Pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty

and unsafe or unsuitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a
contaminant into a natural environment, but the contaminant doesn't need to be
tangible. Things as simple as light, sound and temperature can be considered pollutants
when introduced artificially into an environment.

Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, according to Pure Earth,
a non-profit environmental organization. In some of the worlds worst polluted places,
babies are born with birth defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life
expectancy may be as low as 45 years because of cancers and other diseases. Read
on to find out more about specific types of pollution.
Land pollution
Land can become polluted by household garbage and by industrial waste. In 2010,
Americans produced about 250 million tons (226.8 million kilograms) of garbage,
consisting of product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps,
newspapers, appliances, paint and batteries. That's about 4.3 pounds (1.95 kg) of waste
per person per day, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). A little over
half of the waste 54 percent is gathered in landfills. Only about 34 percent is
recycled, which is about double the amount recycled in 1980, according to the American
Society of Civil Engineers.
Food is a big contributor to landfill waste. Up to 40 percent of food produced in the
United States is trashed each year, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.
Commercial or industrial waste is a significant portion of solid waste. According to
the University of Utah, industries use 4 million pounds (1.8 million kg) of materials in
order to provide the average American family with needed products for one year. Much
of it is classified as non-hazardous, such as construction material (wood, concrete,
bricks, glass, etc.) and medical waste (bandages, surgical gloves, surgical instruments,
discarded needles, etc.). Hazardous waste is any liquid, solid or sludge waste that
contain properties that are dangerous of potentially harmful to human health or the
environment. Industries generate hazardous waste from mining, petroleum refining,
pesticide manufacturing and other chemical production. Households generate
hazardous waste as well, including paints and solvents, motor oil, fluorescent lights,
aerosol cans, and ammunition

Water pollution
Water pollution
Water pollution happens when chemicals or dangerous foreign substances are
introduced to water, including chemicals, sewage, pesticides and fertilizers from
agricultural runoff, or metals like lead or mercury. According to the EPA, 44 percent of
assessed stream miles, 64 percent of lakes and 30 percent of bay and estuarine areas
are not clean enough for fishing and swimming. The EPA also states that the most
common contaminants in the United States are bacteria, mercury, phosphorus and
nitrogen. These come from the most common sources of contaminants, which include
agricultural runoff, air deposition, water diversions and channelization of streams.

Water pollution isn't just a problem for the United States. According to the United
Nations, 783 million people do not have access to clean water and around 2.5 billion do
not have access to adequate sanitation. Adequate sanitation helps to keep sewage and
other contaminants from entering the water supply.
According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 80 percent of the
pollution in marine environments comes from the land through sources such as runoff.
Water pollution can severely affect marine life. For example, sewage causes pathogens
to grow, while organic and inorganic compounds in water can change the composition
of the precious resource. According to the EPA, low levels of dissolved oxygen in the
water are also considered a pollutant. Dissolved oxygen is caused by the decomposition
of organic materials, such as sewage introduced into the water.
Warming water can also be harmful. The artificial warming of water is called thermal
pollution. It can happen when a factory or power plant that is using water to cool its
operations ends up discharging hot water. This makes the water hold less oxygen,
which can kill fish and wildlife. The sudden change of temperature in the body of water
can also kill fish. According to the University of Georgia, it is estimated that around half of
the water withdrawn from water systems in the United States each year is used for
cooling electric power plants.

"In nearly all cases, 90 percent of this water is returned to its source, where it can raise
the water temperature in an area immediately surrounding the water discharge pipe.
Depending on water flow, the water temperature quickly returns to ambient
temperatures that do not harm fish." Donn Dears, former president of TSAugust, a not-
for-profit corporation focused on energy issues, told Live Science.

Nutrient pollution, also called eutrophication, is another type of water pollution. It is

when nutrients, such as nitrogen, are added into bodies of water. The nutrient works like
fertilizer and makes algae grow at excessive rates, according to NOAA. The algae
blocks light from other plants. The plants die and their decomposition leads to less
oxygen in the water. Less oxygen in the water kills aquatic animals.
One of the most upsetting pollution facts tells us that water
pollution is responsible for thousands of deaths each day. It is
argued to be the most dangerous type of pollution. It includes
raw sewage running into lakes, industrial waste spills that
contaminate bodies of water, radiation spills, illegal dumping of
garbage into lakes, bacterial growth in bodies of water, and farm
runoff into nearby bodies of water. Contaminated drinking water
can cause a laundry list of problems, the most serious being
death. In countries that lack sufficient water cleaning facilities,
death from contaminated water is a common occurrence.

According to pollution facts, the easiest way to slow down the

pollution of our planet involves individual responsibility. This
means that, as an individual, you need to take the proper steps to
reducing your waste and finding smarter ways to use resources.
This could be using public modes of transportation instead of
traveling by car, conserving energy by switching off lights,
recycling everything that you can, looking into alternative sources
of energy (wind and solar), and using energy efficient devices.
New appliances are able to consume less electricity, reduce
electricity bills, and help to reduce pollution.

Land Pollution can be prevented by the proper disposing of the litter. What is even better at
reducing land pollution, or the various types of pollution, is to reduce your trash. Reducing
consumption, reusing old items for new purposes or recycling are some ways to reduce our
waste.

Also, environmentally friendly agricultural practices such as the use of organic fertilizers and
organic pesticides, instead of conventional chemical based ones, could also help to reduce
the amount of toxic chemicals introduced into the land. Read more about how to stop land
pollution.
Read more: http://www.all-recycling-facts.com/main-types-of-
pollution.html#ixzz4TeBgY7r7

Land pollution is another of the main types of pollution to the environment. Land pollution is
mainly about the contamination and degradation of Earths land surfaces.

It occurs when waste from various sources domestic waste, industrial waste, etc are not
properly disposed of, causing harmful substances and chemicals to leach into the ground.
Read about various type of pollution on land.

In the landfills, non-biodegradable materials like plastic bottles, Styrofoam and cans can
remain buried and intact for thousands of years, leaching chemicals into the ground over
the years. Electronic products that contain heavy metals like lead and mercury also leach
poisonous toxins into the ground. These chemicals and heavy metals sometimes reach the
underground water system and pollute our water bodies. Read about land pollution facts.

That is why it is important to recycle, rather than just sending all your unwanted items to
the garbage bin.

Environmentally unfriendly mineral exploitation practices and the misuse of soil by harmful
agricultural practices can also lead to land pollution. Read about how such practices are
cause of land pollution. Also, read more about soil pollution and soil pollution facts.

Read more: http://www.all-recycling-facts.com/main-types-of-

pollution.html#ixzz4TeBrOuDU

1 Introduction

1.1 Objective

The objective of the paper is to examine the social and psychological effects of overcrowding in
Palestinian refugee camps in the West Bank and Gaza.

1.2 Structure of paper

The inquiry proceeds in three main segments. Section 2 summarizes the theoretical and empirical
literature on overcrowding in developing and developed countries. The limited number of studies on social
pressures from overcrowding in Palestinian refugee camps are looked at. The literature on health effects
of overcrowding is treated separately, as are empirical measures used by researchers to gauge the
extent of overcrowding.

Section 3 focuses on the specific social and psychological effects of overcrowding in refugee camps in
the West Bank and Gaza by drawing both on available empirical studies relating to the issues as well as
on data obtained through interviews with officials of non-governmental organizations and UNRWA
representatives responsible for provision of social services in the camps. In Section 4, information and
profiles are provided on non-governmental organizations in two segments that list: NGOs with
programmes addressing problems resulting from overcrowding in the camps; and, NGOs with
programmes directed at other segments of the population but which may be extended to address the
needs of refugee camp residents. The conclusion provides a recap of the findings as well as
recommendations.

1.3 A note on the research process

It should be emphasized that the findings and conclusions made in this paper remain preliminary. Some
constraints were encountered during the collection of interview data via telephone, including difficulties
reaching people by telephone due to the time differences, and by email due to both technical problems in
the West Bank and Gaza with email transmission. Furthermore, numerous people were on vacation and
thus unavailable during the time that the interviews were conducted. Perhaps most importantly, many
individuals who were contacted were reluctant to give information over the telephone, especially on the
issues relating to the social psychological effects of overcrowding. Those who were most able to provide
first-hand information on the health and psychological pressures faced by refugees in the camps
(physicians working in UNRWA clinics) were also the more difficult to reach by telephone, and the most
pressed for time when they were contacted; they were also the least likely to have access to email
facilities, and the most constrained in terms of the information they felt they were able to provide in their
capacity as medical professionals. Also, the limited time and scope of the study did not allow for
verification or cross referencing of the information obtained in interviews. Despite these limitations, a
good deal of information was collected, mostly on specific conditions in particular refugee camps, as well
as general information on the overall situation and effects of overcrowding. Finally, intense interest in the
issues of overcrowding, and the present research in particular, was expressed by both UNRWA and NGO
representatives I spoke with.

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The Literature on Social and Psychological Effects of Overcrowding: An explanatory note

There is a substantial body of literature on the social and psychological effects of overcrowding, though
its focus is primarily on urban environments and households in industrialized countries. Theoretical as
well as empirical studies of overcrowding in the context of the Middle East in general, and the West Bank
and Gaza Strip in particular, are sparse. Similarly, the impact of household or urban overcrowding on the
social and psychological well-being of citizens of Third World cities and refugee camps remains largely
unknown. Furthermore, studies which look at the social and psychological concerns of refugees focus on
their adaptation processes in host countries. And empirical studies on refugee camp conditions tend to
be oriented toward pragmatic concerns of aid and service delivery, rather than on social pressures
resulting from overcrowding.

Despite these gaps and shortcomings, there are important theoretical concepts and findings on social and
psychological effects of overcrowding which are useful to an examination of the issue in the context of the
West Bank and Gaza. In particular, studies conducted on household overcrowding in Bangkok (Fuller et
al. 1993; 1996), India (Ruback and Pandey 1991), Jakarta and Bissau (Guinea Bissau) (UNCHS 1995),
as well as Chicago (Gove and Hughes 1983) provide important insights.

The review of literature focuses on theoretical concepts and notes some conclusions of researchers
regarding social and psychological effects of overcrowding within households and urban communities.
Particular attention is given to dimensions most often addressed in the literature: social behaviour and
relationships, psychological well-being, and physical health. Also outlined in this section are the indicators
employed by researchers to measure overcrowding, as well as selected findings from surveys of
household and refugee camp conditions in the West Bank and Gaza.

2.1 Important theoretical concepts on overcrowding

Social and psychological effects of overcrowding are looked at in the literature from various disciplines,
including sociology, psychology, urban geography, behavioural sciences, and epidemiology. A number of
classic studies focus on the effects of overcrowding in both human and animal populations. The classic
work by Simmel, The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903), looked at the coping mechanisms of the
individual in the context of urban crowding. These coping mechanisms, including retreating into personal
space for psychological and emotional renewal, were jeopardized by the multitude and variety of social
interactions, resulting in sensory overload on the part of the individual within the increasing population
density of city centres. Such early theoretical formulations influenced later studies that maintained a focus
on the individual in society.

Overcrowding and crowding are used interchangeably in the literature. (This study tends to use the
former term, though no distinction is intended.) Overcrowding is usually defined as the presence of too
many people in the available space and facilities. The concept and measurement of overcrowding vary
greatly between continents, countries, regions, and communities, and depend on cultural, social,
economic, seasonal, geographical, and political factors (Clauson-Kaas 1996:351). Studies of
overcrowding are usually conducted at two main levels: the household level, measured in persons per
area of living space; and area level, measured in people per area of land. Other levels of crowding that
are also pertinent, especially in studies of health effects of crowding, are room-level (including bed
crowding) and building-level crowding.

Gove and Hughes (1983) distinguish between objective crowding and subjective crowding (1983:74).
Objective crowding is measured quantitatively at the household level by number of persons per room.
Subjective crowding, on the other hand, refers to ones perception of not having enough space in the
home (Gove and Hughes 1983:xvii).

The literature distinguishes further between social density (the number of people interacting in the
household) and spatial density (the floor space per person) (Ruback and Pandley 1991).

These concepts are all pertinent to the context of Palestinian refugee camps in the West Bank and Gaza.
The notion of subjective crowding comes into play as refugees link the conditions of overcrowding in the
camps to their long-standing frustrations with the wider political issue. The sense that their plight has for
so long been ignored and remains unresolved increases their frustrations with conditions in the camps
and affects how they experience the objective conditions of overcrowding.

2.2 Selected findings in the literature on overcrowding

In what is widely recognised as a seminal study of overcrowing in households, entitled Overcrowding in

the Household: An Analysis of Determinants and Effects, Gove and Hughes (1983) conclude that the
number of rooms available per person plays a critical role in determining the nature of interactions in the
household, and is related to poor mental and physical health. They found also that objective crowding
affects negatively parents relationships and interactions with their young children, sexual behaviour
between couples, and social relationships with those living outside the home. A central aspect of
subjective overcrowding is a "felt lack of privacy," including a feeling of lack of control over others access
to information about oneself and ones life.

Gove and Hughes (1983) investigation also produced evidence that the relationship of subjective
experience of crowding to mental health is stronger than the relationship between persons per room
(objective crowding) and mental health (Gove and Hughes 1983:75). Gove and Hughes underscore the
fact that perceptions of overcrowding are an important aspect of the lived reality, and should be
considered as such. In other words, perceptions (subjective crowding) toward their environment need to
be considered as of parallel importance as the quantifiably measured conditions of overcrowding
(objective crowding). This finding is useful for informing researchers and stakeholders concerned about
the issue of overcrowding in refugee camps in the West Bank and Gaza.
Gove and Hughes assert that the subjective experience of overcrowding is determined by too many social
demands and a lack of privacy, and that the experience of these interferes with ones behaviour and
mental health. They also find that crowding has a greater effect on mental health for women (Gove and
Hughes 1983:16).

Fullers study of psychological well-being and household overcrowding in Thailand considers crowding as
a chronic stress which is accompanied by lack of privacy. He found that wives who feel they lack privacy
are more likely to contemplate suicide (Fuller et al. 1996:276). Fullers studies on overcrowding are
unique in their attempts to unravel the complex interaction between individual behaviours, the physical
environment, and cultural norms and expectations which mitigate the effects (Fuller et al. 1993, 1996).

Baum and Komans study of the psychological effects of social and spatial density found that people living
in high social density environments were more likely to become socially withdrawn, while responses to
spatial density would be include aggressive behaviour (Baum and Koman 1976). Other findings in the
literature include the selective and modest effects of overcrowding on human sexual behaviour (Edwards
and Booth 1977). Crowding in the household is also seen to exacerbate the effects of high density in the
surrounding area. High population density in urban areas, in particular, "the disintegration of small
community associations that give individuals health social contacts, security, social control, personal
identification and stability of culture" is linked to increased levels of emotional stress, social
disorganization, and physical conflict (Morgan 1972). It has been also found that anxiety and hostility tend
to intensify over time in situations of overcrowding (Zeedyk, et al. 1983).

Although the effects of overcrowding per se have not been thoroughly studied in the West Bank and
Gaza, there is data on housing conditions in Palestinian refugee camps in and around Amman, Jordan,
which has been collected (Abu Helwa and Birgh 1993). And there is an important source of data on
housing conditions among refugee camp, village, and city residents of the West Bank and Gaza that is
available (Heiberg 1993).

These surveys provide important baseline information about density. For example, in the camps in
Amman, there was an average of 3.9 persons per room among the sampled households, with half living
at a density of 4 or more persons per room and about 5 percent living at 8 or more persons per room.
Moreover, the survey found that noise outside the home was equally a cause for dissatisfaction as was
lack of space within it. It also found that households which had lived in the area longer were less satisfied
with their living conditions than shorter-term residence, reflecting perhaps a build-up of frustration over
many years. Observations on the social effects of overcrowding are indirect. For example, the authors
note that the school dropout rate among refugee children in the camps in Jordan lags well behind that for
the population of Jordan as a whole. It is not clear whether a correlation can be made between this fact
and the condition of overcrowding (Abu Helwa and Birch 1993:407, 409-11).

The survey of housing conditions in the occupied territories, conducted by Marianne Heiberg as part of a
comprehensive survey of living conditions undertaken by FAFO also makes observations on satisfaction
levels of residents. The report confirms the significance of extraneous factors in an individuals
satisfaction with their home environment. Heiberg notes, for example, that the experience of
overcrowding within homes is dramatically affected by human density in adjoining space. She states:

It makes a great deal of difference to a persons sense of overcrowdedness if an overcrowded household

is surrounded by large, tranquil areas of agricultural land or is tightly and noisily entrapped between other
overcrowded households (Heiberg 1993:86-87).

From the FAFO survey we know conclusively that refugee camps in Gaza have the highest density (in the
West Bank and Gaza) in terms of persons per room, and that overcrowding of Gaza households is
exacerbated by the high congestion in Gaza generally (Heiberg 1993:86). Other data, including municipal
services, which impact on the general welfare of residents, was not collected; nor was the survey aimed
at assessing social and psychological effects of housing conditions and overcrowding.
Given that there are no studies examining mental health effects of overcrowding in Palestinian camps,
one can try to glean from related literature and studies. A study of the psychological effects of the Intifada
on Palestinian children in West Bank refugee camps, villages, and cities (Baker 1991) is interesting and
useful on two counts. Its findings are disaggregated and enable an analysis of the particular psychological
effects experienced by children in the camps; and the study suggests the importance of looking at the
ongoing mental health effects of the stresses experienced during the Intifada. Baker found that conduct
problems (in particular, fighting with others, jealousy, irresponsibility) were more severe among children in
refugee camps, as compared to those in villages and cities (Baker 1991:241). The most pressing
psychopathology problem during the Intifada was fear of leaving the home (Baker 1991:243).

Whether and how these psychological problems might manifest in the present period and in the future
would require further study. The studys conclusions do indicate the importance of examining the
relationship of different stress to psychological pressures caused by overcrowding.

A study by Samir Qouta, et al., on the mental health effects of house demolition in Gaza concludes that in
traumatic conditions womens mental health is especially vulnerable. The nature of the traumatic
experience determines the extent and nature of psychological problems (Qouta, et al. 1997:209).
Overcrowding, generally, is considered a chronic stress which exacerbates other stresses.

The health effects of overcrowding are more quantifiable than are psychological effects. The following
sections examines findings in the literature on the relationship between overcrowding and health.

2.3 Overcrowding and health

Until the last two decades, it has been assumed that people living in crowded conditions have ill health
because they are poor. European data from the turn of the century considers overcrowding as being
synonymous with poor housing conditions. Importantly, writers made no attempt to ask why overcrowding
as such would lead to poor health. Overcrowding, unhygienic and unsanitary conditions were assumed
to explain the poor health conditions and high mortality rates among the working classes (Halliday 1928;
Wright 1942; ref: UNCHS 1995).

This concern about the link between housing conditions and health disappeared with medical
advancements in the 1940s (UNCHS 1995:6). More recently, concern about the health impact of
overcrowding is emerging in both developed and developing countries in conjunction with malnutrition
and lack of sanitary hygiene. One of the first attempts to quantitatively ascertain the relationship between
in-house crowding and health was undertaken by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat) in 1992. In the course of a two-year study of two urban communities in Bissau, Guinea Bissau
and Jakarta, Indonesia, overcrowding was measured at the level of room, household, building, and area.

The study affirms that the transmission of disease increases among people living closely together
(UNCHS 1995:6). Specifically, overcrowding increases the risk of infection as the number of potential
transmitters is increased. The result is that children and adults living in crowded conditions get more
infections and more severe infections.

Young children carry the largest burden of morbidity and mortality. Hence, many small children in a
household increase the risk of acquiring a communicable disease for all household members. In the case
of a number of highly communicable diseases, young children are more potent transmitters than older
children and adults (UNCHS 1995:45). The UNCHS study investigates crowding as a risk factor for low
birth weight, diarrhoeal morbidity and childhood mortality. The study suggests that rather than the
traditional measure of persons per room, a better indicator is bed crowding and crowding of small
children as these seem to give a more sensitive indication of crowding as a risk to increased mortality
(UNCHS 1995:16).
The higher risks of infection leads to infection at a younger age which, in turn, is a determinant of severity
and fatality of the disease. The higher number of susceptible individuals per family is a risk factor for
mortality. Overcrowding is also considered to increase the risk of, in particular, the long-term adverse
effects of infections (UNCHS 1995:7-8).

Several studies suggest that illnesses such as whooping cough, polio, diarrhoea, malaria, meningitis,
acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI), influenza, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, helminth diseases, stunting,
chronic diseases, and stress may be related to crowding (Bradley, et al. 1992:6). There is clearly a
recognition of the need to improve human settlements with the purpose of improving health. The UNCHS
(1995) underlines the importance of the provision of water supply and sanitation for households, with
expected benefits being a decrease in diarrhoeal, intestinal, and respiratory diseases (in developing
countries the respiratory diseases are the dominating cause of disease burden for children under 5, a
leading cause for the age group 5 to 14, and the dominating communicable disease for adults and the
elderly) (UNCHS 1995:55).

Child health and safety issues are touched on briefly in analysis of survey data on housing in the West
Bank and Gaza (Heiberg 1993:94-5). One of the more interesting pieces of data collected in FAFOs
survey of housing notes that West Bank refugee camp residents find their houses two times safer than
Gaza camp residents, implying, according to Heiberg, a relationship between the human density of the
house and perceptions of the safety that the house affords young children.

Because peoples behaviour and cultural practices mitigate environmental effects of crowding, it is
important to examine area crowding in terms of how individuals interact with the surrounding physical and
social conditions. The 1993 World Health Organization document on guidelines for developing strategies
related to health, environment and development provides what is considered a broad, socio-political and
progressive definition of the environment. It states:

in relation to human health the environment includes not only the physical and biological elements of
nature, but also human-based systemscultural, artifactual, economic, political, technological, spiritual
and relationalthat make up the settings in which people live (Shaefer 1993).