Chapter 1

Nature, Scope and Significance of Political

Science
Political Science is the systematic study of politics. It means the
study, not the practice of politics. Political Science is an ancient
field of learning which can be traced to the creative genius of
the Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries BC and, most of all,
to the Athenians. The Oriental peoples, of course, had
speculated on the State and its problems even before the
Greeks but they mixed up the study of politics with a great deal
of religion, mythology and superstition. It was the Greeks who
first made an attempt to develop an independent science of
politics and gave it a pure and systematic form. Robert A. Dahl
observes: It was in Athens that Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
raised to the highest level of intellectual endeavour the kinds of
questions about politics that concern thoughtful men down to
the present day".

Definition and Meaning of Political Science

The terms 'politics' and 'political science' have been derived
from the Greek word 'polis' which means 'City-State'. For the
Greeks 'politics' meant the science of the City-State which was
the highest organization of the community through which men
strove for moral perfection. Thus Aristotle's celebrated treatise
has for its title the name Politics. Scholars of an earlier
generation like Jellinek, Holtzendorff and Sidgwick prefer the
term politics to political science which is the current terminology.
Politics today means applied or practical politics dealing with
day-to-day public affairs and the actual problems of
government. Those who take part in the actual conduct and
management of the State, government, political parties etc. are
known as politicians. On the other hand political science refers
to the theoretical aspects of the study of politics a systematic
body of knowledge relating to the phenomena of the State.

Using the term politics in the broadest sense, Sir Frederick

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Pollock divides it into theoretical politics and practical or applied
politics. Under the first he includes: (a) the theory of the State,
(b) the theory of government, (c) the theory of legislation, and
(d) the theory of State as an artificial person. Under the second
head are included: (a) the State (actual forms of government),
(b) the government (the working of government, administration
etc), laws and legislation, and (c) the State personified
(diplomacy, peace, war, and international relations). Thus
everything that relates to the basic problems of the State
including the principles of political organization and
administration falls within the domain of 'theoretical' politics,
while that which is concerned with actual working of the
government and other political institutions comes under
'practical' or applied politics. The majority of writers, however,
prefer the term political science to theoretical politics and the
simple term politics to applied or practical politics.

The term political science in its current usage is, however,

more comprehensive than the term politics. It includes both
theoretical and applied politics. It includes both the theory or
State and the actual conduct of affairs of State. From the
plethora of definitions of political science, a few representative
ones may be cited for an understanding of the nature and
central theme of political science. In the words of the French
scholar Paul Janet, "Political Science is that part of social
science which treats the foundation of the State and the
principles of government". The Swiss scholar Bluntschli defined
political science as "the science which is concerned with the
State, which endeavours to understand and comprehend the
state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, its
various forms of manifestation, its development." Gilchrist
defined it as "a study of State and Government". According to
Gettell, political science is "a historical investigation of what the
State has been, an analytical study of what the State is and a
politico-ethical discussion of what the State should be". Laski
observes that "the study of politics concerns itself with the life of
man in relation to organized States." J. W. Garner holds "that

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the phenomena of the state in its varied aspects and
relationships constitute the subject of political science. In short,
political science begins and ends with the State".

The traditional definitions of political science have kept it

confined to state, government and formal political institutions.
The State as the most universal and powerful association of
human beings and its apparatus, and the government are
obviously at the very centre of political science. Concern with
'political order' brought an emphasis on constitutions and laws
which have remained an important ingredient of the discipline.
Associations and organizations like political parties and
pressure groups that help to determine what the organs of
government actually do are very much a part and parcel of the
study of political science.
The traditional view of politics (institutional-legal
approach) was challenged by scholars like Arthur F. Bentley,
Graham Wallas, Walter Lippmann and Charles E. Merrium in
the first quarter of the twentieth century who put stress on the
psychological and sociological variables of politics. Later
scholars like Harold Lasswell, Kaplan, V.O. Key Jr., David
Truman, David Easton, Herbert Simon and Gabriel Almond
gave a new orientation to Political Science by putting focus on
political behaviour as central object of political enquiry. Some of
the definitions of the modern scholars highlight this new
orientation of political science as an academic discipline.
Lasswell and Kaplan regard political science as 'policy science'
and defined it ''as an empirical discipline, the study of the
shaping and sharing of power." Hillman writes that "politics is
the science of who gets what, when and why." David Easton
observes that "Political Science is concerned with the
authoritative allocation of values for a society". Values or
resources are limited and political science is primarily
concerned with the allocation of values to individuals and
groups in society. D. E. Butler writes: "Politics is entirely
concerned with people, with the way in which they react to
decisions. It cannot usefully be studied except in the light of

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actual behaviour." Thus the behaviouralists projected a broad
perspective of political science by shifting the focus from
institutions and structures to functions and processes.

Political Science as a major social science deals with the

relationship among men in organized societies and the
relationship between man and the State. Despite recent
developments in the discipline, the central problem of political
science is how best to strike a balance between the authority of
the State and the liberty of the individual. In a good State the
laws of the State enrich the content of liberty and facilitate the
development of human personality. In the modern world there is
a high degree of cooperation among the States and political
science deals with the forces and processes of such
cooperation.

Nature of Politics
Political Science is, of course, the study of politics in both its
theoretical and practical aspects. But the meaning of politics
has never been precise or static. The nature of politics may
briefly be discussed from three broad points of view, namely,
the liberal, the Marxian and the modern.

Liberal view of Politics

Liberal view of politics is a product of Renaissance and
Reformation in Europe. It has dominated Western political
thinking from the 17th century to the present. In the 19 th century
classical negative liberalism transformed itself into positive,
humane liberalism by the challenges of idealism and Marxism.
Liberal views on politics are founded on liberal views of man
and society. Individual is the centre of the study of politics and
society is an aggregation of free, competing individuals. Politics
is required to resolve conflicts among competing individuals and
maintenance of order, cooperation and harmony. Modern
liberals put stress upon the role of politics to serve the common
good of the community and to secure to all justice and welfare.
Politics again is a process to bring about peaceful and orderly

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change in society. Politics and State are not the monopoly of
any single class. The aim of politics is to establish unity and
stability in the face of the diversities and conflicts which
characterise societies.

Marxian view of Politics

Marx added a new dimension to political and social thought
which radically altered the nature and content of politics in the
20th century. It forced individualistic (classical) liberalism to
modify itself in the direction of positive welfarism. Marxism put
stress upon the innate goodness and sociality of man. It does
not find any basic conflict in man's self interest and social
interest. Modes of production or economic factors are the most
important in determining the political, legal, social, moral, and
cultural condition of societies. On the basis of the relations of
production class divisions of society take place and politics
reflects the struggle between classes. The State comes into
being when society is characterised by class conflict. It
becomes an instrument of class rule - the economically
dominant class rules over and exploits the economically
dispossessed. Politics cannot bring to an end the class struggle
which reflects the economic disparities in society.

The notion of common good of the community, in which

the liberals pin their faith, does not hold good for the Marxist so
long as society is class-ridden. The ultimate goal for exploited
and oppressed human beings is to achieve a classless society
which can be brought about by revolutionary struggle. The
working class in capitalist states can emancipate themselves
only by taking resort to revolutionary politics. In a classless
society there is no need for the State and hence the state
withers away. The Marxian view, as opposed to the liberal
view, looks at politics as an instrument of class conflict and not
as a conflict-resolving activity or welfare activity. It supports the
'conflict model' as opposed to the 'consensus model' in politics.
For the Marxists politics is a reflection of class struggle and is
used by those who own the means of production and

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distribution to safeguard their interests and to perpetuate their
overall hegemony in society.

Modern View
An analysis of the views of modern political scientists brings out
three outstanding elements of politics, namely, power, conflict
and consensus.

(i) Politics as Power and Influence: Machiavelli, Max Weber,

Bertrand Russel, Harold Lasswell, Kaplan, Catlin and Hans
Morganthau interpret politics in terms of power. Morganthau
says that "politics is struggle for power" a game played to
attain and maintain power. Lasswell and Kaplan write: "The
concept of power is perhaps the most fundamental in the
whole of political science; the political process is shaping,
distribution and exercise of power". Robert A. Dahl observes:
"Politics arises, whenever there are people living together in
associations, whenever they are involved in conflicts and
whenever they are subject to some kind of power, rulership,
or authority. These phenomena exist everywhere, therefore
politics is everywhere". Guild and Palmer plead that the
subject of politics should be power instead of the State. One
advantage that power has over earlier concepts of politics is
that it focuses attention on a process, not on a legal
abstraction such as State. Political science becomes the
study of the way power is accumulated, used and controlled
in modern society. Another advantage of using power as the
central concept is that political science pays greater heed to
man, especially the political man, as a basic unit of analysis.

(ii)Politics as Conflict and Controversy: Another element in a

definition of politics is controversy. J. D. B. Miller holds that
diversity is a permanent condition of man's social life. Social
diversities lead to conflicts which need settlement. "Politics is
a natural reflex of the divergences between the members of a
society." Quincy Wright says, "Politics exists only when ends
or means are controversial." Politics may be defined as

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 struggle among actors pursuing conflicting desires on public
Issues. Karl Marx viewed conflict as the central interest in the
study of politics. His theory has only two mutually exclusive
social types: a society of conflict (pre-communist) and a
society of harmony (communistic). Alex de Tocqueville was
the first to support the idea that democracy involves a
balance between the forces of conflict and consensus.

(iii) Politics as Cooperation and Consensus: While conflict and

controversy, debates and dissentions are frequently
associated with politics, concentration on them to the
exclusion of agreement or consensus would give an
incomplete picture of the political world. Human interests not
only clash but also coincide. Sometimes fundamentals are
agreed on and only specifics are the subject of argument but
there are times when even basics become the area of clash.
Austin Ranney holds that political systems encompass not
only the competing demands but also aggregative and
integrative forces as well. Robert A. Dahl and others highlight
the consensual basis of politics. There is consensus among
groups and individuals because the interests of each are
acknowledged and accommodated. The integrative function
of the polity promotes the much desired consensus in society.

Scope of Political Science

The scope of political science implies its area of study or
subject matter. It is a very comprehensive and expanding social
science. Political scientists are seldom agreed about its scope.
An attempt was made by the International Political Science
Association in Paris in 1948 to delineate the scope of political
science. It demarcated the scope into four zones, viz., Political
Theory, Political Institution (Constitution, National Government,
Regional and Local Government, and Comparative Political
Institution), Political Dynamics (Parties, Groups and Public
Opinion), and International Relations. As can be seen below,
the expanding frontier of political science goes beyond this
delimitation.

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(1) Political Theory
It deals with the whole body of principles pertaining to the
evolution, nature and functions of the State. It deals with the
definition and meaning of basic concepts like state,
government, law, liberty, equality, sovereignty, separation of
powers, representation, democracy, political obligation, and
various ideologies. A clear understanding of such concepts is
essential for the study of political science. A student of political
science starts his lessons with political theory.

(2) Political Philosophy

Some scholars treat political theory and political philosophy as
synonymous. But most others maintain a distinction between
the two and demarcate the areas of each. Political philosophy is
concerned with the theoretical and speculative consideration of
the fundamental principles used by political science. J. H.
Hollowell observes that political philosophy is not concerned so
much with political institutions as with the ideas and aspirations
that are embodied in institutions. Eminent political philosophers
like Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau,
Hegel, Mill, Marx, and Gandhi have given their views on the
nature, functions and ends of the state and government. On the
basis of their ideas political theory defines political concepts. An
important function of political philosophy has been to project
values, norms and ideals which political institutions strive to
attain.

(3) Political Institutions

It covers the study of various political institutions and
administrative systems of different countries. Comparative
government and comparative politics come under this category.
The study of constitutions and political institutions of various
countries enables the political scientists to evolve sound and
workable principles for the conduct of government.

(4) Political Dynamics

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It refers to the forces and processes at work in government and
politics. These may be social, economic and psychological.
They influence and explain political action. It includes the study
of political parties, pressure groups, interest groups, lobbies,
public opinion propaganda and political semantics (meaning
of words) which influence and control political attitudes and
behaviour of individuals and various groups. The shift in focus
from institutions to processes and political behaviour in political
studies has made political dynamics a key area of political
enquiry.

(5) Public Policy

Public policies refer to the numerous policy decisions that the

governments take in running the day to and governance. As an
important instrument of governance, public policy affects each
and every aspect of our life. Therefore, an understanding of the
processes by which public policy is actually made and the
institutions and actors that play a role in this process is vital for
informed citizens and for all of us interested in improving the
quality of governance or promoting good governance. It not
only offers useful insights into why and how policies are
formulated and implemented, and succeed or fail, but also
offers strategic choices and options necessary for
coalition/support building for appropriate and effective policy
formulation and implementation. This may ultimately lead to
ensuring good governance.

Public policies are usually developed by governmental

bodies and officials, though non-governmental actors and
agencies may also exert direct or indirect pressure or influence
in the policy-making process. They are developed by
governmental institutions and officials through the political
process (or politics). They are distinct from other kinds of
policies because they result form the actions of the legitimate
authorities in a political system. The special characteristics of
public policies stem from their being formulated by what David

9
Easton (1965) calls the authorities in a political system,
namely, elders, paramount chiefs, executives, legislators,
judges, administrators, councillors, monarchs, and the like,
[who] engage in the daily affairs of a political system.
Moreover, these people are recognized by most members of
the system as having responsibility for these matters, and take
actions which are accepted as binding most of the time by most
of the members so long as they act within the limits of their
roles

While the institutionalists, who concern themselves with

the formal, observable building blocks of government, view
public policy as a benign component of identified rules and
procedures, the behaviouralists, i.e. the scholars inspired with
what people actually do, interpret public policy as the result of
interaction of powerful forces, some of which may be far
removed from the halls of government.

(6) Public Administration

It is a major branch of political science and has emerged as an
independent discipline in recent times. Modern government has
become a gigantic business enterprise under the impact of
socialism and welfarism. The need for sound and efficient public
administration and management has assumed enormous
significance. Public administration deals with the organization,
control and coordination of administrative machinery, personnel
administration, financial administration, public relations,
administrative law and adjudication. The study of local
governments like corporations, municipalities and panchayati
raj institutions is also covered by political science.

(7) International Relations and International Law

International relations has assumed great significance as an
area of enquiry in political science and there is an increasing
tendency to impart it the status of an independent discipline. It
is a significant and expanding area of political science. It covers
such important subjects as international politics, diplomacy,

10
foreign policies and international organizations like the United
Nations. The imperative need for maintaining international
peace and security and harmony and cooperation among
nations has made the study of international relations very
important. International Law or the Law among Nations is a
body of general principles and specific rules which regulates the
relationship among states and international institutions in times
of peace and war. The sovereign states are the subjects of
international law enjoying certain rights and performing certain
obligations.

(8) Relationship between the State and the Individual

The central problem with which political science is concerned, is
to establish proper relationship between the State and the
individuals. The State guarantees certain rights and freedoms to
the individuals and regulates their conduct through laws. The
proper adjustment between the authority and power of the state
and liberty of the individuals is a difficult problem. Political
Science deals with the proper spheres of state action, the limits
of political control and the area of individual freedom. Thus
political science is both a 'science of liberty' and a 'science of
power.'

Political Science is a dynamic discipline and its scope is

ever expanding. The social life of man has a direct and indirect
bearing on his political life. Political Science enters into any
sphere of life which has political implications.

The methodology and focus of political science has

undergone a sea change under the impact of the behavioural
revolution pioneered by some prominent American political
scientists. They have taken an inter-disciplinary approach to the
study of political science and borrowed concepts, models and
tools of analysis and research from advanced sister social
sciences like sociology, psychology, economics and
anthropology with a view to making political studies empirical
and value-free. This inter-disciplinary approach has resulted in

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the creation of new areas of enquiry for political science,
namely, political sociology, political economy and political
anthropology. These hybrid disciplines have further expanded
the subject matter of political science.

Political Science: A Science or an Art?

There is a great deal of controversy among scholars whether
political science is a Science or an Art. Aristotle, the father of
political science, called 'politics the 'master' or 'supreme'
science. Other modern writers like Hobbes, Vico, Hume,
Frederick Pollock, John Seeley, Lord Bryce, Sidgwick and
Bluntschli consider it as a science. On the other hand, scholars
like Mosca, Buckle, Comte and Maitland question its claim as a
science since it has failed to act up to the standard of science.

F. W. Maitland writes: "When I see a good set of

examination questions headed by the words 'political science' I
regret not the question but the title." Buckle remarked: "In the
present state of knowledge, politics far from being a science, is
one of the most backward of all arts." Denying the claim of
'politics' to be ranked as a science, Comte remarks that (a)
there is no consensus of opinion among experts as 'to its
methods, principles, and conclusions; (b) lacks continuity of
development, and (c) it lacks the elements which constitute a
basis of prevision.

The following arguments are advanced against the claim

of political science as a science.

There is no agreement among political scientists as to its

methods, principles and conclusions. Political principles are not
universally accepted and applied. Certain terms are given
different meanings and interpretations. Gettell writes: "The
terms of political science are often used carelessly in ordinary
speech, are given double meanings and are frequently distorted
deliberately by being given a favourable or unfavourable
connotation for partisan or national purposes".

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 It is impossible to apply to it rigorous scientific methods of
investigation. "Political phenomena are characterized by
uncertainty, variableness and a lack of order and continuity."
Laboratory experiments are not possible in political science.
The political researcher has to deal with human beings whose
behaviour and actions can seldom be regulated, while
researcher in physical sciences experiments with inanimate
substances. Political scientist cannot dream of duplicating
laboratory experiments as in physical sciences. Political
situations and events cannot be artificially created because
human beings cannot be treated like lifeless tools and
conditions of life change. Social phenomena are constantly
undergoing change and are more difficult to control. President
Lowell considered politics observational and not an
experimental science.

Unlike physical sciences, political science lacks uniform

principles or laws that are universally valid. This is owing to the
variability of human behaviour. It is difficult, if not impossible, to
draw precise conclusions and universal principles on account of
the complexity of social phenomena and the changeability of
human behaviour. Hence it is labelled as an inexact science.

Political scientists cannot make correct predictions

because political phenomena do not follow proper sequences
like those physical sciences and political behaviour of men is
unpredictable. The keen political researcher and the bold
political prophet cannot forecast future political happenings.
Passions, emotions and prejudices of human beings which
influence political process defy absolute prediction. The human
material is ever changing and unpredictable. Objectivity which
characterizes the study of physical sciences is lacking in
political studies. The approach of physical scientist in dealing
with lifeless substances in the laboratory is value-neutral and
objective. On the other hand, the political scientist cannot take a
completely impartial attitude in dealing with political issues and

13
problems. The subjective bias of the political observer colours
his judgement of political problems and his findings may be
one-sided and contain partial truth.

These arguments clearly show that political science cannot

be an exact science like Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics.
But it is a social science like sociology, economics and
psychology. The whole question about the scientific character of
political science hinges on what we regard to be the test of a
science. Science is broadly defined as "a body of systematized
knowledge." Garner observes: "For our purpose a science may
be described as a fairly unified mass of knowledge relating to a
particular subject, acquired by systematic observation,
experience, or study, the facts of which have been coordinated,
systematized, and classified". Systematization of facts is a
fundamental characteristic of science. Two other necessary
elements of science are generality and verifiability. Science
aims at formulating general principles or laws which explain the
behaviour of objects studied and help in making predictions
about their future mode of operation. Again, the general
principles of scientific study must be verified by observation or
experiments. Physical and natural sciences fulfil all these
elements of science. But social sciences make use of the
scientific method while studying social phenomena and arrive at
certain general propositions. Of course, it is admitted that the
general principles of social sciences including political science
are neither universally valid nor are always exact and precise.
That is why Lord Bryce was content to compare political
science to a relatively undeveloped and inexact natural science
like meteorology, somewhat in the same way as Marshall had
earlier compared economics to the science of the tides. Sir
Frederick Pollock maintained that "there is a political science in
the same sense that there is a science of morals."

Political Science, like other social sciences, has a scientific

character because the scientific method is applicable to its
phenomena, namely, the accumulation of facts, the linking of

14
these together in causal sequences and the generalization from
the latter of general principles or laws. Appadorai succinctly
observes: "It is true that the laboratory method of experiment is
difficult with social sciences; but the whole field of historical
facts and the facts of the contemporary world are there for the
student to observe, classify, connect, and compare for the
formulation of general principles. Though laboratory
experiments are impossible, experiments under certain
limitations are feasible and in several areas political
experiments have been successfully tried. While experiments in
methods of direct democracy have been made in Switzerland,
in India, we have introduced Panchayati Raj institutions after its
experiment was found successful in some States.

Since the behavioural revolution in Political Science,

sophisticated tools and techniques of research, concepts and
models borrowed from other sciences have enriched political
studies and imparted it greater scientific character.

Political Science is both a science and an art. An art is

defined as the practical application of knowledge for the
achievement of a particular end. Political Science offers a body
of systematized knowledge which can be applied in drafting a
constitution, in day-to-day administration, in legislation, in
foreign policy and above all in bringing about the all-round
development of the State. Thus knowledge of political science is
made use of by states men, diplomats, politicians,
administrators, and social leaders to achieve their objectives.
Political Science as an academic discipline has instrumental
value; it has practical utility. The theoretical knowledge gleaned
from scientific political studies is being constantly utilized for the
service of mankind.

Significance and Utility of Studying Political Science

The study of political science has assumed greater popularity
and significance in modem times. Man is a political animal and
in his actions is directly or indirectly involved in politics. Politics

15
is a universal activity. Robert A. Dahl rightly observes: "A citizen
encounters politics in the government of a country, town,
school, church, business firm, trade union, club, political party,
civic association and a host of organisations. Politics is one of
the unavoidable facts of human existence. Every one is
involved in some fashion at sometime in some kind of political
system. The study of political science dealing with both
theoretical and practical politics has assumed enormous
significance and has proved itself socially useful on a number of
counts.

Study of political Science imparts knowledge to the

individuals with regard to the State, Government and host of
other political institutions and processes. Knowledge of the
state is of great significance to modem man. Politically
enlightened people are capable of playing a useful part in social
and political affairs.

Political Science has high educative value for citizens. Its

study makes them politically conscious which is an essential
condition for the successful working of democracy. It is said that
"eternal vigilance is the price of liberty". Study of political
science makes a man alert about his place in society by making
him aware of his rights and responsibilities. A well informed
electorate with a sound knowledge of political science is very
vigilant and responsive, and provides the best safeguard
against arbitrary rule and despotic tendency of the government.
Political Science equips a citizen to understand the complexities
of modem government and make his own contribution to the
proper working of the political system. The citizen can develop a
sense of participation and political efficacy in the affairs of the
State if he is intellectually equipped by a study of political-
science.

Constructive political progress rests upon a sound and

comprehensive knowledge of political science. If governments
can be shaped and improved by positive human effort, no study

16
is more valuable than political science. Political Science lays
down principles which are to be followed in the conduct of
public affairs. Statesmen, politicians, legislators, administrators
and diplomats, in a word all practitioners of politics, require a
sound knowledge of political science. They make a practical
application of the knowledge of political science in their
respective fields. "If it is true that where there is practice, there
should be theory also, a study of political theory is invaluable to
political practice." Political Science is the science of state craft.
Politics was taught in Plato's Academy and Aristotle's 'Lyceum'
with a view to preparing prospective statesmen and
administrators. The same tradition is being followed in modern
state to impart knowledge of political science to administrators
and diplomats. The understanding of politics and participation in
revolutionary politics go a long way in bringing about the much
needed change in society.

Political Science is a study of both facts and values. Study

of political science tells us about different ideologies and helps
us to formulate our own ideas. One of the main objects of the
study of political science is to make a proper adjustment
between the individual and the State. The liberty of the
individual and the authority of the state should be happily
balanced. Political Science determines the boundary of freedom
and the limits of political control. Again it teaches the lessons of
cooperation, toleration and peaceful co-existence. It broadens
the outlook of man by freeing him from narrow bounds of
parochialism, regionalism and aggressive nationalism. It aims at
a just world order characterized by peaceful co-existence and a
high degree of understanding and cooperation among states.
Outlawing nuclear war, progressive disarmament, strengthening
the international machinery for peace and the like are what
political science can teach mankind to save itself from a nuclear
holocaust.

Apart from these utilitarian considerations, study of political

science enriches man's mind and makes a rich contribution to

17
the realm of knowledge. Knowledge of political science expands
the intellectual horizon of man and equips him to understand
the happenings in the world around him. A. L. Rowse observes:
"A people that neglects politics cannot as a people be happy".
Political Science, as an expanding and progressive social
science, contributes to the enjoyment of a richer and better life.
Bernard Shaw stresses the crucial significance of Political
Science when he says: "Political Science is the science by
which alone civilization can be saved". It enlightens mankind
about constructive political progress and the avoidance of
pitfalls and dangers with which modern man is beset.

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