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CHAPTER-I

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13
1.1 Slope failures or landslides

Slope failures or landslides are short lived and abruptly occurring natural hazards in
sloping terrains. They can cause extraordinary landscape changes and cause severe damage
to life and property. Landslides are a form of mass movement, which can be described as a
rapid down slope movement of soil, sediments and rocks due to gravity. It
characteristically occurs along one or more discrete bounding slip surfaces (Hutchinson,
1988). Landslides include a broad range of mechanisms whereby the material is dislodged
by sliding, flowing, spreading and toppling on account of gravity (Coates, 1981). Periods
of intense rainfall and human intervention play an important role in triggering the process.
This form of mass-wasting continues to be a concern for highway engineers,
administrators, planners, geologists, land-managers and local dwellers in most of the hilly
or mountainous tracts around the world.

1.2 Causes of slope failures

Many complex variables contribute as a whole to cause a slope failure. These

variables can be grouped into two categories which are intrinsic and extrinsic. The
intrinsic variables include factors inherent on the terrain while the extrinsic variables
include factors which trigger or initiate a failure. The intrinsic variables are slope gradient,
relative elevation of the area, lithology and mineralogical composition of the rocks,
structural features like the intensity of joints, their frequency, depth, length and attitude,
geotechnical properties of rocks and soils like angle of internal friction, cohesion, bulk
density, grain size and clay content, drainage characteristics, climate, antecedent moisture
conditions of the stratum, vegetative cover and land use patterns. The extrinsic variables
include high intensity rainfall, slope height, weight of the slope material, soil erosion,
deforestation, construction of heavy structures, heavy vehicular traffic and seismic events.
While these intrinsic variables make slopes susceptible to failure over a period of time, the
extrinsic variables trigger the failure within a short span.
Technically, landslide occurs when the average shear stress, acting on the potential
failure plane within an inclined mass of particulate or rock material exceed the stresses that
the material along the surfaces is capable of resisting (shear strength). The resisting forces
are a function of the strength of the material in shear like cohesion & angle of internal
friction between the grains (Chandler, 1986). Generally, the strength of materials depends
on the lithology and antecedent moisture conditions.

14
 1.3 Classification of slope failures

Even though a number of classification schemes were attempted by several authors

the most accepted classification schemes takes into consideration the kind of earth
material, type and rate of movement, water content of slide material, and the failure plane
characteristics. The earliest widely used classification is that of Sharpe (1938). The more
recent classification of landslides are those of Hutchinson ( 1968, 1978), Zaruba and Mencl
(1969, 1982), Nemcok et al. (1972), Varnes (1978, 1984) and Coates (1977, 1981). Table
1.1 and Table 1.2 shows the most commonly used schemes of classification by Vames
(1978) and Coates (1977) respectively.
Table 1.1 Classifications of Landslides (Varnes, 1978)
Type of Movement Type of Material
Bedrock Soils
Coarse Fine
FALLS ROCK FALL DEBRIS FALL EARTH FALL
TOPPLES ROCK TOPPLE ,, TOPPLE ,, TOPPLE

Rotational Few units ,, SLUMP ,, SLUMP ,, SLUMP

SLIDES ,, BLOCK- SLIDE ,, BLOCK- SLIDE ,, BLOCK SLIDE
,, SLIDE ,, SLIDE ,, SLIDE

Transnational Many units

LATERAL SPREAD ,, SPREAD ,, SPREAD ,, SPREAD
FLOWS ,, FLOW ,, FLOW ,, FLOW
{deep creep)
Soil creep
COMPLEX Combination of two or more types

Table 1.2 Classifications of Landslides (Coates, 1977)

Type Type of Movement (increasing Speed->)
of Slide Flow Fall
Material Rotational Planar
Bed Rock Rock Slump Rock Slide Increasing
Block Slide Rock Rock avalanche Rock fall
coherence

Regolith Earth Slump Debris

slide Soil fall

Sediments Sediment Loess Sand

Slump flow flow Sediment
fall

(increasing sediment size>)

1.4 Slope failures in the Indian context

Among the natural hazards, earthquakes, slope failures, floods and cyclones are the
major disasters affecting the Indian sub-continent. The destructive impact of landslides on

15
people and their economic conditions are direct, and many fold, particularly in the
mountainous regions of Himalayas and Western Ghats. The tropical climate, unstable land
forms, deforestation and unplanned developmental activities make the hilly areas prone to
landslides. Evaluation of the physiography of the Indian sub-continent shows four hilly
regions that have all the innate characteristics favorable for slope failures. The four hilly
regions are
1. Western Himalayas (Utter Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir)
2. Eastern and NE Himalayas (West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh)
3. Naga-Arakan Mountain belt (Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura)
4. Western Ghats including Nilgiris (Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and TN
The Landslide Hazard Zonation Atlas of India (Jan, 2004) presents the
Geographical Information System (GIS) based landslide inventory map and landslide
hazard zonation maps of India at
the scale of 1 :6 million. This Atlas
includes some of the worst
0
20
landslides of India like Great
Malpa Rock Avalanche of 1998,
the Alaknanda Tragedy of 1970

and Amboori landslide of Kerala of

2001.
It is estimated that about
15% of the land area of Indian sub-
AU81AN
$U
continent poses terrain conditions
favorable for generation of mass
movements (Rao, 1989). The
Himalaya mountain belts are
0 --

SN comprised of tectonically unstable

7S I
younger sedimentary rocks and are
subject to severe seismic activity.
Fig.1.1. Geographical outline of the Western Ghats
(after Tiwari, 1995) This enhances the vulnerability of
slopes and generation of massive slides in the Himalayas. Here the overburden along with
the underlying lithology is displaced. Since the Western Ghats and Nilgiris are
geologically stable and have uplifted plateau margins influenced by neo- tectonic activity,
the slope failures are generally confined to the overburden without affecting the stable
Precambrian rocks underneath, with rock falls along the cliff sections due to anthropogenic
influence.
16
 Situated in a humid and tropical climatic region the Western Ghats profoundly
influences the regional climate on its eastern and western sides. The western slopes and
plains receive an annual rainfall between 2000 - 4000 mm, where as the eastern slopes
getting between 400 - 800 mm, represents a rain shadow region. The northern region of the
western slopes enjoys very heavy precipitation for 3 to 4 months during the south-west
monsoon with a clear dry spell for 6 to 7 months. In the extreme south, the rainfall is well
distributed for a period of 7 to 8 months both by the south-west and north-east monsoons
The Western Ghats or the Sahyadris run parallel to the Lakshadweep Sea constitutes a
chain of hills and mountain ranges from the river Tapti in the north to Kanyakumari in the
south for about 1600 km. The geographical outline of the Western Ghats (after Tiwari.
1995) is shown in Figure 1.1. The western slope is steep and usually terraced resembling
stairs or steps (Ghats) from which it has acquired the name, Ghats (Pascoe. 1950).
Anamudi the highest peak in Western Ghats is located in Kerala in the district of Idukki,
has an elevation of 2694 meters.
Slope failures along the Western Ghats of India have been studied by many. Vijith
and Madhu (2008) assessed the susceptibility of landslides in paiis of Western Ghats, of
Kerala using a geographical information system (GIS). Sharda (2008), Ganapathy et al.,
(2010), Iswar Das et al., (2010) and Pankaj et al., (2011) classified landslides into classes
based on the landslide type, volume, scar depth, and run-out distance and a zonation map
for landslide hazard for has been attempted based on Landslide Susceptibility Index (LSI)
considering factors like lithology, slope angle, distance from major thrust/faults, landuse
pattern and drainage density in relation to frequency of existing landslides.

1.5 Literature review on slope failures in the Kerala

The Western Ghats of Kerala are highly fragile and are under repeated threats of
landslides. Kerala is a narrow strip of land, of which 47% is occupied by the most
prominent orographic feature of peninsular India - the Western Ghats. Every year with the
onset of monsoon reports pour in from almost all the highland districts, about 'slope
failures', 'landslides' and 'Urulpottal'. The characteristic pattern of this phenomenon is the
swift and sudden down-slope movement of highly saturated overburden containing a
variety of assemblage of debris material ranging in size from soil particles to huge boulders
destroying and carrying with it everything that is lying in its path. In Malayalam. this
phenomenon is known as 'Urulpottal'.
Several workers have investigated occurrences of landslides in the Idukki district
over the past few decades. The reported occurrences form only a part of the actual

17
incidences. The incidences are normally investigated upon and reported only when it
affects the local inhabitants in the form of losses to life and property. Much of the mass
movements taking place in the forest land causing irreversible damage to the forest
environment goes unnoticed and hence is not documented.
Seshagiri et al., (1982) carried out the first landslide hazard zonation of a segment
of the Nilgiri plateau. The work clearly indicates that the multiple slides recorded in the
high sloping areas fringing the Nilgiri plateau are of the type described as debris flows
affecting the cover material on the slopes. The event was triggered by the high intensity
rains over saturating the cover material.
Krishnanath et al., (1985, 1993, 1996), Krishnanath and Sreekumar (1996),
Sreekumar (1998), Sreekumar and Krishnanath (2000) studied a number of profiles along
the communication arteries and river channels within Idukki and Pathanamthitta districts
and identified a number of profiles which are at the geotechnical threshold.
Kandaswamy et al., (1985) recorded mass movements in the district of Wayanad in
Kerala within Kabani basin at Thariode and Brahmagiri in 1960, Chembara peak estate in
1980 and found that the unfavorable geologic conditions, such as thick lateritic cover,
tampering of the natural drainage network, large scale deforestation and intense rainfall
close to the divide within the first order sub basin, were the causes for the mass-
movements.
Sankar (1991) described the rock fall in Chengodumala, Kozhikode district, along a
steep slope of +25 and stated that deforestation leading to removal of vegetative cover
contributing to the absence of root bolting had resulted in the major rock fall.
In 1992 a landslide occurred in Elichiavali village of Palakkad district which is
located in the low level terraces of Bhavani river. Officers of Geological Survey of India
reports that 317 mm ofrain fall took place between 12th and 18th of November, 1992 and
debris material from middle slope area moved down along a tributary breaching the flanks
up to its confluence with Bhavani river affecting two housing colonies. The investigators
suggested stream training measures as long term mitigatory measure.
Thampi et al., (1992) reports land disturbances in the form of landslides and
subsidence due to piping from the Palakayam area of Manarghat taluk of Palghat district.
The mud flow of Bison Valley village of Idukki district had initiated at a height of

1100 meter on a slope of+ 30 . Thampi et al., (1994, 1995) envisaged this as the result of
anthropogenic activities resulting in the artificial steepening of the slopes and withdrawal
of the toe support resulting in slumping and sliding ofthe upper hard laterite as blocks.
The Center for Water Resource Development and Management studied the
instability patterns ofthe communication arteries in the Lakkidi area of Kozhikode district
18
and suggested surface drainage corrections and structural measures like buttressing as
mitigatory measures to prevent failure along the road sections (Narashima Prasad et al.,
1995).
The natural disaster that had occurred in 1984 at Mananthavady, Mundakai,
Meppadi and Vaithiri of Wayanad districts, was the result of the regionally unfavorable
geologic structural trends together with the complementary high monsoon rainfall causing
localized infiltration resulting in high pore-water pressure within the overburden material
(Muraleedharan, 1995).
Thampi et al., (1994, 1995) reported landslide occurrences in the flat topped,
porous vesicular laterite crested hills (slope +20 ) that stand out as Mesas on the sandy
costal tracts at Ezhom and Cherukunnu panchayats of Kannur district.
Earnest et al., (1995) had studied the landslides that occurred at the Kallumala area
of Attappady block in Palakkad district during the monsoons and predicted the ground
water movement as the triggering mechanism.
Biju Abraham et.al (1996) studied the lithological and structural properties of the
rocks with differing moisture contents and mineralogy along the Thodupuzha-Munnar road
and concluded that the percolating water acts as a triggering force for the onset of mass
wasting.
Massive slides in the sub-catchment of Chaliyarpuzha, near Kodaranji in Koilandi
taluk of Calicut district during July 1991 claimed four human lives. The slopes are very
steep and under cultivation of seasonal crops warranting severe tilling of ground. The steep
slopes are meticulously contour bunded blocking all small seasonal drainage channels.
The blockage of drainage channels during rains caused over saturation of the overburden
on steep slopes resulting in debris flows. Thampi et al., (1997) reports similar failures
caused by blockage of surface drainage on high-sloping terrain from Kurachundu in
Calicut district during October 1990. It may be noted here that the cause attributed to both
of the above failures are the saturation of the overburden caused by practices of improper
landuse adopted on high-slope terrains.
Sreekumar (1998) developed a landslide hazard zonation map along Kottayam
Kumili road. He studied the chemical and mineralogical variations along lateritic slopes
indicating extreme interactive complexity of these processes resulting in the heterogeneity
of the weathering profiles.
Land disturbances in the form of debris flows, debris topple and mud slides had
occurred in parts of Chittar and Sitatodu Panchayats of Pathanamthitta district. Severely
affected localities include Kochukoikkal, Mundampara, Seethakuzhi and Munnukallu in
Sitatodu panchayat and Minkuzhi in Chittar panchayat on 13th July, 1998.
19
 In a study on the environmental set up of the Neyyar Catchment Area in
Trivandrum district Suresh Babu et al., (2000) describes seven slope failures happening
within 120 Sq. kms. of uninhabited forest area. High gradient, thick overburden,
deterioration of natural vegetation along with high precipitation was identified as the
causative factors. Apart from these soil creep in the interjunction zone of slopes and valley
floor is a common feature noted within the Neyyar wild life sanctuary area.
A devastating landslide occurred on August 2004 in the Nittukotta Mala near
Pasukadavu in the Marudhonkara Panchayat of Calicut district claiming ten human lives
apart from damaging agricultural fields. Field studies indicate that the slope modification
and drainage diversion were responsible for the failure (Sankar and John Mathai, 2004).
Many recent landslides like the Amboori slide of 2001 in Trivandrum district which
claimed 39 lives and almost all the slide occurrences in Munnar area during 2005 and
series of small incidences in Vadakara, Koilandi and Kuttiyadi during 2005 are due to
human interference in the form of recent developmental activities without any
consideration of the fragility of the terrain.
Thampi (2006) while attempting a regional zonation of Western Ghats based on
geomorphology found that an area of approximately 1500 sq. kms falling within the
highland region of Kerala is likely to be landslide prone and suggests that it needs detailed
studies to identify the critical zones. 180 slides were recorded from the upper catchment
area of Minachil and Manimala rivers. A landslide Hazard Zonation of this area was
attempted based on the characteristics of these slides. In high sloping areas (>20 slope)
the construction of contour bunds across natural hollows often disrupts the natural drainage
and triggers debris flows.
Apart from the debris flow that is prevalent in the Western Ghats landslides also
happen in the midland and coastal region mainly due to the engineering practices without
any consideration for the geological and hydro geological set up of the terrain. The
extensive landslides along the Trivandrum - Kanyakumari railway line in 1997 which had
resulted in closing of this line for a long period is an excellent example (Thampi, 2006).
In regions where landslide investigation is a young discipline, the analysis of
historical documents can provide important information about the type and the temporal
and spatial distribution of landslide events (Devoli et al. 2007).
A detailed description of the history and chorology of landslide prone areas of the
state is given by Kuriakose et al., (2009).
Sreekumar and Aslam (2010) states that structural features, slope conditions,
anthropogenic and climatic factors play a key role in slope failures of Western Ghats in
Idukki district.
20
 A study by CESS reveals that 1848 km2 or 4.71% of Kerala is under high landslide
hazard category and 3759 km2 or 9.77% under low hazard category. Devikulam, Vythiri,
Nilambur, Mannarkad and Ranni are the most landslide prone taluks in the state. It states
that 388.32 Sq.Km or 8.9% of land area in Idukki district is prone to high landslide hazard
risk and 873.71 Sq.Km or 20.02% of land area as low land slide hazard risk area (CESS,
2010). Table 1.3 gives the details the locality, date of occurrence, type of failures and the
extent of reported damage due to landslides in the Kerala region of Western Ghats from
1958 to 2010 reported by the news media.
Sreekumar and Arish Aslam (2011) concluded that 17.30% of grama panchayat of
Devikulam, Munnar, Elappara, Peruvandanam, Kumili and Kakkayar comes under critical
and highly unstable categories based on micro zonation using landslide susceptibility
index.
Table 1.3 Details of landslides occurrences in the Kerala region of Western Ghats

SI. Date of
Locality Type of Failure Reported Damage
No. Occurrence
Todupuzha , Arakkulam, Erumeli, Rock slide & debris 24 persons killed, Thousands ofhouses
I 2, Aug ,1958,
ldukki Ost. flow washed away
Destroyed the Sabarigiri hydroelectric
2 Moozhiyar 20, July 1968 Debris flow
project area
1st & I Ith July
3 Kattippara, Idukki Ost. Debris flow 2 children died
1968
Rocks & Debris 33 persons killed a lot ofwild elephants
4 Adimali , Idukki Ost. July 26, 1974
Slide & animals were killed
Kodancheri - Eeramthodu ofCalicut
5 July 27, 1974 Debris flow 3 died
Ost.
40 places in Anakkampayal, Calicut Rock slides & Total wreckage ofthe agrarian
6 July 28, 1974
Ost. Debris flow economy
ValiakaYu - Mathaichira & Pattikkadu, Debris & rock
7 July 25, 1976 16 persons oftwo family killed
Trichur Ost. slides
8 Anakkampayal, Calicut Ost. July 12, 1978 Debris flow 4 members ofa family killed
9 Ootty, Nilgiri hills Dec O 4, 1978 Debris flow 75 persons killed
IO Valara, Idukki Ost. July 1976 Rock falls 4 persons were killed
II Adimali, Idukki Ost. Nov 03, 1977 Soil slip IO killed underneath
Soil and Debris
12 Kumali, Kollam - Pattada area July 14, 1983 2 children killed
Slip
13 Puthuppady ,Waynad Ost. June 15,1984 Debris flow 8 persons killed
Debris & rock 15 persons killed, devastated 70 acres
14 Mundakkal, Waynad Ost. July 01, 1984
slides ofland
Koompanpara, Muthuvankudi, Rock slide & 30 persons killed
15 26,27 June 1985
Keerithodu, Arakkulam, Idukki Ost. Debris Flow Acres ofland destroyed
Kalpetta - 9th Hairpin bend at Wayanad
16 July 14, 1984 Rock slide Traffic obstruction for two weeks
Ghat road
Vimalagiri - Tadianpadu road,
Rock slide & complete destruction ofroad &
17 Panamkutty, Adimali, Keerithodu, Aug 18, 1986
Debris flow agricultural land
Idukki Ost.
18 Thakarappadi road, Wayanad Ost. June 23, 1986 Rock mass slide complete destruction ofthe road
Kalpetta - 9th Hairpin bend at Wayanad
19 Sept 25, 1986 Road slided road destroyed
Ghats road
Umgathiri Panchayat, Vettilappara Sept 21, 1986 3 acres ofagricultural land completely
20 Debris flow
chelakkulam mala, Malappuram Ost. destroved.
Kalpetta 9th Hairpin bend at Wayanad rock slided on to the road from a height
21 Oct 07, 1987 Rock slides
Ghats road of200'
Attappady - churam road in Wayanad Rock & debris
22 Oct 19, 1987 Loss oflife and property
Ost. Slides
Adakkakundu, 8 km from I00 acres ofland completely destroyed
23 June 04, 1988 debris slide
Kaliamkunnu, Malappuram Ost. 50 lakhs loss
24 Pulluppara, Idukki Ost. June 27, 1988 Debris flow 4 killed
Kalpetta 8th Hairpin bend at Wayanad
25 July 19, 1988 Rock Slide Road completely blocked for 2 days
Ghats road
26 Kodancheri taluk July 20, 1988 Debris flow 200 acres ofland lost

21
 Rs I cores loss
July 20, 1988 A side of mountain slided down
27 Ambukutti, Sultan battery Rock slide

28 Poovaranthodu, Calicut Dst. July 19, 1988 Rock & Debris Bridge linking Kodancheri - Mullupara
slide was washed off
29 Karuvarakundu, Malappuram Dst. Aug 23, 1988 Debris flow 150 acres ofland destroyed
Koorkunnu, near Kanjirapuzha dam, Debris & Rock
30 Sept 14, 1988 3 killed
Palghat Dst. slide
31 Asramam area, nr. Mulamattom Power
house, ldukki Dst. Sept 14, 1988 Debris flow IOO's ofhouses destroyed
32 Irumbakamchola, Trichur Dst. Sept 14, 1988 Debris flow 3 killed, 31 houses damaged
33 Koompanpara, ldukki Dst. July 27, 1989 9 killed, a house humed, acres ofland
Rock slide
destroyed
Nadukanimala, Mulamattom, ldukki ROCK & Debris
34 July 28, 1989 9 killed
Dst. Slide
Todupuzha & Minachil Taluks, ldukki 19th & 20th Sept 25 landslides &
35 50 houses damaged
Dst. 1989 rock slips
36 13 landslides in a Road wounding the hill vanished
Ramapuram, Palai Sept 29, 1989
single night without a trace
37 Kurachundu, Calicut Dst. June 26, 1990 Debris flow
38 Umakkunnu, Quilon Dst. June 25, 1990 Debris flow
Thakarappadi, in Tamarasseri Ghat Rock & Landslip
39 June 26, 1990 Loss ofproperty
road, Waynad Ost.
Mangakkadavu & Kandalad hills in Landslides and Kodaranji Nayadumpullu road was
40 June 08, 1991
Calicut Ost. debris flow destroyed
Kodaranji- in Koilandi , Kozhikode 4 deaths
41 July 01, 1991 Debris flow
Dst.
Kodikutti & Ettadu near Mulamattom Debris & Rock 30 acres offlourishing agricultural land
Oct 14, 1991
in Idukki Ost. slides lost
42 Pasukadavu, Calicut Dst. June 19, 1992 Rock slides 5 acres ofland devastated
Kappikalam - (Padinjarethara)
June 19, 1992 Rock & Debris 11 killed, accumulation of40' height of
43 Banasuran mala, Vaithiri taluk,
Early morning flow mountain soil on the road
Waynad Dst.
Thakarappadi in Tamarasseri Ghat June 20, 1992 Boulder falls on to
44 7 landslides occurred. Road damaged
road, Waynad Dst. night the road
Meghamalai, in Madurai - Cumbum Landslip at 25
45 Nov 14, 1992 37 persons killed, I 00 dwellers missing.
road places in the area
46 Sanghili forest in TVPM Dst. Nov 15, 1992 Landslip 16 persons missing
47 Nov 15, 1992 Rock and Debris
Idukki Ost. Many roads damaged
falls
Karuvarakundu, Malappuram Ost., Crops worth Rs 4 crore lost ,35
48 Oct 07, 1993 Debris flow
Palakkayam in Palakkad Dst. houses destroyed
Adivaram, Peringalam, & Kottackal , Rock and Debris Roads & bridges destroyed. One Death
49 Oct 08, 1993
Waynad Dst. falls. I 00 slides reported
Marappalam near Coonoor in The Ghat road & mountain railway
50 Boulders, and soil
Nov 11, 1993 line was washed off along with vehicles
Mettupalayam - Ootty Ghat road slip
& structures.
51 Melattur, Malappuram Dst. Jan 17, 1994 Debris flow One Killed
52 Bison Valley, Munnar ,Idukki Dst. July 13, 1994 Debris & Rock
7 killed, acres ofland destroyed
slides
53 Pallivasal near Munnar ,Idukki Ost. Rock & debris Disrupted traffic in Kochi - Madurai
July 13, 1994
slides NH-49
54 Rock & debris Disrupted traffic in Kottayam Kumili
Vandiperiyar, ldukki Dst. July 13, 1994
slides road
Rock & debris Disrupted traffic in Elappara -
55 Chappattu, Idukki Dst. July 13, 1994
slides Kattapana
Rock & debris
56 Adimali ,Idukki Dst. July 13, 1994 8 houses completely destroyed
slides
Pattarpattakunnu, in Nilambur ,Idukki 5 killed, Acres ofhigh yielding
57 July 15, 1994 Debris flow
Dst. agricultural land destroyed
Valankollimala in Kuruvalangadu,
58 July 15, 1994 Mountain slide Heavy rainfall
Idukki Dst.
Vallokmala in Tinur Village, Calicut
59 July 29, 1994 Debris flow 100 families shifted
Ost.
Kuttiyadi in Marudhonkara village,
60 July 29, 1994 Debris flow Acres ofagricultural land devastated
Calicut Ost.
Acres of high yielding agricultural land
61 Pasukadavu, Calicut Dst. July 29, 1994 Debris flow
destroved
Akamalavaram,
62 July 29, 1994 Debris flow Loss ofproperty
Paruthipara, Kallamala, Palghat
63 Menamkulam, Akamala,Tvm Ost. July 25,1995 Debris flow Loss ofproperty
64 Ezhom, Kannur Dst. July 26, 1995 Debris flow Loss of property
65 Talanadu, Kottayam Dst. July 21, 1997 Debris flow Loss of property
66 Padi, Kasargod Dst. July 20, 1997 Debris flow Loss of property
Pazhampallichal, Idukki Ost. 40 nos ofDeep to 16 deaths blocked the NH-49 at several
67 July 20, 1997
Shallow soil and places for I month. Bridge at NH-49
22
 rock slides was washed off
Ozhuvathadam in Devikulam Taluk,
68 July 21, 1997 Debris flow Two death reported
Idukki Ost.
Valara in Devikulam Taluk , ldukki
69 July 21, 1997 Rock Slide One death reported
Ost.
Cheeyappara in Devikulam Taluk of
70 July 21, 1997 Debris flow One death reported
Idukki Dst.
Three deaths reported. Trivandrum-
71 Idichakkaplamoodu, Trivandrum Ost. Nov 15, 1998 Rock Slide Nagercoil railway line blocked by
debris
Pamba in Pathanamthitta Ost.
72 Jan 15, 1999 Rock Slide Twenty Five deaths reported
73 Periyanmala in Kottayam Ost. Jan 16,1999 Debris flow No death toll reported
74 Chundakkadu in Palakkad Ost. Aug 25, 2000 Debris flow One death reported
Udumbannoor near Thodupuzha in The dead included three members ofa
75 July 9, 2001 Debris flow
Idukki district. family.
One person missing in a landslide at
76 Mankulam in ldukki, July 9, 2001 Debris flow
Mankulam in Idukki
Todupuzha-Idukki road Minmutty, Roads and communication network
77 July 9, 2001 Debris flow
Idukki district. destroyed
78 Vandiperiyar town, Idukki Ost. July 9, 2001 Debris flow Kottayam- Kumali route blocked
Udumbannoor, Venniyani Mala near
79 July 9, 2001 Debris flow 4 people died.
Thodupuzha in Idukki Ost.
3 persons died
80 Thrissur July 8, 2001 Debris flow
44 people were killed. Four houses on
Amboori, Trivandrum
81 Nov 9, 2001 Debris Slides the upper part ofthe rocky 'kurisumala'
Poochamukku in Neyyar dam
came down
Munnar, Vandiperiyar & Kumili in
Vehicular traffic disrupted and
82 Idukki Ost., Erattupeta & Wagaman in Oct 07, 2003 Debris slide hours.
communication network paralyzed.
Kottavam district.
East Field Estate at Mekkad in the 600 m ofa hill tract with a rubber
83 Oct 07, 2003 Rock Slide
Aryankavu in Kollam district. plantation washed away.
Munnar, Devikulam, Koompanpara,
Ten people killed. Road traffic and
84 Vandiperiyar, Elappara & Kuttikanam. July 24, 2004 Debris flow
telecom net works destroyed.
, ldukki district in Kerala
Three members ofa family including
85 Kottiyur in Kannur district. Aug 04, 2004 Debris flow
two children died.
86 Kuttiyadi in Kozhikode Ost. Aug 04, 2004 Debris flow Claimed 9 lives
5 members ofa family killed when a
87 Kulamavu in Idukki Dst. Aug 04 ,2004 Debris flow
check dam collapsed
88 Munnar in ldukki Ost. Aug 12, 2004 Debris flow 8 lives lost. 20 roads destroyed.
89 Nittukottamala in Kozhikode Aug 10,2004 Debris flow Ten Deaths reported
Mulliyar village, Atta Pamabu, in
90 April 26, 2005 Debris flow 10 people killed and 13 injured
Kasargod district
Devikulam-Munnar Road Complex Slide. 24 8 persons killed. The entire Munnar
91 Munnar-Marayur and Munnar-Adimali July 25, 2005 spots in Munnar town remains inundated and cut off
roads town slided. from other areas
92 Vallamthodu in Wayanad Ost. June 6, 2007 Debris flow Four Deaths reported
Koodaranchu Anayodu and Two persons were dead. Extensive
93 July 16, 2007 Debris flow
Vettilappara in Malappuram district damage to crops
94 Kairadi in Palakkad Ost. July 17, 2007 Debris flow One Death reported
95 Panakkachal in Kozhikode Dst. July 17, 2007 Debris flow One Death reported
96 Mysoorpetta in Kozhikode Dst. July 17, 2007 Slump One Death reported
97 Kavalupara in Palakkad Ost. July 17, 2007 Rotational Slide One Death reported
98 Edavanna in Malappuram Dst. July 17, 2007 Rotational Slide Two Deaths reported

At Nondimedu on the Ootty-Coonoor

99 Oct 26, 2007 Debris flow Loss oflife and property
NH road
Udhagamandalam, Thekkalla area of Traffic was totally stopped on the
100 June 24, 2008 Debris flow
Gudalur-Kerala NH National Highway
Udumbanchola taluk ofldukki district,
IOI Aug 30, 2008 Debris flow Loss ofproperty
Kerala, India.
102 Sabarimala, Pathanamthitta Ost. Sept 4, 2008 Debris flow Washed offChandranathan road.

Kalikavu Panchayat, Malappuram One Person dead and 15 houses were

103 Sept 5, 2008 Debris flow
district destroyed.

Vellamunda and Muppanad 16 July 2009 14 landslides being reported in One

104 Debris flow
Panchayat, Wayanad Ost. person was killed

A fatal landslide in Puchappara, near

105 Oct 27,2009 Debris flow Seven people died.
Vellimattam, Idukki district.

23
 Puthuppady, Balussery in Kozhikode
106 Oct 3, 2009 Debris flow damage to crops and houses
district
Thalayad near T amarasseri in blocked Thalayad-Kakkayam road and
107 Kozhikode district, Oct 3, 2009 Mudslides destroyed 'Jalanidhi' water supply
system
Thumpichil mala, Puchappara in ldukki
108 Oct27,2010 Debris Slide 3 death tolls reported
district
Vanchuvathu near Palode, Trivandrum A 20' road cut cliff slipped down into
109 Nov 21,2010 Debris Slide
district the Shenkotta road
13 debris slide occurrence in,
llO Vithura - Ponmudi road Nov21, 2010 Debris Slide
NedumcU?.adu - Ponmudi road
Ill Nandiyoodu, Trivandrum district Nov21, 2010 Debris Slide Debris slide on to a house

1.6 Study area

The study area forms part of the Western Ghats in Idukki district, Kerala State, and
1s located along Todupuzha- Idukki- Adimali -Munnar road (TM - road). The road
comprises part of two highways namely, state highway No.33 from Todupuzha to Adimali
and the national highway No.49 from Adimali to Munnar (Fig 1.2). The road is a 123 km
stretch of winding course linking the town of Todupuzha through Arakkulam, Kulamavu
dam, Painavu, Karimpan, Panamkutty and Adimali to Munnar, a renowned tourist destiny
in Kerala. To study the factors determining the area of influence of the slopes along TM
road, the adjacent areas of the road stretch are also included in the study, comprising a total
area of 438 Sq.Km. The study area is located within Latitude 9 46' & 10 05'N and
Longitude 76 45' & 77 05'E falling in the Survey of India topographic sheet Nos. 58
C/13, 58 C/9, 58 F/4. Idukki district was formed on 26th January 1972. Administratively
the area comes partly under Kottayam and partly under Idukki districts. The district head
quarters at Painavu, finds its place in the southern part of the study area at an elevation of
about 850 m above mean sea level. The district's name, 'Idukki' is derived from the
Malayalam word 'Idukku' which means a narrow gorge. Periyar, the largest river of Kerala,
flowing through the gorge formed between two mountains - 'Kuravanmala' (839 meters)
and 'Kurathimala' (925 meters) formed the site for 'IDUKKI DAM' which is Asia's biggest
Arch Dam of 555 feet height. This prestigious project of India is situated in south eastern
part of the study area. Its underground Power House is located at Mulamattom which is
about 19 kms from Todupuzha (http://idukki.nic.in/dam-hist.htm). The area has all the
features of a highland terrain, with its picturesque landscape of denudational hills, deeply
dissected valleys and dissected plateaus. Several slope failures have been reported from
this segment and hence is considered as an ideal terrain for the study of slope failures.

1.7 Significance of the Study

With the onset of monsoon, reports pour m from different parts of the state
especially from the highland districts of Kerala about slope failures/landslides causing

24
severe damage to life and property especially along the slopes and communication lines in
ldukki district. These recurring disastrous events warrant a detailed study on the slope
stability of those areas to identify and propose suitable remedial measures that can be
adopted by planners and administrators. Among all the natural hazards, slope failures are
most amenable to corrective measures aimed at prevention. The present research proposes
to undertake a detailed investigation of the slope stability problems along and around
Todupuzha- Idukki- Adimali -Munnar road in ldukki district,Kerala.

1.8 Objectives of the Study

The main objectives of this study are:

1. To identify and locate unstable slope profiles along Todupuzha- Idukki -
Adimali- Munnar road in ldukki district,Kerala state, India, (TM road).
2. To identify the different types of slope failures that may occur along the TM
road, by looking at their nature and reasons for failure.
3. To evaluate the geological, geotechnical, meteorological, anthropogenic and
geomorphic factors responsible for past and present occurrences.
4. To define a rainfall intensity threshold value for the triggering of landslides in
the study area.
5. To integrate the data on a GIS platform for assessing the terrain adjoining the
TM road, in terms of its fragility and to classify the entire terrain into various
stability categories based on the fragility index and to prepare a fragility index
map of the study area. This evaluation will help in identifying areas which are
stable and where infrastructure could be established without any threat to the
terrain system.

1.9 Methodology

The present study requires a multi-disciplinary approach. In order to accomplish the

objectives of the study the following methodology is adopted.
1. This research work is a continuation of the project entitled 'Slope processes
along river channels and communication arteries in Idukki and Pathanamthitta
districts ofKerala' by Prof. RKrishnanath (1984). Hence relevant data from the
project are incorporated in this study. Literature review on slope processes and
past occurrences of slope failures examined through scanning the news media
and existing literature for the study area and adjoining areas. Details of the
locality, date of occurrence, type of failures and the extent of reported damage

26
 due to landslides in the highland region of Kerala Western Ghats from 1958 to
2010 are collected to compare the extent of the past landslide occurrences and
their localization.
2. Preparation of a base map of the study area using survey of India toposheets of
1 :50,000 scale (58 C/13, 58 C/9, 58 F/4) with field survey, to locate the palaeo
as well as potential landslide occurrences in the study area.
3. Detailed geological field investigations and mapping of various profiles in TM
road for identifying potentially unstable profiles along with the preparation of a
geological map of the study area. The profiles are divided into various sub
sectors for detailed investigations. Reconnaissance survey and scanning of
slopes is conducted along predetermined transects. Details of lithology, fracture
pattern, structure, general mode of failures, regolith characteristics,
groundwater conditions, vegetation, height, slope and width of the road cutting
along the high-way-side profile has been documented. Emphasis was given
only to potentially dangerous slopes.
4. Collection of oriented block samples of cover material from the profiles for
determining the geotechnical properties such as the grain size, specific gravity
and the shear strength parameters such as angle of internal friction and cohesion
etc. at the Engineering geology laboratory of College of Engineering,
Trivandrum.
5. The rainfall data from available ram gaugmg stations m the study are
statistically analyzed to indentify the influence of rainfall on slope failure and to
derive a possible rainfall intensity threshold value for triggering failure.
6. Graphical analysis (Markland's projection techniques) of structural elements
recorded from various profiles along the TM-road is attempted to identify the
different modes of failure and their influence on slope failures.
7. Based on the structural analysis (Kinematic analysis) and geotechnical
properties, estimation of factor of safety (Kinetic analysis) of the various
sectors in individual profiles along the TM-road, in dry and wet conditions
estimated. Based on these data preparation of a geotechnical landslide hazard
zonation map of the area is prepared.
8. Geospatial analysis is attempted using various factor maps prepared on a GIS
platform (scale 1 :50,000) pertaining to the study area using Survey of India
topo-sheets and remote sensing. A fragility zonation study helped to integrate
the thematic I factor maps to produce the fragility map of the study area.. Based
on the map the fragile zones are identified and have been compared with
27
 geotechnical hazard zonation map. A summation of all parameters generated
through terrain evaluation is used to estimate the fragility of the terrain. Data
.
integration involves dividing the study area into square grids of dimension 1
cm. This grid is overlaid on each factor map and respective weight of each
factor map is allotted for each grid and the cumulative weight value for each
grid of the study area is arrived at. Based on the cumulative weight value of all
factors the grids are categorized into highly fragile, fragile, moderately fragile
and stable. In addition to getting an overall fragility picture of the segment the
output will give the individual hot spots as far as terrain stability is concerned
on a scale 1 :50,000. To calculate the overall terrain fragility of a segment the
following formula is used. Overall terrain fragility of a segment = W /G,
Where,
G - is the total number of grids falling within the segment
W - is total weight of all grids falling within the segment
The hot spots or highly fragile areas are to be evaluated further for evolving
mitigation strategy needed to avoid calamities during infrastructure
development.
9. Based on the degree of fragility the required guidelines for future development
could be formulated to maintain the road ecosystem alongTodupuzha- Idukki
- Adimali - Munnar road.

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