire rating of 1/2hour.
Greasy and oily materials shall never be stored around oxygen; nor should oil or grease be
applied to fittings. Aviation breathing oxygen and welding oxygen cylinders should be
segregated.

Cylinders should not be placed on damp ground or exposed to any corrosive

substances or conditions. Acetylene cylinders should always be stored in an upright position.
Cylinders with rounded bottoms may be stacked horizontally but no more than four
cylinders high and they should be wedged to prevent movement.

Refer to Civil Aviation Procedure CAP 562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and
Procedures (CAAIP) Leaflet 1-8 Storage of compressed gas cylinder
CAP 562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures (CAAIP)
Leaflet 1-8 Storage of compressed gas cylinder

Stores which are used for storage of compressed gas cylinders should be well
ventilated. The cylinders should not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun and no covering
should be used which is in direct contact with the cylinders.

Cylinders should not be laid on damp ground or exposed to any conditions liable to
cause corrosion.

Gas storage cylinders should normally be fitted with a transportation/storage cap

over the shut-off valve to help prevent handling damage and contamination of parts which
could cause a risk of explosion or fire.

Portable gas cylinders (e.g. therapeutic oxygen, fire extinguishers) should be stored
on racks and, where appropriate, control heads and gauges should be protected against
impact.

No heating is required in stores where compressed gas cylinders are kept, unless
specified by the manufacturer.

Lighting for stores containing combustible gas cylinders (i.e. acetylene) should be
flameproof, or installed outside the building, lighting the interior through fixed windows.

Store rooms should be manufactured of fireproof materials and the cylinders so

placed to be easily removable in the event of fire. The store should be at a distance from
corrosive influences, e.g. battery charging rooms.

Full and empty cylinders should be stored in separate rooms, and appropriate
notices displayed to prevent confusion.

Oxygen and combustible gases such as acetylene should not be stored together.
Acetylene cylinders should be stored in the upright position.

Oxygen cylinders are generally rounded at the bottom, thereby making it unsafe to
store in an upright position without suitable support. If cylinders are stacked horizontally
special wedges should be used to prevent the cylinders rolling, and the stack of cylinders
should not be more than four high.

Breathing oxygen and welding oxygen should be segregated and properly labelled to
avoid confusion. In some cases welding oxygen may be used for testing oxygen components
not installed in the aircraft, but welding oxygen should not be used in aircraft oxygen
systems.
 If cylinders are exposed to heat, the gas pressure will increase and the cylinder walls
may be weakened, causing a dangerous condition. Cylinders should be stored at some
distance from sources of heat such as furnaces, stoves, boilers, radiators, etc.

Oil or grease will ignite in the presence of oxygen, and if the latter is under pressure
an explosion may result. Cylinders should be kept away from sources of contamination, such
as oil barrels, overhead shafting, hydraulic components or any container or component that
may contain oil or grease.

Smoking, exposed lights or fires should not be allowed in any room where
compressed gases are stored, and oily or greasy clothes or hands should be avoided when
handling the cylinders. Grit, dirt, oil and water should be prevented from entering the
cylinder valves.

When returning any cylinder that may have been accidentally damaged or
overheated, the supplier should be notified so that any necessary action may be taken
before refilling.
Pipe Bending

Pipes are used widely in aircraft to transfer fluid such as fuel and hydraulics. Some of these
piping needs to be bend to change direction or to pass any obstacle. There are several
procedures as laid down in the Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures
(CAAIP).

When manufacturing pipes for use in aircraft systems, bending should be carried out
with the aid of a tube-bending machine. There are the Draw Bending Machine,
Compression Bending Machine and Simple Hand Bending Tool.

Some pipe materials require heat treatment to soften them prior to bending
followed by further heat treatment after bending to relieve stress and restore their
properties.

Prior to conducting any heat treatment, the pipe should be thoroughly cleaned. The
presence of carbon in oils, greases and degreasing agents can lead to serious weld decay
problems in some materials. High-pressure paraffin sprays may be used for initial cleaning
but this should be followed by degreasing with an appropriate solvent such as
trichloroethylene and blow-drying in warm air.

Tubing normally requires some form of internal support during the bending process
to prevent it from flattening in the bend area. Low melting point fusible alloy is used to fill
pipes prior to bending in order to provide support when full-bore bends are being formed.
This reduces the risk of fracture, wrinkling and kinking. The filler can be easily removed after
bending without affecting the heat treatment state of the pipe material. Fusible alloys have
low melting point that is below 100C and can be melted out by immersion in boiling water.

The pipe is oiled first before filling with filler to prevent the alloy adhering to the
tube wall. Fusible alloys have a detrimental effect on high tensile steels and direct contact
with them must be avoided. The pipe is then plugged at one end, pre-heated and then filled
with the melted alloy. Once cooled, the pipe can then be bent as required. Care needs to be
taken not to create air pockets or breaking of the lubrication film during the loading
operation.

After bending, the pipe should be unloaded, by immersing it in boiling water until
the entire alloy has run out. The pipe must then be cleaned internally to ensure that any
alloy adhering to the walls of the pipe is removed. This is accomplished by using a pull
through with the pipe immersed in boiling water or by using a steam cleaner.

The complete removal of the fusible alloy from the pipe is extremely important as its
presence may lead to blockages or corrosion and, in steel tubes, which may be subsequently
heat-treated, the presence of any alloy would cause inter-crystalline cracking.

Following the correct procedure from approved manuals will ensure the long serviceability
of the manufactured pipe used in aircraft this maintaining its airworthiness.
Chemical Corrosion Removal Method On Aluminium Alloy

Corrosion on aircraft structure can widely affect its structural integrity.

Prepare the area before attempting any corrosion removal procedure by carring out the
following:

Position the aircraft in an area with washing facilities for rapid rinsing of all surfaces.
Bond the aircraft to the ground.
Remove the battery if corrosion is in that area.
Cover pitot static heads, static vents and engine openings. Protect aircraft interior from
moisture and chemicals.
Protect surfaces adjacent to the working area from chemical paint strippers, corrosion
removal agents and surface treatment materials.
Before commencing corrosion rectification, reference must be made to the aircraft
structural repair manual. The following notes are of a general nature only.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following are general safety precautions which should be observed when handling
solvents, special cleaners, paint strippers, etchants and surface conversion chemicals:

Barrier cream must be rubbed on the hands before starting work.

Avoid prolonged breathing of solvent or acid vapours and do not use them in confined
spaces without adequate ventilation or approved respirator.
Never add water to acid. Always add acid to water.
Always mix chemicals using the approved procedure, with containers which will withstand
heat.
Ensure that a supply of clean water and eye irrigator bottles for emergency use is available
in the immediate area.
Use rubber or pvc gloves, goggles or plastic face shields and suitable protective clothing.
Immediately wash any harmful material from body, skin or clothing.
Harmful materials splashed in the eyes must be immediately flushed out with water and
medical aid obtained.
Do not eat or keep food in work areas and always wash hands before eating or smoking.
Clean all equipment after work has been completed.
Many chemicals employed in remedial or corrosion preventative procedures can cause
pollution if discharged into a waterway via a surface water drainage system. Local
regulations vary and the local water authority must be contacted regarding the disposal of
effluent.
DEGREASING

Before attempting to remove corrosion from any metal surface, it must be cleaned and
degreased.
There are a number of solvents and solvent cleaning processes used in aircraft and
component maintenance. Some of these solvents and processes may have a denigrating
effect on aircraft materials, or pose a threat to health. Therefore, the use of solvents and
processes such as immersion, spraying and vapour bath cleaning etc., should be carried out
strictly in accordance with the procedure stated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or
Maintenance Process Specification.

PAINT REMOVAL

Approved non-flammable paint strippers should be used to remove paints. The surrounding
areas should be masked off or covered with suitable protective material eg., polyurethane
sheet. The strippers should be brushed over the paint, left on the surface for a few minutes
and the softened paint then removed using a non-metallic scraper. After the paint has been
removed all traces of the stripper must also be removed.

Chemical Methods Corrosion Removal

Chemical methods of neutralising corrosion are used mainly on aluminium and magnesium
alloys.
The safety precautions details earlier for handling chemicals etc., must be observed.
Where thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) is approved for use on aluminium alloys the
following procedure is generally used.
Degrease the area
Remove paint
Remove as much of the corrosion products as possible by mechanical methods. Feather the
edges of surrounding paint.
Apply a coat of the specified thickened phosphoric acid (deoxidine) by brush to the corroded
area, taking care to avoid ingress to crevices or joints. Avoid contact with ultra-high tensile
steels by masking as necessary. Fresh solution must be used for each application.
Allow 5 to 20 minutes for the solution to act; agitate with a stiff bristle brush where heavy
corrosion is present; ;wipe off, and wash the area with clean water.
If necessary, repeat the above procedures.
Dry all surfaces thoroughly.
Apply the alocrom 1200 process and allow to dry for a minimum of two hours, then apply a
primer and paint finish scheme within 48 hours.
Deoxidines MUST NOT be used on magnesium alloys. The chemical method used for
removing corrosion from magnesium in the section headed Rectification of Corrosion on
Magnesium
Non-Destructive Testing/Inspection (NDT/NDI) Techniques

Surface damage on aircraft metal structure can lead to catastrophic failure due to structural
fatigue if left untreated. Non-Destructive Test (NDT) specifically dye penetrant flaw
detection is a method that can be carried out by a licensed aircraft engineer to detect
surface damage on metal. There are several process in carrying out dye penetrant flaw
detection.

All procedure is laid down in approved maintenance manual and Civil Aircraft
Airworthiness Information and Procedure (CAAIP) Part 4 Leaflet 4-2 Dye Penetrant
Processes. Make sure the personnel carrying out the task is properly trained and equipped
with personel protective equipment (PPE) such as goggles and gloves.

Penetrant flaw detection may be used to detect surface-breaking discontinuities in

any non-porous materials, including ceramics, metals, and plastics. It may also be used to
detect porosity in those materials that should not be porous, leaks in tanks and cracking of
internal bores.

Briefly, the steps to be taken when performing a penetrant inspection are:-

l. Thorough cleaning of the metal surface.

2. Applying penetrant.
3. Removing penetrant with remover-emulsifier or cleaner.
4. Drying the part.
5. Applying the developer.
6. Inspecting and interpreting results.

Interpretation of Results

1. The success and reliability of a penetrant inspection depends upon the thoroughness
with which the part was prepared.
2. The penentrant must enter the defect in order to form and indication. It is important
to allow sufficient time so the penetrant can fill the defect. The defect must be clean and
free of contaminating materials so that the penetrant is free to enter.
3. The smaller the defect, the longer the penetrating time. Fine crack-like apertures
require a longer penetrating time than defects such as pores.
4. The size of the indication, or accumulation of penetrant, will show the extent of the
defect, and the brilliance will be a measure of its depth. Deep cracks will hold more
penetrant and therefore, will be broader and more brilliant. Very fine openings can hold
only small amounts of penetrant and therefore, will appear as fine lines.
False Indications
There is a condition which may create accumulations of penetrant that are sometimes
confused with true cracks and discontinuities.
This condition is caused by poor washing. If the surface penetrant is not completely
removed during washing or rinsing operation, the unremoved penetrant will be visible.
Evidences of incomplete washing are usually easy to identify since the penetrant is in broad
areas rather than in the sharp patterns found with true indications. When accumulations of
unwashed penetrant are found on a part, the part should be completely reprocessed.
Degreasing is recommended for removal of all traces of the penetrant.

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages
include the detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a
smooth clean surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being developed.
Conducting the test on rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to
remove any excessive penetrant and could result in false indications. Water-washable
penetrant should be considered here if no other option is available. Also, on certain surfaces
a great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the dye will stain the workpiece.

CAP 562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures (CAAIP)

Leaflet 4-2 Penetrant Dye Processes

Surface Preparation
Isolate the adjacent surface to the inspection area to avoid any contamination. Make sure
the surface protection and paint is removed. The surface of the inspection area is cleaned
from grease, dirt, oil or any contaminants that can affect the results by using an approved
cleaning solvent. Sufficient time should be allowed after cleaning for drying out, otherwise
the efficiency of the penetrant dye may be affected.

Application of the Dye

The penetrant dye can be applied to the surface by dipping, spraying or brushing, depending
on the size and type of surface to be inspected. The surface must be dry before the dye is
applied and make sure an even distribution of the dye on the surface to be inspected.

Penetration Time
Allow some dwell time or penetration time for the dye to penetrate effectively into the
defects usually in the range of 5 minutes to 1 hour, the smaller the defect the longer the
time necessary. Temperatures and humidity such as below 15C (60F) will retard the
penetrant action of the dye, thus the penetration time should be extended proportionately.

Removal of Excess Dye

Any dye remaining on the surfaces of the parts after expiry of the penetration time should
be removed as thoroughly as possible but without disturbing the dye which would have
found its way into any defects present. Excessive cleaning, however, may result in the
dilution of the dye or its complete removal from defects.
Surface Drying
Prior to applying the developer, it should be ensured that the surfaces ofthe part under test
is completely dry.

Application of the Developer

The developer usually consists of a very fine absorbent white powder which may be applied
in form of spray or dipping. Make sure to apply the developer evenly as a too thin
application will make it hard to observe the marks and too thick can mask out the penetrant
appearing.

Interpretation of Defects
Allow some time for the red indication to appear as a fine cack may take a longer time to
appear compared to visible crack. Magnifying glass can be used to assist in detecting fine
defects on the surface. Mark and identify the defect appearing and refer to the approved
manuals for its limitations.

Return back the parts where the inspection and rectification has been carried out to its
original condition and issue the certificate release to service.
Landing Gear Oleo Extension Found Low

Landing gear shock strut oleo carries the compression loads of aircraft landing and support
it on the ground. Any defects on the shock strut oleo can cause a further damage on the
aircraft structure. If the shock strut oleo is found low, there are several steps to be taken to
rectify the problem.

Debrief with the pilot on the condition of the landing gear shock strut. Refer to any
entries on the landing gear shock strut in the aircraft techlog.

Make sure the landing gear ground lockpin is installed before carrying any task.
Inspect the landing gear oleo for any damage. Check the nitrogen pressure of the oleo strut
by using the pressure gauge. Charge the oleo with approved nitrogen cart if the pressure os
found low by referring to the approved maintenance manual and the landing gear oleo
servicing chart.

Inspect the landing gear shock strut oleo for any damage and leak. If hydraulic leak is
found on the oleo, there might be damage on the dynamic seal of the oleo. Carry out oleo
seal replacement and service the landing gear shock strut with correct amount of oil and
nitrogen gas by referring to the approved maintenance manual.

Dissimilar loading of the aircraft can cause some of the landing gear shock strut oleo
to be compressed more than the other causing it to appear low. Extra fuel on one wing due
to faulty fuel transfer valve can cause the oleo on that side of the wing to be compressed
and appear low more than the other side.

Another cause for oleo extension low is because the inner cylinder is jammed up
with the outer cylinder caused by ingression dirt in the oleo. To rectify this, jack the aircraft
and clean the inner cylinder with approved fluid.

Inspection
Leak - rectification
Condition
Abnormalities
If inspection found nothing
Troubleshooting
Fuel tank quantity/aircraft loading

When all rectification has been done satisfactorily, issue and sign certificate release to
service. Always follow up on the landing gear oleo extension and pressure after 1 landing
cycle.

All personnel must make sure the condition of the aircraft meets the airworthiness
requirement. An early detection of the defect can increase the life of the component and
maintain the serviceability of the aircraft.
Precaution when working with oxygen

Oxygen is used in aviation industry as breathing oxygen and gas welding. It poses a serious
hazard on personnel and equipment as it support combustion and mechanical hazard due to
high pressure. There are several precautions need to be observed when working with
oxygen gas.

Never charge an air or nitrogen system with oxygen. The mixture will present a
significant fire and explosion risk. These systems have different charging connectors to
prevent from inadvertently doing this. Never mix oxygen with other gases.
Ensure that you are using the correct specification of oxygen. The bottles are black with
white hemispherical tops and are marked with the word OXYGEN and the chemical symbol
O2 in white lettering. The bottle also carries the warning USE NO OIL OR GREASE in red
lettering on a white background. The American use green as the identifying colour for
oxygen bottles.

Do not attempt to re-charge an oxygen cylinder that has been fully discharge
(empty). There is a strong possibility that it contains condensed moisture and it will need
purging by the contractor. Used cylinder should have at least 50psi of oxygen left inside to
prevent ingress of air and moisture.

Ensure that there is no moisture, oil or grease on the equipment and tools or in the
vicinity. This includes your hands and your clothing.

Ensure that clothing worn during oxygen system servicing is kept clean and dry and is
only worn for that purpose. Personnel should wear clean lint-free cotton gloves. Remove
clothing and hang it in a well ventilated area for at least a quarter of an hour after
completing the task. Oxygen will penetrate fabrics and make them highly flammable.
Do not expose oxygen to a source of sparks or fire. A small fire rapidly becomes a very big
one in the presence of oxygen.

When charging aircraft systems ensure that the area is well ventilated and that the
aircraft and the charging trolley is earthed. Place NO SMOKING signs outside the aircraft.
Avoid all testing of electrical or radio systems. Appropriate fire extinguisher should be
positioned where it can be easily accessed.

Before connecting hose to a charging point, open the regulating valve slowly and
allow a low flow of oxygen out of the hose to purge it of moisture and air for about 30 sec.
Keep the flow on whilst connecting the hose to avoid introducing air into the system.
Always open valves slowly by hand and do not attempt to force them. Keep charging rates
low to prevent creating excessive heat.

When charging is complete, close the aircraft system charging valve and charging
cylinder stop valve before releasing the charging line pressure by closing the regulator valve
slowly to prevent a rapid release of pressure.
 Always blank off any open ports in oxygen systems and charging hoses when these
are not in use.

Never lubricate the threads of oxygen equipment with oil or grease.

Oxygen that emits a bad smell is most certainly contaminated with moisture. Do not use it.
General safety precautions on aircraft towing

Towing is necessary to enable the aircraft to be moved without engine power. The
procedure required will vary greatly dependent on the type of aircraft to be moved.

The relevant maintenance manual will normally specify details of the towing arm and
any limitations on the towing procedure. On many aircraft with nose-wheel steering, it is
normal practice to disconnect or depressurise the aircraft steering system before towing.

For large aircraft, the tow bar incorporates a shock absorber system, normally a large
spring to avoid snatching movements being transmitted to the aircraft structure. The tow
bar also incorporates a shear pinto prevent excessive loads occurring between the tractor
and nose undercarriage.

The following precautions must be observed when towing operations are in

progress. Reference must be made to the manual for specific instructions.

1. Aircraft must not exceed walking pace while being towed (in closed area).
2. Oleo-leg and tyres must be correctly inflated prior to moving the aircraft, and sufficient
brake pressure available for an emergency stop.
3. Undercarriage down locks must be fitted prior to towing.
4. At night, aircraft navigation lights must be ON.
5. By-pas pin or towing pin must be fitted before connecting the tow bar.
6. A person in-charge with all other team members in his sight.
7. Personnel must be stationed on the wing tip and tail to ensure clearance round
obstacles.
8. There must be a competent person occupying the pilot seat to operate the aircraft
brakes in case of emergency.
9. When manhandling light aircraft by pushing, do not push on the flying control surfaces
or other delicate parts such as fabric skin. The leading edges of the wings are normally
the strongest, so push the aircraft backwards.
10. To avoid unnecessary stress to tyres and undercarriage, the maximum turning angle
should never be exceeded. The manufacturers maximum turning angle is normally
painted on the side of the aircraft nose. Try to terminate towing by leaving the aircraft in
a straight line. This will prevent side loads remaining on the tyres when the aircraft
comes to a stop.
11. Do not operate the aircraft brakes while the aircraft is being towed. Allow the tractor or
tug to keep the aircraft under control.
12. A propeller must never be used to push or pull the aircraft, as the engine should always
be regarded as 'live' and a propeller may kick if it is turned.
Jacking Procedures For Landing Gear Retraction Test

While the following procedures will, generally, ensure safe and satisfactory jacking of most
aircraft, precedence must always be given to the procedures and precautions specified in
the relevant Maintenance Manual.

One person should co-ordinate the operation and one person should control each
jacking point. On larger aircraft a levelling station will also need to be monitored and all
members of the team may need to be in radio or telephone communication with the co-
ordinator.

Checks should be made on the aircraft weight, its fuel state, and centre of gravity, to
ensure they are within the specified limits as detailed in the Maintenance Manual. The
aircraft should be headed into wind (if it is in the open), the main wheels chocked fore and
aft, the brakes released and the undercarriage ground locks installed.

It is vital that the earth cable be connect to the earth point on the aircraft and it
must be ensured that there is adequate clearance above every part of the aircraft and that
there is clearance for lifting cranes or other equipment, which may be required.
Jacking pads should be attached to the jacking points and adapters provided for the jacks as
required. Load cells may also be included if needed.

The jacks should be positioned at each jacking point and checks made, to confirm
that the jacks are adjusted correctly (i.e. release valve closed, jack body vertical, weight
evenly distributed about the legs when the adapters are located centrally in the jacking
pads, and the weight of the aircraft is just being taken by the jacks).

Before jacking commences, the chocks must be removed and then the aircraft
should be raised slowly and as evenly as possible. Whilst jacking is in progress, the locking
collars should be continually wound down, keeping them close to the body of the jack.
When the aircraft is raised to the correct height, the locking collar should be fully tightened
down.

When jacking is complete, then supports may be placed under the wings and
fuselage as indicated in the Maintenance manual.

A pillar (bottle) jack and an adapter are often used for raising a single undercarriage
for changing a single wheel. Alternatively a trolley jack or stirrup jack may be used. The
remaining wheels should be checked to prevent aircraft movement, and it may be specified
that a tail support be located when raising a nose undercarriage. The jack should be raised
only enough to lift the unserviceable wheel clear of the ground.
Inspection on rivet joint on aircraft structure

Before commencing any type of riveting job, the operator should whenever possible,
make a dummy run by forming rivets in some spare piece of metal of corresponding
thickness, checking the rivet allowance and the ability to produce well-set satisfactory
rivets.

Whilst in service, rivets must be inspected regularly, to check for a number of faults
that might have occurred, such as corrosion, fretting and fatigue. After the rivets have been
closed they should be inspected to ensure that they are tight and fully formed. Rivet heads
must not be deformed or cracked, and the surrounding area should be free from distortion
and undamaged by the riveting tools.

Rivets, which are obviously not performing their function, should be replaced, but
replacement of rivets, which are found to be only slightly below standard, might do more
harm than leaving them in position, particularly in thin materials. Before rejecting such
rivets, the strength requirements of the particular joint and the effectiveness of the rivets in
question should be considered.

When a flushness tolerance is specified for countersunk rivets, this is normally

checked before riveting is commenced; however, the milling of solid rivet heads may
sometimes be permitted after riveting to obtain a uniform protrusion. In this case
protective treatments must be re-applied after milling.

Type of aircraft joint normally used is Butt joint, Joggle joint, Lap joint, T joint, Edge joint and
Corner joint
Procedure and precautions for aircraft parking

When an aircraft is out of service and in the open it should be secured against inadvertent
movement and protected against adverse weather conditions. The operations
recommended in the relevant Maintenance Manual depend on the type of aircraft, the
length of time it will be out of service and the prevailing or forecast weather conditions.

For short term parking between flights, it is usually sufficient to apply the parking
brakes, lock the control surfaces and chock the wheels but, in a strong wind, light aircraft
should be headed into the wind. Light aircraft without wheel brakes should be headed into
wind and their wheels chocked front and rear.

Flying controls, on many aircraft, are locked by movement of a lever in the

cockpit/cabin. The lever is connected to locking pins at convenient positions in the control
runs or at the control surfaces. When this type of control lock is not provided, locking
attachments may have to be fitted to the control column and rudder pedals.

A more positive method entails the use of external control surface locks, that
prevent control surface movement and, thus, prevent strain on the control system. All
external locks should have suitable streamers attached, to make them more visible.
If an aircraft is to be parked overnight or for longer periods in the open, then additional
precautions should be taken, to guard against the effects of adverse weather.

The undercarriage ground locks should be fitted, and all openings, such as static
vents, engine and cooling air intakes, should be blanked, to prevent ingress of dirt, birds,
insects and moisture. Items such as pitot head and incidence indicators should also be
covered.

When severe weather is anticipated it is recommended that covers for cockpit,

canopy and wheel are fitted if available. Blanks and covers should not be left in position
when the aircraft is prepared for service. Servicing instructions should include a pre-flight
check to ensure that all covers are removed.

If an aircraft has to be parked overnight or for longer periods in the open, then
additional precautions should be taken to guard against ingress of foreign object damage
(FOD) and the effects of adverse weather as follows:

1. The undercarriage ground locks must be fitted.

2. Pitot Tubes small probes, which are open to external dynamic pressure, are
covered.
3. Static vents -small holes in the fuselage, which are open to external static pressure,
are covered.
4. Engine intakes are covered.
5. Engine exhausts are covered.
6. Cooling air intakes are covered.
Procedures And Precautions During Aircraft Refuelling

Instructions, regarding the responsibilities of the various personnel involved in fuelling

procedures and these will always take precedence in conjunction with the relevant
Maintenance Manual.

Particular care must be taken when fuelling aircraft, so that the operation may be
accomplished in the safest possible manner. Whenever possible, aircraft should be fuelled in
the open, and not in a hangar. This will minimise the fire risk from high concentrations of
flammable vapours.

Fire appliances should be readily available during all fuelling operations. Carbon
dioxide, or foam, extinguishers are recommended but, if there is a perceived increased fire
risk, then fire-fighting vehicles should be standing by.

Within the specified danger area, around an aircraft being fuelled, no sources of
ignition or sparks should be allowed and no electrical power should be switched on or off
during the fuelling operation.

It is vital that the correct type and grade of fuel is used for the fuelling operation.
Use of a turbine fuel in a piston aircraft will certainly cause an engine malfunction, or failure,
that could lead to loss of an aircraft. The correct type and grade of fuel is always detailed in
the Maintenance Manual and marked adjacent to the aircrafts fuelling point(s).

Care should also be exercised so as to avoid contamination of the fuel system with
water or other contaminants. The fuel supply should be regularly checked for water
contamination and a sample of fuel drained off after refuelling, so that a water check may
be done.

It will sometimes be necessary to filter the fuel during over-wing refuelling,

particularly in dusty climates.

Electrical bonding of the fuel system is vital during fuelling operations, as when fuel
flows through the refuelling hose, static electricity may be generated. This may lead to
potential differences at adjacent metal parts and initiate a spark, fire or explosion.

To minimise this risk the following actions should be completed before fuelling
operations commence:

1. The aircraft should be earthed

2. The refuelling tanker should be earthed
3. The nozzle of the fuel hose should be electrically bonded to the fuelling point.
Precautions To Prevent Electrical Fire

The human body makes excellent conductors of electricity, so it is important that

safe work processes are adopted when using electric equipment. Sparks from electrical
equipment may also create fire and explosion risks when the equipment is used in areas
containing flammable gases or substances. People are at risks of becoming over-familiar
with the use of many of the more common portable electrical power tools and often fail to
treat them with proper care.

Always check that the supply voltage is compatible with the equipment. Ensure the
current is switched off when connecting or disconnecting electrical tools and equipment
from the mains outlets, and also ensure that the tools or equipment are selected to off
before switching on the mains power to them.

Avoid handling electrical equipment when you are standing on wet floors or you are
wearing wet footwear. This will provide a path to earth and completes the live circuit that
you may have become part of. Do not handle electrical equipment with wet hands.

Most 240V electrical ground equipment is fitted with a three-core cable that includes
an earth wire. Ensure all electrical equipment is correctly earthed. Never connect electrically
powered hand tools to lighting sockets because they will not be earthed.

Frayed, pulled and badly kinked cables or exposed wires may produce a situation
where an exposed live conductor contacts the earth conductor. When this occurs, the
equipment body will become live and contact with it will put you in the live circuit. So, do
not use equipment that has damaged cables or cracked connectors.

Electrical current flowing through a cable produces heat in proportion to the

resistance of the cable. If the current being drawn by the equipment is higher than the
rating of the cable, there is a risk that the cable insulation will overheat, melt or burn and
the equipment body may become live as a result. Therefore, never use extension leads that
contain cable that has too low a rating for the equipment. Dont forget to unwind extension
leads fully or there is very high risk that the cable insulation will melt through overheating.

Do not overload power outlet sockets. Isolate equipment from the power source
before attempting to dismantle or carry out adjustments to equipment. Do not hang
electrically powered equipment from the supply cables.

Do not leave supply cables and extension leads trailing on the floor where they may
be run over by equipment or pose a trip hazard to personnel.

Report all electrical faults immediately and do not attempt to use it until a
competent person has properly repaired it.

Always ensure that fuses or circuit breakers are of the correct value and make sure
that the faults that cause them to blow or trip are properly investigated. Do not keep on
replacing or re-setting circuit protection devices that continue to fail.
 Ensure that all electrical equipment is inspected before use for obvious damage and
that it has been re-inspected at the stipulated intervals by a competent person.
Electrical equipment should not be used in areas where there are flammable gases or
substances present unless the equipment is specifically cleared for use in such areas.

When connecting an external electrical power source to an aircraft, check that the
supply voltage, frequency and phase are compatible with the aircraft system. The ground
supply must be switched off prior to connection and the connector must be fully mated
before the supply is switched on.
Precautions handling synthetic ester based engine lubricating oil

There is a range of oils on aircraft for: engine lubrication systems, ancillary gearboxes, oil
filled landing gear struts and hydraulic systems.

Turbine engine lubricating oils are low viscosity, synthetic ester-base oils and are
formed from a cocktail of chemical compounds that are toxic. First generation turbine oils
are referred to as Type 1 oils. These do not meet the operating requirements of modern gas
turbines. Types 2 oils were developed to withstand the higher operating temperatures of
later engines. The two types are NOT compatible with each other and must never be mixed
together.

The irritant nature of turbine engine lubricating oils means that it is essential to read
the safety instructions. Avoid prolonged skin contact with these oils and must never
inadvertently ingest them. In the short term, skin contact produces Dermatitis. In the long
term, there is a risk of health problems occurring as a result of prolonged contact and
absorption through the skin.

Ester-base oils are hygroscopic in that they tend to absorb moisture from the air. It is
important that dispensing equipment and oil containers are kept clean and sealed.
Dispensing equipment should be dedicated to one oil specification and never used for
anything else. Open containers of oil should never be used and they should be disposed of.
Ester-base oils are also aggressive to most aircraft paint finishes. Polyurethane paint finishes
offer the best protection from them.

Never mix Type 1 and Type 2 oils together. Check, to make sure you have the correct
specification oil. It is in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual and you can also refer to the
information marked close to the replenishment points.

Wear protective gloves, apron and face shield when handling these oils. Wash hands
thoroughly after contact with the oil and do not smoke, drink or eat until you have done
this. If oil enters the eyes, seek medical attention.

Always use the correct dispensing equipment and make sure it is clean. Clean up
spillages immediately before they attack surface finishes and correct replenishment
procedure is followed.
Inspection Following Heavy Landings

A heavy or overweight landing can cause damage to the aircraft both visible and hidden. All
damage found should be entered in the aircrafts Technical Log. An aircraft landing gear is
designed to withstand landing at a particular aircraft weight and rate of descent. If either of
these parameters was exceeded during a landing, then it is probable that some damage has
been caused to the landing gear, its supporting structure or elsewhere on the airframe.

Over-stressing may occur if the aircraft is not parallel to the runway when it lands or
if the nose- or tail-wheel strikes the runway before the main wheels.

Some aircraft are provided with heavy landing indicators, which give a visual
indication that specified g forces have been exceeded. Long aircraft may have a tail scrape
indicator fitted, as a scrape is more likely. In all instances of suspect heavy landings, the
flight crew should be questioned for details of the aircrafts weight, fuel distribution, landing
conditions and whether any unusual noises were heard during the incident.

Primary damage that may be expected following a heavy landing would normally be
concentrated around the landing gear, its supporting structure in the wings or fuselage, the
wing and tailplane attachments and the engine mountings.

Secondary damage may be found on the fuselage upper and lower skins and on the
wing skin and structure.

Different aircraft have their own heavy landing procedures. For example, some
aircraft, which show no primary damage, need no further inspection, whilst others require
that all inspections are made after every reported heavy landing. This is because some
aircraft can have hidden damage in remote locations whilst the outside of the aircraft
appears to be undamaged.

Inspect the tyres for any flat spot or wear marks. Examine the landing gear for any
damage and leaks. Check the landing gear shock strut oleo extension. Check the landing
gear attachment and structural fuse for any abnormalities and damage. Examine wheels and
brakes for cracks and other damage. Carry out retraction and nose wheel steering tests

Check the mainplanes and tailplanes for any damage such as wrinkling and pulled
rivets. Check for any fuel leaks if the aircraft has its integral tank on the wing. Check the root
attachments and fairings for cracks. Carry out functional test on full, free and correct
movement of control surface system.

Check the fuselage skin, frames, stringers and bulkhead for damage and wrinkles.
Ensure the inertia switches have not tripped. Check pipes and ducts for security. Make sure
all doors and panels fit correctly.
 Check the engines controls for freedom of movement. Examine all mountings and
pylons for damage and distortion. Check the compressor and turbine blades for freedom of
rotation. Examine all cowlings for wrinkling and distortion. Check all fluid lines, filters and
chip detectors.

There are numerous other checks that need to be done, depending on the damage
found during the inspections. This can include engine runs and functional checks of all the
aircraft systems. Signs of some damage and distortion could be a reason to do full rigging
and symmetry checks of the airframe.
Inspection Following Lightning Strikes

Lightning is the discharge of electricity in the atmosphere, usually between highly charged
cloud formations, or between a charged cloud and the ground. If an aircraft is flying in the
vicinity of the discharge or it is on the ground, the lightning may strike the aircraft. This will
result in very high voltages and currents passing through the structure.

The general procedure of inspection following lightning strike on an aircraft has

these three tasks:
1. Examination of the External Surfaces for Lightning Strike
2. Examination of the internal Components for Lightning Strike
3. Inspection and Operational Check of the Radio and Navigation Systems.

Make sure the aircraft is electrically and statically grounded following the lightning
strike to ensure all charges has been dissipated.

Inspect the external surface of the aircraft for any damage, discoloration, burn
marks, holes and pitting. This type of damage usually indicates the entry point of the
lightning strike on the aircraft. If the lightning strikes any composite parts such as the
radome, there will be delaminating of the structure. This can be identified by non-
destructive test or coin tapping. The exit point of the lightning strike will usually be indicated
by missing static wicks.

Any ferromagnetic structure on the aircraft will usually be magnetized after lightning
strike. This can be indicated by erratic and problems with the electrical system, radio
system, navigation system and display. There will be some noise in radio frequency and
abnormal fluctuations of indicator in the cockpit.

Aircraft bonding check can be carried out to make sure the potential difference
between aircraft structures including components is within limitation with 0.1ohm for
primary structure and 0.05 for secondary structure. Check aircraft bonding cable if there is
High Intensity Radiated Field (HIRF) interference found.

Check the flight control hinge bearing by carrying functional check of the flight
control. High voltage of current from the lightning strike can melt bearings due to its high
energy.

All separate parts of the aircraft are electrically bonded together, to provide a low-
resistance path to conduct the lightning away from areas where damage may hazard the
aircraft.

The maintenance schedule or maintenance manual should specify the inspections

applicable to the aircraft but, in general, bonding straps and static discharge wicks should be
inspected for damage. Damaged bonding straps on control surfaces may lead to tracking
across control surface bearings, this in turn may cause burning, break up or seizure due to
welding of the bearings.

This type of damage may result in resistance to movement of the controls, which can
be checked by doing a functional check of the controls. Additional checks may include:

1. Examine engine cowlings and engines for evidence of burning or pitting. As in control
bearings, tracking of the engine bearings may have occurred. Manufacturers may
recommend checking the oil filters and chip detectors for signs of contamination.
This check may need to be repeated for a specified number of running hours after
the occurrence.
2. Examine fuselage skin, particularly rivets for burning or pitting.
3. If the landing gear was extended, some damage may have occurred to the lower
parts of the gear. Examine for signs of discharge.
4. After the structural examination it will be necessary to do functional checks of the
radio, radar, instruments, compasses, electrical circuits and flying controls. A
bonding resistance check should also be done.

The aircraft has all the necessary and known lightning strike protection measures.
Most of the external parts of the aircraft are metal structure with sufficient thickness to be
resistant to a lightning strike. This metal assembly is its basic protection. The thickness of
the metal surface is sufficient to protect the internal spaces from a lightning strike.
The metal skin also gives protection from the entrance of electromagnetic energy into the
electrical wires of the aircraft. The metal skin does not prevent all electromagnetic energy
from going into the electrical wiring; however, it does keep the energy to a satisfactory
level.
If lightning strikes the aircraft, then all of the aircraft must be fully examined, to find
the areas of the lightning strike entrance and exit points.
When looking at the areas of entrance and exit, this structure should be carefully examined
to find all of the damage that has occurred.

Lightning strike entrance and exit points (refer to Fig. 1) are, usually, found in Zone 1,
but also can occur in Zones 2 and 3. Lightning strikes can, however, occur to any part of the
aircraft, including the fuselage, wing skin trailing edge panels. wing-body fairing, antennas,
vertical stabiliser, horizontal stabiliser, and along the wing trailing edge in Zone 2.

In metal structures, strike damage usually shows as pits, burn marks or small circular
holes. These holes can be grouped in one location or divided around a large area. Burned or
discoloured skin also shows lightning strike damage.
In composite (non-metallic) structures, solid laminate or honeycomb damage shows as
discoloured paint. It also shows as burned, punctured, or de-laminated skin plies. Hidden
damage can also exist. This damage can extend around the visible area. Signs of arcing and
burning can also occur around the attachments to the supporting structure.
Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may become strongly magnetised
when subjected to large currents. Large currents, flowing from the lightning strike in the
aircraft structure, can cause this magnetisation.
 Should inaccuracies in the standby compass be reported, after a lightning strike,
then a check swing will be necessary.

Examine the external surfaces carefully to find the entrance and exit points of lightning
strike. Make sure to look in the areas where one surface stops and another surface starts.
Examine the internal and external surfaces of the nose radome for burns, punctures, and
pinholes in the composite honeycomb sandwich structure. Examine the metallic structure
for holes or pits, burned or discoloured skin and rivets. Examine the external surfaces of the
composite components for discoloured paint, burned, punctured, or de-laminated skin plies.
Use instrumental NDI (NDT) methods or tap tests to find composite structure damage which
is not visible.

Examine the flight control surfaces for signs of strike damage. If the control surfaces
show signs of damage, examine the surface hinges, bearings and bonding jumpers for signs
of damage. If the ailerons show signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface hinges,
bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage. If the speed brakes show signs of a
lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of
damage. If the trailing edge flaps show signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface
hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage. If the leading edge flaps/slats
show signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers
for signs of damage. Examine the nose radome for pin-holes, punctures and chipped paint.
Also ensure bonding straps are correctly attached. Examine the lightning diverter strips and
repair or replace them if damaged. If there is radome damage, examine the WXR antenna
and wave-guide for damage.
Functional tests will need to be done as follows:
Ensure the navigation lamps, rotary lights and landing lights operate.
If the previously mentioned control examinations show signs of damage: Do an operational
test of the rudder if there are signs of lightning strike damage to the rudder or vertical
stabiliser.
Do an operational test of the elevator if there are signs of lightning strike damage to the
elevator or horizontal stabiliser.
Do an operational test of the ailerons if there are signs of lightning strike damage to the
ailerons.
Do an operational test of the speed brakes if there are signs of lightning strike damage to
the speed brake system.
Do an operational test of the trailing edge flaps if there are signs of lightning strike damage
to the trailing edge flaps.
Do an operational test of the leading edge flap/slats if there are signs of lightning strike
damage to the trailing edge flap/slats.
If there are signs of strike damage to the landing gear doors, disengage the main gear door
locks and manually move the doors to ensure they move smoothly. Visually examine the
door linkage, hinges, bearings and bonding jumpers for strike damage. Ensure the proximity
switch indication unit gives the correct indication.

Examination of Internal Components

If a lightning strike has caused a system malfunction, do a full examination of the system.
Do a check of the stand-by compass system if the flight crew reported a very large compass
deviation.
Make sure the fuel quantity system is accurate. This can be achieved by a BITE test.
Examine the air data sensors for signs of strike damage. Do an operational test of the pitot
system if there are signs of damage to the probes. Do a test of the static system if there are
signs of damage near the static ports.
Do an operational check of any of the following systems that did not operate following the
strike, or if the flight crew reported a problem, or if there was any damage found near the
system antenna:
HF communications system
VHF communications system
ILS navigation system
Marker beacon system
Radio altimeter system
Weather radar system
VOR system
ATC system
DME system
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) system

If one or more of the previous systems have problems with their operational checks,
examine and do a test of the coaxial cables and connectors.

After all areas have been inspected and lightning damage has been repaired, components
replaced as necessary and tests completed if necessary, the aircraft may be returned to
service.

Effects of a Lightning Strike

Lightning strikes are likely to have two main effects on the aircraft:
Strike damage where the discharge enters the aircraft. This will normally be on the
extremities of the aircraft, the wing tips, nose cone and tail cone and on the leading edge of
the wings and tailplane. The damage will usually be in the form of small circular holes,
usually in clusters, and accompanied by burning or discoloration.
Static discharge damage at the wing tips, trailing edges and antenna. The damage will be in
the form of local pitting and burning. Bonding strips and static wicks may also disintegrate,
due to the high charges.