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Audoly Neukirch Fragmentation
Audoly Neukirch Fragmentation
PSfrag replacements
The physical process of fragmentation is relevant to 1/0 M0
several areas of science and technology. Because different z
y
physical phenomena are at work during the fragmenta- s
tion of a solid body, it has mainly been studied from a sta- 2r
tistical viewpoint [15]. Nevertheless a growing number L
of works have included physical considerations: surface
energy contributions [6], nucleation and growth proper-
ties of the fracture process [7], elastic buckling [8, 9], FIG. 1: The dynamics of a rod fragment following the initial
and stress wave propagation [10]. Usually, in dynamic breaking event in a brittle rod is modelled by releasing at time
fragmentation, the abrupt application of fracturing forces t = 0 a rod with fixed length L, initial curvature 0 and no
initial velocity.
(e.g. by an impact) triggers numerous elementary break-
ing processes, making a statistical study of the fragments
sizes possible. This is opposed to quasi-static fragmen- problem is that the length L of the fragment is known
tation where a solid is crushed or broken at small ap- in advance. In the model problem, the rod is initially
plied velocities [11]. Here we consider such a quasi-static uniformly bent and at rest. This is achieved by clamping
experiment whereby a dry spaghetti is bent beyond its one end and applying a moment M0 at the other end: M0
limit curvature. This experiment is famous as, most of plays the role of the internal moment transmitted across
the time, the pasta does not break in half but typically in the section that is about to fail, see Fig. 1. At time t =
three to ten pieces. In this Letter, we explain this multi- 0, this end is suddenly released as the applied moment
ple failure process and point out a general mechanism of M0 is removed instantaneously. The rod no longer is in
cascading failure in rods: a breaking event induces strong equilibrium and we study its subsequent dynamics.
flexural waves which trigger other breakings, leading to The dynamics of thin rods are described by the cele-
an avalanche like process. brated Kirchhoff equations [12] which in the limit of small
Let us consider a rod which is held at both ends and planar oscillations take the form:
bent quasi-statically with an increasing, uniform curva-
ture. It breaks at time t = 0 when its curvature 0 L4 ,s4 (s, t) + T 2 ,t2 (s, t) = 0, (1)
reaches its limit value : a dynamic crack crosses the where a comma in indices denotes a partial derivative.
weakest section and breaks the rod in two halves. As Here, we have introduced a typical time T built from
the rod was initially bent with uniform curvature, the the rod mechanical properties: T = L2 / where =
location of this first failure point is that of the strongest
p
EI/(A), with E the Youngs modulus, the mass
defect. We shall not further discuss this initial breaking density, A the area and I the principal moment of inertia
event, but instead focus on the subsequent dynamics of of the cross section. For a rod with circular crosspsection
either half of the rod, for t > 0, and show that this dy- of radius r, I = r 4 /4 and = c r/2, where c = E/ is
namics generically leads to new breaking events at later the sound velocity in the material. Note that T is directly
times. proportional to the period of the fundamental mode of
Since we are not interested in the statistics of the initial free oscillations of the rod [13], Tfree = 1.79 T .
breaking event, we introduce and analyze throughout this Equation (1) calls for some remarks. First, we are
Letter a model problem in which the release of a rod only interested in planar configurations of the rod. Con-
mimics the initial breaking event. Both problems indeed sequently the geometry of the rod at any time t is pa-
obey the same equations but the advantage of the model rameterized by a single unknown function, its curvature
2
(s, t) as a function of its arc-length s. Second, we have tions of Eq. (1) is therefore solved by noticing that the
introduced the equations for rods in the limit of small initial curvature (L, t) relaxes from its initial value, 0 ,
oscillations, which can seem a rather restrictive assump- to zero over the short timescale Ts T . This simple
tion. The purpose is merely to avoid unessential compu- remark has two crucial consequences. First the relax-
tational difficulties in the presentation. In fact, we did ation of (L, t), being very abrupt, generates a burst of
take these nonlinearities into account in the numerical flexural waves which are strong enough to break the rod,
simulations presented below. Third, the small amplitude as we explain below. Second, the separation of scales
oscillations of a rod are classically studied in terms of Ts T can be utilized to derive an analytic solution
the transverse displacement y(s, t). Here, the important to our problem in the so-called intermediate asymptotic
variable which is connected to the failure of the rod in regime
flexion is the curvature (s, t), which was therefore cho-
sen as the unknown in Eq. (1). Ts t T (2)
On Eq. (1), we impose clamping conditions at s = L: which we study here. Solutions of the regularized prob-
,s2 (L, t) = 0, ,s3 (L, t) = 0, and free boundary condi- lem are indeed described in the limit t Ts by self-
tions at s = 0: (0, t) = 0, ,s (0, t) = 0. These four similarpsolutions [16]. Owing to the obvious scaling
boundary conditions in s associated with the two initial s L t/T , we seek a solution of Eq. (1) in the form
conditions (s, 0) = 0 and ,t (s, 0) = 0 (uniform curva- (s, t) = p 0 u(), where
p the self-similarity variable is
ture 0 , no initial velocity) warrant, in principle, a unique = (s/L)/ t/T = s/ ( t). Note that we have fac-
solution (s, t) to Eq. (1). tored out the initial curvature 0 , as we discuss the small
A key remark must be made here, which is at the heart amplitude limit of the Kirchhoff equations [17]. The
of the rich dynamics of the released rod. These initial boundary conditions for u() are derived from those for
and boundary conditions are inconsistent: the curvature : u(0) = 0, u0 (0) = 0 and u(+) 1. Substitut-
(0, t) at the free end has to be 0 6= 0 at initial time ing this self-similar form of (s, t) into Eq. (1) yields the
t = 0, while the free end condition requires that it van- following equation for the self-similar solution u():
ishes at any time t > 0. This inconsistency can be under-
stood easily: the initial configuration with uniform cur- 4 u0000 () + 2 u00 () + 3 u0 () = 0 (3)
vature 0 violates the constitutive relation of the rod (the
curvature is proportional to the internal moment, even in Imposing that u() tends toward a constant for +
the dynamic theory of rods) and must therefore vanish implies that u00 (0) = 0, as shown with the help of an
near a free end. This is a typical boundary layer situ- integral of motion. This last condition, in addition to
ation: the assumptions underlying the derivation of the the previous ones, yields a unique self-similar solution to
Kirchhoff equations break down in some domain where Eq. (3):
the solution is sought (here, at small times and in the
1 s
vicinity of the free end) an example of a boundary (s, t) = 20 S , (4)
2 t
layer arising for similar reasons in a static problem is
the eversion of an elastic ball [14]. A detailed analysis where weR have introduced the Fresnel sine integral,
x
of this boundary layer will be presented in a separated S(x) = 0 sin( 2 y 2 )dy, arising in diffraction theory.
paper [15]. Here, it is sufficient to remark that in order Equation (4) does not describe a progressive wave with
to solve this boundary layer, one has to restore in one constant velocity, s c t, but instead a self-similar so-
way or another the small thickness r of the rod into the lution s t. This reflects the dispersive nature of
equations for instance by taking into account the finite Eq. (1).
time needed for the initial crack to propagate through a Bent rods that are suddenly released at one end are
cross-section of the rod, leading to a decrease of M0 over all described in the intermediate regime (2) by the same
a small but finite timescale Ts = r/c 1 s for spaghetti, universal solution (4) independently of the material prop-
where c is the typical speed of propagation of the trans- erties, of the details of the initial release or breaking (as
verse dynamic crack. Being based on the length-scale r, long as they take place over a short timescale Ts T )
this boundary layer characterizes the rod dynamics over and even of the boundary conditions imposed at the other
typical times Ts and in a region of size r around the end s = L, which have not been used to derive Eq. (4).
free end. The ratio of this timescale to the macroscopic This universal solution is plotted in Fig. 2, bottom, along
timescale introduced before reads T /Ts = 2 (L/r)2 , that with a numerical solution of the Kirchhoff equations
is the square of the (large) aspect ratio of the rod. Since including nonlinearities omitted in Eq. (1). This numeri-
L/r 250 for spaghetti pasta, there are three to four cal solution features, as expected, the self-similar regime
orders of magnitude between Ts and T . As long as one is for Ts t T in which a burst of flexural waves emit-
not interested in describing the dynamics of the rod over ted from the released end s = 0 travels along the rod
timescales as short as Ts , one can disregard the details with a square root time dependence. The self-similar
of this boundary layer. solution (4) accurately describes the rod dynamics un-
The inconsistency in the boundary and initial condi- til reflections on the clamped end s = L take place, for
3
t
0.02
T t
a b c d
PSfrag replacements
0.01
td
1.5
tc
0
1
frag replacements 0.5
s 0
L 1
0.75
PSfrag replacements 0.25
0 25
0.5
tb
0
0
t
T
s u= 0 ta
L
1
t
T
first breaking event after release, although multiple fail-
Barilla no 1 ures were commonly observed in experiments [18]. Sec-
0.15 Barilla no 5 +212%
ondary failure events are most likely described by the
ag replacements Barilla no 7
k=0
same theory, with a shorter timescale T (fragments are
shorter), and with the additional difficulty that the ini-
0.1 tial curvature profile is not uniform. The present physical
+86% mechanism, based on flexural waves, for fragmentation of
slender elastic bodies leads us to expect specific statistics
+43%
0.05 k=1 for fragments sizes. Recall that the maximal curvature
k=2 increases during the initial boundary layer, t Ts , and
later reaches a plateau, /0 = 1.43. If the initial cur-
s
L vature is sufficiently close to the limit one, very early
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 secondary breaking events should occur. Such events are
too fast to be measured with our experimental setup but,
FIG. 4: Space-time diagram, in rescaled coordinates, of the nevertheless, we have often observed the ejection of tiny
breaking events obtained by repeating the experiment of rod fragments, with typical size r. Such fragments, whose
Fig. 3 (data points) for different pasta radii and initial cur- size and ejection velocity can probably be predicted by a
vatures 0 . The time and location of curvature records pre- boundary layer analysis, contribute in a non-trivial way
dicted by nonlinear numerical simulations for 0 L = are
to the statistics of fragments sizes. Data is being col-
shown in background, with no adjustable parameters: abso-
lute records (black) and local ones (grey). Percentages show lected in order to test this hypothesis.
the relative increase of curvature /0 at selected points. In- Contrary to the intuition that removing a loading de-
tersections of dashed parabola and horizontal lines labelled creases stresses and so cannot induce failure by itself, we
by k correspond to an approximate analytical prediction of
have shown that rods can break just because they are
breaking events (see main text).
released. When a bent rod reaches its limit curvature
and breaks at a first point, a burst of flexural waves is
sent through the newly formed fragments, which locally
L around 24 cm. All the breaking events collapse onto
further increase the curvature. The limit curvature is
a well-defined curve in a space-time diagram (s/L, t/T ),
therefore exceeded again at later time, allowing a cas-
see Fig. 4. The curve of collapse can be predicted as
cading failure mechanism to take place. The cascade is
follows. Assuming the rod has no defect, it breaks as
limited by dissipation (propagation of transverse cracks,
soon as its limit curvature is reached somewhere. The
damping of flexural waves e.g. by visco-elastic effects in
first breaking event after the release must therefore cor-
the material). The rupture delay t/T ' (s/L)2 /(4)
respond to the first time that |(s, t)| reaches the value
we derive here is singularly shorter than what would be
. This means that breaking occurs necessarily at a
conjectured from a crude analysis: t Tfree = 1.79 T .
point in the plane (s/L, t/T ) that is a record of cur-
Finally, let us note that since this increase in curvature
vature since the experiment started: for all s0 and all
is described by a universal self-similar solution with no
t0 < t, |(s, t)| > |(s0 , t0 )|. This defines the so-called
adjustable parameters it should be a fairly robust mech-
absolute curvature records. Under the opposite assump-
anism.
tion that defects are important, becomes a function
of s and rupture is simply expected to take place at a We are grateful to L. Lebon, D. Vallet and K. Liop
local curvature record, that is at a point (s, t) such that for their help in setting up the experiments and to E.
|(s, t)| > |(s, t0 )| for all t0 < t and same s. Global Villermaux and A. Belmonte for early communication of
and local curvature records define a rather narrow region, their preprint.
shown in Fig. 4, onto which the experimental data points
indeed collapse. These curvature records lie on a series of
islands which can be interpreted as interference patterns
between the incident and reflected waves. An analytical
[1] N. F. Mott and E. H. Linfoot, Ministry of Supply Report
argument based on this remark shows that these islands No. AC3348 (1943), unpublished.
lie at the intersection of the parabola (s/L)2 = 4 t/T [2] D. E. Grady and M. E. Kipp, Journal of Applied Physics
and the horizontal lines t/T = 1/(4(k+q)), where k 0 58, 1210 (1985).
is an integer and q 2/3 for clamped boundary condi- [3] R. Englman, J. Phys: Condens. Matter 3, 1019 (1991).
tions (dashed curves in Fig. 4). The collapse of the ex- [4] L. Oddershede, P. Dimon, and J. Bohr, Physical Review
perimental data onto curvature records, without any ad- Letters 71, 3107 (1993).
justable parameters, confirms that this delayed rupture [5] E. S. C. Ching, S. L. Lui, and K.-Q. Xia, Physica A 287,
89 (2000).
process is due to the flexural waves and the associated [6] L. Griffith, Can. J. Res. 21, 57 (1943).
increase of curvature. [7] N. F. Mott, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 189, 300 (1947).
In the present analysis, we have only considered the [8] J. R. Gladden, N. Z. Handzy, A. Belmonte, and E. Viller-
5