a Fig. 11-1 The buildup to J fe Fluidity the steady, laminar velocity at rest profile for a fluid contained | between two plates. The OO flow is called “laminar” be- ‘cause the adjacent layers of fluid (“laminae”) slide past t=0 Lowerplate one another in an orderly fashion. Velocity buildup in unsteady flow Final velocity distribution in steady flow (1.1-2)" v=p/p (1.1-3) R= yz D; wy =e ye; = x,y,z, (121)J— xyz @ w © Fig. 12-1 Pressure and viscous forces acting on planes in the fluid perpendicular to the three coordinate systems. The shaded planes have unit area. Table 1.2-1 Summary of the Components of the Molecular Stress Tensor (or Molecular Momentum-Flux Tensor)’ Direction ‘Components of the forces (per unit area) normal Necor force th acting on the shaded face (components of the co the perunita e ymentum flux through the shaded face) shaded shaded face (momentum __omentum flux through the shaded face) _ face flux through shaded face) x-component—_y-component—_z-component m= pb tay Fa = ptt Tym Ty y 1, =p, +7, Ty = Tp Ty =P + Ty z = pb. +7, Tay = Tax Ty = Foy my = pS +7) where iand j may be x,y, or z (1.2.2) a, 1 SSma 5 where i, j,k,andI maybe 1,2,3 (1.23) (1.2-4)aD, 8 20, y= a + a) + af 2 + ote as, (125) (1.2-6) 2 = —n(Vv + (Ww) + Gu — KV + v8 (12-7) Solid phere Solider craks Ry straduse ° “idicton on Force by fi in een * diecdonon ‘rans seas arent et de 5 contin ais - “ ~talra RR? sin 046 inder ey Sold sphere Steeda jotradiask \ Force by fluid in Force by fluid in ye D7 Zalrction on diction on Sefneecemert inc cement ‘tino s F dontsin 0 ~Trelren RAO da —Frglra wR? sin 60 dg TAP Forceby aidin Force by uid in + direction on. 2 direction on i surface element suvtaceceene Soidcme\ | | grec, “ale ® ‘ Fig. 1.2-2 (2) Some typical surface elements and shear stresses in the cylindrical coordinate system. (6) Some typical surface elements and shear stresses in the spherical coordinate system.= ali Reduced viscosity 10 og 08 o7 06 os a4 03 02 | | | | 4 0505 08 10 23 4 5 6 8 Reduced temperature T, = T/T, 10 Fig, 13-1 Reduced v cosity 4, = w/m, asa function of reduced temperature for seve values of the reducec pressure. [O. A. Uye- hara and K. M. Wats: Nat. Petroleum News, Tech. Section, 36, 764 (Oct. 4, 1944); revisec by K.M. Watson (19 A large-scale version this graph is availabl in O. A. Hougen, KM, Watson, and R.A. Ragatz, CP. P. Charts, Wiley, New York, 2nd edition 960)) Be, = 61.6(MT.)Y>V) 27 and ya, = 7.70M'p28T "6 (1.3-1a, b) Pe 3 XoPew m=3 MeTea Me -3 Xoblen (1.3-2a, b,c) (4-1) (14-2) a=—! (14:3)a=3a (1.4-4) Velocity profile vy) 4 Typical molecule LO ceasing tom plane Co atly-2) with “component of velocity |), Fig 14-1 Molecular transport of x-momentum from the plane at iG (y ~ a) to the plane at y. Tex = Zmo,|y-¢ — ZmV-\yea (14-5) (1.4-6) a Typ = ~ invA ‘e (47) b= inmiiA = ipa (1.4-8) 2. VmxT/@ _ 2 VarmxT (1.49) U3 nd? 3m me? . 9) = a(s)" - (=) (1.4-10) o r9) Molecules repel ‘one another at —~ separations 7 < tq fone another at | Molecules attract roar, i parat " When r=30, [gl has dropped off toless than 0.01 Fig. 1.43 Potential energy function (7) describing the interaction of two spherical, nonpolar molecules. The Lennard-Jones (6-12) potential, given in Eq, 14-10, is one of the many em- pirical equations proposed for fitting this curve. For r Ty the molecules attract one another. e/K=O77T, 0 =0841V)" or o =244(T,/p)? — (1.4-1]a,b, 0 e/K=115T, 0 = 1.166V}i3, (1.4-12a, b) e/K=192T, 6 = 1.222V,3, (1.4-13a, b) 5 VarmkT _s VMT = = 2.6693 x 10° —— 14-14 B16 on, % © 70, (418 SX Xabte Bm = > ete (14-15) A LoxpPag a y,\12/(Mg\i“i fe e+) GE) 416) Vacant lattice (cate weer O © /O OF tet Of Oe weatO®|O OQ Oo t Fig 1.5: Illustration of an escape In fui at rest process in the flow of aliquid. =~ In fluid under stress, Molecule 1 must pass through a _. “bottleneck” to reach the vacant ¥ site Energy of molecule 1 2y= x exp(—AG;/RT) - ~ TV —AGt = —AG} + (=) be = x exp(—AG5/RT) exp(“ary,¥ /25RT) Vya — Vag = ACV, — VD ? NI oe Be (3) “ exp(aGj/RD AG} = 0.408 AUap n= m exp (0.408 AL, 4,/RT) AU ay ~ AFyay — RT, = 9.4RT, be ” exp@.8T,/T) (1.5-1) (1.5-2) (1.5-3) (1.5-4) (15-5) (15-7) (1.5-8) (1.5-9) (1.5-10) (1.5-11)5 2 ao Her 3g 49 fa 1+8o49( 1 wl + AWN + w) LU = U0 ~ VG Fan) Vb] F nod (1.6-1) (1.6-2) (1.6-3) Table 1.6-1 Dimensionless Constants for Use in Eq. 1.6-4 System Spheres (submicron) Spheres (40 jem) Ground gypsum Titanium dioxide Laterite Glass rods (30 x 700 zm) Glass plates (100 x 400 um) Quartz grains (53-76 um) Glass fibers (axial ratio 7) Glass fibers (axial ratio 14) Glass fibers (axial ratio 21) Be + (Meta, Ho + Hy Hei 4 5 (Dg/2nRY Te =1t So(1 aE ) A 27 3.28 3.25 5.0 9.25 9.87 58 38 5.03 6.0 rrax 071 Reference we TR RAN oe (1.6-5) (1.6-6)Fig. 17-1 The convective momentum fluxes through planes of unit area perpendicular to the coordinate directions, Table 1.71 Summary of the Convective Momentum Flux Components Direction Flux of momentum formal to the through the shaded Convective momentum flux components shaded surface surface x-component y-component_z-component x pv POP, POD (PUD, y ON 20, POD, POP 2 pow po, p., pw = Bdipuv = ZSpx)Zsv) = L26,5;pv2, (1.7-1) Fig. 1.7-2 The convective momentum flux through a plane of arbitrary orientation nis (n+ v)pv = [n- vv]. b= a+ pw=pd+7+ pw (1.7-2)Dey = Tey + POV, =P + Ty + PVD, (1.7-3a) Oey = Tey + PODy = Try + POdy (1.7-3b) rateof rate of rate of rate of frementum in| [momentum out| , momentum in| _|mementumout| , foceotsevty |g gy: Sram ~|oeawceie'| *forekcuer | ~frrecieaur| *[Stiagetgazy] 9 erp frrspor | (anspor fran | (eanapor Entrance disturbance Liquid film, Fig. 2.2-1 Schematic diagram of the falling film experiment, show- Ml Bravity ing end effects. 8 1 1 At 1 oN + r S Direction of w S, ¥ el gravity, Fig. 2.2-2 Shell of thickness Ax over which a 2-momentum balance is made. Arrows show the momentum fluxes associated with the surfaces of the shell. Since v, and 0, are both zero, pv. and pop, are zero, Since v, does not depend on y and z, it follows from Table B.1 that 7,2 = 0 and 7. = 0. Therefore, the dashed-underlined fluxes do not need to be considered. Both p and pr,0, are the same at 2 = O and z = I, and therefore do not appear in the final equation, for the balance of z-momentum, Eq. 22-10. rate of z-momentum in across surface at z = 0 (WD bede0 (2.21) rate of z-momentum out across surface at z = L (Waxidab-t rate of z-momentum in across surface at x LW, (22-3) rate of zmomentum out across surface at x + Ax LMG Desar (2.2-4) gravity force acting on fluid in the z direction (LW Axvpg cos B) (22-5) LW@ le ~ Peclesas) + WAXG.-0— Pale) + (LW Ax(pg cos B)=0 (2.26)(2.2-7) (2.2-8) Dye = Tey + POV =P + Tee + poy (1,7-3a) ey = Tey + POdy = Tey + PPP, (1.7-3b) Table 1.7-2 Summary of Notation for Momentum Fluxes Symbol Meaning Reference pyy Convective momentum-flux tensor Table 1.7-1 7 Viscous momentum-flux tensor” Table 1.2-1 w= pet+7 Molecular momentum-flux tensor’ Table 1.2-1 =a+pvv Combined momentum-flux tensor Eq. 1.7-2 tre pg cos B (2.2-10) (pg cos B)x + C, (2.2-11) Tz = (pg cos B)x (2.2-13)Velocity Momentum he ! states WIS i Direction \ oheraty 2-3 Final results for the falling film problem, Oe showing the momentum-flux distribution and the \ velocity distribution. The shell of thickness Ax, over which the momentum balance was made, is also shown. > a= og 8B [: - (:)| 22-18) He(i) The maximum velocity V:max is clearly the velocity at x = 0; that is, 88? cos B mw Gi) The average velocity (v,) over a cross section of the film is obtained as follows: Pema = (2.219) Cb - OK) os = PRS OSB a, ae (22-20) (i) The maximum velocity V:max is clearly the velocity at x = 0; that is, 8° cos an = BOE (22-19) 2 Gi) The average velocity (v,) over a cross section of the film is obtained as follows: fsa [oa a ee "T,_ (x¥] fx ~~ ad, 1 K5) Js 2 = PBR CSB a, (22.20) 3H PWS cos B 3p (2.2-21) we r f po.dedy = pW5(o,) = reff" Galediytz = f° [" (-«4 ae jive = wmv Ps6 ok) = pgdLW cos 6 (22-23) ga [He of Sa 2-22) PR COSB VpigWcos BGul e-1= flux of momentum, outatz=L rate of z-momentum in. across annular surface at z = 0 rale of z-momentum out across annular surface at z = L rate of z-momentum in across cylindrical surface at r rate of z-momentum out Fig. 2.3-1 Cylindrical shell of fluid ‘over which the z-momentum bal- ance is made for axial flow in a cir- cular tube (see Eqs. 23-1 to 5), The zmomentum fluxes 6, and 6,, are given in full in Eqs, 2.3-9a and 9b. across cylindrical surface at r + Ar gravity force acting in z direction on cylindrical shell ar (2nd, Desay + QrrANb2)\2-0 — (2rrAr(,.)| - ((heben = thats limn( Pea eee “Se” Sealy gr flux of momentum outat r+ ar ‘Tube wall Omran @3) (2nd D)lem. (23-2) (QmLNg,,), = QmLg,), 23.3) mtr + NLS Dirsae = 2rd Irvar (23-4) (QardrL)pg 235) it Qmrdrl)pg=0 (23-6) )- (ot o> bs ty ox) (23-7) (23-8) (2.3-9a) (2.3-9b)doy (Po— 80 = (Pe - rat) _ (2 -2 ; te) (Soe = tea va y= (= (2.3-10) P-P.)\ C. T= (55? ). +F (2.3-11) | Parabolic velocity | distribution v0) {| Linear momentum- ‘lux distribution rf) Fig. 23-2 The momentum-flux distribution and velocity distribu- tion for the downward flow ina circular tube. ee -(2 = 2, (2.3-15) (2.3-16) _ Po- POR r\¥ = —“Gi [1 \e (23-18)(The maximum velocity 0... Occurs at r = 0 and is ag = PO HOR? Lon 2 OF ing the total volumetric flow rate by (23-19) Gi) The average velocity (0.) is obtained by divic the cross-sectional area I vrird® (9, — ODR (w.) The mass rate of flow w is the product of the cross-sectional area 7’, the density p,and the average velocity (v.) wy = TP= POR Sal This rather famous result is called the Hagen-Poiseuille? equation. Itis used, along, with experimental data for the rate of flow and the modified pressure difference, to determine the viscosity of fluids (see Example 23-1) in a “capillary viscometer.” (iv) The z-component of the force, F., of the fluid on the wetted surface of the pipe is just the shear stress 7,, integrated over the wetted area I (2.3-20) (23-2) dv. 24 4 FL= nn a) ag ROO PD = aR, — p) + 7RLpg (2.3-22) This result states that the viscous force F, is counterbalanced by the net pres- sure force and the gravitational force. This is exactly what one would obtain from making a force balance over the fluid in the tube. Fig. 24-1 The momentum-flux distribution and velocity distribution for the upward flow in a cylindrical annulus. Note that the ‘momentum flux changes sign at the same value of r for which the velocity has a Yeocty maximum. distribution Shear stress ‘or momentum- flux distribution Surface of zerod _ e+ 650) + 80) _ noo) Long =(® aa p= (=r (2.4-1) Z 1), +2 (24-2) @Po-POR|(r R ra S| (E) (8 (24-4) dv, _(Po- PIR (z)- {8 . a muir) *\r Oa) _ PRP a (r a= |e) ~via} + 2.46) BC. 1: atr= KR, Ue Q4-7) BC. 2: atr=R, 2 =0 (24-8) O=K-Wink+Cy 0-14, (2.4-9, 10) =-10 wedek - Gab wa ae (24-11, 12) 3 POR) (« (2.413) _ Po- POR -(z)- 1-” (8) = gar (a) ~inayo "\r Ord(i) The maximum velocity is -9)R pon = Yehean = 22 aw = In A) (24-15) where A’ is given in Eq. 2.4-12. (i The average velocity is given by i PP fest vedrdé DR? J, OP fT rina. J ntrao Sul. «v.) = (2.4-16) (iii) The mass rate of flow is w = mR*0 — K)p{v.), oF Po-PIR |, y A - KF = ~~ Sab [a nw’) Inti/x) (24-17) (iv) The force exerted by the fluid on the solid surfaces is obtained by summing the forces acting on the inner and outer cylinders, as follows: = («RLY — Fel aqa) + QARD+T hn) = AR — «\(P. — Py) 2.418) Velocity distribution Yo- Ave ful s 3u] ae ~) Less dense, less viscous aft Plane of zero shear stress, san (Pw inte] \ Steen a [weal | flux distribution Fig. 2.5-1 Flow of two immiscible fluids between a pair of horizontal plates under the influence of a pressure gradient. (2.5-1) (2.5-2) (25-3) (25-4)de L 1 eee (2 ; Py +O BC.2 BCS: BC.4 from BC. 2: a-c from BC. 3: o= (Mp + So q mat Pi! from B.C. 4: o= (SP) Goes aul PP (2.5-5) (2.5-6) 25-7) (25-8) (2.5-9) (25-10) (25-11) (25-12) (25-13) (25-14) (25-15) (25-16) Q5-17) (2.5-18) (2.5-19)ay ad? pge = PoT POP (Zo! + alt (v1) = if. ede = i ah al (25-20) Po — po? (ul + 7p! “alt ae 1 (= ifs dx = (25-21)