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Periya Puranam Darasuram John Marr
Periya Puranam Darasuram John Marr
By J. R. MAARR
(PLATES I-XII)
The sculptured frieze that forms the subject of this paper is carved on the
main shrine of the giva temple at Taracuram,l 5 km. south of Kumpakonam,
a provincial town in Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu. Narrative friezes of the
great Indian epics are a quite usual feature of Hindu architectural ornament
both in India and beyond.2 It is also the case that individual Tamil Saiva
saints, to whom the collective name in Tamil, Ndyanmdr, sing. nayanar, is
applied, appear commonly in iconography in temples of the Tamil-speaking
area.3 But the frieze at Taracuram is exceptional in being a portrayal of the
complete set of the 63 Nayanmar as they figure in that closely-related group of
Tamil medieval texts of which the most important is Cekkilar'sPeriya purdnam.
Indeed, as will be shown, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the
Taracuram frieze is virtually a set of illustrations to that work, and that the
one would tend to confirm the date assumed for the other.4 Moreover, the
various anomalies in Periya purdnam, such as the total omission of Man.ikkava-
cakar and the reversing of the logical order of events in the case of Nayanar 51
(N51), Kalarcinka nayanar and N54, Pukalttunai nayanar, are precisely
mirrored in the Taracuram frieze.
The frieze, executed in a cream granite flecked with grey, is approximately
18" high, and forms a band of sculpture running round the outside of the main
shrine wall set about 8' above ground level. The principal deity at Taracuram
is Airavatesvara, a form of giva. The frieze consists of 78 panels of varying
lengths; in some instances the panels extend round the inside of a right angle.
Each panel is separated from the next by a decorative medallion. Each of
62 panels represents an incident in the life of one saint, nine panels represent
the nine groups of saints that figure as such in Periya purdnam (P), while the
remaining seven panels depict seven episodes in the life of Cuntarar,the author
of Tevaram vii. Except for these seven panels, the order thereof exactly
reflects the arrangement in P: Group of saints 1 (G1), Tillai vrl Antan.ar,is
followed by N1-N38. Then comes G2, Poyyatimaiy illdta pulavar, attested by
an inscription carved above it. Thereafter follow N39-N55. Then, as in P,
ensue G3-G9, followed by N56-N62. The last set pertains to N63, Cuntarar:
seven episodes in his life, abbreviated hereafter as N63.1-7. It is only here
that the frieze differs from the arrangement in Periya puranam. In P, the life
of Cuntarar, who is of great importance to this whole tradition, is treated in
two parts: in carukkamI, 5 Tatuttdtkontapurdnam, and (after P, vv. 350-4228,
that deal with saints G1 to N62) in carukkam XIII Velldnai ccarukkam.
Moreover, at the end of each carukkamII to XI appears an individual verse in
praise of Cuntararand descriptive of some point in his life. Only carukkamXII
1 The author takes this opportunity of thanking R. K. Swan for his kindness in making
possible the visit to Taracuram in November 1977 during which photography for this paper
was carried out.
2 Examples are the Rdmdyana-friezes at Halebidu, Karnataka, and at Prambanan in Java.
3
e.g. the episode of Siva garlanding Cantecura nayanar, the subject of a fine sculpture at
Kafikaik6ntacolapuram.
4
Periya purdanamis usually ascribed to the reign of the Cola Kulottufika II, A.D. 1133-50,
and the Taracuram temple is regarded as the work of his successor, Rajaraja II, 1150-73.
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 269
5 As (1) to (43) having inscribed captions. A further eight, unnumbered, were introduced
as ' a number of other labels which are only painted with red paint, but not cut. The alphabet
of these labels is nearly the same as that of the foregoing '. ARE, 1908, 81.
6 2nd ed., New Delhi,
1973, Appendix, pp. 40-6, 'Stories of gaiva saints depicted at
Darasuram'.
7
Sivaramamurti, op. cit., pp. 33-4. J. M. Nallaswami Pillai's work in English, Periya-
puranam (the lives of the Saiva Saints), Madras, 1955, is an incomplete survey, omitting N7-N22,
N54, and N55, but reproducing most of the ARE (1920) illustrations of the panels; it is referred
to below as JMNP.
270 J. R. MARR
the seven episodes in Cuntarar's life (since all these have captions) and ends
with N3, Ilaiyankuti Maran. Since of course the Tamil script of the captions
reads from left to right it was perhaps logical, if simplistic, to view the episodes
similarly. Yet evidently the fact that this frieze is carved on the outside of
the central shrine wall and not the inside of the outer wall was lost sight of.
It is essential in the Hindu tradition that a shrine be circumambulated clock-
wise, pradaksina, whereby the right shoulder is kept towards it as a mark of
respect. Consequently, this sequence of episodes is to be viewed from right to
left as one proceeds around the shrine's exterior.8 When this fact is realized,
the order of episodes of the Ndyanmar, exactly that of P, becomes plain.
There is sufficient' iconography ' in most of the panels to identify their subjects,
even though they lack captions. A straight numerical count serves to fill in
the remainder: one episode per single Ndyandr, one panel per Group, and
seven episodes for Cuntarar.9
At this point it will be appropriate briefly to review the Tamil texts that
express this tradition. These are: Cuntarar, Tevdramvii, patikam 39, known
as Tiruttonta ttokai, (T), 'List of the holy devotees'; Nampiy antar Nampi,
Tiruttontar tiruvantdti, (NN), of 89 verses preceded by an unnumbered in-
vocatory verse and included in Tirumurai XI, Cekkilar's Periya puranaam(P),
and Umapati Civacariyar'sPeriya purana caram (Pc.), a later work of 78 verses
clearly dependent upon the earlier three. For the purposes of this paper, the
foregoing is taken to be the chronological order, and it will be seen that the
first three represent a steady expansion of the original that is little more than
a list in Tev. vii, pat. 39. The Antdti mentions some episodes connected with
each Ndyandr, but does not necessarily note those that appear at Taracuram.
All of them, however, can be attested by reference to P and, in the survey of
the sculpture-episodes in this paper, this has been done.
Periya puranam, being a hagiography of the 63 Ndyanmdr, presupposes
all of them, but it should be noted that, like Manikkavacakar, Nampiy ant.ar
Nampi does not figure in it, although his writing appears in Tirumurai XI.
Cuntarar is generally held to have lived in the ninth century, and Nampiy
antar Nampi to the tenth or eleventh.10 Cekkilar is ascribed to the twelfth
century, specifically to the reign of Kulottufika II (A.D. 1133-50).11 Umapati
Civacariyar belonged to the fourteenth century, and is better known as one
of the group of Saiva Siddhantist writers who flourished at that time. His
text must be regarded as secondary, but is distinctive in treating of Cuntarar
first and not reverting to him at any point in the remaining verses. Cuntarar
is similarly treated in a Sanskrit work by Harasarmamuni,Sivabhaktavildsa.
This also may be regarded as a secondary work: it tidies up the story of N51
and N53, placing them in the reverse (and logical) sequence,12 and the name-
equivalents therein are, on occasion, misapprehensions, to say the least, as
will be shown in the detailed survey.13
On the grounds therefore of generally accepted dates and of the expansion
8 At Prambanan this dilemma was avoided, since the 48 Rdmayana episodes carved there
are on the inside of the outer wall.
9 For their arrangement at Taracuram, see list on p. 269.
10See: Na. Ci. Kantaiya Pillai, Tamilppulavar akarati, 2nd ed., Madras, 1960, 186 and
251-4. See also K. Zvelebil, The smile of Murugan, Leiden, 1973, 191. He assumes that Cekkilar
also made use of oral traditions, inscriptions and court-records and documents, but gives no
references for the last two categories. Also see K. Nambi Arooran, Glimpses of Tamil culture
based on Periyapuranam, Madurai, 1977. This is a particularly useful work.
11K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, 4th ed., Madras, 1976, 379.
12Infra, p. 284.
13Infra, pp. 282, 283, n. 62.
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 271
14 Tev.
vii, pat. 39, vv. 1-11. This is taken as having the earliest extant form of each
Nayandr's name; these are in heavy type, followed by the N number in parentheses. The
sequence is that adopted for the whole paper, and is based on the T&aracuram-frieze wherein
Cuntarar appears as N63 and where the groups, clearly sculptured as such, are slotted into the
sequence exactly as in P. They are numbered here G1 to G9.
272 J. R. MARR
Pattardyppanivdr . .. (P XI)
' Servant am I to all Those who
sing as devotees (G3); I serve Those who
praise the supreme Lord (G4). Slave am I to Those whose minds are fixed upon
Siva (G5); to all Those born in Tiruvarfir(G6) am I bondsman. I am slave to
Those who cherish the sacred form thrice (G7), I am slave to those Sages who
are completely smeared in sacred ash (G8). To those Devotees elsewhere who
have attained the Feet (G9) I am in service, I, Ariran, devotee of Arur's Lord.'
Manniya cTr. . . (P XII)
'To Pfcal (N56) of Ninravur where they chant the Veda of undying fame,
to Mani (N57) with her rows of bangles, and to Necan (N58), slave am I, and
slave too to C6nkanan(N59) the southerner who ruled the world. To the bard
Tirunilakantan (N60) I am slave. To my lord Cataiyan (N61) who attained
giva's feet and to Icaifinni (N62) am I the son, and am master of Navalur.
Those who are such as listen to the devotions of Ariiran will be those who
bear love towards Arir's Lord.'
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 273
the primary sources, nor yet in the Pc. It may be suggested that it is a later
addition on the part of commentators, since it appears regularly in colophons.
In the tv., the title ndtha is added to names at a number of points throughout
the text thereof.26 Ta. ndtan appears only twice in T, as an element in the
names of N8, Enatinatan, and N37, Kali Kkananatan.27 When in colophons
nayanar comes to be added, it appears with -ndtan, and not as a substitute,
giving Enatinata nayanar and Kananata nayanar. It is therefore feasible to
suggest that Skt. ndtha in ~v. was intended to render nayanar, since its
occurrence is in the same slot, and statistically commoner.28 Elements that
are more likely as titles in T that mean ' devotee' are: atiydr (N12, N24, N26,
N27-N29, N45, N48, N49, N51; G4 and G9) and tontar (N18 and N35). Titles
for 'devotee' in the Taracuram labels are: dntdr (N28, N34, N35, N37, N42,
N44, N46, N52, N53, N55, N58 and N63.7) and atikal for N26.
In the survey that follows, to the right after the saint's name as just noted
is given the P reference for this saint's purdnam, and at the end of the descrip-
tion of the incident portrayed at Taracuram the P reference to that particular
episode. In the case of ' non-episodic ' panels, this latter is omitted. Roman
numerals denote the P carukkam, the following arabic ones the purdnam
within that carukkam. Two notations for the verse-number that follows are
given: the 'long count' verse-number for the whole P and, separated from
it by an oblique stroke, the number of the same verse within the particular
purdnam. Thus, P V, 2, v. 1705/11 denotes Periya purdnam, carukkam V
(Tiruninra carukkam),purdnam 2 (Kulaccirai n. pur.nam), verse 1705 of the
whole and v. 11 of purdnam 2.
SOUTHWALL
Tara. GI: Tillai val Antan.ar (plate II). P II, 1, vv. 350/1-359/10.
Three saints are shown in prayerful attitudes to the left of a shrine. The
panel begins the set, and confirms that a group was meant. The Ta. forms in
-ar were ambiguous at this period, denoting either honorific singular or plural.
Both P and T have ... Antanar, and NN has ... celumanaiyor (v. 1). As
with all groups save G2, this group is not listed in gv.
Tara. N1: Tirunilakanta n. (plate II). P II, 2, vv. 360/1-403/44.
A man and woman are shown seated near a shrine, each holding one end
of a pole. The panel is erroneously stated by Sivaramamurti 29 to show
' Tirumular
bathing with his wife in the tank beside the temple '. Since
Tirumflar is N29 in the sequence and two panels from this one is identifiable
from its inscription as N3, Ilaiyfakutimaran, identification with Tirumular
is unsupported. The episode of the pole is narrated in P. Nilakantan was
entrusted by giva with a bowl, which he carefully put away. When Siva
returned for it, it was missing (the god having caused it to disappear to try
the saint). Nilakantan could not swear on the body of his wife, as the god
demanded, having forsworn all contact with her, so it was agreed that he
26
e.g. gv. adhyaya 26: Kalanatha for N10 Kufkiliyakkalaya n.; a. 29: Gonatha for N13
Anaya n., a probable mistranslation of Ta. -dyan, see infra, p. 277; a. 30: Miirtinatha for
N14 Miirtti n. and a. 31 Skandanatha for N15, Muruka n.
27 T, vv. 2 and 6.
28 See gv.
further, a. 52, 57 and 64. -bhakta also appears as a devotee-title: Sv. 53 Danda-
bhakta for N30 Tantiyatika' n.; a. 59-62 Dabhrabhakta for N95 Cirutt6ontan.
29op. cit., 40.
276 J. R. MARR
swear, holding a pole of which she held the other end, that he had not so
despised the pot as to lose it.30 See P II, 2, vv. 395/36-398/39.
Tara. N2: Iyarpakai n. P II, 3, vv. 404/1-439/36.
The saint is shown with his wife after he slew those relatives who had
doubted his action in bestowing her on an ascetic who was none other than
giva. See P II, 3, vv. 428/25-429/26.
Tara. N3: ' Ilaiyamarafkutimarar katai '.31 P II, 4, vv. 440/1-466/27.
The first (last!) noted by ARE, since it is accompanied by a caption quoted
above. It is also noticed by Sivaramamurti. The story is of a charitable saint
who used to feed giva-devotees. The god, to test him, came late at night and
in pouring rain and demanded food. This the saint and his wife supplied.
Ta. Maran, with vallina ra, is a Pantiya royal name. Sv. inevitably, but
perhaps unfairly, simply calls this saint Mara.32 See P II, 4, vv. 460/21 ff.
Tara. N4: Meypp6ru' n. P II, 5, vv. 467/1-490/24.
A false devotee sought out this saint, demanding to know the True Doctrine
(Ta. meypporul). An attendant, Tattan, suspected the man's true intentions,
and rushed in to defend the saint who was indeed being attacked. It is this
scene that is shown in the panel. See P II, 5, vv. 486/20-490/24.
Tara. N5: Viranminta n. P II, 6, vv. 491/1-501/11.
This saint upbraided Cuntararfor turning aside from the devotees assembled
at Tiruvarfir,not realizing that Cuntararfelt humble before them. Thereupon
Cuntarar sang the T and Viranmintar understood Cuntarar'spiety. The panel
shows this scene. The Sv. gives the Skt. equivalent for this saint's name as
Viraminda in a. 18. See P II, 6, vv. 497/7 & 498/8.
Tara. N6: Amarniti n. P II, 7, vv. 502/1-549/48.
This saint's story has already been noted.33 The Taracuram panel shows
the weighing in the scales of Siva's cloth against Amarniti, his wife and family
(plate III). See P II, 7, vv. 542/41-545/44.
Unlike the primary texts NN and P that reflect Cuntarar'srefrainin T, Tara.
does not interpose a Cuntarar-episode at this point, though it is interesting
to note that the Viraninntar-story, which involves Cuntarar, appeared at N5,
above.
Tara. N7: i'ripatta n. P III, 1, vv. 551/1-607/57.
This saint was much admired by Pukalccolan, who gives him his sword,
the episode shown at Taracuram. See P III, 1, vv. 593/43 & 594/44.
Tara. N8: Enatinata n. P III, 2, vv. 608/1-649/42.
This was a warrior-saint who smeared himself with holy ash before going
out to kill his enemies, as shown in the panel. Sv. misses the possible con-
nexion between Ta. enati and Skt. senapati, and gives the form Enadinatha
in 21. See P III, 2, vv. 642/35-646/39.
Tara. N9: Kannappa n. P III, 3, vv. 650/1-830/181.
This is the well-known story of the saint who, seeing the eye-socket bleeding
on the lihga at Kalahasti, gouged out his own eye to replace it. When the
30 This Job-like
story may be compared with that of Amarniti n. (N6) who mislaid the god's
cloth given him to look after. giva was irate that Amarniti should offer another cloth to replace
it, produced another of his own and said that the loss would be acceptable if Amarniti could
balance its weight in the scales. He had to seat himself, his wife and children therein before this
could be achieved and be pardoned by the god for his carelessness.
31 Painted.
32 v., a. 16.
33 Supra, n. 30.
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 277
other eye of the god, too, was put out, the saint placed his toe against it, so
as to use his leg to guide his hand when he had put out his own other eye for
the god. This latter is the scene shown at Taracuram. See P III, 3, vv. 823/174-
827/178.34
Tara. N10: Kufkiliyakkalaya n. P III, 4, vv. 831/1-865/35.
This royal saint saw that the linga at Tiruppanantal was leaning to one
side. He tried to set it upright with ropes and elephants but failed. He
succeeded only by roping himself to it. This panel is incorrectly described by
Sivaramamurti as showing' Markandeya ... with the noose of Yama surround-
ing not only the neck of the adoring saint but also the lihga itself'.35 See
P III, 4, vv. 853/23-858/28.
Tara. N1l: Manakkaficaran. P III, 5, vv. 866/1-902/37.
His daughter was given in marriage to Eyarkon Kalikkama n. (N28).
During the ceremony, Siva appears as a mendicant, saying he will bless the
occasion. The nayanar leads his daughter out, and giva requests her tresses
to make himself a necklace. The saint cuts them off and gives them to the
mendicant who disappears, at which Siva and Uma appear in the sky. The
hair-cutting and the appearance of the god and goddess in the sky are shown
in the panel. Sivaramamurti notes this panel 36without identifying the saint.
See P III, 5, v. 895/30.
Tara. N12: Arivattaya n. P III, 6, vv. 903/1-925/23.
This saint, through hunger, ate some grain prepared as an offering for
Siva, spilling the rest in a crevice. Filled with remorse, he was about to behead
himself, when Siva's hand came out of the ground and stopped him. As the
Taracuram panel is damaged, the exact topic therein cannot be ascertained.
Tara. N13: Anaya n. P III, 7, vv. 926/1-966/41.
While grazing his cattle, Anayan saw the cassia tree blooming. Thinking
of them as adorning the locks of !iva, he blew the paiicaksara on his flute.
Siva took pity on him, and revealed himself and Uma seated on Nandi. He is
shown playing the flute, with the god and goddess showing themselves, in the
panel. Anayan would seem to mean ' cowherd ' from Ta. an,' cow ',' buffalo ',
and dyan, 'person of cowherd class '37 For this name, Sv. has Gonatha,
possibly interpreting -dyan as connected with Skt. arya, though Tamil forms
of this are usually aiyan or ayyan. See P III, 7, v. 963/38.
Tara. N14: Murtti n. P IV, 1, vv. 968/1-1016/49.
The Jaina Pantiya king of Maturai denied sandal-paste for giva rites at
Maturai to Muirtti. However, when the king died without issue, the royal
elephant, blindfolded, chose Murtti as successor. This selection is shown in
the panel. See P IV, 1, vv. 1010/43-1012/45.
Tara. N15: Muruka n. P IV, 2, vv. 1017/1-1030/14.
He wove for the god a garland of four sorts of flowers. The panel shows
this being woven, and four rows of flowers are clearly visible in it. See P IV,
2, vv. 1024/8-1026/10.
34I follow here the text as edited by C. K. Cuppiramaniya Mutaliyar, II, 1042-50. Hereat
are textual differences that lie outside the scope of this paper.
35 op. cit., 40.
36 ibid.
37 See Burrow and Emeneau, Dravidian etymologicaldictionary, p. 25, col. i, entry 283 (DED).
278 J. R. MARR
PLATE II
i ,
::
RIGHT CENTRE : Gl .
TILLAL VAL ANTANAR,THE BRAHMANS AT CITAMPARAM;
LEFT CENTRE : NI TIRUJNILAKANTA NAYANAR SWEARS ON THE BODY OF HIS WIFE
BSOAS. XLII]
PLATEIII
N6, AMARNITI NAYANAR, BEING WEIGHED IN THE SCALES AGAINST THE CLOTH
OF IVA
PLATE IV
BSOAS. XLII]
PLATE V
G2, POYYATIMAIYILLATAPULAVAR
(reproducedfromAnnual Reports on Epigraphy, Madras, 1920)
PLATE VI
N46, KANAMPULANTAR
BSOAS. XLII]
PLATE VII
PLATE VIII
BSOAS. XLII]
PLATE IX
PLATE X
BSOAS. XLII]
PLATE XI
PLATE XII
BSOAS. XLII]
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 279
pat. 1). The panel shows the boy being threatened by his father, with the god
and the goddess on the left. See P VI, 1, vv. 1970/72-1972/74.
Tara. N28: 'Eyarkon Kalikkamantar' (painted). P VI, 2, vv. 3155/1-
3563/409.
This saint was indignant that Siva so pampered Cuntarar as to mediate
between him and his first wife, Paravaiyar over his bigamous marriage to
Cafikiliyar. To effect a meeting between Kalikkaman and Cuntarar, Siva
inflicted on Kalikkaman a muscular disease, and sent Cuntarar to cure him.
The saint said he would rather die than be cured by the bigamist, and killed
himself with a sword. Apalled, Cuntarar was about to kill himself too when,
by giva's grace, Kalikkaman was restored to life and stopped Cuntarar from
suicide. The two scenes, of Kalikkaman's suicide and his subsequent pre-
vention of the same on the part of Cuntarar are both seen in the panel (right
and left). See P VI, 2, v. 3551/397 (for right) and v. 3558/404 (for left).
Tara. N29: Tirumula n. P VI, 3, vv. 3564/1-3591/28.
To relieve some anguished cattle, Tirumilar restored their dead herdsman
to life by entering his corpse; when the man went home, he no longer recognized
his wife and left her, returning to where he had left his original (Tirumilar)
body. By Siva's grace it was no longer there, and the herdsman-saint went to
Tiruvatuturai, sat under an asvattha-tree and composed Tirunmantiram(which
is included in Tirumurai X). Having wrongly placed Tirumflar near the
beginning of his account, Sivaramamurti 48 has a gap of three panels at this
point, but does not say so. The panel N29 shows the saint seated, a tree to
the left, the reference perhaps to his composing Tirumantiram. See P VI, 3,
vv. 3588/25-3590/27.
Tara. N30: Tantiyatika' n. P VI, 4, vv. 3592/1-3617/26.
Though blind, this saint started to dig the great Kamalalaya tank at
Tiruvaruir,as a guide roping himself to a post at the centre of his dig. Scoffing
Jainas took away his post and ropes.49 Siva appeared in dreams to him and
to the king: he would recover his sight, and the king was to drive out the
Jainas. In the king's presence, Tanti plunged into the tank he had dug, his
sight was restored and the Jainas blinded. The king pulled their temples
down. The saint is shown in the tank he is digging. See P VI, 3, v. 3596/5.
Tara. N31: Murkka n. P VI, 4, vv. 3618/1-3629/12.
So liberal to bhaktaswas this saint that he became a pauper, and took to
gambling to recoup his losses and continue his largesse; at dice he would
attack any adversary who cheated. Interestingly, Sv. does not restore the
Skt. name, but calls him Bhaktarcaka, in a. 54, in view of his kindness to
devotees. The two-tier panel shows his munificence (upper) and gaming
(lower). See P VI, 4, vv. 3620/3-3621/4 (upper) and vv. 3623/6-3629/12
(lower).
Tara. N32: ' Comacimaranar' (painted). P VI, 6, vv. 3630/1-3634/5.
The purd.namis short and uneventful, and perhaps as a consequence the
panel is non-episodic. He is shown perhaps performing a homa; P states he
performed sacrifices. Though listed by ARE (1908), this panel did not figure
in the 1920 issue. See P VI, 6, v. 3631/2 (homa).
48
op. cit., pp. 40 and 42.
49 In fairness it should be noted that Tanti
deliberately sought out that part of Tiruvarur
where the Jains had their temples, and started his tank-digging there. An instance of the deep
animosity between 8aivites and Jainas that informs the whole of P, and indeed other Tirumurai-
works.
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 281
WEST WALL
Tara. N33: ' Cakkiyanar' (plate I). P VII, 1, vv. 3636/1-3653/18.
The episode of this saint daily throwing stones at the liiiga was already
mentioned.50 He was originally a Buddhist, as the name suggests, and ARE
(1920) is perhaps in error in calling him a Jain.51 Perspective in the panel
shows plainly that the receptacle beneath the linga was square.52 See P VII, 1,
vv. 3644/9-3651/16.
Tara. N34: ' Cirappuliantar ' (painted). P VII, 2, vv. 3654/1-3659/6.
An uneventful and short purdnam concerning a saint liberal to devotees.
The panel shows him in the act of giving.
Tara. N35: ' Ciruttontantar katai'. P VII, 3, vv. 3660/1-3747/88.
As a test of this saint, Siva in the guise of a guest, Vairavar, demands the
flesh of his son as food; when this is served up, he then demands the head, but
remarks that he cannot eat in a (seemingly) childless house. To the parents'
consternation, he tells them to call their son from school. They comply and,
miraculously, the boy comes in. In two tiers, the panel shows in the upper
part the child rushing to the mother in the presence of Siva and Uma; the
lower panel is damaged. See P VII, 3, vv. 3740/81-3742/83.
Tara. N36: ' Ceraman perumal katai '. P VII, 4, vv. 3748/1-3922/175.
This saint was the royal patron and friend of Cuntarar, and the title as at
Taracuram reflects that used in colophons. In texts he is also referred to as
Kalarirrarivar.53He made a number of royal journeys on pilgrimage, and in
Maturai met the musician Pattiranar, referred to both in P 54 and Tiruvilai.55
as Pananar Pattiranar. This does not stop Arumuka navalar, C. K. Cuppira-
maniya Mutaliyar and Vefnkatacami Natt.ar referring to this devotee as
Panapattirar, perhaps based on Skt. Bdnabhadra.56 The panel shows this
meeting: the Cera king approaches Pattiranar on an elephant, with retinue.
See P VII, 4, vv. 3773/26 & 3777/30.
Tara. N37: ' Kananatantar katai'. P VII, 5, vv. 3923/1-3929/7.
An admirer of Campantar, this saint was an exemplar to other devotees
at Cirkali, and the panel shows him leading them at prayer. Despite the
inscription and the notice in ARE (1920), Sivaramamurti has omitted this
saint.57 See P VII, 5, vv. 3925/3 & 3926/4.
Tara. N38: ' Kirruvanar '. P VII, 6, vv. 3930/1-3937/8.
This saint had enormous wealth and power, lacking only a crown. The
brahmans at Citamparam would not accept his regal pretensions, and left,
save for one family, perhaps those shown with the saint on his dais in the
panel.58 See P VII, 6, vv. 3935/6 & 3936/7.
50 Supra, p. 273.
51 ARE
(1920), 106, ? 43.
52 This point is made because of general and modern insistance that the receptacle signifies
the female yoni, the influence presumably being Tantric. The author has seen two other square
receptacles, one in the ' Cola' temple at Polonnaruva, Sri Lanka, another in the Kumbhesvara
temple, Patan, Nepal, a veritable stronghold of Tantrism ! While not questioning Tantric belief,
one may assume it was originally just a receptacle for liquid offerings.
.53T, v. 6, line 3; P VII, 3, v.
54 P VII, 4, v.
3747/88.
3773/26.
.5 Tiruvilai. 41, v. 6.
56 e.g. C. K. Cuppiramaniya Mutaliyar comm. on P, vv.
57 op. cit., p. 42; ARE
3773/26 and 3777/30, VII, 30-1.
(1920), 106.
58 TheSv., interestingly,
calls this Cola ' pretender' Par&ntaka,a name borne by two tenth-
century Colas, Parantaka I (907-55) and II (957-73). See a. 65. The exiles may have formed the
Nambfidiris of Kerala, as JMNP suggests, see p. 101, n. The panels show the brahmans in Gl
and herein as wearing ' buns '.
282 J. R. MARR
feed giva's devotees. His name refers to his fighting prowess. The panel
shows him attacking someone with a spear. See P IX, 5, v. 4091/3.
Tara. N51: ' Kalarcifikanar' (plate VII). P X, 1, vv. 4096/1-4108/13.
As already noted,69the story of this saint and Ceruttunai (N53) appear in
the wrong order in all sources save Sv. Ceruttunaiyar went to Tiruvarur to
perform temple services. While there, the queen to King Kalarcifikan came
and, seeing flowers being made ready for puijd, picked up one and smelt it.
Ceruttunaiyar, enraged, cut off her nose. The king arrived, hearing her
screaming and enquired who had dared to attack her. When Ceruttunaiyar
told him, far from his being punished, the king said that the culprit was the
hand that picked up the flower, and hacked off the queen's hand too. It is this
latter atrocity that appears at this point; the previous wound inflicted on the
queen by Ceruttunaiyar is related in P X, 3, v. 4124/5, that purdn.ambeing
separated from this one by P X, 2, telling of Itankali (N52), irrelevant to this
story. The rational order of episodes a, b and x has become, then, b, x and a.
It was seen that at the root of the sequence we have is the text of T. Therein,
it will be found that, in v. 9, episode b appears in line 1, and x and a in line 2.
It is possible, then, that at some early date the lines were transposed, and that
this arrangementwas slavishly followed by NN and Cekkilar,and at Taracuram.
A way out of the dilemma would be to reverse the lines of Cuntarar's T, v. 9,
as follows:
(2) matalculnta tdr nampi Itankalikkum Taicai mannavanad Ceruttunai tan
atiydrkkur atiyen (gives x and a).
(1) katalculntaulak'lan kdkkinraperumrn kdtavarkonKalarciinkanatiydrkkum
atiyen (gives b).
No violence is hereby done to the metrics of the verse, and N53 would be N51,
N51 would be N52, and the extraneous N52, Itankali, become N53.
The arguments for Kalarcinkan being the Pallava Nandivarman III
(c. 826-49) and his queen a Rastrakfita princess and, as a Jaina, insensitive to
gaiva feelings, are well-rehearsed by Nambi Arooran.70 But there is no need
to 'infer' that Kalarcifikan was a Pallava from the title Katavarkon. In his
purdnam on Ceruttunai, Cekkilar refers to this king as Pallavarko Ciitkar.71
The panel shows this cruel act clearly. (Plate VII.) See P X, 1, v. 4105/10.
Tara. N52: 'Itanikaliyar.tar '. P X, 2, vv. 4109/1-4119/11.
Caught stealing from this chieftain-saint's granary, a thief explained that
he needed the grain to sell for Siva devotees' sustenance. The chieftain swore
henceforth to be as a granary to the devotees; he made a proclamation,
accompanied by a great drum, to this effect. The king is seated, a drum to
the left. See P X, 2, v. 4117/9.
Tara. N53: ' Ceruttunaiyantar' (plate VIII). P X, 3, vv. 4120/1-4126/7.
His part in the unsavoury episode of Kalarcifkan's luckless queen has just
been noted. In the panel, garland-weaving is seen to the right, and his assault
upon the queen is shown in the main part of the panel, at right angle. See
P X, 3, v. 4124/5.
Tara. N54: 'Pukalttunaiyr '. P X, 4, vv. 4127/1-4133/7.
During a famine, this saint became so weak that he let fall the pot of water
at the liitga he was worshipping, and fell fainting. giva appeared in a dream
and said that daily he would find a coin at the base of the liiga till the famine
69Supra, p. 270.
70
op. cit., 42-4 and n. 68.
71 P
X, 3, v. 4123/4, line 1.
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 285
abated. At the right the saint is shown at prayer, to the left and at right
angles he is seen letting slip the pot and further left seeking the coin at the
liifga-base. See P X, 4, vv. 4129/3 & 4130/4.
Tara. N55: ' Kolpuliyantar'. P X, 5, vv. 4134/1-4145/12.
Elsewhere called Kotpuli, this saint was an army-commander, who kept
a granary filled for temple-service. When he left on active service, he instructed
his family to keep his granary strictly for temple-service. However, during
a famine, they raided it for their own survival. When he returned, he slew
them all, not even sparing a small boy who had escaped his first onslaught.
Siva and Uma appeared, assuring him that all his family had attained svarga.
The massacre of the family is shown in the Taracuram panel. See P X, 5,
vv. 4141/84143/10.
Tara. G3: 'Pattarayppanivar'. P XI, 1, vv. 4147/1-4154/8.
Now follow the remaining seven Groups, exactly as in T, verse 10. Their
puernams are all brief, and for the most part non-episodic. The first group of
Sivabhaktcasshows them ever to be praising the god and dancing to him,
wherever they may be. Attitudes of prayer, dance and giving are seen in the
panel among the 10 devotees shown.
Tara. G4: 'Paramanaiye patuvar'. P XI, 2, vv. 4155/1 & 4156/2.
The devotees praise Siva at Tillai in Tamil, Sanskrit, and other languages.
Three bhaktasare shown before a temple.
Tara. G5: Cittattai Ccivanpale vaittar. P XI, 3, v. 4157.
The only subject in P to have a purdnam of one verse and no caption,
identifiable at Tara. by the Groups either side which have one. On the left,
a figure is seen meditating, while to the right a number are shown around
a shrine, dancing, and playing musical instruments.
Tara. G6: ' Tiruvariir pirantr '. P XI, 4, vv. 4158/1 & 4159/2.
One should not belittle the devotees of Siva born in Tiruvarur; they are
fit to be Siva's ganas on Kailasa. Four are seen in the panel.
Tara. G7: ' Mukkalumtirumeni tintuvar '. P XI, 5, vv. 4160/1-4162/3.
The foremost devotees are those who praised Siva, those who now so do,
and those who will continue to extol him. The three times are probably
symbolized in the panel by three devotees, each before a lii,ga.
Tara. G8: 'Mulunirupuciya munivar'. P XI, 6, vv. 4163/1-4168/6.
Though supported by captions, neither this nor the next Group is mentioned
by Sivaramamurti. Six devotees are shown before a temple, a reflection perhaps
of the fact that the purdnam is of six verses.
Tara. G9: ' Appalum aticca[r]nta atiyar'. P XI, 7, v. 4169.
Though the puradntam is of one verse, there is a caption hereat. These are
devotees who lived before or after those listed in T, or who live beyond the
Tamil country of the three kings and worship Siva. Three devotees before a
temple are shown symbolizing, perhaps, one prior to T, one after and one
outside the Tamil land.
Tara. N56: Puicalarnayanar. P XII, 1, vv. 4171/1-4188/18.
Grieving that he had insufficient money to build a temple to Siva, this
brahman went through the whole process in his mind. He summoned up
carpenters, and built it from foundations to sikhara, and set up a pillar and
the wall. On 'completion' the god appeared to the Katavar king and told
him that, before he attended the inauguration of a temple he had had built,
286 J. R. MARB
he must visit Pfcalar and pay homage to him. This last scene is shown in
the panel. See P XII, 1, v. 4186/16.
Tara. N57: ' Pntimatevi'. P XII, 2, vv. 4189/1-4191/3.
Known commonly from colophons as Mankaiyarkk'araci, Netumaran's
queen was, with him and Kulaccirai, patron of Nanacampantar. ARE (1920) 72
repeats the story of her husband being cured of a hunchback-condition as a
result of the saint's success, with her, in converting him from Jainism. But
this story is not mentioned in P, being found in Tiruvilai.73 The panel shows
the queen saluting Campantar. See P, 2, v. 4189/1.
Tara. N58: 'Necantar '. P XII, 3, vv. 4192/1-4196/5.
Another short puranam concerns this weaver, who ceaselessly gave away
to Saiva devotees the clothing he wove, as seen in the panel.
Tara. N59: 'Ko Cifnkapperumal'(plate IX). P XII, 4, vv. 4197/1-4214/18.
This saint was the reincarnation of the spider that, at Tiruvanaikka, spun
a web over the liiga to shelter it. The Skt. name in Sv., Lohitaksa, refers to
his usual name, Ceikanan, 'red-eyed one', said to have been exclaimed at
his birth by his mother.74 He is shown, crowned, before a shrine. Both this
panel and the next, N60, are divided vertically by a narrow bar; in the left
half of N59 appears ~iva and Parvati, in the right half of panel N60, as if to
counterbalance N59,75appears Ardhanarivara. This arrangement is unusual;
the divine figures may or may not be relevant to their subject matter and it
seems strange that, in its accompanying illustrations, ARE (1920) omitted
them.76 Nothing 'episodic' appears in the panel.
Tara. N60: ' Tirunilakantapperumpananar'. P XII, 5, vv. 4215/1-4226/12.
As will be seen from plate IX, this panel counterbalances that just
discussed. This saint was a musician, who played the bow-harp before Siva.
This is shown in the panel. See P XII, 5, v. 4221/7.
Tara. N61: 'Cataiyanar '. P XII, 6, v. 4227.
Tara. N62: 'Icaiiianiyar '. P XII, 7, v. 4228.
The last two Ndyanmdr to figure in P, other than Cuntarar whose story is
resumed in carukkamXIII, are the parents of Cuntarar,Cataiyan and Icaiiani,
apportioned one verse each. Both panels are non-episodic, showing each in
an attitude of prayer.
Tara. N63.1-7 (Cuntaramurttin.).
The set of seven panels that illustrates episodes from Cuntarar's life will,
finally, be examined. Each is accompanied by a caption, in which Cuntarar is
referred to, in four out of the seven, as Utaiyanampi. This, as meaning
'devotee (who is) a person of property' is perhaps a reference to the last verse
of T, wherein Cuntararrefers to himself as Ndvalur kkon, 'lord of Navalir '.77
The most noteworthy omission at Taracuramis of any referenceto the bigamous
alliance with Cafkiliyar; the only point at which this is touched upon is the
panel for N28, 'Kalikkamantar ', the saint who would die rather than be
72 ARE
(1920), 105.
73 Tiruvilai., canto 62.
74Lohitdksa, Sv., a. 75; Cieka.nan, NN, v. 81, P XII, 4, v. 4210/14. As fast as the spider
spun the web, an elephant came and tore it down. The spider entered the elephant's trunk and
bit it, killing them both. When the former was reborn, his mother died after addressing him as
Cenkanan.
75 See plate IX.
76 See ibid., plate I, figs. 10, 11.
77 T, v. 12, line 3.
EPISODES IN THE LIVES OF THE TAMIL SAIVA SAINTS 287
cured by the bigamist who had used Siva as go-between.78 The episodes seen
start with his birth to Cataiyan and Icainani, a natural follow-on to those two
saints, just featured. They finish with the saving of the boy from the crocodile.
As already stated,79 Taracuram does not allude to the 'heavenly' life of
Cuntarar; its parameters lie firmly within P I, 5 to XIII, and in the latter
up to well before his translation to heaven on the white elephant. NN similarly
omits these episodes, and it is tempting to regard them as later accretions,
featured in P I, 1-4, the latter part of P XIII, and in Sv., particularly
adhydyas 1-13.80 Within P, source-material for the seven Cuntarar-panels is
also to be found in the ten interstitial verses on Cuntarar that were already
noted.81
Tara. N63.1: 'Utaiyanampi eluntarulukirar' (plate X).
ARE (1920) states: 'This sculpture cannot be identified clearly. Probably
this refers to the birth of Alalasundara ... .82 It is hard to agree with this, as
nowhere else in the frieze is there any reference to the supernatural life of
Cuntarar. It seems reasonable to interpret this panel as showing the birth to
Cataiyan and Icaifiani (P I, 5, v. 119/3) and his adoption by Naracifka
Munaiyar (P I, 5, v. 151/5). The two on the left would then be Cuntarar's
parents, with the boy next to them, and the crowned figure to the right
Naracihkan.
Tara. N63.2 : ' Avana olai kattinapati '.
This shows the god Siva claiming Cuntarar's allegiance at the point of the
saint's marriage arranged by his adoptive parents. Siva produces the palm-
leaf MS in which was recorded the agreement by which, in return for allegiance
to him, Cuntarar would be able to marry Paravaiyar and Cankiliyar 83 and
demonstrates its antiquity (P II, v. 550). The saint dares to try and tear it up
(P I, 5, v. 190/44) and the god points out that this act itself is proof of the
document's authenticity: were it a forgery, Cuntarar would not have tried to
destroy it (P I, 5, v. 193/47). This episode is, in effect, continued in the next
panel.
Tara. N63.3: 'Utaiyanampiyai antukolt.arulinapati'.
After Siva, in the form of an old brahman, has claimed the allegiance of
Cuntarar, he is asked his residence; he points to the temple of Tiruvenney-
nallir, and disappears into it. The scene is shown here: two aged brahmans,
one of them the god, are shown before a shrine, with the adoring Cuntarar
to the right. See P I, 5, v. 211/65.
Tari. N63.4: 'Utaiyanampikku ollenrarulinapati' (plate XI).
The above is the reading in ARE (1908),84 and that favoured by Sivarama-
murti.85 But for some reason the ARE (1920) authors changed their reading
to 'Utaiyampikku olai venrarulinapati', again suggesting that this carving is
78Supra, 280.
79Supra, p.p. 274.
80 Which also include the earthly life and, specifically, Siva's acting as go-between in the
Cafikiliyar affair, see Sv., a. 12.
81Supra, p. 274, n. 24.
82 p. 103.
83 The two were in fact incarnations of Kamalini and Anintitai, the two maidens
upon
Kailasa whom, Cuntarar, in his heavenly form Halalasundara, had desired. iiva drew up an
agreement that he could have them, provided he consent to be born on earth.
84 ARE (1908), 80.
85
op. cit., 45. The author rightly notes that one of the pair is a king, but simply says that
Cuntarar is directing him to a temple the other side. The king is not identified, nor is the cleaving
of the waters mentioned.
288 J. R. MARR
92 C. K.
Cuppiramaniya Mutaliyar states that a case of a boy being swallowed by a crocodile
and disgorged was reported in the press. See P VII, comm. to v. 4240, p. 596, n.