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Int. Nanotechnology
Int. Nanotechnology
Introduction t
1. Introduction to Nanotechnology
Introduction
by B. Bhushan
A biological system can be exceedingly small.
Many of the cells are very tiny, but they are very
active; they manufacture various substances; they
walk around; they wiggle; and they do all kinds of
marvelous things all on a very small scale. Also,
1.1 Background and Definition
they store information. Consider the possibility of Nanotechnology ............................... 1
that we too can make a thing very small which
does what we want that we can manufacture 1.2 Why Nano?........................................... 2
an object that maneuvers at that level. 1.3 Lessons from Nature ............................. 2
(From the talk Theres Plenty of Room at the 1.4 Applications in Different Fields .............. 3
Bottom, delivered by Richard P. Feynman at the
annual meeting of the American Physical Society at 1.5 Reliability Issues of MEMS/NEMS ............. 4
the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, 1.6 Organization of the Handbook............... 5
CA, on December 29, 1959.)
References .................................................. 5
Nanometer-scale features are mainly built up from The micro- and nanosystems include micro/nano-
Introduction
their elemental constituents. Chemical synthesis the electromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS) (e.g., sen-
spontaneous self-assembly of molecular clusters (mo- sors, actuators, and miniaturized systems comprising
lecular self-assembly) from simple reagents in solution sensing, processing, and/or actuating functions), micro-
or biological molecules (e.g., DNA) are used as mechatronics, optoelectronics, microfluidics, and sys-
building blocks for the production of three-dimensional tems integration. These systems can sense, control, and
nanostructures, including quantum dots (nanocrystals) activate on the micro/nanoscale and function individu-
of arbitrary diameter (about 10 to 105 atoms). A var- ally or in arrays to generate effects on the macroscale.
iety of vacuum deposition and nonequilibrium plasma The microsystems market in 2000 was about $ 15 bil-
chemistry techniques are used to produce layered lion, and, with a projected 1020 % annual growth rate,
nanocomposites and nanotubes. Atomically controlled it is expected to increase to more than $ 100 billion by
structures are produced using molecular beam epitaxy the end of this decade. The nanosystems market in 2001
and organo-metallic vapor phase epitaxy. Micro- and was about $ 100 million and the integrated nanosys-
nanosystem components are fabricated using top-down tems market is expected to be more than $ 25 billion
lithographic and nonlithographic fabrication techniques by the end of this decade. Due to the enabling na-
and range in size from micro- to nanometers. Continued ture of these systems, and because of the significant
improvements in lithography for use in the produc- impact they can have on the commercial and defense
tion of nanocomponents have resulted in line widths applications, venture capitalists, industry, as well as
as small as 10 nanometers in experimental prototypes. the federal government have taken a special interest
The nanotechnology field, in addition to the fabrication in nurturing growth in this field. Micro- and nanosys-
of nanosystems, provides the impetus to development of tems are likely to be the next logical step in the silicon
experimental and computational tools. revolution.
Introduction
Science and technology continue to move forward in wobble motors and actuators for tip-based recording
making the fabrication of micro/nanodevices and sys- schemes have also been fabricated [1.24].
tems possible for a variety of industrial, consumer, and BIOMEMS are increasingly used in commercial and
biomedical applications. A range of MEMS devices defense applications (e.g., [1.4,2528]). Applications of
have been produced, some of which are commercially BIOMEMS include biofluidic chips (otherwise known
used [1.4, 812]. A variety of sensors are used in indus- as microfluidic chips, bioflips, or simply biochips)
trial, consumer, and biomedical applications. Various for chemical and biochemical analyses (biosensors)
microstructures or microcomponents are used in micro- in medical diagnostics (e.g., DNA, RNA, proteins,
instruments and other industrial applications, such as cells, blood pressure and assays, and toxin identifi-
micromirror arrays. Two of the largest killer indus- cation) and implantable pharmaceutical drug delivery.
trial applications are accelerometers (about 85 million The biosensors, also referred to as lab-on-a-chip, inte-
units in 2002) and digital micromirror devices (about grate sample handling, separation, detection, and data
$ 400 million in sales in 2001). Integrated capacitive- analysis onto one platform. Biosensors are designed
type, silicon accelerometers have been used in airbag to either detect a single or class of (bio)chemicals or
deployment in automobiles since 1991 [1.13, 14]. system-level analytical capabilities for a broad range
Accelerometer technology was about a billion-dollar- of (bio)chemical species known as micro total analysis
a-year industry in 2001, dominated by Analog Devices systems (TAS). The chips rely on microfluidics and
followed by Motorola and Bosch. Commercial digital involve the manipulation of tiny amounts of fluids in
light processing (DLP) equipment using digital micro- microchannels using microvalves for various analyses.
mirror devices (DMD) were launched in 1996 by Texas The test fluid is pumped into the chip generally using
Instruments for digital projection displays in portable an external pump for analyses. Some chips have been
and home theater projectors, as well as table-top and designed with an integrated electrostatically actuated
projection TVs [1.15, 16]. More than 1.5 million pro- diaphragm-type micropump. Silicon-based, disposable
jectors were sold before 2002. Other major industrial blood-pressure sensor chips were introduced in the
applications include pressure sensors, inkjet printer early 1990s by NovaSensor for blood pressure moni-
heads, and optical switches. Silicon-based piezoresis- toring (about 20 million units in 2002). A variety of
tive pressure sensors for manifold absolute pressure biosensors are manufactured by various companies, in-
sensing for engines were launched in 1991 by Nova- cluding ACLARA, Agilent Technologies, Calipertech,
Sensor, and their annual sales were about 25 million and I-STAT.
units in 2002. Annual sales of inkjet printer heads with After the tragedy of Sept. 11, 2001, concern over
microscale functional components were about 400 mil- biological and chemical warfare has led to the develop-
lion units in 2002. Capacitive pressure sensors for ment of handheld units with bio- and chemical sensors
tire pressure measurements were launched by Mo- for the detection of biological germs, chemical or nerve
torola. Other applications of MEMS devices include agents, mustard agents, and chemical precursors to
chemical sensors; gas sensors; infrared detectors and protect subways, airports, the water supply, and the
focal plane arrays for earth observations; space sci- population [1.29].
ence and missile defense applications; pico-satellites for Other BIOMEMS applications include minimal
space applications; and many hydraulic, pneumatic, and invasive surgery, such as endoscopic surgery, laser
other consumer products. MEMS devices are also be- angioplasty, and microscopic surgery. Implantable ar-
ing pursued in magnetic storage systems [1.17], where tificial organs can also be produced.
they are being developed for super-compact and ultra- Micro-instruments and micro-manipulators are used
high recording-density magnetic disk drives. Several to move, position, probe, pattern, and characterize
integrated head/suspension microdevices have been fab- nanoscale objects and nanoscale features. Miniatur-
ricated for contact recording applications [1.18, 19]. ized analytical equipment includes gas chromatography
High-bandwidth, servo-controlled microactuators have and mass spectrometry. Other instruments include
been fabricated for ultrahigh track-density applications, micro-STM, where STM stands for scanning tunneling
which serve as the fine-position control element of microscope.
a two-stage, coarse/fine servo system, coupled with Examples of NEMS include nanocomponents, nano-
a conventional actuator [1.2023]. Millimeter-sized devices, nanosystems, and nanomaterials, such as
microcantilever with integrated sharp nanotips for STM micro/nanoparticles with drug molecules encapsulated
Introduction
and atomic force microscopy (AFM), AFM array (milli- in functionized shells for a site-specific targeting ap-
pede) for data storage, AFM tips for nanolithography, plication, and a silicon capsule with a nanoporous
dip-pen nanolithography for printing molecules, bio- membrane filled with drugs for long term delivery,
logical (DNA) motors, molecular gears, molecularly nanodevices for sequencing single molecules of DNA
thick films (e.g., in giant magneto-resistive or GMR in the Human Genome Project, cellular growth using
heads and magnetic media), nanoparticles, (e.g., nano- carbon nanotubes for spinal cord repair, nanotubes for
magnetic particles in magnetic media), nanowires, nanostructured materials for various applications, such
carbon nanotubes, quantum wires (QWRs), quan- as spinal fusion devices, organ growth, and growth of
tum boxes (QBs), and quantum transistors [1.3034]. artificial tissues using nanofibers.
BIONEMS include nanobiosensors a microarray of Nanoelectronics can be used to build computer mem-
silicon nanowires, roughly a few nm in size, to selec- ory, using individual molecules or nanotubes to store bits
tively bind and detect even a single biological molecule, of information, as well as molecular switches, molecu-
such as DNA or protein, by using nanoelectronics to de- lar or nanotube transistors, nanotube flat-panel displays,
tect the slight electrical charge caused by such binding, nanotube integrated circuits, fast logic gates, switches,
or a microarray of carbon nanotubes to electrically de- nanoscopic lasers, and nanotubes as electrodes in fuel
tect glucose, implantable drug-delivery devices e.g., cells.