First Editio *
^ ^ ..... ........
Univers'tSt Hamburg
Ijr In lo rm a tik
E ib lio th e k
(!? n fut^ L Many are still sbout this mischief, making people do things rigidly
A ll r i g h t s r e s e rv e d .
Additional c o p l > . . r . S ? postpaid f r o .
H u g o 's Book S e r v i c e , Box 2 6 2 2 ,
C h ica g o , I ll i n o i s 60690.
P a ek aR e o f te n c o p i e s , $50 p o s t p a i d .
Any nitwit can understand com puters, and many do.
Unfortunately, due to ridiculous historical circum stances,
computers have been made a mystery to most of the w o rld .
And this situation does not seem to be Improving. You
hear more and more about computers, but to most people
it's just one big b l u r . The people who know sbout computers
often seem unwilling to explain things or answ er y our q ues
tions . Stereotyped notions develop about computers operating
In fixed w ays-- and so confusion increases. The chasm
between lsymen and computer people widens fast and danger
ously .
This book Is a m easure of desperation, so serious
and abysms! Is the public sense of confusion and ignorance.
Anything with buttons or lights can be palmed off on the
layman as a computer. There are so many different things,
and their differences are so important; yet to the lay public
they are lumped together as "computer stuff." indistinct
and beyond understanding or criticism . Its as If people
couldn't tell apart camera from exposure meter or tripod,
or car from truck or tollbooth. This book is therefore devoted
to the premise that
EVERYBODY SHOULD UNDERSTAND COMPUTERS .
It is intended to fill a crying need. Lots of everyday people
have aeked me where they can learn about com puters, and
1 have had to say now here. Most of what is w ritten about
computers for the layman is either unreadable or silly.
(Some exceptions are listed nearby: you can go to them
Instead of this if you w a nt.) B u t virtually nowhere is the
big picture simply enough explained. Nowhere can one
get a sim ple, soup-to-nut6 overview of what computers
are really about, without technical or mathematical mumbo-
jumbo, complicated examples, or talking down. This book
is an attem pt.
(And nowhere have I seen a simple book explaining
to the layman the fabulous wonderlsnd of computer graphics
which awaits us a l l . a matter which means a great deal
to me personally . as well as a lot to all of us in g e n e ra l.
That's discussed on the flip side.)
Computers are simply a necessary and enjoyable
part of life, like food and books. Computers are not everything,
they are just an aspect of everything, and not to know this
is computer Illiteracy, a silly and dangerous igno ra n ce.
Computers are as easy to understand as cam eras.
I have tried to make this book like a photography m agazine--
b re e ry , forceful and as vivid ss possible. This book will
explain how to tell apples from oranges and which way
la u p . If you want to make c id e r, or help get things right
aide u p , you will have to go on from h e r e .
I am not a skillful programmer, hands-on person
or eminent professional; I am just a computer fa n . computer
fanatic if you will. But if D r. David Reuben can w rite about
sex I can certainly w rite about computers. I have written
this like a letter to a nephew , chatty and p e rso n al. This
is perhaps less boring for the re s d e r. and certainly less
boring for the w r ite r . who is doing this in a h u r r y . Like
a photography m agazine, it throws at you some rudim ents
In a m erry setting. Other things are thrown in so you'll
get the sound of them , even if the details are e lu siv e.
(We learn most everyday things by beginning with vague
im pressions, but somehow encouraging these is not usually
felt to be re specta ble.) What I have chosen for inclusion
here has been a r b itr a r y . based on what might amuse and
give quick Insight. Any bright highschool k id , or anyone
else who can stumble through the details of s photography
magazine, should be able to understand this book, o r get
the main id ea s. This will not make you a program m er or
a computer perso n , though it may help you talk that t a lk .
and perhaps make you feel more comfortable (or at least
able to cope) when new machines encroach on your life.
If you can get a chance to learn programming-- see the
suggestions on p . - - it's an awfully good experience for
anybody above fourth g ra d e . But the main idea of this
book is to help you tell apples from o ra n g es. and which
wsy is up. I hope you do go on from h ere, and have made
a few suggestions.
1 am "publiahing" this book myself. In this first
draft form, to test its viability, to see how mad the computer
people g e t. and to see If there is as much hunger to understand
com puters, among all you Polks Out T h e re , as I th in k .
I will be interested to receive corrections and suggestions
for subsequent editio n s. if a n y . (The computer field is
Its own exploding u n iv e rse , so I'll worry about up-to-dateness
at that time.)
Hamburg
0 * THU * * * ;
Man has created the myth of "the computer" in his own image,
or one of them: cold, immaculate, s te rile , "scientific." oppressive.
Some people flee this image. O thers, drawn toward it, have
joined the cold-sterile-oppressive cu lt, and propagate it like a faith.
and saying it is the com puter's fault.
Still others see computer* for what they really are: versatile
gizmos which may be turned to any p u rp o se , in any style. And so
a wealth of new stylea and human purposes are being proposed and
trie d , each proponent propounding his own dream in his own very
personal w ay.
This book presents s panoply of things and dream s. Perhaps
some will appeal to the r e a d e r ...
THE COMPUTER PRIESTHOOD
Knowledge is power and so it tends to be hoarded.
Experts in any field rarely want people to understand what
they do .and generally enjoy putting people down.
Thus if we say that the use of computers Is dominated
by a priesthood. people who spatter you with unlntelligable
answ ers and seem unwilling to give you straight o nes.
it is not that they are different in this respect from any
o ther profession. Doctors, lawyers and construction engineers
are the same w ay.
But computers are very s p ec ial. and we have to deal
with them everyw here, and this effectively gives the computer
priesthood a stranglehold on the operation of all large o rganiza
tions. of government bureaux, and anything else that they
r u n . Members of Congress are now complaining about
control of information by the computer people. that they
cannot get the information even though it's on computers.
Next to this it seems a small matter that in ordinary companies
"untrained" personnel can't gel straight questions answered
by computer people; but it's the same phenomenon.
It is imperative for many reasons that the appalling
gap between public and computer insider be closed. As
the saying g o es . war is too important to be left to the gen e ra ls.
G uardianship of the computer can no longer be left to a
p rie sthood. 1 see this as just one example of the creeping
evil of Professionalism .* the control of aspects of society
by cliques of i n sid ers. There may be some chance, though,
that Professionalism can be turned around. Doctors, for
exam ple, are being told that they no longer own people's
b o d ie s . "* And this book may suggest to some computer
professionals that their position should not be as sacrosanct
a s they have thought, cither.
This in not to say that computer people are trying
to louse everybody up on p u rp o s e . Like anyone trying
to do a complex job as he sees f i t . they don't want to be
bothered with idle questions and complaints. Indeed, probab
ly any group of insiders would have hoarded computers
just as m uch. If the computer had evolved from the telegraph
(which it just might h a v e ). perh ap s the librarians would
have hoarded it conceptually as much as the math and en
gineering people have. But things have gone too far.
People have legitimate complaints about the way computers
a r e u s e d . and legitimate ideas for ways they should be
u s e d , which should no longer be shunted aside.
In no way do I mean to condemn computer people
in general. (Only the ones who don't want you to know
w hat's going o n .) The field is full of fine, imaginative
people. Indeed, the number of creative and brilliant people
known within the field for their cle v er and creative contri
butions is considerable. They d ese rv e to be known as widely
a s . s a y , good photographers or w r it e r s .
"Computers are catching h^ll from growing multitudes
who see them uniformly as the tools of the
regulation and suffocation of all things w a rm .
moist, and human. The cha rg e s, of course, '
are not totally unfounded, but in their most
sweeping form they are ineffective and therefore
actually an acquiescence to the dehumanization
which they d e c ry . We clearly need a much more
discerning evaluation in o rd e r to clarify the
ethics of various roles of machines in human
affairs."
Ken Knowlton
in "Collaborations with A rtists--
a Programm er's Reflections"
in Nake a Rosenfeld, e d s . ,
Graphic Languages
(North-Holland Pub. C o .),
p. 399.
* This is a side point. I see Professionalism aa a spreading
disease of the present-day w orld, a sort of poly-oligarchy
by which various groups (subway conductors, social w o rk ers,
bric kla yers) can b rin g things to a halt if their particular
new increased demands are not met. (Meanwhile, the Irrele
vance of each profession in creas e s , in proportion to its
increasing rig id ity .) Such lucky groups demand more
In each go-ro u n d -- but meantime, the number who are
permanently unemployed grows and grow s.
** Ellen F rankfort, Vaginal Politics, Q uadrangle B ooks.
Boston Women'a Health Collective, Our Bodies, O u rse lv es.'
Simon a S ch u ster.
 T h isf s i d e o f t h e b o o k . C o m p u t e r L ib p r o p e r ( w h o s e t i t l e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s
t h e s i m p l e r ! w a y lo r e f e r lo b o t h h a l v e s ) , i s a n a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n s i m p l y a n d
c o n c i s e l y w h y c o m p u t e r s a r e m a r v e l o u s a n d w o n d e r f u l , a n d w h a t s o m e m a in
th i n g s a r e i.i th e f ie ld .

T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e b o o k . D r e a m M a c h i n e s , i s s p e c i a l l y a b o u t f a n t a s y
a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d n e w t e c h n i q u e s f o r i t . T h a r h a l f i s r e l a t e d lo t h i s h a l f ,
b u t c a n b e r e a d fir sL ; I w a n t e d lo s e p a r a t e th e m a s d i s t i n c t l y a s p o s s i b l e . T h e r e i s a lre a d y a b a c k la s h a g a in s t c o m p u te r s , a n d
th e s p i r i t o f t h is a n li- c o m p u t e r b a c k la s h i s c o r r e c t , b u t
T h e r e m a r k s b e l o w a l l r e f e r to t h i s f i r s t h a l f , t h e C o m p u t e r L i b h a l f s h o u ld b e d ir e c te d a g a in s t v e r y s p e c ific k in d s or th in g s .
o f Lhe b o o k . T h e p u b l i c s h o u l d s t o p b e i n g m a d at " c o m p u t e r s " i n t h e
a b s t r a c t , a n d s t a r t b e in g m ad a t th e p e o p le w h o m a k e in
c o n v e n ie n t s y s te m s . It i s n o t " th e c o m p u te r," w h ic h h a s
n o I n t r i n s i c s t y l e o r c h a r a c t e r , w h ic h i s a t f a u lt ; il i s p e o p le
w h o u s e " lh e c o m p u te r" a s a n e x c u s e to in c o n v e n i e n c e y o u ,
w h o a r e a t f a u l t . T h e m e c h a n i s m s of l e g i t i m a t e p u b l i c
FANDOM p r o t e s t - - . s i t - i n s a n d so o n - - s h o u ld p e r h a p s so o n b e tu r n e d
to c o m p la in t o v e r b a d and in h u m a n c o m p u te r s y s te m s .
W ith t h i s b o o k I am no l o n g e r c a l l i n g m y s e l f a c o m p u t e r
p r o f e s s i o n a l . I 'm a c o m p u t e r f a n , a n d I'm o u t l o m a k e y o u
T h e q u e s t i o n i s , w ill t h e c r u m m i e r t r e n d s c o n t i n u e ?
o n e . (A ll c o m p u t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s w e r e f a n s o n c e , b u t p e o p l e
O r c a n th e p u b l i c l e a r n , i n t i m e , w h a t g o o d a n d b e a u ti f u l
g e t c r a b b i e r a e t h e y g e t o ld e r , a n d m ore p r o fe s s io n a l - )
th in g s a r e p o s s i b l e , a n d t r a n s la t e th is re a liz a ti o n in to d n
A g e n e r a ti o n of c o m p u te r fane a n d h o b b y is t s i s w ell on
e ffec tiv e d e m a n d ? I do not b e lie v e th is i s a n o b s c u r e o r
Its w a y , b u t fo r th e m ost p a rt th e s e a r e p e o p le w ho h a v e
s p e c ia liz e d i s s u e . Its sh a d o w falls a c r o s s th e f u t u r e of
h a d s o m e s o r t of a n I n . T h i s i s m e a n t to b e a n I n f o r t h o s e
m a n k in d , i f a n y , lik e a g ia n t se q u o ia . E ith e r c o m p u te r
who d id n 't g e t one e a rlie r.
s y s te m s a r e g o in g lo g o o n in c o n v e n ie n c in g o u r l i v e s , o r
t h e y a r e g o i n g t o b e t u r n e d a r o u n d to m a k e l i f e b e t t e r .
T h e c o m p u te r fa n is som e one w ho a p p r e c ia te s th e
T h is i s o n e o f lh e d ire c tio n s th a t c o n s u m e ris m s h o u ld t u r n .
o p t i o n s , f u n , e x c i t e m e n t , a n d f i e n d i s h f a s c i n a t i o n of c o m p u t e r s .
N o t o n l y le t h e c o m p u t e r fu n in i t s e l f , l i k e e l e c t r i c t r a i n s ;
1 h a v e a n a x e to g r in d : I w an t to s e e c o m p u te rs u s e fu l
b u t I t a l s o e x t e n d s to y o u a w id e v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b l e p e r s o n a l
to i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d l h e s o o n e r t h e b e l t e r , w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r y
u s e s . O n c a s e y ou d o n 't k now i t , th e p r i c e of c o m p u te r s
c o m p lic atio n o r h u m a n s e r v i lity b e in g r e q u i r e d . A n y o n e
a n d o f u s i n g th e m i s g o i n g d o w n a s f a s t a s e v e r y o t h e r
w h o a g r e e s w ith th e s e p r i n c i p l e s is o n m y s i d e , a n d a n y o n e
p r i c e 1b g o i n g u p . S o i n t h e n e x t few d e c a d e s w e m a y b e
w ho does n o t, is n o t.
r e d u c e d to e a t i n g s o y b e a n s a n d c a r r o t s , b u t w e ' l l c e r t a i n l y
h a v e c o m p u te rs .)
T H I S B O O K IS F O R P E R S O N A L F R E E D O M .
A N D A G A I N S T R E S T R I C T IO N A N D C O E R C IO N ,
S o m e h o w th e I d e a i s a b r o a d t h a t c o m p u t e r a c t i v i t i e s
a r e u n c r e a t i v e , a s c o m p a r e d . sa y , w ith r o ta t in g c la y a g a in s t
T h a t 's r e a lly a l l i t 's a b o u t. M any p e o p le , fo r r e a s o n s of
y o u r f i n g e r s u n t i l It b e c o m e s a p o t . T h i s i s c a t e g o r i c a l l y
th e ir o w n , e n jo y a n d b e lie v e in r e s t ric tin g a n d c o e r c in g
f a l s e . C o m p u t e r s i n v o l v e im a g i n a t i o n a n d c r e a t i o n a t t h e
p e o p le; th e r e a d e r m ay d e cid e w h e th e r h e is fo r o r a g a in s t
h ig h e s t l e v e l . C o m p u ters a re an in v o lv e m e n t you can r e a lly
th is p r in c ip le .
g e t i n t o , r e g a r d l e s s of y o u r t r i p o r y o u r k a r m a . T h e y
a re to y s , t h e y a re to o ls , th e y a r e g lo r io u s a b s t r a c t i o n s .
A c h a n l y o u c a n t a k e to t h e s t r e e t s :
So I t y o u l i k e m e n t a l c r e a t i o n , t o y t r a i n s , o r a b s t r a c t i o n s ,
c o m p u t e r s a r e f o r y o u . I f y o u a r e i n t e r e s t e d in d e m o c r a c y
C O M P U T E R PO W ER T O T H E PE O P LE !
a n d its f u t u r e , y o u 'd b e tte r u n d e r s t a n d c o m p u te rs . A nd
DOWN W ITH C Y B E R C R U D !
It y o u a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t p o w e r a n d t h e w a y i t i s b e i n g
u s e d , a n d a r e n 't we a ll r i g h t n o w , th e sa m e th in g g o e s .

T H E F U T U R E , IF ANY

T H E S O C IE T Y
W h ic h b r i n g s u s to o u r n e x t t o p i c .
T h e r e I s no q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e c o m p u t e r w i l l
r e m a k e s o c i e t y ; it h a s . Y ou d e a l w i t h c o m p u t e r s p e r h a p s
m an y tim es a d a y - - o r w o rs e , c o m p u te rs d e a l w ith y o u ,
t h o u g h y o u m a y n o t k n o w i t . C o m p u t e r s a r e g o i n g i n to
e v e r y t h i n g , a re in te rtw in e d w ith e v e r y t h i n g , a n d it's g o in g
to g e t m o r e a n d m o r e s o . T h e r e a d e r s h o u l d h a v e a s e n s e
of th e d a n c e o f o p tio n s , th e r e m a r k a b ly d if f e r e n t w a y s
th a t c o m p u te rs may b e u s e d : b y e x t e n s i o n , h e s h o u ld c om e
to s e e t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y r a n g e o f o p t i o n s w h i c h c o n f r o n t
u s a s a s o c i e t y in o u r f u t u r e u s e o f t h e m . I n d e e d , c o m p u t e r s
h a v e w ith a sw oop e x p a n d e d th e o p tio n s of e v e r y t h i n g -
S i m p l y a s a m a t t e r o f c i t i z e n s h i p , i t i s e s s e n t i a l lo
u n d e rs t a n d th e im p a c t an d u s e s of c o m p u te rs i n th e w o rld
o f th e f u t u r e , i f a n y : a n d to h a v e a s e n s e o f th e is s u e s a b o u t
c o m p u te rs lh a l co n fro n t u s a s a p e o p le-- e sp e c ia lly p r iv a c y
a n d d a t a b a n k s , b u t a l s o s t r a n g e ne w a d d i t i o n s lo o u r
e conom ic s y s te m (" th e c h e c k le s s so c ie ty ") , o u r p o litica l
s y ste m ( h a lf - b a k e d v o te -a t-h o m e p r o p o s a l s ) , a n d s o o n .
I r e g r e t th a t t h e r e i s not room to c o v e r th e s e h e r e .
V a rio u s c o m p an ies o r e s e e k in g w id e p u b lic s u p p o r t fo r
th e s o r t s o f t h i n g s th e y a r e t r y i n g to b r i n g a b o u t . L e g is la tio n
w ill b e p r o p o s e d o n w h ic h th e v ie w s o f th e p u b lic s h o u ld
h a v e a b e a r i n g . II i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s e b e u n d e r s t o o d
s e n s ib ly b y so m e p a r t of th e e le c to ra te b e fo re th e y a r e m ade
to o p e r m a n e n t , r a t h e r l h a n m a d e m a i l e r s o f d u m b a s s e n t .

F in a lly , an d moat so le m n ly , c o m p u te rs a r e h e lp in g
B u t a v a rie ty o f in c o n v e n ie n t s y s te m s a lre a d y to u c h o n
u s u n d e r s t a n d l h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d d a n g e r of o u r f u t u r e
o u r l i v e s , n u i s a n c e s w e m u s t d e a l w i t h a ll t h e tim e ; a n d
( s e e " T h e C lu b of R o m e p .^ fl) . T he h u m an r a c e m ay
I f e a r t h a t w o r s e i s t o c o m e , I w o u l d l i k e lo a l e r t t h e r e a d e r ,
h a v e o n ly a s h o r l tim e le ft o n e a r t h , e v e n if t h e r e i s n o w a r .
i n n o u n c e r t a i n t e r m s , t h a t t h e ti m e h a s c o m e t o b e o p e n l y
T h e s e s tu d ie s m ust b e se e n a n d u n d e rsto o d b y a s m any
a tte n tiv e a n d c r i t i c a l i n o b s e r v i n g a n d d e a li n g w ith c o m p u te r
in te l l i g e n t m en of good w ill a s p o s s ib l e .
s y s t e m s ; a n d to t r a n s f o r m c r i t i c i s m i n t o a c t i o n . I f s y s t e m s
a re b a d , a n n o y in g a n d d e m e a n in g , th e s e m a tte rs s h o u ld
b e b r o u g h t to t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e p e r p e t r a t o r s . P o l i t e l y
a t f i r s t . B u t j u s t a s th e a tm o s p h e ri c p o llu tio n fo s te re d b y
GM h a s b e c o m e a m a t t e r f o r c i t i z e n c o n c e r n a n d a t t a c k t h r o u g h
l e g i t i m a t e c h a n n e l s o f p r o t e s t , s o too s h o u l d t h e p r o c e d u r a l
p o llu tio n o f in c o n s i d e r a t e c o m p u te r s y s te m s b ecom e a m a tte r
fo r th e sa m e k i n d s o f c o n c e r n . T h e r e a d e r s h o u ld r e a l i z e h e
can c ritic iz e and dem and;

T H E P U B L IC D O E S N O T H A VE T O T A K E
W H A T 'S B E IN G D IS H E D O U T .

TH ER EFO R E

W e lc o m e t o t h e c o m p u t e r w o r l d , t h e d a m n d e s t a n d
c r a z ie s t th i n g th a t h a s e v e r h a p p e n e d . But w e , th e c o m p u te r
p e o p l e . a r e n o t c r a z y . I t i s y o u o t h e r s w h o a r e c r a z y to
le t u s h a v e a l l th i6 f u n a n d p o w e r to o u r s e l v e s .

C O M P U T E R S B E L O N G TO ALL M A N KIN D .

B .A ., p h ilo s o p h y . S w a rth m o re; g ra d u a te s tu d y U. o f C hicago: M . A . , so c io lo g y , H a r v a r d . M o s t l y s e l f - t a u g h t in c o m p u t e r s ,

M e m b e r o f e d i t o r i a l b o a r d , C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s m a g a z i n e ; l i s t e d i n N e w Y o r k T i m e s W h o 'a W h o i n C o m p u t e r s ; m e m b e r o f
A s s o c i a t i o n f o r C o m p u t i n g M a c h i n e r y s i n c c 196 4 .

R e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t . C o m m u n ic atio n R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , 196 2 -3 . I n s tr u c to r in s o c io lo g y , V a s s a r C o lle g e , 1964-6.

S e n i o r s t a f f r e s e a r c h e r , H a r c o u r t , B r a c e W o r ld P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 6 6 - 7 . C o n s u l t a n t lo B e ll T e l e p h o n e L a b o r a t o r i e s , W h i p p a n y , N . J . , 1 9 6 7 - 8 .
C o n s u l t a n t to C B S L a b o r a t o r i e s , S t a m f o r d , C t . , 1 9 6 0 - 9 . P r o p r i e t o r o f T h e N e l s o n O r g a n i z a t i o n , I n c . , N e w Y o r k C i t y , 1 9 6 9 - 7 2 .
L e c t u r e r i n a r t , U . o f I l l i n o i s a t C h i c a g o C i r c l e , s p r i n g 1973.
L e c t u r e r i n c o m p u t e r e d u c a t i o n , O f f ic e o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t , U . o f I l l i n o i s a t C h i c a g o C i r c l e , 1 9 7 3 - 4 . P hoto b y R oger F ie ld .

*moe IT'S AT
Computers are where It's at.
Recently a bank employee was accused of
embezzling a million and a hall dollars by clever
computer programming. Hie programs shifted
funds from hundreds of people's accounts to his
own. but apparently kept things looking Innocent
by clever programming trick s. According to the
pape rs, the program kept up appearances by
redeposltlng lhe stolen amount in each account just
as interest payments were about to be calculated,
then withdrawing It again just after. ("Chief
Teller la Accused of Theft of S i. 5 Million at a Bank
Here." New York Times, 23 March 73, p. 1.)
The alleged embezzlement was discovered, not by
bank audit, but by records found on the premises
of a raided bookmaker.
In a recent scandal that has rocked the
insurance w orld, an Insurance company appears
to have generated thousands of fictitious customers
and accounts by computer, then bilked other
inaurance companies-- those who re-insured the
original fictitious policies-- by fictitious claims
on the fictitious misfortunes of the fictitious
policy-holders.
In April of 1673, according to the Chicsgo
radio, a burglary ring had a "computerized" list
of a thousand prospective victim s.
There have been Instances where dishonest
university students, nevertheless sble programmers,
were able to change their course grades. stored
on a central university computer.
It is not unheard of for ace programmers to
create grand incomprehensible systems that run
whole companies, systems they can personally play
like a piano, and then blackmail their Arms.
A friend of a friend of the author Is an ace
programmer at the Pentagon supposedly a private
supervising colonels. On days he Is mad at his
boss, he s a y s , the army cannot find out Ha strength
within 300,000 men. Or three million if he so
chooses.
This awkward state of affairs, obviously
spanning both the American continent and most
realms of endeavor, has come about for various
reasons.
First, the climate of uncomprehenalon leads
men in management to treat computer matters as
"mere technicalities" a myth as sinister as the
public notion that computers are "scientific"-*
and abandon the kind of scrutiny they sensibly
apply to any other company activities.
Second most of today's computer systems are
Inherently leaky and Insecure and likely lo stay
that way awhile. Getting things to work on them
Involves giving people extraordinary and Invisible
powers. (Eventually this will change, but watch
out for the meantime.)
The obvious consequence Is simply for the
computer people to be allowed to take over
altogether. It may Indeed be that computer people
-- the more well-informed and visionary ones,
anyway can see the farthest, and appreciate
most deeply the better ways things can g o , and
the steps that have to be taken to get th e r e . (And
Boards of Managers can at least be partially assured
that hanky-panky at the lower levels will be
prevented, If men In charge know where the bodies
are burled. )
That seems to be how It's going. Examples:
The president of Dartmouth College, John
Kemeny, is a respected computerman and a devel
oper of one of the important computing languages,
BASIC (see p . \(, ).
The new president of the Russell Sage Foun
dation, Hugh Cline, used to teach computing at
Columbia.
It's probably the same in Industry. In other
words, more and m ore, for better and for w o rse,
things are b eing ru n by people who know how to
use com puters, and this trend is probsbly ir r e
versible.
In some w ays, of course, this la s sinister
portent. In private industry It's not so b ad,
since the danger is more of embezzlement and
botch-up than of public menace. But then th ere's
the problem of the government. The men who
manage the Information tools s re more and more
In charge of government, loo. And If we can have
a Watergate without computers, just w ait. (See
"Burning Issue s," p . 5g)
The way to defend ourselves sgalnst computer
people la to become computer people ourse lv e s.
Which of course Is the point. We must all become
computer people, at least to the extent that we have
already become Automobile People and Camera
People that is , Informed enough to tell when one
goes by o r when someone points one at y o u .
MANY MANSIONS
The future is going to be full of com puters,
for good o r ill. Many computer systems are being
prepsred by a variety of lunatics, idealists and
dream ers, as well as profit-hungry companies and
unimaginative clods, all for the benefit of m snklnd.
Which ones will work and which ones we will like is
another matter. The grand and dreamy ones bid fair
to reorganize drastically the lives of mankind.
For Instance, Doug Engelbart at Stanford
Research Institute has a beautiful system, called N I,
that will allow us to use computers aa a generalized
postoffice and publication system. From your com
puter terminal you just sign onto Engelbart's System,
and you're at once In touch with lots of w ritings by
other su b s c rib e rs . which you may call to your
screen and w rite replies to.
(These grander and dreamier applications are
discussed on the other side of this book.)
But the plain computer visions are grand
enough.
The great world of tim e-sharing, for Instance.
("Time-sharing" means thst the computer's time is
shared by a variety of u sers simultaneously. See
p . i ? . ) If you have an account on a time-sharing
computer, you can sign on from your terminal
(see p. I'f) over any telephone, no matter w here
you are, and at once do anylhlng that particular
computer allows calling up programs in a variety
of computer languages, dipping into data on a
variety of subjects as easily as one now consults
a chart.
For instance, at Dartmouth College-- where
time-sharing is perhaps farthest advanced as a
way of life the user (any Dartmouth student, for
instance) can just sit down at a terminal and write
a simple program (In Dartmouth's BASIC language,
for Instance) to analyze cenaus data. Since Dart
mouth has a complete file on its tim e-shsrlng system
of the detailed sample from the 1070 census, the
program can buzz through that and report almost
immediately the numbers of divorced Aleuts or
boy millionaires in the sample, or (more signifi
cantly) the relative Incomes of different ethnic
groups when categorized according to the quea-
tioner's interests.
But simple time-sharing la only the beginning.
Networks of computers are now coming into being.
Most significant of these is the ARPANET (financed
by AAPA, the Defense Department's Advanced
Research Projects Agency, it is nonetheless non-
mtlitary In c h a ra cter). Dozens of large tim e-shsring
computers around the country are being tied into the
Arpanet. and a user of any of these can reach d ir
ectly into the olher computers of the n etw o rk -
using their program s, data or other facilities.
Arpanet enthusiasts see this aa the wave of the
future.
But while computers and th eir combinations
grow bigger and b igger, they also grow smaller
and sm aller. A complete computer the size of an
OreoTwolde Is now available, guaranteed for
twentyflve years (and very expensive). But its
actual h eart, the Intel m icroprocessor. Is only
sixty bucks now, and just wait (see M icroprocessors,
p . */ ^ ) . By 19B0 there should be as many pro
grammed and programmable objects In your house
as you now have TVs, radios and typewriters;
that's s conservative estimate. But just what these
devices will all be doing ah th ere's the question
that has many people talking to themselvea.
OTHER COMING THINGS?
There are a lot of tall stories about what
computers will do for the world. Among lhe most
threatening, I think, are glowing reporta of
"scientific" politics (don't you believe i t ) . We
hear how computers will bring "science to govern
m ent, helping, for example, to redraw the lines of
election districts. (See C ybercrud, p . $ .)
Then you may also have heard that computers
are going to be our new mentors and companions,
tutoring u s , chatting with us and perhaps lulling us
to sleep like Hal in 2001. Worried? Good.
(See "The God-Builders," nip s id e .) (t. '^ )
6 )o tz ta h i m t n p i r
A college student broke through the security of the
Pacific Telephone computer system from a terminal an d ,
according to Computerworld (6 June 73), stole over s
million dollars worth of equipment by ordering it
delivered to him! (Penthouse, December 73, claims he
was in hlghschool and it was only nine hundred thousand,
but you gel the idea.)
After serving a few weeks In j a il, he has formed
his own computer-securlty consulting compsny.
More power to him.
The new breed has got to be watched.
This is the urgency of this book. Remember
that the man who writes lhe payroll program can
write himself some pretty amazing checks-- perhaps
to be mailed out to Switzerland, next y ear.
From here on it's computer politics, computer
dirty tric k s , computer wonderlands, computer
everything.
For anyone concerned to be w here it's a t ,
then, this book will provide a few suggestions.
Now is the Ume you either know or you don't.
Enough power talk. Knowledge Is power.
Here you go. Dig in.
G E T T I N G -W S S T N I fiH t
The greatest hurdle for the beginner (or
"layman") is making an effort to grasp particulars
of that which he hears about.
A. WHAT IS ITS NAME? Every system o r
proposal o r project has a name of some so rt. Make
an effort to learn i t , or y ou're stuck try in g to refer
to "that computerish thing."
(And don't be a snob about acronym s, those
all-cap names snd terms sprung from the foreheads
of other words, like ILLIAC and PLATO and CAI.
T here's a need for them. Short w ords are too
general to use for names, and long phra ses are
too unw ieldy.)
B. IN WHAT PARTICULAR WAY DOBS IT
EMPLOY THE COMPUTER? For record-keeping?
For looking stuff up quickly or fancily? For
sesrchlng out combinations? For making up combi
nations and testing their properties? For enacting
complex phenomena? As automatic typewriters?
To play m usic, or just to store the written notes?
It is hoped thst you will become sensitive
to these distinctions, and be able to understand and
remember them after somebody explains them.
Otherwise you're stuck just referring to
"that computer business," and y ou're In with the
rest of the sheep.
 s

T he ex p la n atio n s not y e t fully d eb ugge d are

intended for an y b o d y . T he lis tin g s of e x p e n siv e p roducts
People a s k me often w here th ey can lea rn and se rv ic e s a r e in tended not only as c o rro b o ra tiv e d e ta il,
about " s c ie n c e ." As In all fie ld s , m aga
zines a re u su a lly th e b e s t s o u rc es of
g e n e ra l orie n ta tio n .
for a gen e ra l s e n s e of w h a t's av a ila b le , b u t also for
b u s in e s s people who m ight find them h e lp fu l, for affluent
individua ls and Qlubs who w ant to try th e ir h a n d , and
IT'S AT
Science D igest Is k in d of h elpful for a s t a r t .
alth o u g h unfortunately they p rin t sum m aries
finally as a b o x s c o re of how the p ric es a re coming do w n .
Because we a re all going to b e able to afford these things
p re tty soon.
IH T*|IJ
of e v e ry fool s tudy that g e n e ra liz es to the
h e a rts of all hum anity from two dozen Iowa
2 INTRO
State fresh m en . f l ^ c c o (n r-r) 4 " W here I t s At"
fi So u rces of Inf o r ma t i o n
Scientific Am erican is the fa v o rite. Some stuff 5 CY B ERCRUD
Is h a r d to re a d b u t som e .isn 't; the p ic 9 Tills MYTH OF T H E C O M PUTER
t u re s and diagram s a r e t e r r i f i c . 10 T he Power and the Glory
h s ,o Q ( w - i) 11 T HE DEEP DARK SECR ET
Science t T echnology m agazine seem s to me (Computer B a sics Reduced
one of th e b e tte r o n e s - - b re e z y , inform a to One Easy Page)
12 T H E NEW ER A
tiv e , not triv ia l. 13 INTERACTIVE S Y STEMS
14 TERMINALS
Science m agazine is re a d by most actual s c ie n 15 C O M PU T E R LANGUAGES: Prelude
ti s ts , and if you h av e a lively curiosity 16 1. BASIC
an d can g u e s s at the m e a n in g sof w o rd s, IB 2. T R A C Language
w ill tell you an in c re d ib le am ount. (This 22 3. APL
is a main s o u rc e for th e science artic le s 26 DAT A S T RU CTURES
in the New York T im e s , w hich in t u r n . . . ) 27 Binary Patterns
T h is diagram show s the amazing and un iq u e way p ric e s 30 C O M PU T E R LANGUAGES: Postscript
T h e ir a r tic le s on politics of scie n ce, and drop in the com puter field. The p ric e s shown a re for the f irs t 32 ROC K BOTTOM: Inner Languages
the fu tu re , a re v e ry in te re s tin g , im portant, m inicom puter, th e PDP-5 (a nd its hugely p o p u lar o ffsp rin g , the of Computers;
an d d e p r e s s in g . You have to Join Am. A ssn . PDP-8); b u t the p rin c ip le h as held th roughout the field, a n d the Comput e r A r c h i te c t u re
for th e A dvancem ent of S cience. W ashington, dow nw ard tre n d w ill p ro b a b ly accelerate due to the new big 34 BUCKY'S WRISTWATCII, a sample
D .C . Integrated c ir c u its . m a ch i n e - l a n g u a g e p r o gram
35 T h e A s s embler
Daniel S . G r e e n b e rg 's S cience and Governm ent 36 Y o u r Basic C om p u t e r Structure:
Another exam ple: an IBM 7090, a v e ry decent m illion-dollar T H E M I NI C O M P U T E R
R eport ( s o r r y $35 a y e a r) is w hat re ally com puter in 1960, was put up for s ale at a m odish P ark e -B ern e t 38 B IG COMPUTERS
tells i t . G re e n b e rg is the man who k now s, "used com puter auction" in 1970. If I rem em ber a r ig h t, they 40 G R EAT COMPUTERS: Sketches
both what is s h a p in g up in scie n ce and could not get a $1000 b i d , becau se tod ay 's m achines a re so much of Some S pe c i fi c Machines
the in s a n e governm ental confusions and sm a lle r, fa s te r and m ore depe n d ab le. 43 List of Mini M a kers
flo u n d e rin g re s p o n s e s and g ra n d s ta n d in g 44 M IC R O P R O C E S S O R S
an d p o r k - b a r r e l i n i ti a ti v e s ... (The New T h i r d Kind
G re e n b e rg i s , in cid en ta lly , one of of Computer)
th e finest w r ite rs of o u r time and a gre at 45 A DV A N C E D P R O GRAMS
45 O P E R AT I N G S Y S TEMS
h u m o ris t.
45 TIM E- S H A RI N G
Science a n d G overnm ent Repor t , 46 C O M PU T E R PE OPLE
Kaloram a S tation (r e a lly ? ) , Box 21123, 47 Pr ogram N eg o t i a t i o n
W ashington, D .C . 20009. 47 S u gg estions for W r iters
T h is is th e w all that th e h a n d w ritin g 4B Fun and Games
is o n . 50 H ow C om puter S t uf f is
Bought and Sold
51 H ow C o m pu t e r C o m p a ni e s are
Financed, So me t i m es

it!s a t , u s.h.
52 IBM
57 Digital E q u i p m e n t C o r po r a t io n
e ^ 0 P ,U f 5 ^ - 57 Peripherals for Yo u r Mini
58 S IM U LATION
10tJ 50 O P E R A TI O N S R ES EARCH
58 GREAT ISSUES
58 MILIT A RY USES OF CO MP U T E RS
59 T h e ABM S y s t e m
60 DNA

' U UKU a / P Z C A , 62
64
68
DAMN THA T COMPUTER!
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fWu- fejJ, .Av^Vi 0 E v e ry w h ere in th e w o rld people c a n p re ten d
VcVer G W *J
that y o u r ig n o ra n c e , o r p o s itio n , o r c r e d e n tia ls , or
AW* p o v e r ty , o r g e n e ra l u n w o rth in e ss , are th e re asons

0 you a r e b e in g p u s h e d a ro u n d o r m ade to feel sm all.

And b e c au se you c a n 't t e l l , you have to ta k e it.

A nd of c o u rs e w e can do th e same th in g with

A- fin's I ln H * , Sc(. ctr.
Seyv'tft
co m p u ters . Y e s, we ca n do it in s p a d e s . (See
t V J\*| " C y b e r c r u d ," p . 8 . ) B ut m any of u s do not want t o .
^ a a / v s . : ~
T h e re h a s to b e a b e tte r w a y . T h e re h a s to be a
k w w 4 ft-*! b e tte r w o rld .
V.1" ' svtw

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m a jo r p la c e s y o u g e t in f o r
m a tio n i n t h e c o m p u t e r f ie l d : f r i e n d s , m a g a z i n e s ,
b in g o c a r d s , c o n fe re n ce s an d c o n fe re n c e p r o c e e d in g s .
FRIENDS.
F r ie n d s w e c a n 't h e lp w ith . B ut y o u m ig h t
m ake som e a t c o n fe re n c e s . O r jo in a c o m p u te r c lu b ?
MAGAZINES.
T h e p r i n c i p a l m a g a z in e s a r e ( f i r s t few lis te d
r o u g h ly b y degT ee o f g e n eral in te r e s t ):
D a t a m a t i o n $1 5 a y e a r o r f r e e . T h e m a i n
c o m p u te r m a g a z in e , a b re e z y . c le v e r
m o n t h l y . L o ts o f a d s . i n t e r e s t i n g a r t i
c l e s t h e la y m a n c a n r e a d w i t h n o t m u c h
e f f o r t . T w i t s IBM .
S u b s c r i p t i o n s a r e $15 i f y o u ' r e
n o t a c o m p u te r p e r s o n , f re e if y o u a r e .
D a t a m a t i o n . 35 M a s o n S t . , G r e e n w i c h
C T 06 8 3 0 .
C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s . S o m e $7 a y e a r o r f r e e .
Som e n ic e lig h t a r t i c l e s . a s w e l l a s
h e lp fu l r e v ie w a r ti c le s on d if f e r e n t
s u b j e c t s . A v o id s t e c h n i c a l i t i e s .
C o m p u t e r D e c i s i o n s . 50 E s s e x S t . .
R o s e l l e P a r k N J 0 76 6 2 .
C o m p u te r s a n d A u to m a tio n . A v o id s t e c h n i
c a litie s b u t q u ite a b it o f s o c ia l -i n te r e s t
s tu f f . N obody g e ts it f re e ; s o m e th in g
l i k e $ 7 .5 0 a y e a r . B e r k e le y E n t e r
p r i s e s , I n c . , 0 1 5 W a s h in g t o n S t . ,
N e w t o n v i l l e , M a s s . 02 1 6 0 .
C o m p u te r w o rld (a c tu a lly a w e e k ly ta b lo id
p a p e r ) . Not fre e: $9 a y e a r . M o re
u p -to -th e -m in u te th a n m ost p e o p le
h a v e lim e to b e . C o m p u t e r w o r l d ,
C i r c . D e p t . , 797 W a s h in g t o n S t . ,
N e w t o n , M a s s . 0 21 6 0 .
C o m p u tin g S u r v e y s . E x c e lle n t, c le a rl y
w ritte n in tro d u c to ry a rtic le s o n a
v a rie ty of s u b je c ts . A ny s e rio u s
b e g i n n e r sh o u ld d e fin ite ly s u b s c r i b e
to C o m p u t i n g S u r v e y s . ( S e e A C M .
b e lo w .)
C o m m u n ic a tio n s of th e A C M . H ig h - c la s s
M i r * *a 1' jo u r n a l a b o u t th e o re tic a l m a tte rs a n d
* e v e n t s o n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s i d e o f th e
H eld . (S ee ACM, b e lo w .)
C o m p u te r D e s i g n . $ 1 0 / y r . o r f re e . C o n c e n
tr a t e s on p a r ts f o r c o m p u te rs , b u t a lso
te lls te ch n ica l d e ta ils o f new c o m p u te rs
a n d p e r i p h e r a l s . C o m p u te r D e s i g n .
C irc u la tio n D e p t .. P .O . Box A ,
W in c h e s te r. M a ss. 01890.
D a ta P r o c e s s i n g m a g a z i n e . O r i e n t e d to
c o n v en tio n al b u s in e s s a p p lic a tio n s o f
c o m p u te r s . $10. N o rth A m e ric a n
P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 134 N . 13 th S t . ,
P h i l a d e l p h i a , P a . 191 07 .
H e y n o w , h e r e ' s a m a g a z i n e c a l l e d C o m p u t o p i a . O n l y $ 15 a y e a r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y i n J a p a n e s e .
C o m p u t e r A g e C o . L t d . , K a s u m i g a s e k l B l d g . , B o x 12 2 , C h i y o d a - K u , T o k y o , J a p a n .
A n u m b e r o f i n e x p e n s i v e g a d g e t s p u r p o r t to
le ac h y o u c o m p u te r p r in c i p le s . M any p e o p le h a v e b e e n
d i s a p p o i n t e d , o r w o r s e , m a d e lo f e e l s t u p i d , w h e n th e y
l e a r n n o t h i n g f ro m t h e s e . A c t u a l l y t h e b e s t t h e s e t h i n g s
r e a l l y c a n d o i s g i v e y o u a n id e a o f w h a t c a n b e d o n e
w ith c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s w i t c h e s . F r o m t h a t to l e a r n i n g
w h a t c o m p u te r p e o p le re a lly th in k a b o u t i s a lo n g , lo n g
w ay.
C o m p u t e r . ( F o r m e r l y IEEE C o m p u t e r G r o u p
N e w s .) $ 1 2 /y r . T h o u g h tf u l, c le a rly
w ritte n a rti c le s on h ig h - le v e l to p ic s .
Q u ite a b it o n A rtif ic ia l I n te l lig e n c e
( s e e f l i p s i d e ) . IE EE C o m p u t e r S o c i e t y ,
16400 V en tU T a B l v d . , E n c i n o CA 9 1 3 1 6 .
H e re a r e som e o th e r m a g a z in e s th a t m ay
in te r e s t y o u . No p a r ti c u la r o r d e r .
PC C . D e lig h tfu l e d u c a tio n a l/c o u n te r c u l tu r e
ta b lo id e m p h a s iz in g c o m p u te r g a m es
a n d f u n . O r i e n t e d to B A S IC l a n g u a g e .
$ 4 / y r . f r o m P e o p l e 's C o m p u t e r C o m
p a n y , P . O . B o x 3 1 0 , M e n lo P a r k ,
CA 94 0 2 5 .
C o m p u tin g R e v ie w s . P r in t s r e v i e w s , b y
i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e f i e l d , o f m o s t o f t h e
s e ri o u s c o m p u te r a r t i c l e s . U sefu l, b u t
s u b j e c t to i n d i v i d u a l b i a s e s a n d g a p s .
(S ee ACM, b e lo w .)
T h e N ew E d u c a t i o n a l T e c h n o l o g y . $ 5 / y r .
P re s u m a b ly c o n c e n tra te s o n a c tiv itie s
o f its p u b lis h e r : G e n e ra l T u r t l e , I n c . ,
545 T e c h n o l o g y S q u a r e , C a m b r i d g e .
MA 02139: w o n d e r f u l c o m p u t e r t o y s f o r
sc h o o ls a n d th e w e l l- h e e l e d .
T h e H o n e y w e ll C o m p u te r J o u r n a l . S o m e th in g
l i k e $1 0 a y e a r . H o n e y w e ll I n f o r m a tio n
S y s te m s , I n c ., P h o e n ix . A riz o n a .
S h o w c a se m a g a z in e o t m is c e lla n e o u s
c o n te n t; r e a d a b le , n ic e ly e d i t e d . H as
u n u s u a l p r a c tic e o f i n c lu d in g m ic ro fic h e
( m ic r o f ilm c a r d ) o f e n t i r e i s s u e i n a
p o c k et.
IBM S y s t e m s J o u r n a l . S h o w c a s e t e c h n i c a l
jo u r n a l of m is c e lla n e o u s c o n te n t ,
e s p e c i a l l y a r c a n a a b o u t IBM p r o d u c t s .
$ 5 / y r . IB M . A r m o n k , NY 1 0 5 0 4 .
IBM J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t .
S h o w case te ch n ica l jo u r n a l o f m is ce l
l a n e o u s c o n t e n t . $ 7 . 5 0 / y e a r . IB M ,
A r m o n k . NY 10S04 .
J o u r n a l o f t h e A C M . A h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l , m a lh -
( " j A C - K 'A o r ie n le d jo u r n a l . H eavy o n g r a p h th e o ry
V / a n d p a tte rn r e c o g n itio n . (S ee ACM,
b e lo w .)
D ig i t a l D e s i g n . $ 15 o r f r e e . A b o u t c o m p u t e r
p a r t s a n d d e s i g n s . D ig ita l D e s i g n .
C i r c . D e p t . , 167 C o r e y R o a d , B r o o k l i n e ,
M a s s . 02 1 4 6 .
I n f o s y s t e m s . A s p i r i n g m a g . $20 o r f r e e .
H it c h c o c k P u b l i c s t o n s , P . O . B o x 30 07 ,
W h e a to n , 111. 6 0 1 87 .
T h i n k . T h i s i s t h e IBM h o u s e o r g a n .
P r e s u m a b l y f r e e to IBM c u s t o m e r s
o r p r o s p e c t s . IB M . A r m o n k , NY 105 04 .
T h e r e a r e a lso e x p e n s iv e (sn o b ?) m a g a z in e s ,
b ou gh t b y e x e c u tiv e s.
C o m p u te r A g e , $ 9 5 /y r . EDP N ew s S e r v ic e s
I n c . , 514 1 0th S t . N . W . , W a s h in g t o n
D C 20 0 0 4 .
C o m p u te r D ig e s t. $ 3 6 /y r . In fo rm a tio n G r o u p ,
1309 C h e r r y S t . , P h i l a d e l p h i a PA 191 07 .
D a ta P r o c e s s i n g D i g e s t . $ 5 1 / y r . 6 82 0
l a T i j e r a B l v d . . L o s A n g e l e s C A 90 0 4 5 .
T h e b e s t r e v ie w o f w h a t 's h a p p e n i n g l a te ly , b y
n o n e o t h e r t h a n M r . W h o le E a r t h C a t a l o g
h im s e l f : S t e w a r t B r a n d , " S p a c e w a r :
F a n a t i c L ife a n d S y m b o l i c D e a th a m o n g
th e C o m p u te r B u m s ." R o llin g S t o n e . 2
D ecem b er 72, 5 0 -5 6 . He v is i te d th e m ost
h o ts h o t p la c e s a n d r e p o r t s e s p e c ia l ly o n
th e f u n - a n d - g a m e s s id e o f t h i n g s .
G ilb e rt B u rc k a n d th e E d ito rs o f F o r t u n e , T h e
C o m p u te r A g e . H a r p e r a n d R o w . I g n o re
t h e r i d i c u l o u s f u ll t i t l e . T h e C o m p u t e r A g e
a n d I ts P o t e n t i a l f o r M a n a g e m e n t ; t h i s b o o k
h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h m a n a g e m e n t , b u l i s
a n i c e g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n to t h e f i e l d .
T h o m as H . C ro w le y , U n d e r s ta n d in g C o m p u te r s .
M c G ra w -H ill. T h is is th e m o st r e a d a b le a n d
s tr a ig h tf o rw a rd in tr o d u c tio n to th e te c h n i
c a litie s a ro u n d .
J e re m y B e r n s te i n , T h e A n a ly tic a l E n g in e . Random
H o u s e , 19 6 4 . H i s t o r y o f c o m p u t e r s , w e l l t o l d ,
a n d th e w ay th in g s lo o k e d in 1964, w h ic h
w a s n 't re a lly v e ry d if f e r e n t.
D o n ald E . K n u th . T h e A rt of P r o g r a m m in g , ( 7 v o l s . )
A m o n u m e n ta l s e r i e s , e x c e lle n tly w r i tte n a nd
w i d e l y p r a i s e d , f o r a n y o n e w h o w a n t s to d i g
in a n d b e a s e rio u s p r o g ra m m e r. T h r e e of
(h e s e v e n v o lu m e s a r e o u t s o f a r . a t a b o u t
t w e n t y b u c k s a p i e c e . V o l . 1: F u n d a m e n t a l
A l g o r i t h m s . V o l . 2: S e m i n u m e r i c a l
A l g o r i t h m s . V o l . 3: S o r t i n g a n d S e a r c h i n g .
A d d is o n -W e s le y .
BUMMERS
T h is is p e r h a p s a m in o r ity v ie w , b u t I th in k
a n y i n t r o d u c t i o n to c o m p u t e r s w h i c h m a k e 6 th e m
se e m in tr in s i c a lly m a th e m a tic a l i s m is le a d in g .
H is to r ic a lly th e y b e g a n a s m a th e m a tic a l, b u t now
t h i s i s s i m p l y t h e w r o n g w a y to t h i n k a b o u t t h e m .
S a m e g o e s f o r e m p h a s i z i n g b u s i n e s s u s e s a s if
th a t w ere a ll.
We w i l l n o t n a m e h e r e a n y o f t h e v a r i o u s
d is a g r e e a b le p a m p h le ts a n d b o o k s w h ic h s tr e s s
t h e s e a s p e c ts a n d d o n 't m a k e t h i n g s v e r y c l e a r .
K > A B O U T FR E E S U B S C R I P T I O N S . M a n y o f t h e
m a g a z i n e s a r e f r e e to " q u a l i f i e d r e a d e r s , u s u a l l y
( h o s e w i l l i n g to s l a t e o n a s i g n e d f o r m t h a t th e y
i n f lu e n c e th e p u r c h a s e o f c o m p u t e r s . c o m p u te r s e r
v i c e s , p u n c h c a r d s , o r th e lik e . (T h e y a s k o th e r
q u e s tio n s o n th e fo r m , b u t w h e t h e r y o u in f lu e n c e
p u r c h a s e is u s u a lly w h a t d e c id e s w h e t h e r th e y
s e n d y o u t h e m a g a z i n e . ) It i s a l s o h e l p f u l to h a v e
a g o o d - s o u n d in g tid e o r c o m p an y a ffiliatio n .
B INGO C A R D S .
T h e s e a r e little p o s tc a r d s y o u fin d in a ll th e
m a g a z i n e s e x c e p t t h e ACM a n d c o m p a n y o n e s . F i ll
in y o u r n am e a n d an a ttr a c tiv e title ("S y ste m s
C o n su lta n t" o r " c o n s u lta n t" is g o o d - - a fte r a ll,
so m e d a y som e o n e may a s k y o u r a d v ic e ) a n d c irc le
t h e n u m b e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e a d s t h a t e n t i c e
y o u . Y o u 'l l b e f lo o d e d w i t h i n t e r e s t i n g , e x p e n s i v e l y
p r i n t e d , c o lo rfu l, e d u c a tio n a l m a te ria l on d iffe re n t
p e o p le 's c o m p u te rs a n d a c c e s s o r i e s . A n d n o te th a t
s e n d e r s d o n 't lo s e : a n y c o m p a n y w a n t s i t s p r o d u c t s
know n.
H o w e v e r, a p o sto ffice b o x is g o o d , a s it h e lp s
to a v o i d c a l l s a t h o m e f r o m s a l e s m e n , w a s t i n g t h e i r
tim e a s m u c h a s y o u r s . If y o u a r e in a r u r a l - t y p e
a re a w h e re yo u c a n a s s u m e a co m p an y n am e w ith no
le g a l d if f ic u l tie s , so m u c h th e b e t t e r .
W O s f c C fc ^ fO ^ S '
T h a t t h e f ie l d h a s n o t b e e n p o p u l a r i z e d b y i t s
b e tte r w r i t e r s m ay s im p ly c o m e fro m a n h o n e s t d o u b i
th a t o r d in a r y p e o p le c a n u n d e rs t a n d c o m p u te rs .
I d is p u t e th a t. T h r o u g h m a g a z in e s , m illio n s
o f A m e ric an s h a v e le a r n e d a b o u t p h o to g r a p h y . T h ro u g h
th e p o p u la r s c ie n c e - a n d -m e c h a n ic s ty p e m a g a z in e s ,
a n d m o re r e c e n tly th e e le c tro n ic s m a g a z in e s , v a rio u s
o th e r te ch n ica l s u b je c ts h a v e b e co m e w id e ly u n d e rs t o o d .
So fa r nobo dy has o p en ed u p c o m p u te rs. T h is
i s a f i r s t a t t e m p t . If t h i s b o o k w o n 't d o i t a n o t h e r o n e
w ill.
A n d yo u b e tte r b e lie v e th at P o p u la r C o m p u ters
m a g a z in e is n o t v e r y f a r a w a y . Soon a f u lly - lo a d e d
m i n i c o m p u t e r w ill c o s t l e s s t h a n t h e b e s t h i - f i s e t s .
I n a c o u p l e o f y e a r s . t h o u s a n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w ill
o w n c o m p u t e r s , a n d m il l i o n s m o r e w i l l w a n t t o . L o o k
o u t, h e re we g o .
W o o p s , h e r e it i s . P o p u l a r C o m p u t i n g , $15 a y e a r
( $ 1 2 i f p r e p a i d ) , B o x 2 7 2 , C a J a b a s a s , C A 91 30 2
ACM, the Association fo r Com puting M achinery.
T h is is the main com puter professional
society; the title only h as m eaning h is to r
ically , as m any m em bers a r e conc erned not
w ith m achinery its elf, but w ith softw are,
la n g u a g e s , th eo rie s an d so o n .
If you have any p lan s to s tick with
th e s u b je c t, m em bership in the Association
for Com puting M achinery is highly recom
m ende d. ACM ca lls its e lf "The Society of
th e Com puting Com m unity." T h u s it p ro p e rly
em braces both professionals and fa ns.
Dues fo r official stu d e n ts a r e $0 a y e a r,
$35 for o th e r s , w hich includes a s u b s crip tio n
to Communications of the ACM, th e official
m ag. T h e ir a d d re s s for m em berships and
m agazines is ACM, P .O . Box 12105,
C h u rch S t. S tation, New Y ork, NY 10249.
(T he actual ACM HQ is at 1133 A ve. of the
A m ericas, New Y ork. N .Y . 10036.)
They h av e stacked th e deck so that
if you want to s u b s c r ib e to any ACM m aga
zines y o u 'd b e tte r join anyw ay. H ere are
th e y e a r pric es:
Member Non-Member
Communications of the ACM free $35
Com puting S u rv ey s $7 $25
Com puting R eview s $12.50 $35
J o u rn a l of the ACM $7 $30
T he one dra w bac k lo join in g th e ACM
is a ll the doggoned m ailing lists it gets you
o n . It's u n c le a r w h e th e r th e r e 's an y th in g
you can do to p re v e n t th is , b u t th e re oughta
b e.
SIGs and S IC s. For ACM m em bers
with sp ec ial in te re s ts (and we all have th e m ),
th e ACM contains s u b d iv isio n s -- c lu b s within
th e c lu b , of people who keep in touch to
s h a r e th e ir in te re s ts . T he se a r e called SICs
(S pecial In te rest Committees) and SIGs
(S pecial In te rest G ro u p s). T h e re a r e such
c lu b s -- SICs and SIGs in num erous a r e a s ,
in clu d in g P rogram m ing L anguages, Com puter
Usage in Education, e tc . E ncouraging these
s u b in te re s ts lo stay within ACM save s a lot
of tro u b le for eve ry b o d y and keeps ACM the
c e n tral society.
AFIPS.
AFIPS is th e UN of com puting. They
spon so re d th e Joints , and now s p o n s o r the
NCC. J u s t as in d iv id u a ls c a n 't join th e UN,
they ca n 't join AFIPS, w hich sta n d s for
Am erican F ederation of Inform ation P roces
s in g S o c ieties. D epending on y o u r special
in te r e s ts , tho u g h , you can join a member
s o c ie ty .
T he constituent societies of AFIPS a r e ,
a s of J u n e 1973: (If any tu rn you o n , w rite
AFIPS for ad d re s s e s : AFIPS, 210 Summit A ve.
M ontvale NJ 07645.)
ft* ACM: the Association for Com puting M ac h in ery .
IEEE, th e Institute of E lectrical and Electronics
E n g in e e rs . T h is is the pro fessio n al society
of e le ctro n ics g uys.
Sim ulation C ouncils. T his is the professional
society for th o se in te re s te d in Simulation
(se e p . 5 3 ).
Association for Com putational L in g u is tic s . (Where
lan g u a g e and com puter ty p e s g a t h e r .)
Am erican Association of A e ronautics and
A s tro n a u tic s .
Am erican S tatistical A sso ciation.
Instrum e nt Society of A m erica.
Society for Inform ation D isplay. (See flip s id e .)
Am erican In stitu te of C ertified P ublic A ccountants.
A m erican Society fo r Inform ation S cien c e. (This
gro u p is m ainly for electronified lib ra ria n s
a n d inform ation re trie v a l ty p e s -- see
flip s i d e . )
Society for In d u s tria l and Applied M athematics.
S pecial L ib ra ries A ssociation.
Association for Educational Data S ystem s.
IFIP. T his is the intern a tio n a l com puter society.
Like AFIPS, its m em bers a re s o c ie tie s , so
jo in in g ACM makes you an IFIP p artic ip a n t.
IFIP holds conferences a ro u n d the
w o rld . F un. E xpense.
ti no**.
CONFERENCES. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS.
C onferences in any field a r e e x c itin g , at lea st As you may k n o w , conferences la rg ely con
till you re ac h a ce rta in d eg ree of boredom w ith the sis t of s e p a ra te " s e s s io n s " in w hich d iffe re n t people
fie ld . Com puter conferences have th e ir own heady talk on specific to p ic s , u su ally re a d in g out loud from
a tm osphere, com pounded of a se n s e of elitism , of th e ir notes a n d s h o w in g slid es .
b e in g in the w itc h e s ' c a u ld ro n , and th e s u re sen se
of t h e im pact ev e ry th in g you see will have as it all C onference p ro c e e d in g s a r e b ooks w hich
g row s and g ro w s. Plus you get to look at g adge ts. re s u lt from c o n fe re n c e s . S upposedly th ey contain
w hat ea ch guy s a id ; in p ra c tic e p eople say one thing
Usually to go for one day d o esn 't cost m u c h , a n d p u b lis h a n o th e r, m ore formal than the actual
and at th e b ig g e r ones you get lots of free l ite ra tu r e , p re s e n ta tio n .
have salesm en explain th e ir th in g s to y o u , see
m ovies, h ea r fascinaling (som etim es) sp e a k e rs . T h is leads to a c u rio u s phenom enon at the
main com puter co n fere n ce s (S JC C ,F JC C , ACM and
THE JOINTS! The p rin c ip a l com puter confer now NCC) . When yo u re g is te r they g iv e you a book
e n c es have alw ays bee n the S p rin g Joint (your e actually p a y in g p e rh a p s $15 fo r i t ) , contain
C om puter C on feren c e, h eld in an in g all the p a p e rs th a t a r e about lo b e g iv e n , nicely
E a ste rn city in M ay, and the Fall Joint tric k e d out by th e ir a u th o r s . If you r u s h to a co rn er
C om puter C onference, held in a W estern a n d look at the book it may change y o u r notion of
city in November (the infamous S p rin g w hich s e s s io n s to go to.
J o in t and Fall J o i n t , o r SJCC and F J C C ).
In 1973, because of poor b u s in e s s the Anyway , th e r e s u ltin g v olum es of conference
p re v io u s y e a r , the two w ere collapsed p ro c e e d in g s a r e a tr e a s u r e trove of i n te re s tin g p a p e rs
into one National Com puter Conference on an immense v a r ie ty of com puterish an d n o t-so -
(NCC) in J u n e (U niversal Joint?) The co m p u terish s u b je c ts . G reat for b ro w sin g .
J o in ts have alw ays bee n sponsored by E x pe nsive b u t w o n d e rfu l. (H orrible w hen y o u 're
AFIPS (see belo w ). The National m o v in g , th o u g h , as th ey are b ig and h e a v y .)
Com puter C onference w ill henceforth
b e a n n u a l, at least for a w hile.
JOINT PROCEEDINGS. P ro ce ed in g s for the
T he cost of atten d in g is h ig h -- S p rin g J o in t and Fall J o in t, from the
w hile it's ju s t a couple of d o llars lo fifties to 1972. a re ava ila b le from AFIPS
look at the e x h ib its , this r is e s to P re s s , a s a r e p ro c ee d in g s of th e 1973
p e r h a p s fifteen d o llars to go to th e d a y 's NCC. (AFIPS P r e s s , 210 Summit A venue,
technical sess io n s o r fifty for the week M ontvale NJ 07645.) T hey cost $20-26
(not counting lodging and e a t s ) - - but each afte r the conference is o v er; les s
i t 's v e r y m uch w orth it. The lower age in m icrofilm . (At th e Jo in t C onferences,
limit for attendees is som ething like AFIPS P re s s often g iv es d is c o u n ts , at
tw elv e , unfortunately for those th e ir b o o th , on back Jo in t p r o c e e d in g s .)
with in te re s te d ch ild re n . t > > l f you w ant to sp e n d money to
O ther im portant conferences: the annual ACM lea rn about the fie ld . P ro ce ed in g s of
conference in the sum m er; BEMA the Jo in t C onferences a r e a fine b u y .
(B usiness Equipm ent M frs. A s s n .)
Back ACM P ro c e e d in g s . From the ACM.
in the fall and s p r in g (no th e o ry , but
lots of g ad g e ts); a n d o th er conferencs
on special s u b je c ts . held all the time O ther P ro ce ed in g s Often sold a t co u n te rs at
all o v e r . Lists of c onferences and c o n fe re n c e s . Or availa b le from v a rio u s
th e ir w hereabouts a re in most of the p u b lis h e r s . Join the ACM and y o u ll
m agazines; Communications of the ACM find out soon enough.
an d Com puter Design have the b ig g est
lis ts .
TRY TO GET TO THE NATIONAL JOIN T. J u s t as
e v e ry Muslim should go to Mecca, e v e ry
com puter fan sh o u ld go to a National Jo in t
(National C om puter C o nferenc e, o r N C C ).
T h e n ex t two a r e (check the m agazines):
May 1974, C hicago
May 1975,Son P ranoitao-. Pj MA
NO QUALIFICATIONS ARE NEEDED. T hink of it
a s a circu s for s m art a le c k s , o r , if you
p r e f e r , a Deep Educational E xpe rien ce .
V oH ur H ^ r p u f* I f y o u T im e C P M P u r e n c e u n j e i ?
T h e re is a lot of talk about "b est" w ays of tea ch in g about co m p u te rs , b u t in most p laces
the actual a ltern ativ es open to those who w ant to le a rn a r e fairly dism al.
U n iv e rs itie s . U niv ersities an d colleges ten d to teach com puting with a m athem atical
em phasis at th e s t a r t . Indeed, most seem to r e q u ire that to get into the intro d u cto ry com puter
c o u r s e , you m ust have had h ig h er math (at least c a l c u l u s , som etim es m atrix alg e b ra as w e l l ) .
T h is is p re p o s te ro u s , like re q u irin g an en g in e e rin g d e g r e e to d riv e a c a r. (G radeschool k id s
can le a rn lo p rogram w ith no p re re q u is ite s .)
t lt seem s lo b e to cu t down enrollm ent, s in c e t h e y 'r e not s e t up to deal w ith a ll those
people who w ant to le a rn aboul com puters. (And why n ot?) Also i t 's a status th in g ; as if
th is re s tric lio n somehow should keep enrollm ent to s tu d e n ts with "logical m in d s," w h a le v er
th o se a r e , o r "m athem atical sop h istic atio n ," as if that w e re re le v a n t.
"C om puter s c h o o ls ," community and com m ercial c o lleg e s, on th e o th er h a n d , te n d to
p re p a re slu d e n ts only for th e most hum drum b u s in e s s a p p lica tio n s- - k e y p u n c h in g (w hich is
ra p id ly becom ing o b s o le te ), and program m ing in th e COBOL lan g u a g e on IBM b u s in e s s sy stem s.
T h is gets you no clo s e r to the m ore exciting a p p lica tio n s of c om puters than you w e re o rig in a lly .
Some expe rim ental tre n d s a r e more e n c o u ra g in g . Some c o lle g e s , for in s ta n c e , offer
"com puter app rec ia tio n c o u r s e s ," w ith a w id e r in tro d u ctio n to w h a t's available and m ore v a r ie d
p rogram m ing in ten d ed lo s e r v e as an introduction to th is w id er h o riz o n .
H ighschool c o u rses seem to b e cutting thro u g h th e ju n k an d offerin g s tu d e n ts a c ce ss to
m inicom puters w ith qu ick ie lan g u a g e s , usually BASIC. Both Digital E quipm ent C o rp . and
H ew lett-P ackard seem to b e m aking inro a d s h e r e .
Kiddie s e t u p s , rum ored to ex is t in Boston and S an F ra n c isc o , a r e g ea re d lo lettin g
g ra d e-sc h o o l c h ild re n se e and play with co m p u ters. Also one com pany (G eneral T u r t l e , see
p . '5 7 ) is s e llin g com puter toys Inte n d ed to e n c o u ra g e ac tu al pro g ram m in g b y c h ild re n .

O T T O
A n u m b e r o f p e o p l e h a v e g o tte n m ad a t m e
fo r c o i n i n g t h e te rm " c y b e r c r u d , " w h ic h 1 d e fin e
a s " p u t t i n g t h i n g s o v e r o n p e o p le u s i n g c o m p u t e r s .
B u t a s lo n g a s it g o e s o n w e ' l l n e e d th e w o r d . At
e v e r y c o r n e r o f o u r s o c i e t y , p e o p le a r e i s s u i n g
p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a n d m a k i n g o th e r p e o p le d o t h i n g s
a n d s a y i n g i t s b e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p u t e r . T h e
f u n c tio n o f c y b e r c r u d i s th u s lo c o n f u s e . i n ti m i
d a te o r p r e s s u r e . We h a v e all got to ge t w i s e to
t h i s i f i t i s g o in g to b e c u r t a i l e d .
C y b e r c r u d l a k e s n u m e r o u s f o rm s . A ll o f
t h e m , h o w e v e r , s h a r e th e p a d n a o f " s c i e n c e " t h a t
c o m p u te rs h a v e f o r th e la y m a n .
l a ) COMPUTER A S MAGIC WORD
T h e m ost d e l i c a t e , a n d s e e m i n g ly i n n o c e n t ,
t e c h n i q u e I s t h e p r a c d c e o r n a m in g t h i n g s SO a s
s p u r i o u s l y to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y i n v o lv e c o m p u te r s .
T h u s t h e r e Is a m a n u f a c t u r e r o f p o t - p i p e s w ith
"D a ta " I n Its n a m e . e n d a p p a r e n t l y a p o r n o g r a p h y
h o u se w ith a " C y b e r - " .
l b ) COMPUTER AS MAGIC INGREDIENT
T h e a b o v e s e a m s s i l l y , b u t It i s n o l e s s s il ly
th a n t a l k i n g a b o u t " c o m p u t e r p r e d i c t i o n s " a n d
" c o m p u t e r s t u d i e s " o f t h i n g s . T h e m e r e f a c t th a t
a c o m p u te r i s I n v o l v e d i n s o m e th in g h a s n o b e a r i n g
o n its c h a r a c t e r o r v a l i d i t y . T h e w ay t h i n g s a re
d o n e w ith c o m p u te r s a ff e c ts t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a n d
v a l i d i t y . Ju a t l i k e t h e w a y t h i n g s a r e d o n e w ith o u t
c o m p u t e r s . ( I n d e e d , m e r e ly u s i n g a c o m p u te r
o f te n h a s no b e a r i n g o n th e w a y t h i n g s a r e d o n e . )
T h i s sa m e t e c h n i q u e i s e a s il y m a g n if ie d to
s u g g e s t , n o t m e r e ly t h a t s o m e th in g in v o lv e s
c o m p u t e r s , b u t is w h o lly d o n e b y c o m p u t e r s . T h e
w o rd " c o m p u t e r iz e p e r f o r m s this fata l f u n c ti o n .
When u s e d sp e c if ic a l ly , a s i n c o m p u te r iz e th e
b illin g o p e ra tio n , it can be fa irly c le a r: b u t m ake
it v a g u e , a s i n c o m p u t e r i z e l h e o f f i c e , a n d it c a n
mean a n y t h i n g ,
" F u ll y c o m p u t e r i z e " i s w o r s e . T h u s w e h e a r
a b o u t a " fu l ly c o m p u t e r i z e d " p r i n t s h o p , w h i c h
t u r n s o u t to b e o n e w h o s e c o m p u t e r s d o t h e t y p e
se ttin g : b u t th e y c o u ld a lso r u n th e p r e 6 6 e s . p a y
th e b ill s a n d w o rk t h e c o ff e e m a c h i n e - F o r p r a c
tic al p u r p o s e s , t h e r e i s no s u c h t h i n g a s " f u l ly "
c o m p u te r iz e d - T h e r e i s a l w a y s o n e m o re t h i n g
c o m p u te r s c o u ld do.
BY THE AID OF TH E MIRROR SHE PUT ON TH E HEAD
2 ) WHITE LIES: THE COMPUTER MADE ME DO IT
N ext come a ll th e l e e t l e w h i t e lie s a b o u t how
s u c h - a n d - s u c h is t h e c o m p u t e r s f a u lt a n d not
y o u r d e c i s i o n . T h u s th e c o m p u te r i s m a d e a
G e n e ra l S c a p e g o a t at th e s a m e tim e i t ' s c o v e r i n g u p
fo r w h a t so m e b o d y w a n t s to d o a n y w a y .
"It h a s to b e t h is w a y . "
" T h e r e s n o t h i n g w e c a n do; t h i s i s all
h a n d le d b y c o m p u t e r . "
" T h e c o m p u te r w ill n o t a llow t h i s . "
" T h e c o m p u te r w o n t le t u s . "
T h e t r a n s la t io n la . o f c o u r s e . TH E STINKY LOUSY
PROGRAM DOES NOT PERMIT IT. Which m e a n s In
t u r n ; WE DO NOT CHOOSE T O PR OVID E, IN OUR
PROGRAMS AND EQUIPMENT. ANY ALTERNATIVES.
Now . i t la o f te n t h e c a s e th a t good a n d
s u f fi c ie n t r e a s o n e x i s t s f o r t h e w a y t h i n g s a r e d o n e .
B u t It i s a ls o ofte n th e c a s e t h a t c o m p a n i e s a n d th e
p u b lic a r e i n c o n v e n i e n c e d , o r w o r s e , b y d e c ia io n s
th e c o m p u te r p e o p le m a k e a n d th e n h id e w ith t h e i r
claim o f te c h n i c a l n e c e s s i t y (See p . f t : D e a lin g
w ith c o m p u te r p e o p l e . )
M ore a g g r e s s i v e l y , c y b e r c r u d Is a t e c h n i q u e
f o r m a k in g p e o p l e d o w h a t y o u w a n t . " T h e c o m
p u te r r e q u i r e s i t , " y ou say , and s o p e o p le c a n be "If it c a n 't b e d o n e In COBOL,
m a d e to h a n d o v e r p e r s o n a l I n fo r m a tio n , s e c r e t a r i e s I j u s t te ll p e o p le It c a n 't b e d o n e b y c o m p u t e r .
c a n b e in ti m i d a t e d in to s c o u r i n g t h e f i l e s , p a y m e n t
s c h ed u le s can b e artificia lly e n fo r c e d .
It s a v e s a lo t o f t r o u b l e - "
A ttr ib u te d to s o m e b o d y in R o c h e s t e r
( S e e CO BO L , p ^ | . )
TH E G ENERAL ST A T U S TRICK
S t a t u e t r i c k s , c o m b in in g t h e p u t d o w n a n d
t h e s e l f - b o o s t , d a t e b a c k to tim es I m m e m o r ia l.
B u t t o d a y th e y ta k e new f o r m s . T h e b i g g e s t t r i c k
is to e l e v a t e y o u r s e l f a n d d e m e a n lh e l i s t e n e r a t
t h e s a m e t i m e , o r , m o r e g e n e r a l l y , th e t e c h n i q u e
is m a k in g p e o p le feel s t u p i d w h ile a c t i n g l i k e a
b i g c h e e s e . T h u s s o m e o n e o n e m ig h t s a y ,
" P e o p le m u st b e g in to ge l u s e d to t h e o b j e c
tiv e sc ien tific w a y s of d o in g th in g s
t h a t c o m p u t e r s now m a k e n e c e s s a r y .
But t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s e e m s lo be :
" P e o p le m u s t g e t u s e d to t h e I n f l e x i b l e ,
b a d ly thought o u t, I n co n v e n ien t a n d
u n k in d sy ste m s that 1 a nd o th e r
s e lf -r ig h te o u s in d iv id u a ls a n d com
p a n ie s a r e in flic tin g on th e w o rld ."
YOU DO N T ALWAYS G OTTA
T h e unin fo rm ed a re b u lld o z e d . a nd e v e n
t h e i n f o r m e d a r e p r e s s u r e d , b y th e f o o lis h m y th s
of t h e c l e v e r , im p l a c a b l e a n d s c i e n t i f i c c o m p u t e r
t o w h ic h t h e y m u s t a d a p t. P e o p le a r e told t h e y
h a v e to " r e l a t e to th e c o m p u t e r . " B ut a c t u a l l y
t h e y a r e b e i n g m a d e to r e la te lo s y s t e m s h u m a n s
h a v e d e s i g n e d a r o u n d I t, in m uc h th e s a m e w a y
a s w o r d d a n c e Is d e s i g n e d a r o u n d t h e s w o r d .
In th e movie " F a i l - S a f e , " t h e y s h o w e d y o u
When e s t a b l i s h m e n t c o m p u te r p e o p le s a y
l o t s o f f a k e ta p e d r i v e s w i l h l h e r e e l s c o n s t a n t l y
th a t th e c o m p u t e r r e q u i r e s y o u to b e s y s t e m a t i c ,
t u r n i n g in o n e d i r e c t i o n . T h i s t h e y c a l l e d a
t h e y g e n e r a l l y m e an y o u h a v e to l e a r n t h e i r s y s t e m .
" c o m p u t e r . " C a l l i n g a n y s i n i s t e r b o x "a c o m p u te r "
But a n y o n e w h o t e l l s y o u a m e th o d " h a s to b e
i s a w i d e s p r e a d t r i c k . G iv e s p e o p le t h e w illleB ,
c h a n g e d f o r th e c o m p u t e r is u s u a l l y f i b b i n g -
H e p r e f e r s to c h s n g e th e m e th o d f o r th e c o m p u t e r , K e e p s 'e m i n l in e .
T h e r e a s o n s m a y b e b a d o r g o o d . O fte n th e
c o m p u te r s a l e s m a n o r I n d o c t r i n a l o r w ill p r e s e n t
as "scien tific " te c h n iq u e s w h ic h w e r e d o p e d out
o r w h o m p e d u p b y a c o u p le of g u y s i n t h e b a c k
room .
H e r e i s an e x a m p l e , a s told to m e . A f r i e n d
o f m in e w o r k e d in a d r e s s f a c to r y w h e r e ih e y h a d
a p e r f e c t l y g o o d s y s te m for b i l l i n g a n d b o o k k e e p i n g .
C u a to m e r s w e r e lis te d by nam e a n d k e p t i n a l p h a
b e tic a l o r d e r . T h e fast p a c e of th e g a r m e n t i n d u s
t r y m e a n t t h a t c o m p a n i e s often c h a n g e d n a m e s , a n d
SO v a r i o u s c o m p a n i e s h a d a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t
n a m e s in th e f i l e . T h i s b o t h e r e d n o b o d y b e c a u s e
th e p e o p le u n d e r s t o o d th e s y s te m . iv p ,lto r!
T h e n m a n a g e m e n t b o u g h t a s m a ll c o m p u t e r , bonk
n e v e r m in d w h a t b r a n d , a n d h i r e d a c o u p le o f g u y s now u t i i ;
lo come in a n d p u t th e b o o k k e ep in g sy ste m o n it.
(to d yu
I'w i V Vt n c' l o*s eth'-~
S t i l l o k a y . I n d e e d , sm a ll p r o g r a m m i n g f ir m s
uf e
e Pp Oo a. ii ,i
c a n so m e tim e s d o t h i s s o r t o f t h i n g v e r y w e l l ,
oo [f y a u I U1 ff li nn i<*
l < ,,*
th e s r
b e c a u s e t h e y c a n w o r k f le x i b ly w i l h t h e p e o p le
a n d d o n 't n e c e s s a r i l y fee l c om m itted lo m a k in g it
? r eorro.iro th ,llr,s
numhpr
w o rk a c e r ta in w ay.
W e ll. t h i s w a s a n i c e i n s t a n c e w h e r e t h e
e x i s t i n g s y s t e m c o u ld h a v e b e e n e x a c t l y t r a n s
f e r r e d lo t h e c o m p u t e r . T h e fac t t h a t s o m e c u s t o m
o r -.
a fnw (h;
*** A - n t , - , , *0 %
uinq thon,
nd that
e r s had s e v e r a l na m es w ould c e r t a i n l y h a v e b e e n
n o p r o b le m : a p r o g r a m c o u ld h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n
l h a t a llo w e d u s e r s lo t y p e a n y a c c e p t a b l e c u s t o m e r
n a m e , c a u s i n g lh e c o m p u t e r to look u p t h e c o r r e c t
account (an d if d e s ir e d , p r in t its u su a l n am e a n d ; "bo. t
a sk for v e rific a tio n ). r" " e f our
But n o , T h e g u y s d id n o t a n s w e r e m p lo y e e s '
q u e s t i o n s c o m p r e h e n s i b l y , n o r d id I h e y w a n t s u g
g e s t i o n s . T h e y Im m e d iately d e c r e e d t h a t s i n c e
c o m p u t e r s o n l y w o r k e d w ith n u m b e r s (a f ib , b u t
a c o n v e n i e n c e to t h e m ) , e v e r y c u s t o m e r w o u ld
t h e n c e f o r t h h a v e to b e r e f e r r e d to b y n u m b e r ,
A fte r l h a t th e fir m h a d n o t h i n g b u t t r o u b l e ,
t h r o u g h c o n f u s i o n o v e r th e m u lt ip le n a m e s . a n d
m y f r i e n d p r e d i c t e d tha i th i s w o u ld d e s t r o y t h e
c o m p a n y . I h a v e n 't h e a r d lh e ou tc o m e .
You c a n b u y lit tle b o x e s w i t h b l i n k i n g
T h i s s t o r y i s not n e c e s s a r i l y v e r y i n t e r l i g h t s th a t d o n o t h i n g e l s e b u i b l i n k . T h e y
e s t i n g ; i t m e r e ly h a p p e n e d . I t ' s n o t a m a d e - u p r e a lly p u t p e o p le u p t i g h t . " A r e y o u r e c o r d i n g
exam ple. w h a t 1 s a y ? " p e o p le a s k . " Is It a c o m p u te r ? "
T h e y ' l l b e lie v e s u c h a box i s a n y t h i n g y o u t e l l t h e m .
M oral: u n t i l w e o v e r th r o w lh e m yth l h a t
p e o p le a lw a y s h a v e to a d a p t lo c o m p u t e r s , r a t h e r
t h a n th e o t h e r w ay a r o u n d , t h i n g s w ill n e v e r go
r i g h t . A d a p t a ti o n s s h o u ld ta k e p l a c e o n b o th
s i d e s , d a m it.
EVERYBODY DOES IT
C y b e r c r u d i s b y no m e a n s th e p r o v i n c e of
c o m p u te r p e o p le a lo n e . B u s i n e s s m a n ip u la to r s m c x tm v
and b u r e a u c r a t s have q u ic k ly le a r n e d th e t r i c k s .
C o m p a n ie s do I t lo t h e p u b l i c . T h e p r e a s . I n d e e d . 1) to m a n ip u la te s i t u a t i o n s .
c o n t r i b u t e s ( se e S u g g e s ti o n s for W rit e r s a n d 2 ) to c o n tr o l o t h e r s .
S p o k e s m e n , p . ^ ) . But lh e c o m p u t e r p e o p l e a r e 3 ) to f o o l .
b e a t al it b e c a u s e th e y h a v e m o r e te c h n i c a l i t i e s 4 ) lo lo o k l i k e hot s tu f f .
lo s h u f fl e a r o u n d m a g ic a ll y ; t h e y c a n p u l a n y b o d y 5) to k e e p o u t s i d e r s from s e e i n g t h r o u g h s o m e t h i n g .
dow n. 6) t o s e l l s o m e th in g .
7 ) t o p u l so m e o n e dow n .
Now , c o m p u te r p e o p le do d e s e r v e r e s p e c t . 8) to c o n c e a l.
So m a ny i h i n g s tha t p e o p le d o w ith c o m p u t e r s a r e 6) g e n e r a l s e c r e t l v e n e s s .
h a r d . It c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t ih e y w a n t to b e 10) lo w e x p e c ta t io n of o t h e r s ' m e n t a l i t y .
a p p r e c i a t e d , a n d If n o t for th e p a r t i c u l a r s . f o r 11) s e e k i n g to b e th e b r o k e r a n d m id d l e m a n f o r
t h e m a c h i s m o ( m a c h ln is m o ? ) o f c o p i n g w ith i n t r i all r e l a t i o n s w ith th e c o m p u t e r .
c a c y . B ut t h a t i s no e x c u s e for k e e p i n g o t h e r s In 12) v a g u e n e s s s o u n d s p r o f o u n d .
c o n tr o l le d i g n o r a n c e . No m an h a s a r i g h t t o b e 13) y o u d o n ' t h a v e to s h o w w h a t y o u ' r e n o t s u r e o f .
p r o u d t h a t he i s p r e s e r v i n g a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g 14) y o u r p u b l i c im a g e ia m o n o li th ic .
the I g n o r a n c e o f o t h e r s . 15) y o u r e a lly d o n 't kn ow .

BM W B o o jie s
C y b e r c r u d I s n o t a im e d o n ly a t l a y m e n .
It c a n w o r k e v e n a m o n g I n s i d e r s .
T h e o p e r a t i o n s m a n a g e r o f a n a tio n a l
t i m e - s h a r i n g s e r v i c e , t o r e x a m p l e , w a s f a n a tic a l
a b o u t c l e a n l i n e s s . In o r d e r to a s s u r e a C le a n
C o m p u te r R o o m , h e s a i d , a n d h e n c e n o d a n g e r o u s
d u s t n e a r th e ta p e s o r d i s k s , h e m ade a ru le
r e q u i r i n g t h a t a n y o n e e n t e r i n g t h e c o m p u t e r roo m
h a d to w e a r c lo th b o o t i e s o v e r h i s s h o e s .
B o o tie s w e r e h u n g o u t s i d e f o r th o s e w h o
h a d to e n t e r .
" A n d 1 h a d t h e g r e a t e s t tim e m a k in g h i s . "
s a y s h i s w i f e , l a u g h i n g . "W ith t h e c u t e s t lit tle
b u n n y fac es on th e m . T h e b u tto n s w e r e th e
h a r d e s t p a r t to g e t y o u k n o w , t h e o n e s w ith
e y e s t h a t r o l l ! " S h e la u g h s v e r y h a r d a s s h e
te lls th is .
"O f c o u rse th e re w as no n e ed for I t." he
no w c h o r t l e s , " b u t It s u r e k e p t p e o p l e o u t o f t h e
c o m p u t e r r o o m ."
( T h a i ' s a p p l i e d lo g ic f o r y o u . )
' CO M PUTERS
AND TH E IR PR IE S T S
F i r s t g e t it th r o u g h y o u r h e a d th a t c o m p u te rs a re b ig ,
e x p e n s iv e , fast, dum b a d d in g -m a c h ln e -ty p e w rile rs . T h en
r e a l i z e t h a t m o st o f t h e c o m p u t e r t e c h n i c i a n s t h a t y o u 'r e
l i k e l y to m e e t o r h i r e a r e c o m p l i e a t o r s . n o t s i m p l i f i e r s .
T h e y ' r e t r y i n g to m a k e il lo o k t o u g h . N ot e a s y . T h e y ' r e
b u ild i n g a m y s t iq u e , a p r ie s th o o d . t h e ir ow n m um bo-
ju m b o r i t u a l to k e e p y o u f ro m k n o w i n g w h a t t h e y - - a n d
y o u -- a re d o in g ."
- - R obert T o w n s e n d ,
U p T h e O r g a n i z a t i o n ( K n o p f ) , p . 36.
}--------
% <5W0-CVi.r asPetr
O u t s i d e r s a r e o f te n p r e y to c y b e r c r u d th e y
d r e a m u p t h e m s e l v e 6 . I o n c e k n e w a c o lle g c
r e g i s t r a r ' s o f fic e w h e r e t h e y h a d b e e n g e t t i n g
a l o n g f i n e f o r y e a r s w ith p a p e r f o r m s . T h e y e a r
b e f o r e t h e c o m p u t e r w a s s t a t e d to a r r i v e , ( h e y
s t a r t e d u s i n g file c a r d s Tilled o u t b y h a n d , i n s t e a d .
W hy? " W e ll, w e t h o u g h t t h a t w o u ld m a k e i t e a s i e r
f o r t h e c o m p u t e r . C o m p u te r s u s e c a r d 9 , d o n 't t h e y ? '
N o te th a t r e f e r r i n g to a c o m p u t e r a s i f it w e r e
a l i v i n g c r e a t u r e i s n o t c y b e r c r u d ; to 6 a y t h a t a
p r o g r a m " lo o k s a t" a d e v i c e . " I r i e s to e f f e c t a
p r o c e d u r e , a n d " g o e s to s l e e p . " a r e a l l c o lo r f u l
b r ie f w a y s of d e s c r ib in g w h a t re a lly h a p p e n s .
( S e e G u id e l i n e s f o r W r it e r s a n d S p o k e s m e n . p . V7 )
H tifT J lC R E T rw e tr
Jpvntvw fcsstss?
Cybercrud is, of course, just one branch of
THE GREAT GAME OF
TECHNOLOGICAL PRETENSE
that has the whole world in Its gTasp.
"M ui u e m t , 4 * lf
IJ 1.14
>PfaotcX." t are coming from people trying to realize their
f n t p M ar
orw fjA flip lft
A (iP L T V R A L E N G R A f^
P u b l i c t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o m p u t e r s i s h e a v il y
t i n g e d b y a p e c u l i a r im a g e w h i c h w e m a y c a l l th e
M y th o f t h e M a c h in e . It g o e s a s fo llo w s: ( h e r e i s
s o m e t h i n g c s l l e d t h e M a c h in e , w h i c h i s T a k i n g O v e r
T h e W o r ld . A c c o r d i n g to t h i s p o i n t o f v ie w
T h e M a c h in e i s a r e l e n t l e s s , p e r e m p t o r y , r e p e t i t i v e ,
i n v a r i a b l e , m o n o to n o u s , i n e x o r a b l e , i m p l a c a b l e ,
r u t h l e s s . In h u m a n , d e h u m a n iz in g , im p e rso n a l
J u g g e r n a u t , b r a in l e s s l y c a r ry i n g o u t re p e titiv e
( a n d o f te n v i o l e n t ) a c t i o n s . S y m b o lic o f t h i s
i s o f c o u r s e C h a r l i e C h a p l i n , d o d g i n g th e r e l e n t
l e s s . r e p e t i t i v e , m o n o to n o u s , i m p l a c a b l e ,
d e h u m a n i z i n g g e a r s o f a m a c h i n e h e m u s t d e a l w ith
i n t h e film M o d e rn T i m e s .
O r d i n a r i l y t h i s v ie w o f T h e M a c h in e i s
c o n t r a s t e d w ith a n id e a o f a W arm H u m a n B e in g ,
u s u a l l y a n id e a l i z e d v e r s i o n o f t h e p e r s o n t h i n k i n g
th e s e th o u g h ts .
W arm
Hum an
B e in g
B u t c o n s i d e r s o m e t h i n g . T h e m o d e ) o f te n
g o e s f u r t h e r t h a n I h i s . T h e M a c h in e i s c o l d , the
H u m a n B e in g e m o tio n a l a n d w a r m . Y et t h e r e i s
s u c h a t h i n g a s b e i n g to o e m o tio n a l a n d w a r m .
T h e r e i s in fac t a t h i r d t y p e i n I h e s c h e m a , th e
b e i n g w h o g o e s to o f a r o n t h e s a m e s c a l e . S t r a n g e l y ,
h e h a s a t l e a s t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s , t h o u g h th e
p i c t u r e o f him i s a b s t r a c t l y t h e sa m e : ^ t h e b a c k w a l l o f y o u r p s y c h e . In o v e r a d e c a d e
Y '
-x X o w n , o f te n u n i q u e a n d p e c u l i a r w a y , d e e p l y r e
x ----------
The Warm "Bum"
Machine Human Nigger"
Being "Hippie"
Now , " b u m s , " " n i g g e r s " a n d " h i p p i e s " a r e
not re a l p e o p le . T h e w o rd s a r e d e ro g a to ry s la n g
f o r ( h e d e s t i t u t e , f o r p e r s o n s w ith a n y A f r ic a n
a n c e s t r y , e n d f o r p e o p l e d r e s s i n g in c c r l a i n s t y l e s .
B u t t h e r e m a r k a b l e t h i n g a b o u t t h e s l a n g i s th a t
a ll t h r e e o f th e s e d e r o g a t o r y t e r m s s e e m to h a v e
th e s a m e c o n n o ta t io n i n o u r c u l t u r e : so m e o n e w ho
i s d i r t y . la z y a n d l a s c i v i o u s . In o t h e r w o r d s ,
w h a t e v e r d i s t i n g u i s h e s T h e M a c h in e f ro m th e
W arm H u m a n B e in g i s c a r r i e d loo f a r b y th e b u n c h
al th e o th e r e n d .
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h i s c o n c e p t u a l c o n tin u u m
i s a s i n g l e , f u n d a m e n t a l s c a l e in o u r c u l t u r e ;
w h y i s u n c l c a r . S i n c e m o st p e o p le c o n s i d e r
t h e m s e l v e s - - n a t u r a l l y ! - - lo b e in t h e m id d l e
c a t e g o r y , it a c t s a s a 9 o r t o f r e f e r e n c e c o n tin u u m
o f tw o b a d t h i n g s o n e i t h e r s i d e .
It a l s o h a s a n o t h e r e ff e c t: it s u p p l i e s a
d e ro g a to ry w ay of s e e in g . On th e r ig h t- h a n d s id e ,
it a llo w s m a n y A m e r i c a n s n o t lo s e e , o r to se e
o n ly w i t h d i s g u s t , t h e d e s t i t u t e a n d t h o s e w ilh
A f r ic a n a n c e s t r y a n d th o s e d r e s s i n g in h i p p i e s t y l e .
B u t t h i s b o o k i s n ' t a b o u t th a l.
T h e le ft s i d e o f ( h e c o n tin u u m i s o u r p r e s e n t
c o n c e r n . T h e r e , t o o . p e o p l e r e f u s e to s e e . W hat
p e o p le m a in ly r e f u s e to s e e i s t h a t m a c h i n e s m
g e n e r a l a r e n 't lik e t h a t , r e le n tle s s , r e p e titi v e ,
m o n o to n o u s , i m p l a c a b l e , d e h u m a n i z i n g . O h . t h e r e
a r e s o m e m a c h i n e s l i k e t h a t , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e
a u to m o b ile a s s e m b l y l i n e . B u t t h e a s s e m b l y lin e
w a a d e s i g n e d t h e w a y i t i s b e c a u s e It g e t s ( h e mo6l
w o r k o u t o f p e o p l e . It g e t s t h e w o r k it d o e s o u t o f
p e o p le b y i h e w a y i t e x e r t s p r e s s u r e .
S o h e r e w e s e e t h e s a m e o l d t r i c k : p e o p le
b u i l d i n g a s y s t e m a n d s a y i n g it h a s to w o r k t h a t w a y
b e c a u s e i t ' s a m a c h i n e , r a t h e r ( h a n b e c a u s e t h a t 's
ho w I d e s i g n e d i t .
T o m a k e th e p o i n t c l e a r e r , l e t ' s c o n s i d e r
so m e o t h e r m a c h i n e s .
T h e a u to m o b ile I s a m a c h i n e , b u t it i s h a r d l y
th e r e p e titi v e , " d e h u m a n iz e d " th in g w e u su a lly
h e a r a b o u t . It g o e s u p h i l l , d o w n h i l l , le ft a n d r i g h t ,
f a s t a n d s lo w . It m a y b e d e c o r a t e d . It i s th e s c e n e
of m a n y w arm h u m a n a c tiv itie s . A nd m ost im p o r
t a n t l y , a u lo m o b ile s a r e v e r y m u c h t h e e x t e n s i o n of
th e i r o w n e r s , e x e m p l i f y i n g l i f e - s t y l e , p e r s o n a l i t y ,
a n d id e o l o g y . C o n s i d e r th e B a ja B u g g y V o lk s w a g e n
a n d Ih e o s t e n t a t i o u s c u s h y C a d i l l a c . C o n s i d e r th e
d a s h b o a r d o rn a m e n t a n d (he b u m p e r s ti c k e r .
T h e M a c h in e , in d e e d .
T h e c a m e r a la a m a c h i n e , b u t o n e lh a l a llo w s
I ts u s e r to f r e e z e a n d p r e s e r v e t h e v i e w s a n d im a g e s
o f th e w o rld he w a n ts .
T h e b ic y c le is a m a c h in e , b u l o n e th a t b r in g s
y o u i n t o p e r s o n a l a n d n o n - p o l l u t i n g c o n ta c t w ilh
n a t u r e , o r a( l e a s t t h a t s t y l i z e d k i n d o f n a t u r e
a c c e s s i b l e to b i c y c l e p a t h s .
T o s u m u p , t h e n . T h e M a c h in e i s a m y t h .
T h e b a d th i n g s in o u r so c ie ty a r e th e
p r o d u c ts o f b a d s y s t e m s , b a d d e cisio n s
a n d co n ce iv ab ly bad p e o p le , in v a rio u s
c o m b in a tio n s . M a ch in e s p e r s e a re
es s en tially n e u tr a l, th o u g h som e m ach in es
can b e b u ilt w h ic h a re b a d in d e e d ,
suc h as b o m b s, guns an d d e a th -ca m p s.
T h e m y th o f T h e M a c h in e Is a c u r i o u s a s p e c t
o f o u r I d e o l o g y . Is i t e s p e c i a l l y
A m e ric a n , o r w o rld -w id e ?
If w e i g n o r e t h i s m y t h w e c a n s e e e a c h p o s s i b l e
m a c h in e o r s y s te m for w h a t il i s . a n d
s t u d y h o w i t t i e s in w i t h h u m a n li f e
Tor g o o d o r i l l . f o s t e r i n g o r l o u s i n g u p
s u c h th in g s a6 the good lif e , p r e s e r
va tio n of s p e c i e s , lo v e a n d s e l f - r e s p e c t .
7MC
" T h e c o m p u te r i s t h e u lti m a t e R o r s c h a c h
t e s t , F r e e d B a le s Ba ld to me t w e l v e y e a r s a g o .
D r. B a le s, a H arv ard p sy c h o lo g ist, w as som ew hat
p e r t u r b e d b y th e p a p e r s h e w a s g e t t i n g i n h is
s e m i n a r o n c o m p u t e r m o d e llin g in t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s . S o m e w h a t n u t t y p e o p le I n t h e s e m i n a r
w e r e w r i t i n g s o m e w h a t n u t t y p a p e r s f o r h im .
A nd tr u e r w o rd s w ere n e v e r sp o k e n . On
t h i s p o i n t I f i n d B a le s h a s b e e n t e r r i b l y , t e r r i b l y
r i g h t . T h e c o m p u te r is a n In c r e d ib le p r o je c tiv e
te 6t: w h a t y o u s e e In t h e c o m p u te r c o m e s r i g h t o ff
i n I h e f ie l d I h a v e n o t c e a s e d to m a r v e l a t i h e w a y
p e o p l e ' s p e r s o n a l i t i e s e n tw i n e w ilh t h e c o m p u t e r ,
e a c h m a k i n g il h i s o w n - - o r r e j c c l i n g i t - - In Ills
f l e c t i n g h i6 c o n c e r n s e n d w h a t I s i n h i s h e a r t .
Y e s , o d d p e o p l e a r e a t t r a c t e d to ( h e c o m p u t e r ,
e n d t h e b o n d s th a t h o ld th e m a r e n o t t h o s e o f
casual in te r e s t.
In f a c t . p e o p le t e n d lo i d e n lif y w ilh i l .
In ( h is l i g h t w e m a y c o n s i d e r ( h e o f te n -
h e a r d re m a r k s a b o u t c o m p u te rs b e in g r ig id ,
n a r r o w , a n d i n f l e x i b l e . T h i s i s o f c o u r s e t r u e in
a s e n s e , b u t I h e f a c t ( h a t so m e p e o p l e s t r e s s it
o v e r a n d o v e r i s a n i m p o r t a n t c l u e lo s o m e t h i n g
a b o u t t h e m . My o w n i m p r e s s i o n i s t h a l t h e p e o p le
w h o s t r e s s t h i s a s p e c t a r e th e c o m p a r a t i v e l y r i g i d ,
n a rr o w a n d in fle x ib le p e o p le .
O th e r c o m p u te r e x p e r ts , no le s s w o r t h y .
( e ll u s t h e c o m p u te r i s a s u p e r t o y . t h e g r a n d e s t
p l a y m a c h i n e e v e r to b e d i s c o v e r e d . T h e s e
p e o p l e le n d to b e t h e m o r e o u t g o i n g , g e n e r o u s
a n d p l a y f u l ty p e s .
In a c l a s s i c s t u d y , p s y c h i a t r i s t B r u n o
B e tte lh e im e x a m i n e d a c h i l d w h o th o u g h t h e w a s
a m a c h i n e , w h o t a l k e d in s la c c a t o m o n o s y l l a b l e s ,
w a lk e d je rk ily a n d d e c o ra te d th e s id e of h is b e d
w ith g e a r s . We w i l l n o t d i s c u s s h e r e t h e p r o b
a b l e o r i g i n s a n d c u r e o f t h i s c o m p le x ; b u t w e
m u s l c o n s i d e r lh a t i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h m a c h i n e s is
a c r u c i a l c u l t u r a l th e m e in A m e r ic a n s o c i e t y ,
a n a v a i l a b l e th e m e f o r a l l of u s . A n d it w e l l m a y
b e l h a t c o m p u te r p e o p l e a r e p a r t a k i n g o f t h i s s a m e
s e l f - i m a g e : in a m o r e b e n i g n f o r m , p e r h a p s , a
s h i f t o f g e a r s ( a s it w e r e ) from B e t t e l h e i m 's
m e c h a n ic a l c h ild , b u l s till on th e sa m e tr a c k .
Some of the computer high-chool kids I've
known. because of Iheir youth. have been even
more up-fronl about this than adults.
1 know one bo y . for instance, whose dream
was to put a 33ASR Teletype on wheels under
radio control, and alarm people at the computer
conference by having it roll up to them and clatter
out questions impersonally. (If you knew the kid
-- aloof and haughty-seeming-- you might think
that's how he approaches people in real life.)
I know a high-school boy (nol a computer
expert) who programmed a computer to type out
a love story using the BASIC "print" command,
the only one he knew. He could not bring
himself lo write the love story on paper.
The besi example I can think of. though,
took place at the kids' booth (see p .H - 'J ) at a
computer conference. One of the more withdrawn
girls was silting al an off-line video terminal,
idly typing things onto the screen. When she
had gone a sentence remained. It said:
I love you all. but at a distance.
(On the other side of Ihis book, Dream
Machines, we will carry this matter further.
The most exciting things in the computer field
wildest dreams by computer: artificial Intel
ligence. computer music, computer picture*
making and so o n .)
 Ifle 4U-purpose
C o m p u te rs a r e COMPLETELY GENERAL,
MHnfc
w ith n o fix e d p u r p o s e o r s t y l e of o p e r a tio n .
In s p i t e of t h i s , th e s t r a n g e m y th h a s e v o lv e d
t h a t c o m p u te r s a r e som ehow " m a th e m a tic a l."

F o rg e t w h a t y o u 'v e e v e r h e a r d o r im a g in e d A c tu a lly v o n N e u m a n n , w ho got th e g e n e ra l

a b o u t c o m p u t e r s . J u s t c o n s i d e r th is: i d e a a b o u t a s so o n as a n y b o d y ( 1 9 4 0 s ) , ca lle d
th e c o m p u te r
T he com puter is the most g en er a l m achin e
man h as e v e r d e v e lo p e d . I n d e ed , it sh o u ld b e THE ALL-PURPOSE MACHINE.
called th e A ll-P u r p o s e M achine, but i s n t , for
re a so n s of h is to r ic a l accident ( s e e n e a r b y ) . ( I n d e e d , the f i r s t b a c k e r of c o m p u te rs a f te r World
Computers can c o n tr o l, and r e c e iv e inform ation W ar II w a s a m a k e r of m u l ti - li g h l b u l b s i g n s . It
from , v irtu a lly any oth er m achin e. T he com puter i s a n i n t e r e s ti n g p o s s i b il i t y th a t if h e h ad not
is not lik e a bomb or a g u n , w h ich can o n ly d e s b e e n k i l le d in an a i r p la n e c r a s h , c o m p u te rs
troy , but more lik e a ty p e w r ite r , w h olly n o n w o u ld h a v e b e e n s e e n f i r s t a s te x t - h a n d l in g and
committal b etw een good and bad in its n a tu re.
p i c t u r e - m a k i n g m a c h in e s , a n d o n ly la t e r d eve loped
T he sco p e of w h at com puters can do i s b r e a th fo r m a th e m a tic s a n d b u s i n e s s . )
ta k in g . Illustrated are some exam ples (alth ou gh
h a v in g all th is h ap p en on on e com puter w o u ld b e
We w ould c a ll i t th e A ll- P u r p o s e M achine
u n u s u a l). It can tu rn th ings on and o ff , r i n g
h e r e , e x c e p t th a t for h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s i t h as
b e l l s , put out f i r e s , typ e out on p rin tin g m a c h in e s .
b e e n s l a p p e d w ith the o th e r n a m e .
Com puters are in c re d ib ly d o g g e d . Com pulers
B u t th a t d o e s n 't m ean i t h a s a fix e d w ay
can do th in gs re p e a te d ly fo r e v e r , or an e x a c t,
of o p e r a tin g . On the c o n t r a r y .
immense num ber of tim es (lik e 4 ,9 0 1 ,2 2 3 ) , d oin g
som eth in g o v e r and o v e r , d e p en d in g on w h eth e r
COMPUTERS HAVE NO NATURE
it's fin ish ed o r n o t. A com pu ter's a ctiv itie s
AND NO CHARACTER,
can b e com bined in rem arkable w a y s . One a c t i v it y ,
repeated o v er and o v e r , can b e part of an oth er
s a v e t h a t w h ic h h a s b e e n p u t in to them b y w h o e v e r
activity repeated o v e r and o v e r , w h ich can b e
is c r e a ti n g th e p ro g r a m fo r a p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e .
a part of s till an oth er a c t iv it y , w h ich can b e
C o m p u te rs a r e , u n lik e a n y o t h e r p ie c e of e q u ip m e n t,
repeated ad in fin itu m . THERE ARE DEFINITE
p e r f e c t ly B LANK. A nd th a t is h ow w e h a v e p ro je c te d
LIMITATIONS on what com puters can d o , but
on i t s o m an y d iffe re n t fa ce s .
they are not e a s y to d escr ib e b r i e f ly . A l s o , som e
o f them are a rg u e d about among com puter p e o p le .

O 0 O O O C S OO
i.
o O O o o C 6 0

tic k
I W t w*i
. 1m . l . i k , * r u U l e v w .

doht'M ll

A HELPFUL COMPARISON Many ord in a r y p eo p le fin d com pu lers

in t u itiv e ly o b v io u s and u n d er stan d ab le ;
It h e lp s som etim es to com pare com pu ters with ty p e w r ite r s . on ly th e com plication s e lu d e th em . P erh aps
Both h and le information a c c o rd in g to so m e b o d y 's own v iew p o in t. th e s e in tu itiv e ly h elp fu l d e fin itio n s may help
y o u r intuition as w e l l .
N ervou s Q uestion H elpful Parallel
1. T hin k o f th e com pu ter as a
"Can a Computer "Can a T yp ew riter WIND-UP CROSSWORD PUZZLE.
Write a Poem?" Write a Poem?"
(S u r e . Your p o em .) 2. A COMPUTER IS A DEVICE FOR
"Can't C om puters Only "Can't T y p e w r ite r s O nly TWIDDLING INFORMATION. (S o . w h al k in d s
B eh ave M echanistically?' B eh a v e M ech anistically? o f inform ation are th ere? A n d what are th e
(Y e s , but ca r r y in g tw id d lin g op tion s? T h e s e m atters are what
ou t y o u r in t e n t.) th e com pu ter fie ld c o n s is ts o f . )
"Aren't C om puters "Aren't T y p e w rite rs
Com pletely Impersonal?' Com pletely Impersonal?" 3. A com pu ter i s a com p letely g en er al
(W ell, i t's not lik e h a n d w ritin g , d e v i c e , w h o s e method o f op eration may b e
b u t i t's s till what y ou s a y .) c h a n g e d , for h a n d lin g s y m b o ls in any
s p e c ific w a y .

THE MAGIC OF THE COMPUTBR PROGRAM
The basic, central magical Interior device
of the computer we shall call a program follower.
A program follower ia an electronic device (usually)
which reads symbols specifying operations, carries
out the step each specifies and goes on to the n e x t.
The program follower reads down the list
of instructions In the program , taking each Instruction
In turn and carrying It out before It goes on to
the next.
Now , there are program followers that Just
do that and nothing more; they have to stop when
they get to the end of the list of Instructions.
A true computer, however, can do several
things m ore.
11 can Jump back to an earlier point
In the program and go on from there. Repeating
the program In this fashion Is called a loop.
It can perform tests on symbols In
the memory for Instance. to see if a loop Co M O T E
has been done enough times, or If some other
part of the Job has been finished and Jump
to some other program depending on these
symbols. This la called a b ra n ch .
Finally, the computer can change
the Information stored in memory. For Instance,
It can place an answer In a specific part
of memory.
WHAT, THEN. IS A (Digital) COMPUTER?
A device holding stored symbols
In a changeable memory,
performing operations on some of those symbols
in the memory.
In s sequence specified by other symbols
In the memory.
able to change the sequence
based on tests of symbols In the memory,
and able to change symbols in the memory.
(For example, do arithmetic and
store the result In the memory.)
Rather than try to slip It to you o r prove
it In some fancy w ay, let's Just state baldly: the
power of such a machine to do almost anything
surpasses all previous technical tricks in human
histo ry .
HOW CAN A COMPUTER CONTROL
SO MANY DIFFERENT THINGS?
Answer. Different as they may seem, all
devices are controlled In the same way. Every
device has an Interface, that la, its own special
connection setup, and In this Interface a re the
device re g iste rs .
These device re g iste rs look the same to the
computer: the computer program simply moves
Information patterns Into them o r moves information
patterns from them to see what they contain.
IV iT C tW *
r heart patient
particular symbolic signals
-- the device needs
oil refinery
musical Instrument
display screen
disk memory
The computer, being a machine, doesn't
know or care that device register 17 (say) controls
a hog feeder, or device register 23 (aay) receives
Information from smog detectors. But what you
choose, in your program, to put Into device register
17, controls what the hogs eat, and what comes
into device register 29 w ill tell your program,
you hope, about smog conditions. Choosing how
to handle these things in your program la your
business.
The computer does things over and over
by changing a stored count, then testing the stored
count against another number which Is what the
count should get to , and going to the beginning
If th e desired count has not been re s c h e d . This
is called a loop. (If th ere's no way 11 can ever
get out, that's an endless loop.) (Actually, the
program loop Is done the same way as a program
branch: IF a certain count has not been reac h ed ,
It branches BACK to the start of the loop.)
Other things besides program s msy be stored
In the memory. Anything besides program s are
usually called d a ta .
**
The Instructions of programs use the data in different
w ays. Some program s use a lot of data, some use
a little, some don't use any. It is one of the fascinating
and powerful things about the computer that both
the instructions of a program . and the data they work
o n , are stored as patterns of bits in Ihe same memory,
where they can be modified as needed. Indeed, the
program can modify its own patterns of b its, a very
Important feature.
WHAT DO PROGRAMS LOOK LIKE?
In what forms are these programs s to red ,
you ask? Well, they are written by people in computer
languages, which are then stored in some form in
the computer's fast core memory, where the program
follower can act on them. But what does a computer
language look lik e , you ask? A h a ...
Go To PAGe \<p
(If you want to see what the bottom-most level looks
lik e, with all the bits and things, skip ahead to p.ST.)
WHATEVER IT MAY DO tN THE REAL WORLD,
(
to the computer program
its just another device.
ANALOG COMPUTERS DISPOSED OF
T here are two kinds of computers: analog
and digital. (Also h y b rid . meaning a combination.)
Analog computers are so unimportant compared to
digital computers that we will polish them ofT In
a couple of paragraphs.
"Analog" Is a shortened form of the w ord
"analogy." Originally an "analog" computer was
one that represented something In the real w orld
by some other sort of physical enactment for
Instance, building a model of an economic system
with tubes and liquids: this can demonstrate
Keynesian economic principles remarkably w ell.
However, the term "analog" haa come to mean
almost exclusively pertaining to measurable
electrical signals, and an "analog computer" is
a device that creates or modifies measurable
electric sig n als. Thus a hi-fi amplifier Is an
analog computer (It multiplies the s ig n al), a music
synthesizer is an analog computer (it generates
snd reshapes analog s ig n als). Thus the term has
deteriorated: almost anything with wires is an
analog computer.
Analog computers cannot be truly programmed,
only rew ired.
Analog equipment le useful, important and
Indispensable. But it is simply not In the same
class with digital com puters, henceforth called
"computers" In this book, which manipulate symbols
on the basis of changeable symbolic program s.
"Analog computer" also means any way of
calculating that involves measuring approximate
re ad in g s, like a slide r u l e .
12
L ffs C t f M S N & M W
It'* awfully aay to tool p o ^ l* wlUl
w ord*. let olona buffalo them with w eird
taehnlcal-*undlng g a b . The thing about tach
talk la that II can rea lly be applied to any a n a .
{ Ill tric k 11 In th i arrangem ent of b o ic a r
adjective noun*. and In the vague uae of windy
term * Ihtf have connotation* In ana* p a rticu la r
.- ..I- .) a n a - - e ay , th e apaca prJgTUD.
Ju ai s m l d t r . H* might call e common
o r garden sp ad e--
A PERSONALIZED BARTH-MOVDIG
BQUIWENT MODULB
A UINHHAIOOICAL MINI-TRANSPORT
A PBHSONALIZHD STRATEGIC TELLURIAN
COMMAND AND CONTROL MODULB
AN AIR-TO-OROUND DfTBRFACB
CONTOUR ADJUSTMENT PROBB
A LEVRRAQBD TACTILE-FEEDBACK
OEOUAS8 DELIVERY SYSTEM
A MAN-MACHINE ENERGY-TO-STRUCTURB
CONVERTER
A ONE-TO-ONE INDIVIDUALIZED
GEOPHYSICAL RESTflUCrURJZER
A PORTABLE UNTT(ZED EARTHWORK
SYNTHES 13 SYSTEM
AN ENTRENCHING TOOL (Ftraetgn T beatar
A ZBRO-8UM DIRT LEVEL ADJUSTER
A FBEDBACK-ORIENTED CONTOUR
MANAGEMENT PROBE AND
DIOQtNQ SYSTEM
A 0 RADIBNT DISEQUIUBRATOR
A MASS DISTRIBUTION N8CBNTROPR1ZHB
. " 'W - W t m i
AN EXTRA TERRESTRIAL
TRANSPORT MECHANISM.
S p ad ai. not w o rd * . ih M ld be uaed for
Iw e llln g . But v o rd a ahould help ua unearth
In lhe com puter H eld, the earn* thing* a n
often called by d ifferen t o aaee (for Inatanee.
the IBM 1B00, a (airly o rdinary m lnlcanpuler,
la called by them lhe *1BM 1B00 Data A cquisition
and Control System ) , d ifferin ' thing* a re often
called by the aame nam es, and things can be
Inalde-out and upalde-dow n versions of each
other In ex trao rd in ary v a rie ty . (Indeed, compu*
le r people mey find Ihla book Inslde-out. which
la okay with me. Life Is e Klein b o ttle.)
Sorting th in g s o u t. th en , means having a
few basic concepts c lea r In your m ind, and
knowing when you see eiam plea and variations
of there.
Computt r p t o p l t o f t t n t a y t h a t to u n d e r s t a n d
o o m p u t t r t you h a o t t o h a v t a l o g i c a l m i n d .
T h t r t ' t no t uo h t h i n g . Bu t t a y i n g su e h t hi ng *
i n t i m i d a c t t many, t t p t e i a l l y t h o t t who h av t
b u n t o l d t h t y do n o t havt, " l o g i e a l m i n d t . "
W ist i s s e a n e , a c t u a l l y , i s i n d t t d i m p o r t a n t :
i n w o rk in g u ie h a o m p u t t r t yo u m u t t o f t t n uo rk
o u t t h t t x a o t r a m i f i e a t i o n t o f t p t e i f i e oombi-
n a tio n i o f th i n g t , w ith o u t tk i p p i n g s te p s .
But t h t o t h t r modi o f th im k in p , t h t i n t u i t i u t ,
ha s i c e p l a c t i n th e a o m p u t t r f i t l d t o o .
V h i a h t v t r y o u r h a b i t u a l t t y l t o f mi nd , oewpute;
o f f t r yo u f o o d - - a n d u t t n t i l t - - f o r t h o u g h t .
HORRIBLE MISUNDERSTANDING!}
Sana people think of o o a p id an aa thing*
ihow m yatarl^ualy d lg w t and aaabnllale
ed g e. *Ju a t lead ll (o lha o x n p u ta r, * 1j
Ihem o o o . But w hal you faad into th a computer
fuat ails th e n u nlcaa th a ra 'i a p r a g r a a .
"How would you do that by a m p u ta r? * I*
a q u aetlai p v p la o ftu i a ak. Th* quactkm should
b* . *how would you do that ai all?* If lh a ra la
a method fo r doing aoaw lhlng which can be broken
down Into sim ple a tap * , a id n q v l M no human
Judgment, than mayba we c a t take thoaa n e p a
t d program th a n on * m p u t e r . But mayba we
can also Ihlnk of * d m p U r way to gat th a n d o n a.
Than Uwra i* Lha Ida* th al a eo D p n lif la
Bathing you aak q u a rta n * . This aaaum as, I
g u w , th e e arlla r prvm laa, thal th e computer
ha* altaady dlgaeU d and aaaimllatad * lot of
stuff and c o t elin g it b ack al you In
Actually w hat n u * l hap p an, to get
quasU ais* an sw e rad , la thla: tb e ra must be
mo* program thal pu ta Input m aterial into a
data a tru c tu n . (Baa "Data B tru c tu rw .') Than
you need program * th a l w ill m uni and trw * .
o r w h alaw r, th ro u g h th e data stru c tu re In way*
T ^ d M ir a . T h a i you na*d a way to M art tlwaa
trad n g -a n d -a aa rc h ln g program a going through
th e dMa atru ctu ro In w ay* you w ant. So you
n * d a program accap d ag Input b o n a keyboard,
* , h l t *Tg ' atartln g th* o th er p i^ w n n
(V H w eu
juir utx. CA
J u s t the way everyone can understand eaawraa, v is .:
mk e M i t la a device you peine a t a v a th i n ?
j FICTIONS ABOUT WHAT COMPUTERS DO
c o m p u te rs c a n n o t do ( s e e p . 4 S ) ; s o a e p e o
p l e , in d e e d , t h i n k t h e r e i s n o t h i n g com
p u t e r s do n o t a l r e a d y do.
te w illf u ll y capture I t s appearance.*
J u a t the way everyone can understand c a r s , v l i . i
A car la a device people g e t Insid e which
then 9oee u n h a n e ls e , under the w illfu l
co ntro l of the d river.*
H ell, how about
*A c ^ u u c la a device which manipulate!
In to n a t io n and e a te m a l a cc ea ae rlee , accor
ding to a plan w illf u lly prepared by a planner
NSri& noM L
HISCEIitfK
Cowputar oparatora turn ' on and o f f.
--- Mcavnn. \
changa prograas.
change d isk s and tspaa,
s sla c t aodaa of operation* for prograas
th a t can do aora than on thing.
(Sea p. 36.)
Input typ la ta (als o called
keypunch operators)
are clerka who copy I n to n a t io n
Into lha computer (on te n t n a l a )
(punch cards, aegnetlc d is k , e tc . )
nOTt: thaaa Job* way end in a few yeerm
whan nothing ele e haa to be coplad anywor
becauee usera put things In t h ^ e l v e e .
Co^mter repairwan, or " f i e ld engin eer*,"
f l a c o a p u tt n and chair accesaorlee
whan soaathlng goaa wrong e le c tr ic a lly
or In the gears.
Thr alwaya wear t i e c lip s ,
ao aa not to get pulled Into
r o ta tin g achlnry.
A NAIVE USER (no elfanaa)
Is an ordin ary parson
who doamnt naad to know any of th .a a ehlnga
In ordar to do aoMthlng uaaful wlch th* r
Creating programs to halp h U la lha from
oF ccacuttna.
WHAT YOUVB SEEN PROBABLY WASN'T
-A COMPUTER.."
0*1 out of y our head th e notion thal eotne
one *yalem you've seen showed you what
Computer* A n Really L ike. Computer a y eim e
can be as different e ite m a lly a s bat* and whalea
(Yet It'* lha aame kind of h a artb aa l, b u t Uial'e
no halp In daaling with them .)
Then what la It com puiar people know .
you may a sk , that leada them lo understand
new ay stem* quickly? A ha. Computer people
eliiipty adjuat faster to w hole new w orlda.
USINd A COMPUTER
SHOULD ALWAYS BE EASIER
THAN NOT USING A COMPUTER.
U It la n 'l. you
(o r y our s m p a n y , o r your stale)
may have been aold a bill of good*.
OR ihay may have decided
yo u r Inconvenience I* l * t Im portant
than acn ath ln g alee.
In any c a se , you have a rig h t to aak
h a rp queation*.
THE DAWED LIE
" C o o p u te rs a r e r i g i d and Inh um an ."
A BETTER APPROXIMATION
P e o p le a r e so m e tim es ( a l l {o o o f t e n )
r i g i d and Inhum an. (M ac h in e s and
n l a a l s a r e nonhu a a n - - t h e t a r a " i n
human" a p p l i e s o n ly t o p e o p l e . )
" R i g i d a n d in h u a a n " c o m p u te r sy ste m s
a r e t h e c r e a t i o n o f r i g i d a nd In h u a a n
pe o p le .
Many p e o p l e s u p p o se t h e r e I s n o t h i n g
A c o u p l e o f y e a r s a g o , a le a d i n g
p i c t u r e m a g a z in e c a r r i e d a p i e c e a -
b o u t S t a n f o r d 's A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i
g e n ce L a b o r a t o r y , c l a i a i n g t h a t one
" S h a k e y th e R ob ot h a d b e e n d e v e lo p e d
t o n e a r - h u o a n i n t e l l i g e n c e an d c a p a
b ilitie s. T h is was p u r e b o s h , s i n c e
r e p u d i a t e d i n Cho c o m p u te r m a g a z in e s ,
b u t a l o t o f p e o p le O ut T h e r e i n
R e a d e r la n d b e l i e v e d I t . (S e e "The
G o d -B u ild e rs ," f l i p s i d e . )
Once I had a lo n g d i s c u s s i o n w ith
a som ew hat w i l d - e y e d young woaan who
b e l i e v e d t h a t th e g o v e r n a e n t was n o n i-
t o r l n g h e r b r a i n w ith c o m p u te r s . I
t h i n k I p e r s u a d e d h e r t h a t e ven I f
t h i s w ere f e a s i b l e i t w ou ld c o s t th e
g o v e rn m e n t t e n s o f th o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s
t o do i t , an d t h a t p r o b a b ly no e x i s t i n g
g o v e r n a e n t a g en c y was t h a t i n t e r e s t e d
in h e r th o u g h ts .
p e rsu a d e d .
I ' a n o t su re she vas
bvnnci m v m .
Coaputer p r o g c sm re
f w h *"*h* Pl*n"
than chlngc ehcs
t i l l thay work.
w i l l hav e CLEAR CONCEPTUAL HEANING.
b i l l s and who owes t h e a ; i f you p o i n t a t one
THE AUTOMOBILE ANALOGY ( a o r e )
"The I n t e r s t a t e w*s b u a p e r > to - b u a p e r ,
b u t a f t e r we h ad lu n c h a t th e r e s t s t o p i t
c l e a r e d up t i l l we g o t to th e t o l l b o o t n .
Then H a r r y g o t l o s t on t h e I n t e r c h a n g e ,
a n J we had t o d o u b le b a c k on th e s e r v i c e
How in c o m p r e h e n s ib le to so a eo n e f r e a
19 05 . Y et how s i a p l e - a l n d e d when you u n
de rstan d i t . T h a t ' s how t i s w ith com
p u te rs .
C o n p u t e r t a l k so u n d s s o s t r a n g e and
i n c o a p r e h e n s i b l e to y ou f o l k s o u t th e re * *
y e t t o us i n h e r e I t ' s o f t e n as s im p le a s
t h e l i n e s above** i_f y ou knew t h e fund**
m e n ta l c o n c e p t s .
And n o t h i n g in th e n o r a a l e v e ry d a y
w o rld w i l l h a v e p r e p a r e d you f o r t h e a .
I t s n o t ja rg o n , b u t th e s i a p l e s t
way t o e x p r e s s th o u g h ts in t h e s e a r e a s .
WHAT IS THIS SYSTEM ABOUT?
Handy queationa to *ls* up
whai a c o o p u tar la aupptmad to
be doing.
Whai daia doe* It eon la in '
W hen I* th* data stored?
What o ther data w ill II
link up to?
Whai Information
do you auppoae
can raaaoiubly
be derived from thal?
Whai a n the key
Input and output device*?
In whai fora*
doe* information
go In and oul?
Whai do you auppoae
Ihay m ight want to know?
The MeW E3$
A new e r a i n c o m p u te rs i s dawning.
The f i r s t , o r C l a s s i c , co m p u te r era
i s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d eq u ip m e n t and voTk*
>n s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p r o b le m s .
Ci/sticdDHn/t /INe
The s e c o n d , o r B a r o q u e , c om pu ter
e r a u se d i n t r i c a t e e q u ip m e n t f o r hard*
to - u n d e rs ta n d p u r p o s e s , ti e d to g e th e r
w ith th e g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y by com
p u t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s who c o u l d n ' t o r
w o u ld n t e x p l a i n v e r y w e l l w hat th e y
t w o * i t tw r e n . Am n r . . '
VT)\
tr
C rv tro s^ S
Cc'cs .
/M vr
But a change i s c o a i n g . No one coa*
pany o r f a c t i o n i s b r in g in g i t a b o u t, a l
th o u g h s o a e a a y f e e l I t i s n o t i n t h e i r
in te re s t. I w ou ld l i k e to c a l l i t h e re
t h e DIAPHANOUS ag e o f th e c o a p u t e r .
By " d ia p h a n o u s " I r e f e r b o th to the
tr a n s p a r e n t , u n d e rs ta n d a b le c h a r a c t e r of
th e s y s t e a s t o c o a e , and t o t h e l i k e l i
hood t h a t e o n p u t e r s w i l l b e sh ow ing us
e v e r y th in g ( d l a - . a c ro s s e v e ry th in g ,
p h a l n e i n . to sh o w ).
I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , COMPUTERS RILL
DISAPPEAR CONCEPTUALLY, w i l l b eco ae
" t r a n s p a r e n t " , i n t h e s e n s e o f b v in g
p a r t s o f u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h o le s . More
o v e r, th e " p a r t s " o f a c o m p u te r s y s t e a
In o t h e r w o r d s , COMPUTER SYSTEMS WILL
BE UNDERSTANDABLE. I n s t e a d o f t h i n g s
b e in g c o m p l i c a t e d , th e y w i l l b e co a e
Now, many p e o p le t h i n k c o a p u t e r s a r e by
t h e i r n a t u r e in c o m p r e h e n s ib le and c o a p l l c a t e d - -
u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h a t ' s b e c a u s e th e y h a v e be en
MADE TO BE. U s u a l ly t h i s i s u n i n t e n t i o n a l ,
b u t I f e a r n o t a lw a y s . EXAMPLE. I n s t e a d o f
b e in g t o l d , " t h i s i s t h e m y s t e r i o u s XYZ c o n p u t
e r , i t h as to have t h i n g s J u s t s o , y ou h a v e t o
f i l l o u t th e s e DMQ f o r a s t o go i n t o t h e V 3 4 . . . " {
you w i l l h e a r s u c h s u r p r i s i n g l y s i n p l e t h i n g s
a s " T h is s y s t e a i s s e t up f o r k e e p in g t r a c k o f
who owes w h a t to t h e c o a p a n y . On th e s c r e e n
you c a n g e t l i s t s o f a c c o u n ts and o u t s t a n d i n g
w ith th e l i g h t p e n , t h e p r i n t i n g a a c h i n e o v e r
h e r e w i l l p r i n t a b i l l a l l s e t t o go in t h e
e n v e l o p e .'
In o t h e r w o rd s , s y s t e a s w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y
h a v e UNDERSTANDABLE PARTS WITH UNDERSTANDABLE
INTERCONNECTIONS.-
Fo r on e t h i n g , s m a l l e r a n d s m a l l e r com
p a n i e s a r e b u y in g c o a p u t e r s e r v i c e s , and t h e y
w o n 't s t a n d f o r r i d i c u l o u s c o m p l i c a t i o n s .
F o r a n o t h e r t h i n g , a number o f p e o p l e i n t h e
c o a p u t e r f i e l d h a v e g o t t e n s i c k o f s y ste m s
t h a t Bake t h i n g s h a r d f o r p e o p l e . F in a lly ,
t h e p r i c e o f c o m p u te r s , e s p e c i a l l y m ic r o
p r o c e s s o r s ( s e e p . f ' j ) a r e c o n in g down s o
f a s t t h a t th e y c a n b e t a i l o r e d t o f i t p e o p l e ,
r a th e r th a n v ic e v e r s a . B u t m ost o f a l l ,
i t ' s ) u s t vt i a e , t h a t ' s a l l .
Vji.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C .L . F r e i t a s , "M aking t h e B e s t Buy f o r th e
S m a ll B u s i n e s s . " C o a p u te r D e c i s i o n * .
March 7 3 , 2 2 - 2 6 .
Compares t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t s o f
m in ic o m p u te r s a n d tim e * s h * T ln g ; c o n c lu d e s
t h a t m in i* a r e t h a b a s t b u y .
B u r to n L. K a t i , "M akin g M in ic o m p u te r s Work
i n a M t d l u m - s l t e d B u s i n e s s . " D ata
P r o c e s s i n g . W i n te r 19 7 1 , 9 - 1 1 .
S tre s s e s th e p o in t t h a t w e ll-d e s
i g n e d c o m p u te r s y s t e a s c a n be u s e d by
e x i s t i n g p e r s o n n e l o f * f i n , w i th o u t
e x ce ssiv e c o m p lic atio n .
F r e d e r i c G. u i t h i n g t o n , " C o sm e tic Pro gram m ing ."
D a t a m a tio n . Mar 7 0 , 9 1 - 9 S . How to a ak*
s y s t e a s f r i e n d l y on t h e o u t s i d e .
 THE MOST IMPORTANT COMPUTER TERMS FOR THE '7 0 s
H ere a r e some p h r a s e s t h a t w i l l c o u n t i n t h e
X m E ltf c C fiV C S Y S 1 E M 5 new e r a o f c o m p u tin g , when we w i l l r u n i n t o
a o r e and more c o m p u te r s y s te m s s e t up f o r
p a rti c u la r purposes.

c o n n c c t e d t o a f u n c t i o n i n g c om pute i
Used to b a t h a t o r d i n a r y p e o p le had to
d e a l w i t h c o m p u te rs by f i l l i n g o u t i n t r i c a t e ( N o t e t h a t t h e c o m p u te r may be i n 1
f o rm s, w h ic h w ere t h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o pu nch ty p e w rit e r o r desk i t s e l f . )
c a r d s . T h e f o rm s p u t t h i n g s i n w e i r d c a t e T)
g o r i e s ( s e e "Cod ed-Down D a t a , " p .T v .'- V .) M o tto 1 f o r t h e new o r a : t h i n g s up f o r pr<
ra c tiv e
USING A COMPUTER SHOULD ALWAYS ___ ____ __ . . . i c c t e d , b u t r e s p o n d i n g to
No l o n g e r . you. I n t e r a c t i v e s y s te m s a n d p r o g ra m *
I BE EASIER THAN NOT USING
Anyway, n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y . I A COMPUTER. c a n r e s p o n d t o y o u r c h o i c e s an<l r e q u e s t :
c l a r i f y w hat t h e y w ant from y o u , e t c ,
C o a p u t e r s y s te m s c a n now j i v e y o u a c t i o n , M ott o 2 f o r t h e new e r a : rem ote
e x c ite m e n t- - and e x p la n a tio n s . r e f e r r i n g t o s o m e th in g f a r a w a y, a s d i s
THE NEW FRONTIER IN COMPUTERS IS t i n c t fro m 1_
CONCEPTUAL SIMPLICITY AND A compui 1,
T h i s i s d o n e t h r o u g h t h e m a gic o f th e
TERMINAL. T e r m i n a l s c o n e i n tw o c o n s p ic u o u s
T ttfV N A L S CLARITY.------------------------------- e .g ., sk.
f l a v o r s ( t y p e w r i t e r and s c r e e n o r "bo o b tu b e " ) f r o n t end ( n . ) , f r o n t - e n d l a d j . )
and a l s o h a v e tw o l e s s - n o t i c e a b l e d i v i s i o n s P e o p le who d e l i g h t i n i n t r i c a c y a r e g o in g to w h a t e v e r s t a n d s b e tw e e n you and a s y s te m .
( " T e l e t y p e " o r " i n d u s t r y " v e r s u s "IBM t y p e . " ) h a v e t o l e a r n some new t r i c k s . I n t e r n a l i n A f r o n t end c a n b e th e t e r i a i n a l i n y o u r
t r i c a c y i s f i n e , a s long a s th e u s e r d o e s n ' t o f f i c e , f o r e x a m p l e , A f r o n t - e n d p ro g ra m
Anyway, a t e r m i n a l i s s o m e th in g t h a t have to d e a l w ith i t . i s one w hic h m e d i a t e s b e tw e e n a u s e r and
a llo w s a p e r s o n a n d a c o a p u t e r to ty p e a t eac h some o t h e r s y s t e m o r p r o g r a m , p e r h a p s
o th e r. M ott o 3 f o r t h e new e r a ( t o c om pute r c o l l e c t i n g d a t a f o r i t by q u i i i i n g y o u .
p e o p le ): d e d ica te d
Now, c o m p u te rs a r e a e r e l y g a d g e ts f o r s e t up f o r o n l y one u s e . A b ig c o a p u te r
t w i d d l i n g i n f o r n a t i o n . They no more u n d e r MAKING THINGS KASY IS HARD. a t a c o m p u tin g c e n t e r h a s to h a v e many
s t a n d E n g l i s h , o r human p s y c h o l o g y , th a n u s e s ; a l i t t l e c o m p u te r in y o u r o f f i c e
p u p p ie s c an r e a d a u s i c . (S e e " A r t i f i c i a l I n M ott o 4 f o r t h e new e r a ; c a n be d e d i c a t e d . D e d i c a t e d c o m p u te rs
te llig e n c e , p .l t - I D But t h e c o m p u t e r ' s p r o g a r e now h i d d e n i n a l l s o r t s o f t h i n g s :
ram c a n , f o r i n s t a n c e , d i r e c t t h e c o m p u te r to ANY SYSTEM FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE c a s h r e g i s t e r s , f o r exam ple ( s e e " M ic r o
t y p e o u t a s im p le q u e s t i o n , and com pare th e SHOULD HE TEACHABLE IX TEN p ro c e s s o rs ," p. 4 4 ) .
u s e r ' s a n s w e r w i t h a s im p le s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s . MINUTES OR LESS. tu rn k ey ( a d j.)
Fo r e x a n p l e , s u p p o s e th e u s e r i s v i s i t i n g a h o s t u r n e d on w i t h a ke y . E s p e c i a l l y ,
p ita l. A c o m p u te r c an s i g n h im in w i t h o u t th e t e r m in a l o r k e y s c o p e Anyone who h a s b e e n t a u g h t t h e u s e o f t u r n k e y s y s t e m s , sm a ll c o a p u t e r s y s te m s
a b r a s i v e n e s s o f a r e c e i v i n g n u r s e , and w i t h f a r ( s e e p . DM 104 >. I t some f i x e d - p u r p o s e c o m p u te r s y s t e n , su c h as t h a t c a n j u s t be tu r n e d on (k e y o r n o t )
a o r e p a t i e n c e . The f o l l o w i n g m ig h t be a sa m ple a l i e n s th e c o m p u te r an a i r l i n e r e s e r v a t i o n s y s t e n , may d o u b t t h i s . a nd a r e f u l l y s e t u p , r e a d y t o r u n ,
d ia lo g u e . (H e r e t h e c o m p u te r t y p e s w h a t 's in B ut p e rh a p s t h i s bo ok w i l l c l a r i f y t h i n g s
c a y s , a n d t h e use rt> r e p l i e s a r e in lo w e r - c a s e - ) som ew hat.
p l a y games u i t h y o u ,
DO YOU JIAVE AN ACUTE PAIN? ( t , N, DX) q u i a you f o r i n f o r -
dk
YOUR ANSWER I S : DK FOR "DON'T KNOW."
DOES THAT MEAN YOU'RE NOT SURE A "COOB-Gl-Y SYSTEM1-
WHAT 'ACUTE' MEANS? (ANSWER A)
A PAIN COMES AND GOES? (ANSWER fl)
YOU HAVE A PAIN SORT OF ON THE
BORDER? (ANSWER C) f t r = r . . .
IS THIS PAIN IN AN EXACT PLACE YOU ' CLEAR.
CAN IDENTIFY? (Y,N,DK)
EASY TO USE,
An i n t e r a c t i v e s y s te m o f t h i s k in d i s c a l l Ann FRIENDLY.
ed a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s y s t e m , i n t h a t i t " c o n v e r s e s "
w ith th e u s e r . The s e c r e t i s t h a t t h e a l t e r n a
t i v e s i n t h e c o m p u te r p r o g ra m a r e few and c a r e
f u l l y w ork ed o u t b e f o r e h a n d : t h e r e a r e g r e a t p i t (or c
f a l l s when t h e r e a r e to o many a l t e r n a t i v e s , as a ll o u ANY MAN OF COMMON SENSE CAN
when su c h c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s y s te m s a r e u se d f o r DESIGN A COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR
te ac h in g (see pp. tC -i1 ) . control (discussed A PURPOSE IMPORTANT TO HIM:
th e d a t a s t r u c t u r e , t a r n s of
H ere i s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x am p le: a s y s t e n THU HAW THI K g TO in f o r n a ti o n , g e n e ra l o p e ra
I w ish I h ad f o r b a l a n c i n g a c h e c k b o o k . Note VSDl P.STAHD: u * a t i h e i t i o n s , r c c o rd - k e c [ iin p ., and
t h a t t h e i n n e r p r o g ra m f o r t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n a l do i s d e c i d e d by huni
s y s te m c o u l d b e w r i t t e n I n any o f t h e t h r e e l a n b e in g s . not " e c i e n t i ;
g u a g es p r e s e n t e d l a t e r . p r i n c i p l e s . Hunan B ut f o r some r e a s o n t h i s is
g e n erally kepi a s c c r c l.
WIIAT PROGRAM WOULD YOU LIKE TO RUN? ckbk
CHECKBOOK PROGRAM STARTS.
DO YOU WANT TO PROOF THE NEW STATEMENT FOR
MARCH? y
PLEASE LIST T1IE CHECKS TIIAT HAVE COME IN.
2 3 1 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 0 , 24 2 , 24 4 , 245. JOE TUWtE* USER'
SUM OF INCOMING CHECKS IS $ 3 4 5 .7 2 . DO YOU
WANT BREAKDOWN? n
PRESUMABLY BANX IS CHARGING YOU .6 0 FOR i y (orar o%*jUTp!t7 >
SIX CHECKS. ALSO MONTHLY CHARGE OF
FIFTY CENTS (PLEASE CONFIRM), y on th e mighty Dartmouth tlne-ah* rln g sys
ARE THERE ANY OTHER BANX CHARGES T1IIS tem, dtss . (s.< p . y r . i
MONTH? n
ARE THE FOLLOWING DEPOSITS ON THIS STATE
MENT-- MARCH I SALARY, *8 5 4 .0 0 ? y r e s p o n d i n g t o e v e n t s in t h e w o r l d a s n c c d c t
GIFT FROM AUNT AGATHA, 14 MARCH, in div idual n m J Jo* Turkey User. This e s w ith o u t d e la y s . Com puter s y s te m s t h a t c o n
$ 2 5 .0 0 ? n timable personage knows hardly anything t r o l m a c h i n e r y , make a i r l i n e r e s e r v a t i o n s ,
TOTAL ON STATEMENT SHOULD BE I 1 7 S 3 .2 1 . p r e d i c t th e w e a t h e r o r r e s p o n d to n a i v e use
PLEASE CONFIRM, y think* hr undaratanda what you t e l l hin arc re a l-tim e . Syste m s l h a t c a n c a t c h up
YOUR CURRENT FLOAT IS 1 6 5 6 . 7S. DO YOU WANT whon ha d o e sn 't. tends to h i t Che wrong o v e rn ig h t a re n o n - r e a l - l i n e .
BREAKDOWN? y keys on iho term in al, and in general tends ''in te lli g e n t te rm in al
CURRENT FLOAT AS FOLLOWS-- c o a p u t e r a t the
Chicago C i r c l e Canpul s t u p i d te rm r e f e r r i n g t o any o b j e c t t h a t
NO. 241 IRVING'S RECORDS 7 MARCH $ 6 .7 5 d o e s more t h a n a c t l i k e a p l a i n t e r m i n a l .
NO. 243 SINISTER MALADROIT (LEGAL U niversity o f I t l i n o i
'Jhat each p e r s o n doe t But cha motto up th ere ia : I f i t ' s The te rm i s s t u p i d b e c a u s e i t c o n f u s e s
FEES) 12 MARCH $ 6 0 0.0 0 not aimple enough for Joe Turkey User d istin ctio n s. Some " i n t e l l i g e n t t e r m i n a l s '
NO. 246 DOGGIE HAIRDRESSERS i t a too complicated. have e x t r a c i r c u i t s f o r v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s ;
12 MARCH 5 20.0 0 o t h e r s c o n t a i n t h e i r own m i n i c o m p u t e r s ;
NO. 247 SAM GRONK (REPAYMENT) DTSS la a good-guy syatea. s t i l l o th e rs a rc o rd in ary te rm in a ls con
14 MARCH i 30.0 0 n e c t e d to f r o n t - e n d p r o g r a m s ,
TOTAL $ 6 5 6.7 5 u se r-o rie n te d
ARE YOU DONE WITH CHECKBOOK PROGRAM? y s e t up Tor " u s e r s " - - p e o p l e who a r e n o t
s h a r i n g can haan la r g e progra m m e rs o r i n p u t t y p i s t s , b u t who
(T h e p a r t show n above i s e a s y . T h in k in g a c t u a l l y n e e d s o m e th in g d o n e ,
o u t t h e w ays f o r t h e u s e r t o c o r r e c t h i s r e u se r level ( n .) . u s e r- le v e l ( a d j.)
c o r d s , a n d / o r t h e b a n k , i s t h e to u g h p a r t . ) " w h e r e th e u s e r i s " m e n t a l l y ; h i s l e v e l
VOOR FIRST COMPUTER CONTACT o f in v o l v e m e n t . U se r - l e v e l s y s t e m ,
s y s te m s e t up f o r p e o p l e who a r e n o t
Whan you f i r s t a l t a t a ccvputer term inal, t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o m p u te rs b u t a b o u t t h e
COMPANIES THAT WILL SET UP NIIOLE tin fe e lin g ia on* o f sh ear te r r o r . S w a t and s u b j e c t o r a c t i v i t y t h e c o m p u te r i s s u p
LITTLE BUSINESS SYSTEMS c h ills , jun>lneaa and sudden c liauy nervous posed to h e lp w ith ,
potions, lu n a tic abaentsdndadneaa and s i m r i n f n a iv e u s e r ( n . ) , n a iv c - u s e r ( a d j . )
A nu m b er o f c o m p a n ie s make m in i c o m p u t e r s fear and awkwardness in te r f e r e with your a b ility e r s o n who d o e s n ' t know a b o u t c o m p u te r s
( p a r t i a l l i s t on p . 4 } ) ; h o w e v e r, com panies
who w an t b u s i n e s s s y s te m s b u i l t a ro u n d m i n i
t o function or underatand the persen who Is
helping you.
E u t i s g o in g t o u s e t h e s y s t e m . N a i v c -
u s e r s y s te m s a r e t h o s e s e t up t o make
c o m p u te rs may w a n t t o i n v e s t i g a t e com panies t h i n g s e a s y and c l e a r f o r s u c h p e o p l e .
t h a t w i l l p u t t o g e t h e r w hole b u s i n e s s s y ste m s I t ' s p e rfec tly normal.
f o r them a ro u n d m i n i s . t i n e o r o t h e r ; i t ' s n o t h i n g t o be ash am ed
o f . T hough some c om pute r p e o p l e se em to
( I t i s hoped t h a t one c o n t r i b u t i o n o f th in k It i s . )
t h i s book w i l l b e t o g i v e th e r e a d e r a b e t t e r id io t-p ro o f
i d e a o f w h a t t o a sk f o r . ) n o t s u s c e p t i b l e to b e i n g l o u s e d up by a
n a iv e u s e r .
Two co m p an ies t h a t seem t o be i n t h i s The h o s t i l i t y in t h i s te r m may in
b u sin e ss a re : some c a s e s be r e a l . C om pute r p e o p l e
som e tim es f o r g e t , o r do n o t w is h t o t o l
G e n e s is One C o m pute r C o r p o r a t i o n , e r a t e , t h e d e g r e o o f c o n f u s i o n t h a t n a iv e
99 P a r k A v e . , NY 10016. A ppea rs u s e rs b r in g to th e k e yboard. T h is a t t i
t o u s e BASIC l a n g u a g e ( s e e p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . tu d e i s n o t j u s t t h e i r p r o b le m b u t e v e r y
Q a n t e l C o rp . ( o f f i c e s i n f i v e m a jo r c i t b o d y s , s i n c e th e y l a y i t on u s .
ie s ). S e l l s a m in ic o m p u te r o f t h e i r goo d -g u y s y s te m
own m a n u f a c t u r e , u s i n g a la n g u a g e te rm to be u s e d h e r o f o r n a i v e - u s e r s y s
c a l l e d QIC ( Q a n te l I n t e r a c t i v e C o d e ) , tems t h a t a r e f r i e n d l y , h e l p f u l , s im p le
w h ic h a s a le s m a n t e l l s me i s " j u s t a nd c l e a r ,
l i k e BASIC" ( s e e p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . M in i
mum s e t u p i n c l u d e s a d i s p l a y t e r m i n a l , s t a n d - a l o n e s y s te m
p r i n t e r , c o m p u te r and 6-mi 1l i o n - c h a r - s y s te m ( r o g a r d l e s s o f p u r p o s e ) w h ic h
a c t e r d i s k , a t 5 3 1 ,0 0 0 . d o e s n ' t h a v e t o be a t t a c h e d t o a n y t h i n g
e lse . (May c o n t a i n i t s own c o m p u t e r . )

D ie M u e u
( W t rfft 3 - -*fv ^
fcJ. CC*/vTU.
"Modem" t a k e s t h e t e r m i n a l ' s p u l s e code
a nd w a r b l e s i t i n t o t h e phone a s a u d i b l e
to n e s . The c o m p u te r a n sw e r s w i t h s i m i l a r
w a r b l e s and t w e e d l i n g ; t h e modem c o n v e r t s
t h a t back in t o a l p h a b e tic a l c h a r a c te r s .

it> K K el * M i N i C c n T O r c R . f e t r - 14')

tan d ard In te rfa c e . fCelM

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TW O < .K J v O F
You would think t h e fu ndam enta l dichotomy
among compu ter terminal* w as betw een th ose that
p r in t o n ppr and thoae lh a t ahow you muff on
. s c r e e n . Bul It l a n 't. (T h at's lik e th e difference
between people and w halea -- much g r e a le r outside
lhan In eld e.)
Actually the fu ndam enta l d is tinction between
term inals la between ASCII (pro nounced "Aakey")
and IBM te rm in als. ASCII is a code and scheme
o f organization which was a d opte d by "the Indus
try un d er th e b le aslng of th e National Bureau
o f Standard s. But IBM ha s poin te dly Ignored ihlB
s ta n d a r d .
T h e prin ci pal te rm in al o f th e ASCII ty p e .
In sh e er n um bers , Is Ihe model 33-ASR Teletype
(trademark of Tel etype C o r p . ) . so th is k in d of
terminal Is called th e "33 ASR ty p e ," o r "Teletype-
t y p e . o r We ev en sa y a g iv e n te rm inal "looks
to the computer like a T e l e ty p e ."
IBM. how ever, aeema to l ik e ch an gin g Its
syste m s aro u n d a lot. for In sta n ce c hangin g Its
codes when It b r in g s out s new compuier, (For-
tunstely. It Just happens lhat they a lso Sell sd ap-
le rs between them. W hew.) So IBM-type term inals
are different by de sign .
T h ere Is on e main ty p e , how ev er, exem
plified by the IBM model 2741 te rm in al. T hus we
say a terminal Is an "IBM-type" o r "2741-type"
term in al.
Both T elety pe- an d IBM-type terminals
coma In e ith er vld eo-a creen o r p r in ting models,
from a v a rie ty Of m a n ufa cture rs .
Indeed, even th e S e le ctric (IBM trademarly.
? - [' ty p in g mechanism a ppears in some
T elety p e-ty p e te rm inals -
T h e r e Is s ve ry Impo rtant performance
difference between ASCII a n d IBM terminals.
The ASCII terminal can se n d each charac te r typed
by the u se r- - eac h " k ey stro k e - - lo th e o>mpuier
immediately. T h is means lhat highly responsive
prog rams can be w ritte n , w h ic h examine the u s e r 's
Input and can r e p ly In sta n tan e o u sly . It need b e ,
after anyth in g th e u ser ty p e s.
IBM-type te rm in als. h o w eve r, requir e
"line feed" ch arac te r o r an "end of transm is sio n
ch arac te r lo be typed b y th e u s e r to make it Ihe
compu ter'a t u r n , This lo cks th e keyboard so (he
person can 't use 11. T h e n the computer must type
some)hing, e n d in g with lla o w n "unlock" signal
thal makes It the p e rso n 's tu r n aga in .
Why this unw ie ld y de sig n ? Supposedly it
r esults from the c urious d e c is i o n . in the design
of IBM's 380 com puier. to make a ll devices
remble th e c a r d rea d e r a s far as ih e computer
Is conce rned. Ju st as ih e c a r d r e a d er rea ds
punched carda till the la st one Is d o ne , the IBM
terminal la designed to se n d and rec eive charac te rs
until a "finished" condition Is reached.
T&W HAy
'fo O O IC C .
All are ASCII-type unle ss oth e rw is e noted.
Nole: th e re a r e hundreds of ty pes and
b r an d s of te rm inals a vail able . T h ese a r e Just
some th oughts.
PRINTING TERMINALS-
BEST BUY? The model 38 ASR Teletype
giv es you uppe r and lower case, and la oth erw is e
sim ilar to the standard model 33. $70 a month from
RCA Servic e Company . Data Communications Dlv,
(offices in major c itie s ) ; SlS/m o. f o r th e couple r.
30- day cancellable but cosls $50 to p u t In , $24 to
ta k e out.
T h ere i s a c u te le rm lnal thal be have s Just
I lka (he 33 ASR, bul Is faster and u s e s NCR
p r e ssu r e pa per o r a r ib b o n , Interc hange ably.
T h e Emlel S e rie s A te le prin ter from Exte l C o r p . ,
310 Anthony T r a il , N ort hbro ok. III. 60062.
If you like Sele ctrlcs, b u t want t o go to ASCII,
the re Is o ne weird possib ility .
A firm called Tycom System s Corporation
(26 Ju st Road, Fairfield NY 07006) of fe rs an
Inte resting alte rna tive , it happen s thal a ll Selec-
I rlcs ( anyw ay. Model 1 and Mbdel 11) ha ve a seam
a ro und the midriff a t which I he ly p e w rli e r can
be unsc re w ed into two se ctions. C lev e r Tycom!
They make s devic e which fils b e tw e e n , looks io
the bottom lik e the top of ihe S e le c tric , and looks
to (he top like th e bottom. A ls o, it t u r n s the
S ele ctric into a term in al, receiv ing ASCII codes
from whatever com puter you attach it to and
c au sin g th e compuier to type th e m , o r a endln g out
whal you ty pe lo Ihe com puter In ASCII.
Curio usly, IBM ha s giv e n its b le ssin g to
th is a rrangem ent, meaning you can have (h is
sa ndwich deal done to a Sele ct ric you r e n t from
IBM , and se rv iced unde r beefed-up IBM mainten
ance a gre em ents ($72 per y e a r , o r $16.50 p e r hour,
as of 1970).
be used for offline storage. It use s s magnetic
DISPLAY TERMINALS ( s e c r P - l,M 2 0 - 1 )
T lie r e a r e n a n y b r a a . l s . Sn tic .is c v i d e o .
T he e a rlie r video te rm inals camo wilh
dr ea dfu l s ty lin g , like a 1940s science-fic tio n
movie. But as an exam ple of how th e market Is
develo ping, one of the handsomes t video te rm inals
I s th e $1300 Mini-Tec from TEC Incorpora te d.
9800 North Oracle R o a d , T u c s o n . A rl*. 85704.
It comes covered with w ood-g rain contact pa per
a nd looks ve ry nic e. (You sh o u ld have seen
the ir e a r ly models.)
The Hazeltlne 1000 video te rm in al rents
for $4 9/mo. on s l - y e a r c ontra ct. LOWER-CASE
OPTION; modem and c ouple r ap p aren tly nol
inclu ded. (Ha zelline, G re en la w n. NY 11740,
wilh offices all o v e r .)
i f you have no objection to IT T . they offer
a porta ble video term inal wilh b u ilt -i n modem
and couple r, the Asciecope. for $65/monlh.
Supposed ly ih e re 's a long w alling lis t. (ITT
Data Equipment and System s D iv is ion, East Union
A v e . . East Rutherfo rd, NJ 07073.)
see Kustom E le ctronics, Inc. ( a r e n 't they the
rock -am p pe ople ? ). Data Communications Division,
1010 West Chesln ut, Chanute , Kanss s $6720.
T h ey 'v e already sel up tr avelling term in als (or
the mobile constab ulary of Kansas City (M o.),
Palm Beach and Nashville. (Communications.
J a n . 73, ad p. 47. ) Now . of c o u r s e , you'll need
a whole stationary radio se tu p to ru n t h a t , ..
MISCELLANEOUS
Vario us firms r e n t term in al s, some on a
Short- lc rm ba sis. (Some term inal companies
are ba d new s, keepin g up their equipment ba dly
and offeri ng poor s e rv i c e , so watch i t.)
(T he day will come, le t's hope it's so on,
th al you c a n r e n t a term in al o ve rnig ht o r for a
w eekend lik e a movie earners. But till people
get a se nse of how far and fast th in gs a r e m ovin g,
we'll co n tin u e to sc hlock along h a p h a z a r d ly ,)
U nfortunately renta l people a re ha rd io fin d,
since (hey a re usually lo cal , and th e Yellow Pages
idiotically lum p togeth er every possib le form of
com puie r sa les and s e rv ic e unde r "Dala Processing
E quipment and Supplie s." and few firms f u rth er
sp ecify th e i r b usin e ss In the lis ting.
Here are some names (n either e ndorse d nor
criticize d):
Com pute r P lannin g I Supply, Chicago
T T S Syste m s, LA
Vardon k A ssociates. Dallas
A good outfit, lhal r enis both ASCII and
IBM -type term in als of the ir own m a nufa cture , is
A nderson Ja cobson Co. (1065 Morse A v e ,,
Sunnyvale . Calif. 94066. and major c itie s ) . They
have a Se le ctric term in al, for in stan c e, which
r e n ts for about $100 a month (about th e same as
Ihe s ta n d a r d IBM 2741) but is porta ble-
T o pro v id e a memory with y o u r ASCII o r JBM-
IBM-type term in al, an odd machine c alled the
T e c h tr a n 4100 (about $1000 from T echtr an Indus
tr ie s, 580 Jeff erson Rd. . Roc hester. NY 14623) can
c asse tte , Here are some th in gs you c an do with il:
t y p e stu ff into Ihe Techtr an.
la te r squirt It lo a computer a t high sp eed
r e c eiv e stuff from a computer at high sp e ed ,
la ter ty pe It back automatically on
t h e terminal
ty p e into ( h e T e c h tr a n . c orrec t it, a nd ihen
have It typed back automatically--
no com pute r,
T he question of whet her the T echtr an can be used
with Ihe Digi-Log has noi been publicly resolved.
It ha ppens lhal Anderson Ja cobso n (above)
will r e n t you ih e ir 2741-type Sele ct ric te rm in al,
with a T ec h tran , for about $220 a monlh lotal.
But they w on't rent th e Tec htr an s e p a r a t e ly ,
A 2741-type Selectric te rm inal with memor y,
offe ring th e se same capabilit ie s, is now availab le
from IBM! II is th e Communicaling Mag Card
Executive (CMC). Since Ihe Mag Card Executive,
to which they have added Ihe communication
featu re, c o sis ove r $200 a monlh, fig ure ihe
communication feature could cost an oth er $100
o r 30 m onth ly, o r pr obably half again a s much
as the Anderso n-Jacobso n .
Honeywell (Honeywell Information Syste m s,
Wellesley H ills, M aas.) ha s recentl y made
a vailable a Braille program to be used with
" sta n d ard te rm in al s" In their syste m s. (T his may
be Ihe ada plslio n developed at MIT lo do Braille
on the 33 ASR.)
43-52), Thia does nol in clude the full p la n s,
For th ose of us lit erary type s who warn
uppe r and lower case bul are Stuck with 33ASRS.
a LOWER-CASE CONVERSION KIT is avail able from
Dala Term inals and Communications. Campbell,
C a lifornia .
pe r line and up to 16 lines on the sc re en ; a second
If you'r e seri ous about keeping u p with
developm ents In th e te rm inal a re a, you might
wanl lo su bsc ribe to T erm inals Review (1 2 6 /y r.).
highly apoken of by Datamation. (GML C o r p . .
594 Marrotl Rd. . Lexington. MA 02173.)
A "CRT S urvey" Listing cha racte ristic s
of 110 CRT dis plays (in cludin g both video te r
minals and fancier picto ria l dla pla ya-- see flip
side ! this book) Is available for len bucks
postpaid from Dalapro R esearch Corp. , One
Corporate C e n te r, Route 38, Moorestown, NJ
08057.
961 f. f. n).
1U VTOP, ^300.
VIDEO TERMINALS WITHOUT THE VIDEO
A ve ry hot Item r lg h i now Is a terminal
called Ihe "Digi- Log"-- a ctu ally se v er al different
models-- available from Digi-Log Sysie m s, I n c .,
666 Davisvllle Rd. , Willow G ro ve, P*. 19090.
T h is de vice fits in a br ie fcase. Basically
Il is a keyboard with a socket for ihe phone,
and an antenna w ire. You phone the compu ter,
drop ihe phone handsel In th e slo t, and clip the
w ire lo (he an tenna of a TV s e l , Presto! On ihe
TV set appears whal you and Ihe computer type
at each oth e r.
T his is especia lly good for trav elling
salesmen (to communicate wilh their offices and
orderin g system via tim e-sharin g computer)
and executives who do compuier work from the
r o a d . Also for people who want to show off
remote computer sysiems.
Disadvantage: on ly 42 c h arac ters p e r line,
which is awkw ard for some th in g s , suc h a s
programming In F o r tr a n .
Price: $1200 to $1400, They ala o le ase , al
rates as low a s $40/month (3 y e a r s ).
Also available on ren ta l, suppose dly , from
Westwood Associates, Inc. . 50 Washington T e r r a c e ,
East Orange, NJ 07017.
Ann A rbor T erm inals , Inc. (Ann Arb or.
Mich.7) is said lo offer a sim ilar unit lhal i s
T he equival ent IBM-type te rm in al-- key b o ard ,
coupler a nd d i p to the T V -- Is the IPSA-100,
offered by I.P . Sharp Associates, Inc. (Brid ge
Administration Building, Bridge Plaza, O g d e n sb u r g ,
NY 13669). Unfortunately it's much la rg e r than
the Digi-Log-- ll comes In a medium-size su ll csse
-- end more expensive ($1700 up), How ev er,
they offer ihe APL c h arac ter-ae t (see APL un der
"Magic Languages ," s an option even
a model with bolh normal and APL c harac ter-sela
as a switch-selectable option (costs even more).
Re cently, of all th ings , pla ns for a do-it-
yourself unit of rhis ty pe w ere announced in a
popular electronics magazine (Don L ancas ter,
"TV T ypew rite r," Radio-Electron Ice, Se p t. 1973,
which a re available for $2 from TV TYPEWRITER ,
Radio-Electronic s , 45 E. I7lh S i . . New York .
NY 10003-
Supposedly this can b e built tor "around
$120"-- probab ly a deal more- - if you a r e a skil le d
ele ctronics builder or te chnicia n. But lhal looks
to include a great deal of labor.
T he finished unit holds up to 32 charac ters
memory can be added , lo hold a second altern ative
sc reen ful.

T he IBM Mag T ape S e l e c t r i c C om poser (MT/SC.

MTSC) . P r o d u c e s l o v e l y r e s u l t s w i t h t h e S c l c c -

TVPE RIGHTEfL
T h e J fo g ic ^ p e w r ll K f
When y o u w a n t a c l e a n c o p y - - P r e s t o W a i t - o !
P u t in c l e a n p a p e r , s t a r t th e m a g n e tic w h a te v e r
a t th e b e g i n n i n g , and th e t y p e w r i t e r r e t y p e s i t
w ith o u t a m is ta k e .
t r i c Com poser, a very fancy S e l e c t r i c .

Card E x e c u tiv e .
a s MTST.
But has
c o m p l i c a t i o n s w e l l be y o n d t h o s e o f t h e Mag T a p e
S e le c tric . liv e n n o r e v a r i a b l e w i j t h s t h a n Mag
U ses same n a g - f i l m c a r t r i d g e s
K

I f y o u ' re lucky. ( N o t e : f o r t h o s e who l i k e t h e o u t p u t from

A num ber o f d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s a r e c o n in g
on t h e m a r k e t t o a i d y o u i n e r r o r - f r e e t y p i n g .
IBM w o u ld h a v e y o u c a l l t h e s e " w o r d p r o
c e s s i n g s y s t e m s , s i n c e t h a t makes them s o u n d
o f - a - p i e c e w i t h t h e i r d i c t a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . Ac
tu a lly th e y re t e x t r e g u r g ita tio n sy ste m s, but
l e t ' s j u s t c a l l th e m M a g ic T y p e w r i t e r s .
P r i c e s o f t h e s e t h i n g s t e n d t o r u n b e tw e e n
$100 and $250 a m o n th .
G en e ra lly t h e s e a r e b e in g so ld a s s e c r e
t a r i a l a i d s , p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y t e n d t o b e to o
u n g a in ly f o r u se b y w r i t e r s th e m se lv es . A
p r i n c i p a l u s e h a s b e e n i n l a r g e law o f f i c e s ,
w h ere c o n t r a c t s , w i l l s a n d s u c h a r e s t o r e d a s
" b o i l e r p l a t e " ( s t a n d a r d s e c t i o n s o f D ocum ent)
and th e n m o d i f i e d s l i g h t l y by t h e l a w y e r t o
j u s t i f y th e le g a l f e e s .
Such sy ste m s a l l b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t o f
th re e th in g s :
A t y p e w r i t e r , c o n n e c t e d t o sotae s o r t o f
m a g n e tic m em ory. su c h as a t a p e , c o a te d
c a r d o r d i s k , and
e d i t i n g c i r c u i t r y , w h ic h r e s p o n d s t o
v a r i o u s a c t s by t h e u s e r .
WHAT THEY DO: a l l o w y o u t o t y p e s t u f f i n , w h ic h
i s b o t h t y p e d o n t h e papeT a nd a t t h e s a n e t i m e
s to re d t h e m a g n e t i c w h a t e v e r . S m a ll e r r o r s
yo u c o r r e c t a s y o u t y p e a l o n g , g e n e r a l l y by
backspacing.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y sotae o f t h e s e s y s t e m s a r e
q u i t e b a d ly th o u g h t o u t. I n o n e o r tw o c a s e s
I an n o t s u r e w h e t h e r t h e y a r e d e s i g n e d a s t h e y
a re a c c i d e n t a l l y o r on p u rp o se . N e ith e r i n t e r -
p r c t a t i o n T s n a t t e r i n g t o th e m a n u f a c t u r e r .
I h a v e h a d e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h tw o
o f t h e s e s y s t e m s , t h e IBM Hag T a p e S e l e c t r i c
a n d t h e IBM Mag C a r d E x e c u t i v e . S u ffic e i t to
s a y t h a t i f I b e lie v e d t h a t th e s e sy ste m s w ere
a s c um bersom e a s t h e y a r e by a c c i d e n t , t h e n t h e
s e c t i o n s i n t h i s b o o k o n IBM a n d i t s p r o d u c t s
m ig h t ha v e a v e ry d i f f e r e n t s l a n t . As i t i s ,
th e s e s y ste m s r e q u ir e a t r a i n i n g p e rio d o f (say )
a w eek, and r e q u i r e su c h c o n tin u o u s a t t e n t i o n
t o t h e i r c u r i o u s ta c c h a n i c s t h a t t h e u s e r i s
g iv en l i t t l e o p p o r tu n ity to t h in k o f a n y th in g
e lse . In b o t h c a s e s , i n my o p i n i o n , t h e s u p e r
f i c i a l p l a u s i b i l i t y o f th e i n i t i a l d e s ig n prem
i s e s k n o ts i n t o ta n g l e d r a t i f i c a t i o n s w h ic h
v e r g e on t h e p r e p o s t e r o u s . Much o f t h i s b o o k
w as w r i t t e n o n a Mag C a r d E x e c u t i v e - - a n d I * n
da mned s o r r y I b o t h e r e d .
Some s y s t e m s o f t h i s ty p e a re :
T he IBM Mag T a p e S e l e c t r i c (MT/ST o r MTST).
R e c o r d s o n s p r o c k e t e d 16mm n a g f i l m o f t h e t y p e
u s e d f o r m o v ie s o u n d r e c o r d i n g , a n d y o u h a v e two
d i f f e r e n t t a p e s t o g e t c o n fu s e d b e tw e e n .
The IBM Mag C a r d E x e c u t i v e . R ecords on a
p l a s t i c H o l l e r i t h c a r d ( s e e p . 2 & ) c o a te d w ith
m a g n e tic o x i d e . V a ria b le w id th o f c h a r a c te r s
p rese n ts f a s c in a tin g d if f i c u l t i e s .
th e above d e v i c e s , b u t a p p r e c ia te a ls o th e r e l a
tiv e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e i r u s e , th e re is A v ailab le
a c o m p u t e r p e r i p h e r a l d e v i c e w h ic h r e a d s a n d
w r i t e s t h e s e 16mm mag t a p e c a r t r i d g e s . I d o n 't
know who m a k e s i t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y . )
IBM's l a t e s t i s c a l l e d t h e M a g n e t i c Memory
T y p e w r i t e r , a n d se e m s t o s t o r e up t o o n e p a g e i n
a h i d d e n memory. A p p a r e n t l y you c a n ' t s e t i t
a s id e , lik e th e c ard s o r ta p es.
A f i r m c a l l c d R e d a c t r o n makes m a g ic t y p e
w r i te r s u sin g e i t h e r c a s s e tte s (a u d io -ty p e ) o r
mag c a r d s ( l i k e t h e Mag C a r d E x e c u t i v e ) .
A f i r m c a l l e d S a v i n d o e s t h e sa m e t h i n g ,
u s i n g a T ycom S e l e c t r i c S a n d w ic h ( s e c u n d e r
" P r in tin g T e r m in a ls ," ne arb y ).
O l i v e t t i h a s one c a l l e d t h e S - 1 4 W ord P r o
c e s s i n g S y s tem . T h eir c a r tr id g e (a d is k ? ) s t o r e s ,
t h e y s a y , ISO p a g e s o f t y p i n g .
Two o t h e r o u t f i t s in t h e f i e l d a r e T r e n d o t a
a nd Q u i n t y p e .
N oops! H e r e com es S p e r r y R e m in g t o n ! (S p e rry
R e m in g t o n ? ) T hey h a v e one to o .
For th o s e in te r e s t e d in t h i s s o r t o f th in g ,
t h e r e i s a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Word P r o c e s s i n g A s s o c i a
t i o n ( M a r y l a n d R o a d , AHS B u i l d i n g , W illo w G r o v e ,
PA 1 9 0 9 0 .)
S e e a l s o t h e F l i p S i d e o f t h e b o o k f o r more
h ig h -p e rfo rm a n c e te x t sy ste m s.

are what make compute rs go 'r o u n d .
IF you r c om pute r only did one th in g ,
then to s ta r t It y o u 'd o n ly ne ed one button to
press.
If y o u r c om pute r only did two dozen
th in g s , without va ria tio n s , then you could
let each operation bo sta rte d by pressin g
one o f th e Keys o f th e te rm inal, and thal
would be lhat.
But th a t's not what i f a about.
We ha v e lots of different th in gs lhAt we
want compute rs 10 d o . and we want one com
mand lo w o rk on d if feren t v arieties of d ala . o r
on the r e s u l ts o f a p rev io u s command. or even
lo chew on a noth er command Itself; a n d so e
computer la n g u ag e Is a c o n lr lv ed method of
g iv in g commands to a com puter lha t allows
th e commands lo b e en lw ln ed In a complex fashion,
T h is means h a v in g basic o pe ra tions that
can b e bu ilt into b ig g e r o p e ra tions (routin es,
su b ro u tin e s, su b p r o g ra m s, p ro g ra m s).
T h u s a c o m p u t e r la n g u a g e i s r e a l l y
a m e th o d b y w h i c h a u s e r c a n t i e t h e s e
p ro g ra m s t o g e t h e r . C o m p u te r la n g u a g e s
a re b u i l t a cc o rd in g to c o n triv e d s e t s o f
r u l e s f o r t y in g p ro g ra m s t o g e t h e r . Such
r u l e s a r c l i m i t e d o n ly by th e im a g in a
tio n of t h e i r c o n t r i v e r s . Each co m p u ter
la n g u a g e h a s i t s own c o n t r i v e d s y s t e m o f
r u l e s , a n d i t may b e c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t
from t h e c o n t r i v e d r u l e s t y i n g t o g e t h e r
any o t h e r c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e . ( T h a t ' s one
reason lo r h e re p r e s e n tin g th r e e d i f f e r
e n t c o n p u t e r l a n g u a g e s , t o show so me o f
t h e mad v a r i e t y t h a t c a n e x i s t . )
m e [QUICKIE]
E veryone 9hould have some b r u s h with
computer pr ogra mming, ju s l lo see what it Is
and is n 't, Whai ii is: c asti ng mystical spe lls
in arc ane te rm inology, whose exac t de ta ils
have exact ramifi ca tions. Whai II is n ' t : ta lk in g
o r typing to the computer in some way that re
q uir es Intelligence by lh e machine. Whai ll la:
an in tr ic ate technical a n . Whai it isn 'l: sc ie nce.
Why th r e e la ng uage s? Because one would
look loo much alik e . Only by p e ru s i n g several
do you get any se nse of th e v a rie ty th e y ta ke.
T h e s e t h r e e l a n g u a g e s make i t p o s s i b l e
i n p r i n c i p l e f o r you t o l e a r n c o m p u te rs
w i t h no c o a c h i n g . A ll you n e ed ( i n p r i n c i
p l e ) i s y o u r own t e r m i n a l , a n d t i m e - s h a r i n g
a c c o u n t s w i t h f i r m s r u n n i n g BASIC (M o st o f
t h e n d o ) , TRAC L an g u a g e ( f o r a v a i l a b i l i t y
s e e p , 2 1 ) , a n d / o r APL ( f o r p a r t i a l l i s t o f
so u rces see p . 25).
Why theae three? Severa l good r ea so n s.
One, they can be use d from a te rm in a l, which
means lhal you could in p rin cip le g e t a te rm inal
In yo ur home and play wilh th e c om pute r from
ove r lhe tele phone. Bui this is e x p en siv e ,
and al worsl fra ught with accidental financial
lia bilities, so th e possibi lity Is minor r ig ht now,
N eve rthele ss, il should be practical a n d in e x
pensiv e fairly soon.
T h e s e la n g u a g e s h a v e b e e n c h o s e n b e
c au se th e y a re im p o r ta n t, v e ry d i f f e r e n t
from e a c h o t h e r , v e r y p o w e r f u l , i n f l u e n t i a l
and h i g h l y r e g a r d e d i n t h e f i e l d , i n t e r a c
t i v e f ro m t i m e - s h a r i n g s y s t e n s , a n d v e r y
s u i t a b l e f o r m a k in g i n t e r a c t i v e p r o g r a m s
and " g o o d -g u y s y s t e n s . "
Each u ay b e u se d t o c r e a t e p ro g ra m s
B ecause th e s e la n g u a g e s can be u sed
fro m a t e r m i n a l , a n d t h u s l e a r n e d q u i c k l y ,
we m ig h t c a l l th e m Q u i c k i e l a n g u a g e s .
N o t e : i n t e r a c t i v e l a n g u a g e s m e an y o u ,
th e p ro g ra m m e r, can c h an g e y o u r p ro g ra m
from t h e t e r m i n a l ; i n t e r a c t i v e w ro c r a m s
a r e t h o s e w h ic h i n t e r a c t w i t h u s e r s , w h ic h
is d iffe re n t. H o w ev e r, t h e s e l a n g u a g e s a r e
q u i t e s u i t a b l e T or b o t h .
Another reason for these three: they
r e p r e s e n t. In a w ay. se veral major ty p e s,
BASIC is a widesp read and fairly sta n d ard
la nguage -- lhal i s , it is available on c om pute rs
e v ery w h e re. Mor eove r, ll looks r a th e r like
F o r tr a n , which is th e most im portant "scienti fic"
computer language.
TRAC Language, though w ell-know n among
re se a r c h e r s, ha s mighty p o w ers that a re not so
well know n. Moreover, it a ch ie v es it s pow ers
th rough lha simple and highly consis te nt following
ot a few simple p rin cip les , a n d is th u s b oth v e ry
eaay to le a r n and an elega nt inte llectu al triu m p h
for Its in vento r.
Moreove r, il ia a so-ca lle d "lisi la n g u a g e ."
meaning thal it can handle Information havin g
extremely varied and c hangin g form -- a v e ry
Important feature lo those of ua in te rested in
computer applications like p ic ture-m a king and
text handling, which use am orphous and busy
types of data. (See "Data S t r u c tu r e s . p p - 2 & - >
APL i s a noth er elegant la n g u ag e , a ls o
worked oul handsomely from certa in ba sic ide as
by a v e ry th oughtful and in sp ire d inve ntor.
In the contemplation of these th r e e la n
gua ges you may be gin lo see th e influ ence o f
th e Individual human min d in th e com p u te r fie ld,
q uite c o n tra r y to th e s te r e o ty p e . I w ould like
lo str e s s h e r e lhal each of th e s e th r e e la n g u ag e s
r e p r e s e n ts somebody's I ndiv id ua l p e rso n a l a c h
ievem ent. and i s in t u r n a foundation upon
which o th e r s , w riting p r o g r a m s , c a n b u ild
Two o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e s p e r m i t t h e
c r e a t i o n o f i n t e r a c t i v e p r o g r a m s t h o t w ork
o n a l i n e - b y - l i n e b a s i s ; i n a d d i t i o n , TRAC
L an g u a g e ( p p . 1 8 - 2 1 ) p e r m i t s t h e c r e a t i o n
o f sy ste m s t h a t r e a c t t o a ny c h a r a c t e r th e
u s e r ty p e s i n , r a t h e r t h a n w a i t i n g f o r th e
c a r r i a g e r e t u r n a t th e en d o f a l i n e . T h is
p e rm i ts y ou t o p ro g ra m u s e r - l e v e l sy ste m s
t h a t a r e e v e n more r e s p o n s i v e .
IF YOU'RE SCARED. Don't w o r r y , ll'a
not a te s t. Flip the pa ges a n d look a t lh e exam
ple s. (In p a rti c u la r , you mig ht look for lhe
same program which a ppea rs in e ach la ng uage:
a program to cause th e com pute r to prin t
"HELP, I AM TRAPPED IN A LOOP" f o r e v e r . )
This book Is org an iz ed s o you c an look
al It or sk ip ll In any o r d e r , s o th e r e is no
pa rti cula r reason you have lo f ig ht th r o u g h
the next th ree c hapte rs If you wani to p r e s s o n .
But if you w ant to s tu d y these I s n g u a g o s , b y all
means do 80.
Languages lhal can be use d from a te rm in al
are called o n -lin e la n g u a g e s , T h e r e a rc a n u m
ber of o th e r popular o n -lin e la n g u ag e s: JOSS
(lhe o r ig in a l) . FOCAL. LOGO. SPEAKEASY. Im
ju sl s o r ry th e re 's no room for the m h e r e .
Some p o p u l a r n o n - i n t e r a c t i v e la n g u a g e s
a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d on p p . 3 0 - 3 1 .

C o m p u te r l a n g u a g e s t e n d t o l o o k l i k e
n o t h i n g e l s e y o u ve e v e r s e e n . T hus c o n
p u t e r p r o g r a m s , w h ic h o f c o u r s e h a v e t o
be w r i t t e n i n t h e s e c o m p u te r l a n g u a g e s ,
look p r e t t y w e i r d . Some p r o g r a m s lo o k
lik e o ld t r a i n sc h e d u le s ( in n u l t i p l e
c o lu m n s). Some l o o k a l i t t l e l i k e p r i n
te d p o e t r y . I n a n y c a s e , a COMPUTER PRO
GRAM NO MORI: LOOKS LIKE IT S RESULT THAN
THAN THE WORD "COW" LOOKS LIKE A COW.

One o f t h e c e n t r a l c o n c e p t s o f t h i s
boo k i s t h a t o f a ' " p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r , a
d y n a m ic e n t i t y w h ic h somehow f o l l o w s a
p r o g ra m . ' . f e l l , EVERY LANCUAGE HAS A PRO
GRAM FOLLOWER FOLLOWING ITS OWN PARTI
CULAR RULES. T h e s e r u l e s a r e c o n t r i v e d
fo r c o n v en ie n ce , s u i t a b i l i t y to a p u rp o se,
and " a e s t h e t i c s " o f a s o r t - - o f t e n s o a e
fo rm o f s t a r k c o m p r e s s i o n . (T h e p r o g r a m
f o l l o w e r s w i r e d i n t o c o m p u t e r s a r c some
w hat m o re a k i n t o o n e a n o t h e r ; s e e "R o c k
B o t to m , " p . 3 2 . ) A b o u t a l l we c a n s a y
la n g u a g e s h a v e i n common i s : EVERY COM-
PUTER LANGUAGE ALLOWS LOOPS. TESTS AND
BRANCHES, AND COMMUNICATION WITH EXTERNAL
DEVICES, a s m e n t i o n e d on p . 1 1 . Beyond
th a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s a re i n c r e d i b l e . T i l l more and so re you g e l th e f e e l of I t .

So t h e b a s i c s e c r e t o f c o m p u te r p e o
p le is t h i s : i t ' s n o t th a t th e n e c e s s a r
Anil f in d yo urself w ritin g proKraa lh a t work THE to r UAV to
i l y know s o m u c h , b u t t h e y c a n a d a p t t o a
w h o le new w o r l d o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s more

to g e t h e r th e f u n d am e n ta l o p e r a t i o n s o[

la n g u a g e f i t s t o g e th e r a c c o rd in g to i t s

s o n a l l t y and p r e o c c u p a tio n s o f t h e p e rs o n
o r p e o p l e who d e s i g n e d i t .

PROGRAMS VS. SYSTEMS:
A Vague Guideline lo a Vague Distinction
A " pro gram '- r u n s on an o rd in ary compute r, without
n e ce ssarily in te rac tin g with lhe oulalde world;
Mo dern c o m p u te r l a n g u a g e s g e n e r a l l y c a n
h a n d l e a l l t h e m a in k i n d s o f p r o g r a n m i n g s
c o a t h a n d l i n g , n u .a ber c r u n c h i n g , s t o r i n g
f i l e a on d i s k memory a n d g e t t i n g th e m b a c k ,

a "sy ste m " Inv o lv es a whole se tu p , o f which th e co mpute r I n t h i a book we w i l l t r y t o g iv e you a

and a p rogra m In It are Jusl th e c entr al th in g s . n a t t e r i n g of a l l th e s e .

In th is sim p lifie d i l l u s t r a t i o n , th e p o in
The t e x t i s u s u a l l y s c u r v u a s a s e r i e s o f t e r c a n b e moved f o r w a r d a n d b a c k w a r d i n t h e
a l p h a b e t i c a l a n d p u n c t u a t i o n c o d e s i n t h e com t e x t b y v a r i o u s commands. T y p in g " B " m oves t h e
p u t e r ' s c o r e m e m ory. T he a r e a i t o c c u p i e s in p o i n t e r t o th e b e g in n in g . "Ii " t a k e s i t t o t h e
t h e c o r e memory i s c a l l e d a c o r e b u f f e r . end. " L " moves i t t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l i n e
i t ' s p r e s e n t l y o n , a n d t h e commands C" a n d " L ,
The p r o g r a m g e n e r a l l y g i v e s t h e u s e r a n im w hen g i v e n w i t h n u m b e r s , t e l l t h e p o i n t e r t o
a g in a r y " p o i n t e r , " a m a rk e r s p e c i f y i n g w h at p o i n t move f o r w a r d o r b a c k t h e s p e c i f i e d n u m b e r o f
The Moving Fiojfr w rita; and, having writ. i n t h e t e x t th e p ro g ra m i s c u r r e n t l y c o n ce rn e d p o sitio n s. For i n s t a n c e :
Mores oo : oer ell joai Piety (X* Wit w ith .
3C Move f o rw a rd 3 c h a r a c t e r s
Shall lara il back to a n a l half a Line,
What i s t h e p o i n t e r f o r ? I t s p e c i f i e s w h e r e 4C Move backw ard I c h a r a c t c r s
Nor all your T o n vraih oul Word of it. th e o p e r a t i o n s a r e t o t a k e p l a c e . " I n s e r t, for 2L Move f o rw a rd 2 l i n e s
exam ple. I f t e x t i s i n s e r t e d , i t w i l l go i n t o -2L Move backw ard 2 l i n e s
K h a y y a m /F t ttg g r a ld th e p la c e p r e s e n tly p o in te d a t.
and s o o n . N o te t h a t t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e n o t
Many o f t h e commands a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n g o d - g i v e n , b u t t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f how t h e y
t r o l l i n g th e c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n o f th e p o i n t e r , b e h a v e a n d w ork t o g e t h e r a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e
m o v in g i t b a c k w a r d o r f o r w a r d b y a s p e c i f i c num p e r s o n a l q u i r k s o f who progra m m e d th e m .
b er o f c h a r a c t e r s ( in c lu d in g p u n c tu a tio n nark s
and s p a c e s ) o r l i n e s (know n t o t h e p r o g r a m by t h e A n o t h e r f e a t u r e many o f t h e s e p r o g r a m s h a v e
c a r r i a g e - r e t u r n c o d cs i n t e r s p e r s e d i n th e t e x t ) , i s c a ll e d a "c o n te x t e d ito r f e a tu r e . S o -c alled
N umerous i n t e r a c t i v e p r o g r a m s e x i s t f o r c o n t e x t e d i t i n g moves t h e p o i n t e r f r o m i t s p r e
e d i t i n g t e x t a t co m p u te r t e r m i n a l s - - i n o t h e r s e n t p o s i t i o n to th e n e x t o c c u rre n c e o f a s p e c i
w o r d s , f o r d o i n g w h a t M a g ic T y p e w r i t e r s d o , b u t f i c s t r i n g o f c h a r a c t e r s : f o r i n s t a n c e , th e n e x t
u s in g a c o m p u te r i n s t e a d o f a sm a ll s p e c i a l - o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e w o rd CHIAROSCURO. O f t e n s u c h
pu rpose m achine. commands p e r m i t y o u , by g i v i n g t h e command p r o p
e r l y , t o r e p l a c e any g i v e n w ord o r p h r a s e w i t h
c W u tc v ? - s m e sy rre in .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y m ost o f t h e s e s y ste m s a r e an y o t h e r . I t w as d r i l y r e m a r k e d j t a r e c e n t
c o n f e r e n c e t h a t t h i s w o u ld a l l o w a w r i t e r t o
d rea d fu l.
hunan b e i n g s .
D r e a d f u l , th B t i s , f o r o r d i n a r y
What c o n p u t e r p e o p l e se em t o
4M jy, change e v e r y o c c u rre n c e o f " o r" in h i s w r i t i n g
a Cvrv. b vrtef; to " a n d ." Y e t p r o g r a m m e r s se em t o t h i n k t h i s i s
th in k o f a s a p p ro p r ia te s y ste m s f o r h a n d lin g
t e x t a r e t o t a l l y u n s u i t a b l e f o r p e o p l e who c a r e a f e a tu r e w r i te r s w an t.
a n d t h i n k a l o t a b o u t t e x t , a l t h o u g h t h e y may
be good i o r c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r s . r v ? v n w ' (F o r p rogram m ers' p u rp o se s t h i s i s a v e ry
g o o d f a c i l i t y ; i n d e e d , a w h o le c o m p u t e r la n g u a g e
Such s y s t e n s allo w y o u t o i n s e r t t e x t SNOBOL, i s b u i l t a r o u n d i t ; - - s e e p . 3 1 . But
( w i t h s a n e d i f f i c u l t y ) , d e l e t e ( w i t h so me d i f
f i c u l t y ) , and r e a r r a n g e ( n a y b e ).
L |6' <6y'r ' * ^ 'J 1 i t h a s n o th in g to do w ith norm al t e x t . )

O r d i n a r i l y th e u s e r m ust l e a r n an e x p l i c i t
command l a n g u a g e , some s y s t e m o f a l p h a b e t i c a l
commands t h a t h a v e t o b e t y p e d i n t o e f f e c t a n y
change i n th e m a t e r i a l . Program m ers t h i n k t h i s
i s g o o d f o r y o u a n d to u g h e n s t h e n i n d .
T h is ty p e o f t h in g i s t o t a l l y u n s u i t e d f o r
t h e l i t e r a r y t y p e s o f p e o p l e who c a r e m o s t a b o u t
t e x t and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( c o n n o t a t i o n s ,
t w i s t s ) w h i c h c a n n o t b e f o u n d by d e f i n a b l e
stru c tu re d search , ftnd who s h o u l d n o t b e f o r c e d
Z l ) if \ DfPim (fl t o d e a l w i t h e x p l i c i t co m p u te r la n g u a g e s b e c a u se
i t te n d s to in t e r f e r e w ith th e th o u g h t p ro c e sse s
E T *K t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e p u r s u i n g , i f n o t make
th e m p h y s i c a l l y i l l .
%
W h en y o u t y p e ln a p r o g r a m , th e BA SIC p r o c e s s o r T h e END com m an d
w i l l d o c e r t a i n t h i n g s to i t ( a c tu a l ly c o o k I t d o w n ) a n d s to r e
i t in c o r e m e m o r y : T h e END c o m m a n d In BA SIC sim p ly c o n s is ts o f the
w o r d E N D . It m u s t c am e la s t ln t h e p r o g r a m . T h ere fo re
It m u s t h a v e th e h ig h e s t l i n e n u m b e r . E x am p le:

00 END

T h e PR IN T co m m and

W h e n e v e r th e p r o g r a m f o llo w e r g e t s to a PRINT command,

i t p r i n t s o u t o n th e te r m in a l w h a t e v e r i s s p e c if ie d . Example:

You* F lis r tOHfUTtR (AN6UMC: 97 PRIN T "HAIL CA ESA R. BIRD THOU NEVER WERT"

DMLTKOtfTM'.T W h en a n d if th e p r o g r a m f o llo w e r g e te lo t h i s command,

th e t e r m in a l w ill p r i n t o u t

E v e r y tim e y o u c h a n g e o n e erf th e l i n e s of t h e p r o g r a m t h e HAIL CAESAR . BIRD THOU NEVER WERT

BASIC p r o c e s s o r w ill I n s e r t , d e le t e o r r e p l a c e l i n e s a s
y o u h a v e c o m m a n d e d , th e n r e a r r a n g e w h a t e v e r 8 le ft a c c o r d i n g l y , T h e GOTO c o m m a n d ( p r o n o u n c e d "Go 2 " )
B A S r e i n o r d e r o f t h e lin e n u m b e r s .
T h e GOTO c o m m a n d t e l l s th e p r o g r a m fo llo w e r the
T h e BASIC l a n g u a g e , a ls o c a ll e d D a r t m o u t h - B u t e , T h e n w h e n y o u te ll th e p r o c e s s o r to s t a r t th e p r o g r a m . n u m b e r o f the n e x t c o m m a n d f o r It to d o , f ro m w h ic h It
u i n t r o d u c e d In th e s i x t i e s a t D a r tm o u th C o lleg e b y J o h n b y t y p i n g ( w i th n o lin e n u m b e r ) w ill go o n . E xam ple:
K a n e n y a n d T h o m a s K u r t * . I t w a a I n te n d e d to b e a s im p le
a n d e a s y - t o - l e * m I n tr o d u c t i o n to c o m p u te r p r o g r a m m i n g , RUN 02 GOTO 90
y e t p o w e r f u l e n o u g h to d o u s e f u l t h i n g s . It h a s g r o w n i n
u s e , I n r e c e n t y e a r s , b o th a s th e f o re m o s t b e g i n n e r 's l a n g u a g e , th e p r o c e s s o r w ill s t a r t th e p r o g r a m g o in g a t t h e c o m m a n d w h ic h m e a n s th a l w h e n a p r o g r a m f o llo w e r g e t s to command
a n d a s a p e r f e c tly fine l a n g u a g e f o r d o in g m a n y s im p le w ith t h e e a r l i e s t lin e n u m b e r , a n d y o u r I n s t r u c t i o n s w ill #02, i t m u s t n e x t Jum p lo 06 a n d g o o n f ro m t h e r e , u n le s s
k i n d * of w o r k lik e c u s to m b u s i n e s s a p p l i c a t i o n s , s t a t i s t i c s , b e e x e c u t e d a c c o r d i n g to th e r u l e s of B A S IC . th a l h a p p e n s to b e t h e END s ta t e m e n t .
a n d " g o o d - g u y " s y s te m s f o r nfliv u s e r s os d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e
In t h i s b o o k . Now w e w ill c o n s i d e r som e of th e c o m m a n d s (or s ta te m e n t s ) A SIMPLE SAMPLE PROGRAM
of BA SIC .
K snvsny Is no w p r e s i d e n t of D a r tm o u th , a n d K u r t z T h e s e a r e e n o u g h c o m m a n d s lo w r i t e a sa m p le p r o g r a m .
r u n s t h e i r h lg h - p o w e r t i m e - s h a r i n g c o m p u te r c e n t e r , so
BASIC h a s p e r m a n e n t h o m e b a s e t h e r e . 43 PR INT "HELP , I AM CAUGHT IN A LOOP"
87 GOTO 43
Note lh a t th e n am e BA SIC d o e s n o l r e f e r to t h e b o tto m - ee end
l e v e l o r e lo n e n t a l la n g u a g e s o f c o m p u te r s . BA SIC h a s
b e e n c o n t r i v e d s p e c if ic a l ly to m a k e p r o g r a m m i n g q u i c k e r T h e p r o g r a m w ill s t a r t a t t h e f i r s t I n s t r u c t i o n , w h ic h
a n d e a s i e r . II la n ot " b a s i c " to a ll c o m p u te rs ; s u c h b otto m h a p p e n s in t h is c a s e to b e i n s t r u c t i o n n u m b e r 43. T h a t
la n g u a g e s a r e c a ll e d " m a c h in e l a n g u a g e o r " a s s e m b le r one p r in ts a m e s s a g e . T he n e x t c o m m a n d , b y lin e n u m b e r,
la n g u a g e " ( se e P P . j 2 .-_jl i s 67. T h i s te lle th e p r o g r a m f o llo w e r lo g o b a c k to 43,
w h ic h i t d o e s .
T h e sim p lic ity o f t h e l a n g u a g e b e g in s s t th e p r o g r a m
I n p u t , o r e d i t i n g , l e v e l . E a c h c o m m a n d r f BASIC m u s t 43 PRIN T "HELP , I AM CAUGHT IN A LOOP" < -1
b e o n a s e p a r a t e l i n e , a n d e a c h l i n e m u st h a v e s s e p a r a t e =P* 67 GOTO 4 3 --------------------------------------------------------- 1
lin e n u m b e r . S u p p o s e y o u a c c id e n t a ll y ty p e in 08 END

SO IMPUGN Y T h e r e s u l t Is th a t y o u r te r m i n a l w ill p r i n t
T h e s e tw o b o y s h a d n e v e r s e e n a c o m p u t e r b e f o r e ,
b u t I lo a d e d It u p w ilh t h e BASIC l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s o r ,
w h e n y ou m a an t "IN PUT " I n s t e a d of "IM PU GN ." You m a y HELP , 1 AM CAUGHT IN A LOOP
s h o w e d th e m a few b a s i c c o m m a n d s a n d to ld th e m to
r e p l a c e th a t c o m m a n d a t a n y tim e b y t y p i n g th e sam e lin e H E L P . I AM CAUGHT IN A LOOP
t u r n It off w h e n t h e y w e r e th r o u g h .
n u m b e r a n d th e n e w v e r s i o n o f th e l i n e , HELP , I AM CAUGHT IN A LOOP
1 got b a c k te n h o u r* la t e r a n d t h e y w e r e S t ill a t i t .
T oo b a d k i d s h a v e s u c h s h o r t a t te n tio n S p a n 9 .
50 INPUT Y
I n term in ab ly , or u n til you d o s o m e th in g d r a s t i c . I t n e v e r
g e ts to the END s t a t e m e n t . (T w o s t r a t e g i e s f o r d o in g s o m e th in g
w h ic h a u to m a tic a lly r e p l a c e s th e p r e v io u a ly lin e 5 0 . if
d r a s t i c a r e u s u a lly to hold d o w n t h e CONTROL b u tto n a n d
yo u w o nt to g e t r i a of th e l i n e e n t i r e l y , y o u ty p e
ty p e C , o r hold d o w n b o th CONTROL a n d S H IFT b u t t o n s .
VARIABLES If y o u h a v e th e m , a n d ty p e P . O n e of th e s e u s u a l l y w o r k s . )
50

a n d a n e n d - o f - l i n e c o d e , a n d th e w h o le lin e I s g o n e .
E x am p le o f a BA SIC c o m m a n d :
153 LBTX=Y
You c a n c h o o se a n y lin e n u m b e r s y o u w a n t , b u t t h e l i n e s
a r e a u to m a tic a lly p u t Ln t h e o r d e r o f t h e i r n u m b e r s . S i n c e
w h e n yo u w r i t e a p r o g r a m y o u d o n 't u s u a lly k n o w a t t h e
o u t s e t w h a t i t w ill lo o k l i k e l a t e r , y o u t r y to l e a v e e n o u g h
g a p s In th e n u m b e r s s t t h e s t a r t to fit in th e I n s tr u c ti o n s
y o u m ig h t w a n t to p u t b e t w e e n th e m la t e r .
THE SETTING
T o b e g in w i l h . t h e r e m u s t b e a c o m p u t e r , a n d it
m u s t h a v e a p r o c e s s o r f o r th e BASIC la n g u a g e , th a t i s ,
a p r o g r a m f o r c a r r y i n g o u l th e o p e r a tio n s o f D a r tm o u t h -
BASIC We w ill a s s u m e th a t t h i s BASIC p r o c e s s o r i s a ll
s a t u p in c a r e m e m o ry r e a d y to g o .
T h e BA S IC l a n g u a g e , lik e a n u m b e r of o t h e r la n g u a g e s ,
T h e LET c om m and
a l l o w s y o u lo s e t a s id e p la c e s in c o re m e m o ry a n d g iv e
th e m n a m e s . T h e s e p la c e s m a y h o ld n u m b e r s . T h e y c a n
be u s e d to c o u n t th e n u m b e r of tim e s th a t t h i n g s a r e d o n e T h e LET c om m and p u t s s o m e th in g In to a v a r i a b l e .
(o r n o t d o n e ) , to h old o n s w e r s , n u m b e r s to t e s t a g a i n s t , E xam ple:
n u m b e r s to m u ltip ly by a n d so o n .
43 LET R = 2 .3
I n B A S IC , th e s e p la c e s a r e g iv e n n a m e s of o n e a l p h a b e t i
c a l l e t t e r . T h a i m e a n s you c a n h a v e up to 20 of th em . Whal Is on the r ig h t sid e of th e e q u a l s s i g n in t h e l o s t s t a t e m e n t ,
In t h i s c a se 2 .3 . Is s tu f f e d Into w h a t e v e r l o c a t io n of c o r e
E x a m p le s :
m em ory Is d e s ig n a t e d on th e le ft s i d e . I n t h i s c a s e a p la c e
know n to y o u o n ly a s R . With th e r e s u l t t h a t s o m e p la c e
A E I 0 U so m e tim es Y even X
In c o r e m em ory i s
B e c a u s e th e s e n a m ed s p a c e s in m e m o r y m a y b e u s e d
s o m e th in g l i k e th e w ay l e t t e r s a r e u s e d i n a l g e b r a , w e
^11 th e m v a r i a b l e s . In f a c t , e a c h o n e I s a p l a c e w ith a
T he LET s ta te m e n t i s a n e x a m p l e of a n a s s i g n m e n t s t a t e m e n t ,
w h ic h m o st c o m p u te r la n g u a g e s h a v e ; a n a s s i g n m e n t s ta te m e n t
a s s i g n s a s p e c if ic p ie c e of I n fo r m a tio n ( o fte n a n u m b e r ,
b u t o f te n o t h e r t h i n g s ) to so m e n a m e ( o fte n s t a n d i n g f o r
a p a r t i c u l a r p la c e In c o r e m e m o r y ) .
l* t Act** I
13, W l T h e LET c om m a nd Ln BA S IC c a n a ls o b e u s e d t o d o
a r i t h m e t i c . E x am p le;

14 LET M = 2 .3 + (1 2 * 7 0 0 9 .1 )
(Note: T h is i s how It lo o k s
In a m in i c o m p u t e r . On CMklrvb (T h e a s t e r i s k h a s to b e u s e d f o r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b e c a u s e
a t i m e - s h a r i n g s y s te m t h e r e ' s tr a d i tio n a lly te r m i n a l s d o n 't h a v e a t i r o e s - s i g n .) BASIC
a lo t of i r r e l e v a n t o th e r w ill w o r k t h is o u t from r i g h t to le ft a n d s t o r e th e r e s u l t
if y o u u s e the n a m es B ,C a n d D f o r v a r i a b l e s in y o u r
stu f f g o in g o n , w h ic h w e 'l l In M.
p r o g r a m , t h e BASIC p r o c e s s o r w ill a u to m a tic a ll y s e t u p
le a v e o u t . )
p la c e s f o r th e m to b e s t o r e d .
A n d we w ill a s s u m e , a s p r e v i o u s l y m e n tio n e d , t h a t y ou T h e INPUT c om m and
h a v e som e k i n d frf a t e r m i n a l - - th a t I s , a d e v ic e w ith a k e y b o a r d ,
some k in d o f p la c e the c o m p u t e r c a n se n d m e s s a g e s t o y o u T h e INPUT s ta te m e n t a s k a th e p e r s o n s t t h e t e r m in a l
a n d v ic e v e r s a , a n d i s m o r e o r l e s s s t a n d a r d . for a n u m b e r a n d th e n s h o v e s it in to a v a r i a b l e . E x am p le:

Now th e n : a il th a t t s n e e d e d i s f o r y o u to u n d e r s t a n d 41 INPUT Z
t h e BASIC la n g u a g e , a n d y o u c a n p r o g r a m t h i s c o m p u te r
w ith in th e c o n fin e s of B A S I C . w h ic h c a u s e s t h e t e r m in a l to t y p e a q u e s t i o n m a r k , a n d
w a i t . W hen th e u s e r h a s t y p e d ln a n u m b e r fo llo w e d b y
I t la o n e of th e s t r a n g e a s p e c ts of t h i s f ie l d t h a t a c a r r i a g e r e t u r n , th e BASIC p r o c e s s o r s tu f f s the n u m b e r
la n gu a g e s c a n b e t a u g h t I n d e p e n d e n t l y erf d i s c u s s i o n s o f in to t h e v a r i a b l e a n d p r o c e e d s w ith th e p r o g r a m . H e r e
th e m a c h in e its e lf . Is a p r o g r a m u s i n g th e INPUT s ta t e m e n t .
"Jfe" PRINT "HOW OLD ARE YOU"
INPUT A
LET B e A / 4 0 .0
1 25 PR INT "YOUR AGE IS " , B , " T M B S THE AGE
OF THE EMPIRE 9TATE BU1LDINO."
30 END
T h is w ill c a u s e Um follo w in g to h a p p en :
P ro g r a m ty p e s :
HOW OLD ARE YOU? J O
n i-r
P ro g r a m ty p e s :
YOUR AGE IS .5 TIMES THE AGE OP THE EMPIRE
STA TE BUILDING.
T h e IF command
T h e IF command Is a w a y of t e s tin g w h a t 's s to r e d
In a v a r i a b l e . E xam ple:
88 IF M - 40 th e n 63
T h la le ate v a r ia b le M to s e e If i t c o n ta in s the n u m b e r 40.
If M la in d e e d 4 0. th e p r o g ra m follow er ju m p s to lin e 63.
If n o t , It g o e s r ig h t o n a n d ta k e e the n e z l h ig h e r I n stru c tio n
a f te r 88. T h e IF c an te et o th e r r e la tio n s lh a n e q u a li ty ,
I n c lu d in g " le a s l h a t . " " g r e a t e r t h a n . " " n o t e q u a l , " " le s s
th a n o r e q u a l t o , e tc . Fo r in s t a n c e .
89 IF Q 7 th e n 102
w ill s e n d th e p r o g ra m f o llo w er to command 75 If v a r ia b le
q c o n ta in s a n u m b e r le s s t h a n 7. (Note th a l d if f e r e n t BASICS
fo r d if f e r e n t c o m p u te rs may h a v e s lig h tly d if f e r e n t r u le s
h e re .)
T h e BASIC l a n g u a g e , d e v e lo p e d s i D sr tm o u th , m u st not be
c o n fu se d w ilh th e u n d e r ly i n g b in a ry la n g u a g e a of I n d iv id u a l
c o m p u te ra ( se e "Rock B o tto m , p .3 <V ). T h e s e u n d e r ly i n g
c o d e s s r e c a ll e d " m aeh ln e la n g u a g e s " ( o r . In e d r e s e e d - u p
fo rm , e a s ie r to u s e for p r o g r a m m e r s , " a s s e m b le r l a n g u a g e " ) .
T h e s e a r e th e b a s ic la n g u a g e s . d iffe re n t for e a c h m a c h i n e .
D artm o uth BASIC , o r Jut p la in B a sic , Is a w id e ly s v a ila b le .
s ta n d a r d i z e d . sim p le b e g i n n e r 's Isn g u a g e .
V r
ANOTHER PROFOUND EXEMPLARY PROGRAM
LET Z = 25
PRINT Z . " BOTTLES OF BEER tN THE WALL
r - - * 82
; aa
u* 74
LET Z = Z - 1
IF Z = 0 GOTO 74
GOTO 1 0 ---------------------------------------------------------
T h e p r o g ra m w ill s t a r t ty p in g th u sly :
n . u n t i l Z h a s r e a c h e d 0; th e n It w ill ty p e
a n d th e n it w ill sto p .
You w ill no te th a t t h is p r o g r a m , lik e th e o n e th a t
p r in t e d "HELP. 1 AM CAUGHT IN A LO OP." h a s a lo o p ,
th a t i s , a r e p e a te d se q u e n c e of o p e ra tio n s . T h e f ir s t one
w a s a n e n d l e s s lo o p , w h ic h r e p e a te d f o r e v e r . T h la lo o p ,
h o w e v e r . Is m ore w e l l-b e h a v e d (b y som e p s p l e ' s s t a n d a r d s ) .
In th a t it a llo w s a n e s c a p e w h e n a c e r ta i n c r it e r i o n ha s
b e e n r e a c h e d - * In th is c a e e , p r in tin g a lin e o f t e a t 25 tim es
w ith v a r i a n l e .
T h e r e a s o n w e a r e a b le lo e sc a p e from th la lo op is
th a t w e h a v e s te s t I n s tr u c ti o n , IF slste m e n t n u m b e r 62.
It Is v e r y im p o rta n t f o r lh e p r o g ra m m e r lo In clud e
te s ta w h ic h allow th e p r o g ra m to g e l o u t o f a l o o p . T h is
may b e c o u c h e d aa a m otto, v i z .:
LEAK BEFORE YOU LOOP.
AN AUTOMATIC LOOP
I n d e e d , for p e o p le w h o a r e b ig on p r o g ra m lo o p s.
BASIC p r o v i d e s a p a ir of I n s tr u c ti o n s w h ic h h a n d le th e
p r o g ra m lo op c o m p le te ly . T h e s e a r e th e FOR a n d NEXT
I n s t r u c t i o n s . We w o n 't sh ow th em h e r e , b u t t h e y 'r e not
v e r y h a r d . U s in g th e FOR c o m m a n d . y o u c a n eaaU y d ir e c t
th e c o m p u te r lo do so m e th in g a m illion a n d o n e lim e s, a ay .
T h la c a n b e e i h l l a r a t l n g . Y ou c an e v e n d ir e c t it lo In clu de
th a t p r o g ra m in so m e th in g to b e d o n e a b illio n tim e s . r e s u l tin g
In s p r o g ra m lo op lh a t w o u ld b e c a r r i e d o u t o v e r a tr ill io n
l i m e s . A ll In a s h o r t p r o g ra m ! Bui of c o u r s e th is i s J u st
p o w e r o n p a p e r ; w e w a n t o u r p r o g ra m s lo b e u s e f u l , and
f in la h t h e ir jo b a In lhe p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , a n d so s u c h flig h ts
a r e J u s t m e n ia l e x e r c i s e s .
FAST ANSWERBACK WITH BASIC (In some v e r s i o n s )
If y o u w e n t a te at a n s w e r to a n u m e ric a l q u e s t i o n .
y o u c a n do It w itho ut th e lin e n u m b e r s . t y p in g In
PR INT 3 .1 4 1 6 * 7 1 2 4
w ill c a u s e BASIC to p r i n t lh e a n s w e r r ig h t o u l a n d fo rge t
th e w to l e t h in g .
TEXT STRINGS IN BASIC
T h e d e l u i e v e r s i o n s o f th e D artm ou th BASIC
l a n g u a g e h a v e o p e ra tio n s f o r h a n d lin g te x l- -
o r w h at co m p u te rfo lk c all " s t r i n g s , th a t la .
s t r i n g s of a lp h a b e tic c h a r a c t e r s a n d p u n c tu a t io n .
T h e s e o p e r a tio n s le n d to b e g in w ith $ (s ta n d in g
f o r " S tr in g ? ) a n d I h e r e 'a n o room f o r th em h e r e .
Bui w h a t th e y m ean i s th a t BASIC c a n ty p e
l e t t e r s , c o u n t the n o u n s In G one With T h e W in d,
o r p r i n t o ut th e n in e h u n d r e d m illion n a m es o f
G od.
If y o u w rite (he p r o g r a m .
BASIC i s a v e r y se ri o u s la n g u a g e . A d v an c ed v e rs i o n s
o f BASIC h a v e in s t r u c tio n s t h a t allow u a e r s to p u t In a lp h a b e tic a l
I n fo rm a tio n , an d s to r e and r e t r ie v e a ll k in d s of Inform ation
from d is k s o r ta p e . In o th e r w o r d s , BASIC c a n b e u se d
fo r t h e f a ir ly sim p le p ro g ra m m in g of a v a a t r a n g e o f p ro b le m s
a n d " g o o d -g u y s y s te m s " m e ntio ne d e ls e w h e r e . Com plete
BASIC sy ste m s a llo w in g comple x a l c u l a t i o n s c a n be had
for p e r h a p s 63000; a g e n e r a l- p u r p o s e c o m p u te r r u n n in g
BASIC w ith c a s s e tte o r o th e r m a ss s to r a g e , f o r b u a ln e e a
o r o th e r p u r p o s e s , c a n now b e had for some 66000. A llow ing
a few th o u sa n d d o lla r s for p r o g ra m m in g sp e cific a p p lic a tio n s
In BASIC , sim p le s y s te m s c an b e c re a te d for a v a rie ty
AtWYS,
o f p u r p o s e s th a t som e c o m p an ies m ight s a y y o u n e ed e d
a h u n d r e d - th o u a a n d - d o lla r sy s te m f o r.
(av a ila b le n BASIC, APL a n d m a n y o t h e r la n g u a g e s)
T h is Is s e r i o u s b u s i n e s s . L an g u a g ea lik e BASIC
m u st b e c o n s id e r e d b y pe op le w ho w a n t s im p le sy ste m s A r r a y s a r e In form a tio n s e t u p s w ith n u m b e re d
to d o u n d e r s t a n d a b le th in g s In d ir e c t w a y s th a t a r e m e anin gfu l
p o s it io n s . T h e p o sitio n s c a n c o n ta in a ll s o r t s of
to t h e m . a n d lh a t d o n 't d ie ru p t Ih e lr c o m p an ies o r th e ir
d iffe re n t t h i n g s , h o w ev e r: n u m b e r s , le tte r s o r
liv e s.
o th e r d a ta , d e p e n d in g o n th e d a ia s t r u c t u r e s
T h is h a s b e e n a v e ry h a s ty a n d b r i e f p r e s e n ta tio n a llo w ed in th e I s n g u a g e .
In w h ic h I h a v e t r ie d lo c o nv ey the fee lin g o f Ih ls Im p ortan t
l a n g u a g e . If y o u h a v e the c h an c e lo le a r n I I . b y all m eans
do.
r J~ t ' Z 3 fa-I) ^
r __________ (-i)
SOME FUN THINGS TO TRY IN BASIC
I LIT 1 1 -rfc n
W rite a p r o g ra m th at p r i n t s c a l e n d a r s .
W rite a p r o g r a m lh at c o n v e r ts a n I n p u t nu m b e r to 'NHL
Rom an N u m e ra ls.
U ________
W rite a d ia lo g u e e y s to n th a t w elcom es the u s e r to
the s a n ita r i u m , a s k s him q u e s tio n s , Ig n o re s the a n s w e r s
a n d I n s u lts him . (Use lhe INPUT stste m e n t for r e c e iv in g
n u m e ric a l a n s w e r s . Since th e a n a w e r a a r e I g n o re d th ey
c a n a ll b e s to r e d In o n e v a r i s b l e .)
WHERE TO GET IT
(F e a tu r e s o f t h e BASIC la n g u a g e v a r y c o n a ld e ra b ly T H U E 6 - .b 1 M I M ln o N H
from sy s te m lo s y s t e m . W hich o n e s offe r the h ig h ly d e s ir a b le
a lp h a b e tic c o m m and s a n d m a ss s lo r s g e h a v e to b e c h ec k ed
o ul I n d iv id u a lly . )
BASIC i s o ffe re d on many If not m ost lim e - s h a rin g s e r v i c e s ,
so y o u c a n u s e il from y o u r home on a t e r m in a l. (Bui n ote Ihst
th ia c a n b e e x p e n s iv e an d e v e n d a n g e r o u s . If y o u re p a y in g
y o u r s e l f ; th e r e a r e n o t p r e se n tly a d e q u a te cost s a f e g u a r d s lo
p r e v e n t y o u from r u n n in g u p h u g e b i l l s .)
n BEST BUY? Rum ors p e r s i s t of a tim e - s h a r in g s e r v i c e
so m e w h e r e th s t o f fe rs BASIC for $5 an h o u r , to ts l, w ith d isk
sto r a g e th r o w n I n . I ha v e not b e e n a b le to v e rify I h ls .
DEC o f fe rs m in ic o m p u te r - b a se d s y s te m s w h ic h llm e-
s h a r e BASIC am on g s e v e r a l te rm in a ls sim u lta n e o u s ly . (Bui
y o u h a v e to b u y th e w hole b ig s y s te m . ) T h e o n e s th at
r u n o n th e PD P-8 a r e m a rk e te d m a inly to a c h o o ls, and fo r
th la r e a s o n a r e c a l l e d , som ew hat p e c u li a r ly . EDUSYSTEMS A o n e -d im e n s io n a l a r r a y i s lik e a r o w , a tw o-
T h a l r m ultlle rm ln a l syste m for lh e PDP-11 Is c a lle d R5TS d im e n sio n a l a r r a y is lik e a la b le to p , a th r e e -
(p ro n o u n c e d " R l a s t l a s ," ) a n d Is m a rk e te d m ainly to b u s i n e s s e s . d im e n sio n a l a r r a y Is lik e a b o x , a n d for m ore
d im e n sio n s yo u c a n 't v is u a liz e .
H e w le tt- P a c k a r d o ffe rs BA SIC, I b e lie v e , on all of
Its m in ic o m p u te r s. Of sp e c ia l I n te r e s t Is s n o dd co m p u te r A r r a y s a r e h a n d y f o r w o r k i n g w ilh a lot of
c a lle d th e S e r ie s 8800 Model 3 0. Y o u 'r e o n ly allow ed to d ifferen t t h i n g s one al a lim e. T h e y c a n b e give n
p r o g ra m In BASIC. ( It's a ctu a lly a m ic r o p ro c e s s o r; se e n am es j u s t lik e v a r ia b le s .
p .iv .)
S u p p o s e you h a v e a o n e -d im e n s i o n a l a r r a y
Many o th e r m inicom p uter m a n u fa c t u re rs now offer
n am ed SAM. T h e n in a p r o g r a m y o u c a n usu a lly
BASIC . D sta G e n e r a l's NOVA Is o n e .
a sk for th e t h i r d elem ent In SAM b y r e f e r r i n g lo
SA M (3). B e tte r th a n lh a l: y ou c a n r e f e r b y tu r n s
to e v e r y e lem en t of SAM b y u s i n g a c o u n tin g
v a ria b le a n d c h a n g in g its v a l u e . SAM (JO E) c a n be
a ny on e o f th e e lem ents of th e a r r a y , if we s e t the
v a lu e of JO E . th e c o u n tin g v a r i a b l e , lo ihe nu m b e r
o f th e p o sitio n we w ant to p o in t to .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F o r a r r a y s h s v in g m o re lh a n o n e d im e n sio n .
K em eny s n d K u r t c , BASIC P r o g r a m m in g . W iley, 1967.
Ih e p r in c i p le i s lhe s a m e . You m ay r e f e r in a
p r o g ra m to a n y sp a c e in th e a r r a y b y g iv in g a
DEC'S E d u sy sie m Handbook la a v e r y nic e Introd uctio n
n u m b e r in p a r e n t h e s e s , o r s u b s c r i p t . s p e c if y in g
to BASIC, q u ite ple asa n t a n d w h im sica l; It may be
th e s p a c e 's po sitio n in e a c h d i m e n s io n . S u p p o s e
a good I n tro d u ctio n e v e n 1/ y o u 'r e u s i n g o th e r p e o p le 's
y ou h a v e a n a r r a y n am ed PR ICES , w h ic h g iv e s
BASIC s y s te m s . I t's $5 from D EC, C om m unic ations
Ihe p r ic e s o f . s a y . v a r io u s s iz e s a n d b r a n d s of
S e r v lc e a . P a r k e r S t . . M a y n a r d , M a sa. 01754.
TV s e t s .
T h e r e ia a lso a p r o g ra m m e d te x t o n BASIC b y A lbrec h t
( p u b lis h e d b y W ile y ) . F o r th o se o f u s w ho fre ez e
a t n u m e ric a l- lo o k in g m a n u a l s , p r o g ra m m e d te x ts
c a n ta k e aw a y a lot o f a n x i e t y .
M f r . M f r . M fr. M fr.
MY COMPUTER LIKES ME (when I s p e a k In BASIC) .
T h is book h a s e v id e n tly b e e n p u l to g e th e r by th e P e o p le 's
C o m p uter Com pany , a n d h a s som e Id ea listic f e r v o r b e h in d i t . T h i s is P R IC E S(3 ,2 )
$1 .1 9 from D y m a x , Box 310. Menlo P a r k , C a l. 94025. b e c a u s e il 's th e item in row 3. colum n 2.
S u p p o s e you h a v e a tw o - d im e n sio n a l a r r a y
g iv in g t h e te le p h o n e n u m b e r s , s a la r ie a a n d a g es
o f s e v e r a l d if f e r e n t e m p lo y e e s of a c o m p a n y . You
BASIC Is a good e x am p le o f a n " a lg e b r a ic " ty p e o f h a v e d e c id e d lo call t h e a r r a y WHAM.
la n g u a g e , th a t I s. o n e f o rm u lated m o re o r
le s s to lo ok lik e h lg h - sc h o o l a l g e b r a an d ^ r r
p e rm it e a sy c o n v e r s io n o f c e r ta i n a lg e b r a i c
fo rm u las in to a c tu a l r u n n a b le p r o g r a m s .
T h e m osl w l d e ly - u s e d la n g u a g e o f t h i s ty p e is T e l.n o . I 1 I
FORTRAN ( s e e p .3 l ) . T h u s BASIC Is S a l a r y _______ 1
ofte n r e f e r r e d to a s a " F o r tr a n - ty p e la n g u a g e . A*e 1 1 1 I ~
T h e k lc k e r o o a n d If y ou u n d e r s t a n d th is I t's ha lf
lh e b a ttle Is th a t a lin e of BASIC o r FORTRAN You c a n r e f e r lo a n y s in g l e e n t r y In t h i s a r r a y aa
d i r e c ts a c e r t a i n e v e n t to ta k e p la c e , w hile W HAM(IR V,JO E), w h e r e IRV a n d JO E a r e two
a sta te m e n t In a lg e b r a J ust d e s c r i b e s r e la tio n s . c o u n tin g v a r ia b le s y o u 'v e d e c id e d to s e t u p .
T h e s l r a n g e r e s e m b la n c e b e tw e e n th e d e a c rip tlv e
l a n g u a g e ( a lg e b r a ) a n d th e p r e s c r i p tiv e If y o u s e t IRV a n d JO E b o th to 1,
I s n g u a g e ( F o r tr a n o r B a sic ) Is th a t a lg e b r a i c WHAM (IR V , JO E ) is re a lly W H A M ( l.l) , w h ic h
o p e ra tio n s (w h ich a r e J u s t re c o m b in a tio n s r e f e r s y o u lo th e te le p h o n e n u m b e r o f e m ploy e e A.
a n d r e s t a te m e n ts ) c a n b e m im ick e d b y the If y ou c h a n g e JO E lo 2 . lh a t g iv e s y o u WHAM ( 1 ,2 ) .
c o m p u te r la n g u a g e , a n d th is e a r ly o b a e ssio n g iv in g y o u B s p hone; w h ile WHAM( 2 .1 ) w ou ld be
o f m a thy co m p u le rfo lk le d to m a k in g the A 's s a l a r y .
c o m p u te r la n g u a g e look lik e a d e s c r ip ti v e
a l g e b r a . E sp e cia lly w ith th e w e i r d u s e o f T h e s e a r e J u s t th e m e c h a n ic s . What you
th e e q u a l e - s l g n to m ean " Is r e p la c e d now b y . " ch o o se to d o w ilh th is s o r t of t h i n g Is y o u r ow n
In h i n d s i g h t th is w a s s r id ic u lo u s id ea; afTalr. C o u n tin g a r o u n d in a r r a y a ( a n d c o re
som e of lh e m o re r e c e n t la n g u a g e a ( s u c h a s m e m o ry , w h e r e t h e y 'r e s t o r e d ) Is c a lle d in d e x in g .
APL) u s e a le ft-p o in tin g a rr o w In ste ad o f a n
e q u a l s - a l g n . s h o w in g th a t a n a c tio n Is b e in g
c a lle d f o r . r a l h e r th a n a r e la tio n s h ip b e in g
d e scrib e d .

tH e S L U f l H G G I A N r
A m ild -m an n ered m an ln C am bridge, M a s s a c h u s e tts ,
who owns his own very s m a l l b u s in e s s , i s th e c r e a t o r o f on e
o f the m o st extraordin ary and pow erful com pu ter langu ages
th e r e Is, ttough lots of p e o p le ln th e fie ld don't r e a l iz e It.
T h e language Is fa ir ly w ell-k n ow n am ong p r o f e s s io n a ls , but
i t s re a l power Is hardly s u sp e c te d .
If BASIC Is a fa ir ly con ven tion al p r ogram m in g langu age,
s tr o n g ly r e s em b lin g FORTRAN, TRAC (Text R eck onin g and
C om piling) Language i s fa ir ly unusual.
The n am e o f it is "TRAC L a n g u a g e," not ju st TRAC
b e c a u s e It's a r e g is te r e d brand nam e (like K leen ex T i s s u e s ).
Within the r u le s , th e w ord T R A C " is an a d jective and not a
noun. Thus TRAC i s its f i r s t n am e, Language is its la s t; s o
w e can r e fe r to "TRAC L anguage" instead of having to
p r e c e d e it with th e.
It is included h ere fo r s e v e r a l re a s o n s .
1) It is e x tre m ely e a s y to lear n , at l e a s t fo r b e g in n e r s .
E x p erien ced p ro g ra m m er s often have troub le with It.
2) It is ex tre m ely p ow erfu l fo r n on-nu m eric ta s k s . In
fa c t, it is ideal fo r b uildin g you r own p erso n a l langu age.
3) It o ffers p erh ap s the b est con trol of m a s s s to r a g e ,
and your own s t y l e of input-output, of any language.
4) It Is su perb ly d ocu m en ted and explained with th e new
"The B egin ner's Manual fo r TRAC Language" which is now
available.
5) It is likely to ca tc h on on e of th e s e d ays. (S ome
la r g e corporations have b een in vestigatin g it e x t e n s i v e l y .)
It is not so much the b asic idea
of TRAC L an g u ag e, bul the neatness
with which th e idea h as beerr^elaborated,
thal is so nice.
As a s id e p o in t, h e re is an
im portant motto for thinking in general
about com puters (and about o ther things
in general):
MAKING THINGS FIT TOGETHER WELL
TAKES A LOT OF WORK AND THOUGHT.
Let C alvin M ooers' TRAC Language be a
sh in in g exam ple.
TRAC Language i s g r e a t fo r cr ea tin g highly In teractive
s y s t e m s fo r s p e c i a l p u r p o s e s, Including turnkey s y s t e m s for
inexperien ced u s e r s and "good-guy" s y s t e m s . It com b in es
th is with good fa c i li t i e s fo r handling text, and what i s needed
along with that, te r r if ic con trol o v er m a s s s to r a g e . It is
a ls o e x c ellen t for s im u la tin g com plex o n -o ff s y s t e m s ; rum or
h as it that TRAC L anguage w as u sed for sim u la tin g a m ajor
com pu ter b efore it w a s built.
Again st th e s e ad vantages w e m ust b alance TRAC
L anguage's l e s s fortunate c h a r a c te r is tic s . F o r n u m eric a l
o p eration s it is e x t r e m e ly s lo w , If not te r r ib le , com pared to
the m o st popular la n g u a g es . The s a m e ap plies to handling
n u m eric al a rrays and co n tr o llin g loop s, which a r e co m p a r a
tiv e ly awkward in TRAC L anguage.
Fin ally, m any p r o g r a m m e r s are in cen sed by the
num ber of p a ren th ese s that turn up in TRAC p ro g ra m s ; ln
th is it r e s e m b le s the lan gu age LISP. But th is is an a esth e tic
judgem ent.
The TRAC L anguage has b een thought out in g re a t
d eta il for total c o m p atib ility of a ll p a rts. (M oreover, by
stan dardizin g the lan gu age e x a c tly , M ooers h e r o ic a lly
a s s u r e s that p r o g ra m s can be m oved from com p u te r to
com pu ter without d if f i c u l t y .)
* TRAC is a r e g is te r e d s e r v i c e marie of R ockford R e s e a r c h ,
Inc. D escrip tion of T R A C Language p r im itiv e s adapted by
p e r m iss io n from "TRAC, A P r o c e d u r e - D e s c r ib in g Language
f o r the R eactive T y p e w rite r" , copyright 1966 by Rockford
R e s e a r c h , Inc.
I am grateful t o C . A . R . K agan, of W estern E lec tric
Engineering R esearch C e n te r , for h is extensive
(and finally su cc es s fu l) efforts to in te re s t me in
TRAC Language.
In th e w e ll-th o u g h t-o u t ra m ifica tio n s of its b a s ic concept,
th e TRAC L anguage is s o elegan t a s to c on stitu te a w ork of
art. It b eautifully fu l f i l ls th is rule:
. . th e f a c i li t i e s p rovid ed by the language sh ould be
con stru cted fr o m a s few b a s ic ideas as p o s s ib le , and
. . . th e s e sh o u ld b e g e n e r a l-p u r p o s e and In terrelated
ln the language ln a w ay which avoided s p e c i a l c a s e s
w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e . " (H arrison, D a ta -S tru ctu re s and
P r o g ra m m in g , pub. Scott, F o r esm a n , p. 2 5 1 .)
The fu n dam ental id e a of TRAC L anguage, which has
b een worked out in d e ta il with the d eep est c a r e , thought and
c o n s is te n c y , Is th is:
A L L IS TEXT.
That Is, a ll p ro g r a m s and data a r e sto r e d as s tr in g s of
c h a r a c te r s , in th e s a m e m an n er. They are la b e lle d , s to r ed ,
r e tr ie v e d , and o th e r w is e treated in the s a m e w a y , as
s tr in g s of text c h a r a c te r s .
Data and p r o g r a m s a r e not kept in binary fo r m , but
r e m a in s to r e d in c h a r a c te r fo r m , much the way they w e r e
o r ig in a lly put in. T he p r o g r a m s are exam ined fo r execu tion
a s text s tr in g s , and th ey c a ll data In th e form of te x t s tr in g s .
T his g iv e s r i s e to ce rta in in ter estin g k in d s of
com patib ility.
a) C om plete c o m p atib ility e x is ts in th e com m and
s tr u c tu re: th e r e s u l t s o f on e com m and can b e co m e another
com m and o r can b e c o m e data for another com m an d.
ALMOST NOTHING CREATES AN ERROR CONDITION.
If enough Inform ation Is not su pplied to e x e cu te a com m and,
th e com m and is ig n o r ed . If too much inform ation i s su pp lied,
th e e x tra i s ignored .
b) C om plete c o m p atib ility e x is ts in the data: l e t te r s and
n um bers and s p a c e s m ay be fr e e ly interm ixed . S p e cia l
te rm in a l c h a r a c te r s (like ca r r ia g e returns and b a ck s p a c es )
a r e handled ju s t lik e o th e r ch a ra c te r s , giving th e program *
m e r co m p le te co n tr o l of th e arrangem ent of output on the
p age.
c ) C om plete com p atib ility a lso e x is ts fr o m o n e com puter
to another, s o that w ork on on e com puter can b e m oved to
an oth er with e a s e . By th e tradem ark TRAC, M ooers
g u aran tees it an Innovation.
COMMAND FORMAT
A TRAC com m and has the follow in g form . T he c r o s s -
hatch o r s h a r p -s ig n is th e way th is language id e n tifies a
com m an d's beginning.
#(NM, arg2, a rg 3 , a r g 4 , . . )
NM is the nam e of any TRAC com m and. It counts a s the
f i r s t " arg u m en t," o r p ie c e o f information su pp lied. A rg2,
arg3, etc. a r e w h a te v er e l s e th e command n eed s to know to
be c a r ried out.
We w ill look f i r s t at ex a m p le s that u s e the a rith m e tic
com m ands of TRAC L anguage, not b ecau se It is p a rtic u larly
good at arith m e tic, w h ich it isn 't, but b ecau se th ey 'r e the
s i m p le s t com m an ds. T he arithm etic com m ands a r e AD
(add), SU (subtract, M L (m ultiply), DV (divide). Each
a rith m e tic com mand ta k es th ree argum ents, th e com mand
nam e and two n u m b e rs. E xam ples:
# (A D ,1 ,2 )
is a com mand to add th e n um bers 1 and 2.
#(SU, 4 ,3 )
i s a com mand to su b tr a c t th e num ber 3 from th e num ber 4.
#(ML, 6 3 2 ,5 2 1 )
Is a com m and to m u ltiply 632 by 521.
#(DV, 1 0 0 ,1 0 )
Is a com mand to d iv id e 100 by 10.
Now c o m e s the I n ter estin g part.
The w ay TRAC com m an ds may be com bin ed p ro v id e s
th e langu age's e x traor d in ary p ow er. T his i s b a s e d on the
way that th e TRAC p r o c e s s o r ex a m in e s the p r o g r a m , which
Is a s tr in g of c h a r a c te r c o d e s . Watch as w e co m b in e two
AD in stru ction s:
#(AD, 3, #(AD, 2 ,5 ) )
T he an sw er i s 10. M ir a c u lo u s !
How can th is b e?
r A comma ends an argum ent
in the TRAC language?
A h , that all argum ents
could b e ended so e a s i ly .
My g ra n d fa th e r.
 T h e s e c r e t o l co m b in in g T RA C c om m a n ds Is lhat
e v ery co m m a n d , w h en e x ec u ted , la re p la c e d by its a n s w e r :
f e l t s Ojfgh i t s f ilr h M lti/j
and w h a te v e r m a y r e s u l t Is In tu r n e xec u ted .

T h e r e Is an e x a c t p r o c e d u r e f o r th is :

SCAN FROM L E F T T O RIGHT

U N TIL A RIGHT PARENTHESIS;
# ( P O W f )

IT'SSUKKliMevMXf
[* RE SOLVE TH E CONTENTS O F TH E
PA IRED COMMAND PARENTHESES
I (ex ecu te an d r e p la c e by th e c o m m a n d 's re su lt);
| STARTING AT THE BEGINNING O F T H E RESULT,
K E E P SCANNING L E F T -T O -R IG H T
|______ UN TIL A RIGHT PAREN TH ESIS. j

WHEN YOU G E T TO TH E END, PRIN T OUT

WHATS L E F T .

T h e b eauty p a r t Is how It a ll w o rk s so good. H E L P; I AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM LOOP

An a r it h m e t ic e x a m p le s o you get the p r o c e d u re . so It p r in ts th a t. If It had sa id T h is language is m arvelously su ited lo data ba se management.

management information sy ste m s, in teractive q u e ry system s,
*(AD ,2, MAD, 3 ,4 )) H E L P , I AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM LOOP and the b ro ad spectrum of "b usin ess" program m ing.
___________ f i r s t r ig ht p a re n th e s is
found. ihe PR IN T STRIN G com m and w ould only have p r in te d For la rg e -sca le scientific num ber c ru n c h in g , not so good.

e x ec u te w h a t's In lhe
c o m m an d p a re n th e s e s
*7 & rep la ce
w ith th e ir a n s w e r , le avin g;
*(AD, 2 ,7 )
s c a n to next r ig ht p a re n th e s is
H ELP With one exception: "Infinite p recisio n" a rithm etic, when
people w ant thin gs to h u n d re d s of decimal places.
s in c e a c o m m a e n d s an a rg u m e n t In TRAC language.
Chugga chu gg a.
Now, th e PR IN T STRING c o m m a n d le a v e s no r e s u l t, so
1116 v a p o rU e d ; a ll we have le fl In th e w ork a r e a Is

e x ec u te & r e p la c e (CL, PROGRAM)

1
fin d no m o r e p a re n th e s e s T h is Im p lic it c all Is the t r ic k th at a llow s p e o p le lo c r e a t e
p r i n t oul w h a t's le ft. t h e i r ow n la n g u ag e s v e ry q u ic k ly . In not v e iy long, you c ould
c r e a t e y o u r ow n c o m m a nd s s a y Z A PP , M ELVIN and s o m e
You m igh t tr y th is y o u r se lf o n a lo n g e r exam ple: m o r e ; and w hile at f i r s t ll Is m o r e convenie nt lo typ e In the
T RA C f o rm a t
((AD, *(SU, *(AD, 3 ,4 ) , *(SU, 7 , 3 ) ) , 1)
whic h Is now sc an n e d . But t h a l 's a n o th e r C A L L , and when
It Is e x ec u ted by f etc h in g the o b je c t c alled PROGRAM, Its *(Z A P P , (MELVIN))
H ere la an I n te r e s tin g c a se :
re p la c e m e n t In (he w o rk a r e a Is
ll Is v e ry U tile tro u b le In TRAC L anguage to c r e a t e new
(AD,1) (PS, H E L P; 1 AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM L O O P W C L , PROGRAM) s y n ta x e s o f y o u r own Ukc

T h e r e 's r o th ir d arg u m e n t to a dd to th e 1 tw t th a ts Z A P P ! MELVIN

a nd g u e ss w hat. We done It again .
okay In TRAC L an gu age. 1 It r e m a in s .
(Another e x am p le of TRAC L an g u a g e's c o n siste n cy : th a l a r e I n te r p r e te d by (he T RA C p r o c e s s o r a s m e an in g th e
PULLING IN O T H E R ST U F F s a m e thin g.
su p p o se 11 e x e c u te s the com m an d
T he c o r e m e m o r y a v ailab le lo th e u se Is d ivided Into 2B. F IL L IN G IN HOLES.
(CL, EBE N E Z E R)
two a r e a s , w hic h w e may c a ll WORKSPACE and STANDBY.
w hen th e r e Is no s tr i n g c a lle d E B E N E Z E R . T he r e s u l t Is A n o th e r (hln g the C A LL c o m m a n d In TRAC L anguage
(ML,*(AD,7,3),#(SU,ie,9)) nothing; so th at com m an d d is a p p e a r s , le avin g no r e s i d u e . ) d o e s Is fill In h ole s th al e xls( in f o rm s . L et u s r e p r e s e n t

A
WORKSPACE T H E FORM COMMANDS
a h ole a s follow s:

I I
Now s u p p o se ( h e r e is a TRAC f o rm with a hole In l(, like
STANDBY ~| L et u s b e a U tile m o r e p r e c i s e . T h e Standby a re a t h is .
Is re a lly c alled by M o oe rs " form s s to r a g e , and a s tr in g -
S trin g s with N am es j w lth -n am e lh at is kept th e re Is c a lle d a lo r m , O ne r e a s o n
f o r th is te rm in o lo g y Is th al th e s e s t r in g s c a n c o n s is t of
p r o g r a m s o r a rr a n g e m e n ts th a t we may want to fit to g e th e r
Cw0RDN i it!
The Standby a r e a c o n tain s slrln gB of c h a r a c te r s w ith n a m e s. and c om b in e . T h u s (hey a r e " f o r m s " . A ddition al a rg u m e n ts in (he c a ll get plugged into h o le s In
Here could b e s o m e e xam p les: th e f o r m . E x am p les :
1. CREATING A FORM
na m es s tr in g s c a ll result
To c r e a t e a fo rm , you u s e the D EFIN E STRING
[ haroldI com m and: (CL, WORD) HT
(C L . WORD.O ) HOT
\5 4 3 2 I 1 *(DS, fo rm n a m e , c o n te n ts ) (WORD, A ) HAT
(W ORD.O O) HOOT
T h e a rg u m e n ts u s e d by DS giv e a n am e to (he f o rm and
sp e cify wha( you want (o have s ( o r e d in II. E xam ple: Now, a f o r m can have a n u m b e r of d ifferen t h o le s.
L c( us de n o te th e s e by
[program )-! *(DS, ELVIS, 1234)
(11 [21 [3| HJ . ..
(/( P S . H E L P: 1 AM T R A P P E D IN A LOOP)#(C L, PR OGRA m T] c r e a te s a form na m ed ELVIS w ith contents 1234.

[GALOSH E S | ( e l v Is L Now su p p o se w c have a form

|I MUS T N 'T FORG E T MY G A L O S H E sJ _ ,^ 4l234[
[ W Q R D > - ^ r ------------------ n
(Note lha l (o gel a p r o g ra m into a fo rm without Its bein g ---------- - 7 U )H |2 )T 1 3 )]
T h e r e Is an I n str u c tio n th a t m o v e s things f ro m the ex ec u ted o n the way r e q u ir e s s o m e p r e p a ra tio n . F o r th is ,
Standby a r e a to th e W o rk sp a ce . T h is Is th e C A LL " p ro te c tio n " Is u se d ; s e e end o l a r t i c l e . ) w h ich w e m igh t c all n u m e ro u s w ays:
In struction .
It tu r n s oul lh a t D EFIN E STRIN G is the c lo s e s t TRAC c a ll re su lt
(CL, w h a te v e r) L anguage h as to an a ssig n m e n t sta te m e n t (as In BASIC,
L E T A - W HATEVER). If you want to u s e a v a r ia b le A, (WORD, W, I, E) WHITE
The C A L L I n s tr u c tio n p u lls In a copy of the n am ed s tr i n g s a y , to s t o r e the c u r r e n t r e s u l t of so m e th in g , In TRAC *(WORD, , OO, OWL) HOOTOWL
to r e p la c e 11, the c a ll I n stru ctio n , In the w o rk a r e a . T h e L anguage you c r e a t e a f o rm n a m e d A. (Note lh al p u llin g n o th in g b etw een (wo
s tr in g n a m ed In the c all I n stru c tio n a lso s ta y s In th e Standby c o m m a s m a d e noth in g the a rg u m e n t. )
a re a until you w ant to get rid of It. E xam ple: *(DS, A, WHATEVER)
*(WORD, ( W 0 R D , .0 ) S , 0 ) HOTSHOT
*(CL, HAROLD) W henever the va lue of A Is c h an g e d , you re d e fin e f o rm A.
P e r h a p s you c a n think of o t h e r e x am p les.
would b e r e p la c e d by
2. CA LLING A FORM. T h is f ll l - l n technique is o b viou sly u se fu l f o r p r o g r a m
54321 min g. If a f o rm c on tain s a p r o g r a m , Its ho le s c a n b e m ade
As note d a lre a d y , to a c c e p t v a ry in g n u m b e rs , f o rm n a m e s, te x t s t r i n g s ,
Suppose w e s a y In a p r o g ra m o th e r p r o g r a m s . E x am p le: Su pp ose we w ant to c r e a t e a
#(CL, ELVIS) new TRAC co m m a n d , ADD, lh a t adds th r e e n u m b e rs in stea d
# ( A D ,1 , (C L , HAROLD)) of Just tw o. F a i r enough:
w ill th e n b e r e p la c e d by
T hen the r e s u l t Is:
1234
[addK^ ______
^ S^"*)*IAPU ]i *(A D ,| 2 | , jjijl)] and t h e r e you a re .
54322
B ut a w ond erfu l ex ten sio n of th is , lh at h a s n 't b e en T h is b r in g s up a n o th e r e x a m p le o l how n ic ely TRAC
Now l e t 's do a p r o g ra m lo op u sin g th e CA LL. If we m e ntio ne d y e t, Is L an gu age w o r k s out. S uppose you have th e follow in g In
ty pe In to o u r TRAC p r o c e s s o r l o r m s s to r a g e :
2A. THE IM PL IC IT CA LL.
(CL, PROGRAM )
You d o n 't e v e n have lo s a y C L lo c a ll a f o rm . If the
It sh o u ld ty pe f i r s t a rg u m e n t of a c om m an d th a l Is, th e f i r s t s tr i n g
In side the c o m m a n d p a r e n th e s e s Is not^ a c o m m a n d known
H E L P ; I AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM LOOP to TRAC L ang uag e, why, the T R A C p r o c e s s o r conclu des
H E L P ; I AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM LOOP lh a t the f i r s t a rg u m e n t may b e the nam e of a f o rm . So row
H E L P ; I AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM LOOP 11 y ou ty pe
T r y a c tin g lhl6 on e o ul w ith p e n c il and p a p e r . Su pp ose you
In defin it ely . *(AD, * (HAROLD), * (ELVIS)) typ e In

W hy Is t h i s ? L e t 's go th ro u g h th e s te p s .

We note d th a l In o u r Standby a r e a w e had a s tr i n g

V*
It w ill f i r s t no te, on rea c h in g lh e r l g h t- p a r e n o f the
HAROLD co m m a n d , th a t s i n c e HAROLD Is 54321, you
*(ZOWIE, 5 ,7 )

It h a ppens th a l the a rg u m e n ts 5 and 7 w ill b e p a s s e d neatl y

nam ed PR OGRAM w h ic h c o n siste d o l f ro m ZOWIE to Z IP to ZA P to th e fin al e x ec u tion of th e AD;
evid en tly w anted th is : a ll th ro u g h the s m o o th plu g ging of t o le s by the im p licit call
'( P S , H E L P ; I AM T R A P P E D IN A PROGRAM LO OP)(C L, PROGRAM) and the M agic S can p r o c e d u r e of th e TRAC p r o c e s s o r .
(AD, 54321, I (ELVIS))

The T RA C p r o c e s s o r s c a n s a c r o s s It to th e f i r s t r igh t p a re n th e s is .

(PS, H E L P j J AM T R A P P E D tW A PR OGRAM LO OP)*(C L. PROGRAM)

I r e s c a n of r e s u l t

and th en w ill do th e s a m e w ith ELVIS:

and now e x e c u te s thllsT ~~~ ^
#(AD, 543 21,1 234)
II ha pp ens th a t PS Is th e P R IN T STRING in stru c tio n .
PR IN T STRIN G p r in ts out Its se c o n d a rg u m e n t, and forg e ts so th a t p r e tt y so o n I t'll ty pe f o r you
Ihe r e s t . But th e o nly a rg u m e n t a f te r P S Is
55555
 an interpretive language
(each step carried out directly
by the processor without conversion
to another form first);
an extensible language
(you can add your own commands
for your own purposes);
a list-processing language
(for handling complex and amorphous
forms of data that don't fit in boxes
and arrays).
It Is one of the few such lan
guages that fits ln little computers.
\ TRAC p ro ce sso r d oes, and if not Is forgotten. Example:
TEST COMMANDS IN TRAC LANGUAGE
There are te s t commands In TRAC Language, but like
everything e l s e they work on strings of characters. Thus
they may work on numbers o r text. Consider the EQ
command (test if equal):
#(EQ, firstth in g, secondthlng, Uso, ifnot)
where "firstthing' and "secondthlng" are the strin gs being
compared, and Uso and if not are the alternatives. II fir st
thing is the s a m e as secondthlng, then Uso Is what the

#(EQ, 3, #(SU, 5, 2), HOORAY, NUTS)

If it turns out that 3 Is equal to #(SU, 5,2), which It is, then

all that would be left of the whole strin g would be
3. DRILLING THE HOLES
HOORAY
The holes (called by M ooers segm ent gaps) are created
while oth erw ise the TRAC p rocessor would produce NUTS.
by the SEGMENT STRING Instruction.
To most com puter people this looks com pletely inslde-
#(SS,form nam e,w hateverl, whatever2 . . . )
out, with the thing to do next appearing at the center of the
test instruction. Others find this feature a t-trac-tlve.
where 'Yormname" Is the form you want to put holes in and
th e whatevers are things you want to replace by holes.
Example: Suppose you have a form
DISK OPERATIONS
I INSULTf ______________________
^ jYOU ARE A CREEP] Now for the juicy disk operations. Storing things on
disk can occur as an ordinary TRAC command.

You make this more general by means of the SEGMENT #(SB, n a m e .fo r m l, form 2,form 3 . . . )
STRING instruction:
creates a p lace out som ewhere on disk with the name you
#(SS, INSULT, CREEP) give it, and puts in It the forms you've sp ecified. Example:

resulting in #(SB, JUNK, TOM, DICK, HARRY)

flNSULTk _______________ _
^ YOU ARE A [ ]|
which can be filled in at a m ore appropriate tim e.
Fuller example. Suppose w e type into the TRAC
p roce ssor the following:
#(DS, THINGY, ONE FOR THE MONEY AND TWO FOR THE SHOW)
#(SS, THINGY, ONE, TWO, )
^-------note space
We have now created a form THINGY and replaced parts of
it with segm ent gaps. Since each of the later arguments of
SEGMENT STRING s p ecifie s a differently numbered gap,
w e will have gaps numbered [ l j , [2], and [3j. The gap [1]
will have replaced the word ONE, the gap [2] will have
replaced the word TWO, and a lot of gaps numbered [9] will
have replaced all the sp aces ln the form (since the fifth
argument of SS was a sp ace). The resulting form Is:
and they're stored . If you want them later you say
#(FB, JUNK)
and theyre back.
B ecause you can mix the disk operations In with every*
thing e ls e s o n icely, you can chain programs and changing
environments with great ea se to travel smoothly among
different s y s te m s , circum stances, setups.
Here Is a stupid program that scans all incoming text
for the word SHAZAM. If the word SHAZAM appears, It
cle a rs out everything, calls a whole nother disk block, and
welcom es its new master. Otherwise nothing happens. If
you have a c c ess to a TRAC system (or really want to work
on it), you may be able to figure It out. (RESTART must
be In the w orkspace to b eg in .)
/RESTART I .________________________________________ .
------------ 1 |(DS, TEMP, *(RS))*(SS. TEMP. )*(RPT)|

[ t h i n g yJ
IrptT ^ ,____________________________________________ _
^ ^ |*(EQ. SHAZAM. *(TEST). (#(EVENT)))#(RPT)1
([ ll [ ^ F b Ri3iTHE[3]MONEYr3]ANDf3][2][3lFORf3lTHE[3jSTOW^

We can get It to print out Interestingly by typing #(CL, TEMP. (I (RESTART]))!

THINGY, RUN, HIDE) (since after the call, the plugged-ln
form will s till be in the form s s to r a g e .) This is printed: Ifvfkt FI. __ _
1---------^ N*(DA)*(FB,MARVEL)i>fPS. WELCOME O MASTER)!
RUNFORTHEMONEYANDHIDEFORTHESHOW
In this example, however, you may have noticed more
o r perhaps, if w e u se a carriage return for the last parentheses than you expected. Now for why.
argument , we can get funny resu lts. The call
PROTECTION AND ONE-SHOT
# (THINGY, NOT A FIG, THAT, [carriage return]
The last thing we'll talk about is the other two syntactic
layouts.
should result in

NOT A FIG We've already told you about the main syn tactic layout
of TRAC Language, which Is
FOR
THE
MONEY #( )
AND
THAT It turns out that two more layouts are needed, which w e may
FOR call PROTECTION and ONE-SHOT. Protection is simply
THE
SHOW ( )

which prevents the execution of anything between the

p arentheses. The TRAC p rocessor str ip s off these plain
parentheses and moves on, leaving behind what was in
them but not having executed it. (But it may com e back. )
An obvious u se Is to put around a program you 're designing:

# (DS, PROG, (#(AD,A, B)))

stripped stripped
In TRAC Language, every command
is replaced by Us result but other u s es turn up after you've experimented a little.
The last TRAC command arrangement looks like this
as the programs execution proceeds.
This is ingenious, weird and highly effective.
**( )

and you can put any command in it, except that Its result
w ill only be ca r ried one level

l#(CL, ZOWIE, 3 ,4 )

results In (using the form s we defined ea r lie r),

 # (Z IP ,3 ,4 )
which Is allowed to s u rv iv e as Is, because the moving finger
of the TRAC sca n n e r does not r e - s c a n the r e s u lt .
It Is left to the v e ry curious to try to fig u re out why
this Is needed.
V c h a ra c te rs typed ln by the u s e r , w hose end is sig n alled by a
W h a te v e r c a n b e e x e c u t e d
Is r e p la c e d by
Its r e s u l t .
T h is m ay o r m ay not
y ie ld s o m e th in g
w h ic h is In t u r n
e x e c u ta b le .
W h en n o t h i n g le f t I s e x e c u t a b l e ,
w h a t ' s le ft
is p rin te d o u t.
T h a t s t h e T R A C l a n g u a g e ,
\ FETCH BLOCK: contents of nam ed block a r e quietly brought in
FAST ANSWERBACK IN TRAC LANGUAGE
TRAC Language can be used fo r fa s t answ erback to
s im p le pro b le m s. Typing ln long executable TRAC e x p r e s
sions c a u s e s the re s u lt, If any, to be p rin ted back out
Im m ediately.
F o r naive u s e r s , however, the s p ec ial advantage is In
how e a s ily TRAC Language m ay be u sed to pro g ram la s t
a nsw erback environm ents of any kind.
A SERIOUS LANGUAGE; BUT BE WILLING
TO BELIEVE WHAT YOU SEE
TRAC Language .Is, besides being an easy language to
le a rn , v ery powerful fo r text and s to ra g e applications.
Conventional com puter people do n 't n e c e s s a rily believe
o r like It.
F o r instance, as a consultant I once had p rogram m ed,
ln TRAC Language, a s y stem fo r a ce rta in Intricate form
of b u sin ess application. It w orked. It ra n . Anybody could
be taught to u se It In five m inutes. T he client was c o n sid e r-
Ing expanding It and installing a com plete sy stem . They
asked another consultant.
It couldn't be done In TRAC Language, s a id the o ther
consultant; th at's so m e kind of a " u n iv ersity " language.
End of p ro je c t.
HOW TO GET IT
T h e re have been, until recently, ce rta in difficulties
about getting acce ss to a TRAC p ro c e s s o r. O ver the y ea rs,
M ooers has worked with his own p ro c e s s o rs in C am bridge.
E x p e rim e n te rs h ere and there have trie d th e ir hands at
pro g ram m in g It, w ith little com patibility In th eir re s u lts .
M ooers has worked with s e v e ra l la rg e c o rp o ratio n s, who said
s a id they wanted to try p ro c e s s o rs to a s s e s s the value of the
the language, but those endeavors brought nothing oul to
th e public.
FINALLY, how ever, TRAC Language s e r v ic e is pub-
llcally available, In a fastidiously ac cu rate p ro c e s s o r and
with M ooers' blessing, on C om putility tim esharlng serv ic e .
They run P D P-10 s e r v ic e ln the B oston-to-W ashington
a r e a . (From e lse w h ere you have to pay long d i s t a n c e .)
The c h a rg e should ru n $12 to $15 p e r hour In business hours,
le s s elsew hen. But this depends to so m e extent on what
y o u r p ro g ram does, and Is hence unpredictable. A licensed
TRAC Language p ro c e s s o r m ay be obtained from M ooers
fo r y o u r own favorite P D P-10. P ro c e s s o rs fo r o th e r com
p u te r s , including m in is , a r e In the p lanning s tage.
TRAC Language is now nicely docum ented ln two new
books by M ooers, a beg in n e r's m anual and a standardization
book (see B ibliography).
Since M ooers o p e ra te s a s m a ll busin ess, and m ust
m ake a livelihood from It, he has adopted the standa rd
b u sin ess techniques of s e r v ic e m a rk and copyright to
p ro te c t h is In te re s ts. The s e r v ic e m a rk "T R A C " s e r v e s
to Identify his product in the m ark etp lace , and Is an
a s s u r a n c e to the public that the product exactly m ee ts the
p ublished s tan d a rd s By law, th e " T R A C m ark may not
be used on p ro g ram s o r p roducts which do not com e from
R ockford R esea rc h , Inc.
Follow ing IBM, he is using copyright to p ro te c t his
docum entation and p ro g ra m s from copying and adaptation
w ithout authority.
M ooers also sta n d s ready to accom m odate academ ic
s tu d en ts and e x p e rim en ters who w ish to try th e ir hands at
p ro g ra m m in g a TRAC p ro c e s s o r. An ex p e rim e n te r's
lice n s e fo r u se of the copyright m a te ria l m ay be obtained
fo r a few d o lla rs , provided you do not Intend to u s e the
r e s u ltin g p ro g ram s com m ercially.
F o r Inform ation o f all kinds, Including lis ts of lates t
li te r a tu r e and application n otes, contact:
Calvin N. M ooers
R ockford R es ea rc h , Inc.
1 40-1/2 Mount Auburn S tree t
C am bridge, M ass. 02136 T el. (617)676-0776
me. P R im n v fs1
OUTPUT.
P S ,s trin g
PRINT STRING: prints out th e s econd argum ent.
INPUT.
RS
READ STRING: this com m and is re p la c e d by a s t r i n g of
changeable "m eta" c h a ra c te r.
CM, arg2
CHANGE META: f i r s t c h a ra c te r of second arg u m en t becom es
new m eta c h a ra c te r. May be c a r r l a g e - r e t u r n code.
RC
READ CHARACTER: this com m and Is re p lace d by the next
c h a ra c te r the u s e r types in. P e r m its highly re s p o n siv e i n t e r
active s y s te m s .
DISK COMMANDS.
S B ,b lo c k n a m e ,fo rm l,fo rm 2 . . .
STORE BLOCK: under block nam e supplied, s t o r e s fo rm s llstc
FB , blockname
to form s s to ra g e from disk.
MAIN FORM COMMANDS.
DS, form nam e, contents
DEFINE STRING. D iscu sse d In text.
CL, form nam e, plu g l,p lu g 2 , plug3 . . .
CALL: brings form from fo rm s s to ra g e to w orking p rogram .
P lu g l is fitted Into every hole (segm ent gap) num bered 1,
plug2 Into e v e ry hole num bered 2, and so on.
SS, form nam e,punchoutl, punchout2 . . .
SEGMENT STRING: this com m and re p la c e s e v e ry o cc u rre n ce
o f punchoutl with a hole (segm ent gap) num bered 1, and so on.
INTERNAL FORM COMMANDS.
(All of these use a little p o in ter, o r fo rm p o in te r, that m ark s a plac
In the form . If th e r e is no fo rm re m ain in g a fte r the pointer, these
instructions act on th eir la s t argum ent, which is o th erw ise i g n o re d .)
IN, form nam e, s trin g , default
Looks for specified s trin g IN the fo rm , s ta rtin g a t pointer. If
not found, pointer unm oved. (NOTE: s trin g s e a r c h can also be
done nicely with the SS c o m m a n d .)
CC, form nam e, default
CALL CHARACTER: brings up next c h a ra c te r In form , moves
poin ter to a f te r it.
C N ,fo rm n a m e,n o .o f c h a ra c te rs ,d e fa u lt
CALL N: brings up next N c h a r a c t e r s , m oves p o in ter to a fte r
them .
CS, form nam e, default
CALL SEGMENT: b r i n ^ up everything to next segm ent gap,
m oves poin ter to it.
CR, form nam e
CALL RESTORE: m oves p o in ter back to beginning of form .
MANAGING FORMS STORAGE
LN, divider
LIST NAMES: replaced by a ll fo rm nam es In fo rm s s to rag e ,
with any d iv id er between them . D ivider is optional.
DD, n a m e l, nam e2 . ..
DELETE DEFINITION: d e s tro y s nam ed fo r m s In fo rm s s to ra g
DA
DELETE ALL: gets rid of a ll fo rm s In fo rm s s to rag e .
TEST COMMANDS.
EQ, firstthing, secondthlng, If so, Ifnot
T e s ts if EQual: If firs tth in g Is s a m e as secondthlng, w hats lefi
is Ifso; If not equal, w h a t's left Is ifnot.
GR, firstthing, secondthlng, ifso, Ifnot
T e s ts w hether firstth in g is n u m eric ally G R eater than sec o n d -
thing. If so , w hat's left is ifs o ; if not, w h a t's left Is ifnot.
OH YEAH, ARITHMETIC.
(All these a re handled in decim al a r ith m e tic , a c h a ra c te r al a tim e,
and defined only fo r two in te g e rs . E verything e ls e you w rite y o u r
s e lf as a shorty p r o g r a m .)
AD -v
> m entioned In text.
DI J
BOOLEAN COMMANDS.
(Several exist ln the language, but could ro t p ossibly be understood
from this w r ite u p .)
* D escription of TRAC language p rim itiv e s adapted by p e r m is s io n from
"TRAC, A P ro c e d u re-D esc rib in g Language f o r the R ea ctiv e T y p e w riter, "
copyright 1 9 6 6 by R ockford R e s e a rc h , Inc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calvin N. M ooers, The B eginner's Manual fo r TRAC Language.
300 p ages, $10.00, from R ockford R e s e a rc h , Inc.
(See "W here to Get I t . ")
Calvin N. M ooers, Definition and S tandard f o r TRAC T -64
Language, 86 p ages, $5.00, from Rockford R e s e a rc h , Inc.
Calvin N. M ooers, "TRAC, A P ro ce d u re -D e s c rib in g Language
fo r the R eactive T y p e w rite r," C om m unications of the ACM.
v .9 , n .3 , pp. 215-219 (M arch 1966). H is to ric p a p e r, out of
p rin t. This p ap e r is copyrighted, and the copyright is owned
by R ockford R esea rc h , I n c ., through leg a l assig n m e n t from
the A ssociation fo r Computing M achinery, Inc.
And fo r those who want to understand the depth o f the s ta n d a rd iz a
tion pro b le m , M ooers o ffers freeb ie r e p rin ts of:
C alvin N. M ooers, "Accom m odating S tandards and Identification
of P ro g ra m m in g L an g u ag es," C om m unications of the ACM.
v . l l , n. 8, pp. 574-576 (August 1968).
 SAME SYMBOLS WORK BOTH WAYS
TWO-SIDED OPERATORS
22
In old-fashioned notations, such as o rdinary Now, one of the fascinating kickers of APL
is the fact that most of the symbols have both a
arithm etic, we a re u sed to the idea of an operator
one-sided meaning and a two-sided meaning; but,
between two t h in g s . Like thank goodness, they can be easily kept straight
2+ 2
Here is a concrete example: the symbol T
or "ceiling." Used o n e-sid ed , the result of
o r in a lg e b r a , o perator |" applied to something numerical is the
in teg er ju st above the num ber it is applied to:
t X y
p 7.2 is B. Used tw o-sid e d , the result is which
ever of the num bers it's between i larger:
stark . r i-icveie^ T h e se , too, occur in APL; in d ee d , APL
can also n est tw o-sided op erato rs that is , put
them one in sid e the other, like the leaves of
10 f 6 is 10. (There is also
can su rely figure o u t.)
, floor, which you

AfL
Some people call it a "scientific" language.
Some people call it a "mathematical" language.
Some people a re most s tru c k by its use for in te r
active system s, so to them it1s an interactive
language. But most of u s ju st think of it as THE
LANGUAGE WITH ALL THE FUNNY SYMBOLS,
and here they are:
p u n a c iw t |a \= 0 ;r V M
" - <K fi2 := >)v: i _ ( + T - m ~ 0 ? 1 -
123B46S7]9.BF[ UN+ITOQD-t
PRVC AZ* WYE MQ /XL,S JG KH
Enthusiasts see it a s a language of incon
ceivable power with extraord in ary u s e s , Cynics
rem ark that it has all k in d s of extraordinary
powers for inconceivable u s e s that is, a weird
eleg an ce, much of which h as no use at a ll , and
some of which gets in the w a y .
a cabbage. Old-fashioned notations nest with
Now, when you s tr in g things out into a long
p a re n th e s e s . But APL nests leftw ard . It works
APL e x p re ssio n , Iv erso n 's notation determines
according to a v e ry simple rig h t-to -left r u l e .
exactly when an operato r is one-sided and when
it is two-sided:
i x y X 2 * 2
As you go from rig h t to le ft,
the resu lt of this^,
another thing?) OP THING
another op? I*^___ _____________ _
is operated on by
th e next thing and o p e ra to r,
y ielding another resu lt
which is in tu rn operated on by
the next thing and o p e ra to r, you generally start with a thing on the right. Then
comes an o p e rato r. If the next symbol is another
yielding final re s u lt.
th in g , then the o perator is io be treated as a two-
sided operator (because its between two th in g s).
ONE-SIDED OPERATORS If the object beyond the firs t operator is another
o p erato r, however, that means APL is supposed lo
We a re also u sed to some o n e -sid ed operators stop and c a rry out the f ir s t operator on a one-sided
in our prev io u s life. For instance: b a s is . Example:
means the negation of 1;
- ( - 1)

This is probably w rong. APL is a terrific means negating th a t. Conclusion:

and beautiful triumph of the m ind, and a very Its tw o-sided.
useful programming language. It is not for every APL can also nest one-sided o p e ra to r s . Interpretation:
body , but neither is c h e s s . It is for brig h t chil "su b tract B from A."
d re n , mathematicians, a nd companies who want
to build interactive system s b u t feel they should
stick with IBM.
<^>A A + - B
rator is
APL is one of IBM's better products, probably
because it is principally the creation of one m an,
Kenneth Iverso n . It is mainly ru n on 360 and
370 com puters, though implementations exist
Bs * th in g,
op,
for the DEC PDP-10 and p erh ap s other popular op
machines. (Actually iverson designed the lan
stop . Conclusion:
guage at Harvard and programmed it on his own
The firs t op erato r
initiative after moving to IBM; added to the p ro
is o n e -s id e d .
duct line by popular demand, it was not a planned resu lt is worked on by Interpretation:
product and might in fact be a hazard to the firm , fourth o p e ra to r,
should it catch on b ig .) "negate B ."
yielding final result. Then take n ex t s y m b o l.
APL ia a language of a r r a y s , with a fascinat
ing notation. The a rra y system and the notation
can be explained s e p a ra te ly , and bo they w ill.

Let's ju st say the language works on things

modified successively by o p e ra to rs. Their ord er
and result is based upon those fiendish chicken
scratches, Iverson notation.
A UtlRJ) e x w t e , T HE if* w it h ru e K w io V.
Ju st for k ic k s , let us make up a notation A 0) B ^ ___ |
THAT NIFTY NOTATION having nothing to do with computers, u sin g these
Iverson principles: a 90} b r- -I
The first thing to und erstan d about APL
is the fiendishly clever system of notation that
Iverson has worked out. T h is system (sometimes
1) If an operator o r symbol ia between two
names of th in g s , c a rry it out tw o-sidedly. A 90} 90}
rj
B
.
[jl ~ ]
called Iverson notation) allows extremely complex If not, c a rry it out o n e-sidedly.
relations and com puter-type events to be expressed
sim ply, densely and co n sisten tly . 2) Go from rig h t to left. 90} A 90} B

:c
z>
(Of c o u rse , you c a n 't even type it without The best sim ple example I can think of involves
file cards on the table (named A, B, C . . . ) and
an IBM Selectric ty p ew riter and an APL ball.
Note the product-line t ie - in .) operators looking like this:
455 A 90) B
o-A
The notation is b ased on operators modifying 0) 45} 90} 180) 455 90T 1005 455 A 90} 90) B ^
th in g s . Let's use alphabetic symbols for things
and play with p ictures for a minute. to which we may assig n the following meanings:
B 0 ) 45) A
A r
1
ONE-SIDED: ROTATION OPERATORS
0} A do nothing to A C 45) B 0) 90) A
451 A rotate A clockwise 45*
90^ A rotate A clockwise 90
e tc .
It's h ard to believ e, but th e re you a re . This
TWO-SIDED: STAPLING OPERATORS notation seems adequate to make a whole lot of
B 451 A staple A (thing named on the right) different stapled p a tte rn s .
t au/ f t i f -
to B (thing named on th e left)
at a position 45* clockw ise from Exercise! Use this nutty file c a rd notation
In considering the su c ce ssiv e meanings of thiB middle of Bs c e n terline. to program the making of funny p a tte rn s . Practice
reb u s we a re proceeding from right to left, aa
you note, and each new symbol adds meaning.
This is the general id ea.
W -T *
with a friend and Bee if you can communicate
patterns through these p ro g ra m s , one person
uncomprehendingly c a rry in g out the o th ers
sllp/t (o - program and being s u r p r i s e d .
You will note, in th is example, the curious
arrangement w hereby you can have several And equivalently for other angleB. The point of all th is has been to show the
p ictu res, or o p e rato rs, in a row. This is one powerful but somewhat s ta rtlin g way that b rief
of the fun features of the language. Now, u sin g these r u le s , and lettin g o ur things s c rib b les in notations of t h i B type can have all sorts
be any file c a rd s that a re h a n d y , h e re a re some resu lts: of r e s u lts .
 H e r e la a n o t h e r e x a m p l e s h o w in g h o w w e c h u g
a lo n g t h e r o w o f s y m b o l s a n d t a k e i t a p a r t . A g a i n , SOME A PL O PERATORS
th e a lp h a b e tic a l e n title s r e p r e s e n t t h i n g s .
It w o u ld b e i n s a n e to e n u m e r a t e th e m a l l , A PL T H IN G S , T O GO W IT H Y OUR O PE R A T O R S
b u t h e r e I s a s a m p l i n g o f A P L 's o p e r a t o r s . T h e y ' r e
E> (| a ll on th e pocket c a r d s ( s e e B ib lio g ra p h y ) . A s w e s a i d , A PL h a s o p e ra to r s ( a lr e a d y
e x p la in e d ) a n d t h in g s T h e th in g s c a n b e p la in
F o r o ld t i m e s ' s a k e , h e r e a r e o u r f r i e n d s : n u m b e r s , o r A r r a y s ( a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d u n d e r
^ ______ f i r s t o p e r a t i o n (o n e - s i d e d ), (A n d a c o u s i n t h r o w n i n f o r s y m m e t r y . ) B A S IC ). T h i n k o f th e m a s r o w s , b o x e s a n d
su p e rb o x e s of n u m b e rs :
s e c o n d o p e ra tio n (tw o -sid ed ) +A p la in A
( w h a t e v e r A s h o u l d h a p p e n to b e ) 2 4 6 8 10 a o n e -d im e n sio n a l th in g
T r y d i v i d i n g u p th e s e e x a m p l e s : A+B A p lu s B
( w h a t e v e r A s h o u l d h a p p e n to B . 2 4
heh heh) 3 5 a tw o - d i m e n s i o n a l th i n g
( p ROMEO -B n e g a ti o n of B
A -B A m in u s B X
ELEANOR < 2 > SAM SUSIB aB th e s ig n of B 0 8 a th re e -d im e n s io n a l th in g ,
( e x p r e s s e d a s - 1 .0 o r 1) s e e n f ro m t h e f r o n t . M ayb e
O n e m o r e t h i n g n e e d s to b e n o t e d . N ot o n ly A iB A ti m e s B w e b e t t e r lo o k a t t h e l e v e l a
c a n w e w o r k o u t th e s e q u e n c e s o f o p e r s t l o n s . fro m s i d e b y sid e :
l i g h t to l e f t . b e t w e e n th e s y m b o l s ; t h e c o m p u te r c a n A n d h e re a re som e g n io v le s: 13 2 4
c a r r y th s m o u t i n a s t a b le f a s h i o n . W hich i s o f 5 7 6 6
c o u rse e s s e n tia l. !A fa c to ria l A
( 1 * 2 * 3 . . . u p to A ) A PL c a n h a v e T h i n g s w i t h f o u r d i m e n s i o n s , f iv e a n d
A! B th e n u m b e r o f p o ssib le s o o n , b u t w e w o n 't t r o u b l e y o u h e r e w i t h p i c t u r e s .
c o m b in a tio n s y o u c a n g e t f ro m B
ta k e n A a t a tim e O h y s s . a n d A n a l ly a n o - d l m e n s l o n a l t h i n g .
INSIDE ?A a ra n d o m I n te g e r E x a m p le :
ta k e n f ro m a r r a y A
T h e t r u t h o f t h e m a tte r i s th a t A PL l n th e co m A ?B ta k e s o m e I n t e g e r s a t r a n d o m 7 5 .2
p u te r Is a c o n tin u in g su c c e s s io n of th in g s b e in g f r o m B . How m a n y ? A .
o p e ra te d o n a n d re p la c e d In th e w o rk a r e a . It i s c a l l e d n o - d ltn e n s t o n a l b e c a u s e t h e r e I s o n ly
B u t, of c o u rs e . A PL goes o n a n d o n . T h e r e o n e o f i t , s o i t Is n o t a r o w o r a b o x .
firs t th in g a r e d o z e n s m o r e ( I n c l u d i n g s y m b o l s m a d e o f m o re
t h a n o n e w e i r d APL s y m b o l , p r i n t e d o n to p o f e a c h S e r i o u s l y , t h e s e a r e a r r a y s , a n d I v e r s o n 's
. . . UG ^ jZf ' y A R G ^ o t h e r to m a k e a n e w s y m b o l ) . A PL w o r k s th e m o v e r , t u r n s th s m I n s i d e o u t , t w i s t s
a n d s a p s t h r o u g h to w h s t e v e r t h e a n s w e r s a r e .
I th in g w h ic h r e s u lts C o n s i d e r t h e I n c r e d i b l e p o w e r . S i n g l e APL
[ f ro m o p e r a t o r $ s y m b o l s g i v e y o u l o g a r i t h m s , tr ig o n o m e t r i c A s In BA SIC a n d T R A C , t h e a r r a y s o f A PL
I d o n e o n YAAOH, fu n c tio n s , m a trix fu n c tio n s , n u m b e r sy ste m c o n v e r a r e r e a l l y s t o r e d l n th e c o m p u t e r 's c o r e m e m o r y ,
s i o n s , l o g s to a n y a r b i t r a r y b a s e , a n d p o w e r s o f e a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e n a m e y o u g i v e t h e m . T h e
t h i n g t h a t r e s u l t s f ro m o p e r a t i o n Lv (a m y ste rio u s n u m b e r o f w h ic h e n g in e e r s a r e f o n d ) . a r r a y s m ay b e o f a l l d i f f e r e n t s i t e s s n d d im e n
d o n e to th a t b y UG V
s i o n a lit y :
O t h e r w e i r d t h i n g s . Y ou c a n a p p l y a n o p e r
a n d ao o n . a tio n to a l l t h e e l e m e n ts o f s n a r r a y u s i n g t h e / H oe/ , ________________
o p e r a t o r : + /A I s t h e s u m o f e v e r y t h i n g I n A , >/A --------' l 2 . 5 7 .1 8 8 .0 0 6 ^
W hat le e f f e c tiv e ly h a p p e n i n g i s t h a t t h e APL i s t h e c o m b in e d p r o d u c t o f e v e r y t h i n g In A . A n d
p r o c e s s o r i s h o l d i n g w h a t i t ' s w o r k i n g o n in a
h o l d i n g a r e a . T h e w a y It c a r r i e s o u t t h e B ean o f
so o n . W h e w . /n o ra ] ___
[ w o o p s l e l } ^ * 1 * )
t h e A PL l a n g u a g e , t h e r e o n l y h a s to b e o n e t h i n g A s y o u m a y s u s p e c t , A PL p r o g r a m s c a n b e [ab cd efl [ ( (. W )
in th e re a t a lim e . I n c r e d i b l y c o n c i s e . ( T h i s Is a f r e q u e n t l y - h e a r d
c r i t i c i s m : th a t th e c o n c i s e n e s s m a k e s th e m h a r d ISA M
to u n d e r s t a n d a n d h a r d to c h a n g e . ) 1 ^ 1

MAKE YOUR OWN (e m p t y a r r a y , b u l a n a m e Is

sa v e d for It.)
F i n a ll y a n d g l o r i o u e l y . t h e u s e r m a y d e f in e
h is ow n fu n c tio n s , e ith e r o n e -s id e d o r tw o - s id e d , [n um \
w ith a l p h a b e t i c a l n a m e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , y o u c a n [371416]
c r e a t e y o u r o w n o n e - s i d e d o p e r a t o r Z O N K . a s ln
(a z e r o - d i m e n s i o n a l a r r a y ,
ZONK B s i n c e i t ' s o n ly o n e n u m b e r . )

(n* ($*> fxf a n d e v e n a lw o - 8id e d Z O N K , E a c h a r r a y I s r e a l l y a s e r i e s o f m e m o r y l o c a t io n s

w ith I ts l a b e l a n d b o x i n g I n f o r m a tio n d i m e n s i o n s
A ZONK B a n d l e n g t h s s t o r e d s e p a r a t e l y . O n e v e r y n ic e
t h i n g a b o u t A PL i s t h a t a r r a y s c a n k e e p c h a n g i n g
w h ic h c s n th e n g o r i g h t i n I h e r e w ith t h e b i g b o y s : th e ir s iz e s f re e ly , a n d th is n e e d b e of no c o n c e rn
S u p p o s e w e h a v e a s im p le u s e r p r o g r a m , to t h e A PL p r o g r a m m e r . ( T h e a r r a y s c a n a l s o b e
A $ ZONK B b o x e d a n d r e b o x e d l n d if f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s j u s t b y
Y + - Z c h a n g i n g t h e b o x i n g in f o r m a t io n w ith a n o p e r a t o r
D o n 't a s k w h a t it m e a n s , b u t i t ' s a llo w e d . c a lle d " ra v e l ." )
S t a r l i n g a t t h e t i g h t o f t h i s u s e r p r o g r a m , th e
m a in A PL p r o g r a m p u t s Z i n t o t h e w o r k a r e a . T h a t 's
th e f i r s t t h i n g . T h e n , s t e p p i n g le ft l n th e u s e r
p r o g r a m , t h e A PL p r o c e s s o r f o llo w s t h e r u l e s a n d
d i s c o v e r s t h a t t h e n e x t o p e r a t i o n m a k e s It

s w i n e prekc5!
w h i c h h a p p e n s to m e a n , " t h e n e g a ti o n o f Z . " S o it
A n A PL m a c h i n e . a m in i t h a t d o e s n o t h i n g b u t A P L .
c a r r i e s th is o u t on Z a n d r e p la c e s Z w ith th e r e s u l t ,
I s n o w a v a i l a b l e f ro m a C a n a d i a n f ir m f o r th e m e r e p i t t a n c e o f
- Z . T h e n , c o n t i n u i n g to s c a n l e f t w a r d , t h e APL
p r o c e s s o r c o n t i n u e s to r e p l a c e w h a t w a s l n t h e w o r k
TH RBE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS ,
a re a w ith th e r e s u l t of e ac h o p e ra tio n in th e s u c
c e s s i v e l i n e s o f t h e u s e r p r o g r a m , tLU t h e p r o g r a m
th e p r i c e o f m a n y a m e r e te r m i n a l . T h is a c c o r d i n g to
i s c o m p le te d .
C o m p u t e r w o r l d . 10 O ct 7 9 .

A PL Prt>cV S V r R u n , d o n 't w a l k , to M ic ro C o m p u te r M a c h i n e s , I n c . ,
4 i A n s l n g S q . . W illow d a l e . M2J 1 T 1 . O n t a r i o , C a n a d a . T h a t
0 '3 r v - )
$3500 g e t s y o u a 16K m e m o r y , t h e A PL p r o g r a m , k e y b o a r d a n d
n u m e r i c a l k e y b o a r d , a n d p la s m a d i s p l a y . C a s s e t t e ( w h i c h
pie*- h tl a p p a r e n tly s to r e s a n d r e tr ie v e s a r r a y s b y nam e w h e n c a lle d
b y th e p r o g r a m ) i s $1500 e x l r a . RUNS ON B A T T E R I E S . S o r r y ,
'i + -7 . n o g r e e n s t a m p s . (Note th a t t h e A PL p r o c e s s o r t a k e s u p m o st
o f t h e 16 K , b u t y o u c a n g e t m o r e . )

- T h e r u m o r t h a l IBM h a s A PL o n a c h i p , i n s i d e a S e l e c t r i c
u r<jj/ w h i c h t h e r e f o r e d o e s a l l t h e s e t h i n g s w ith n o e x t e r n a l
c o n n e c tio n to a n y ( e x t e r n a l ) c o m p u te r - * r e m a i n s u n s u b s t a n t i a t e d .
- Z T h e r u m o r h a s b e e n a r o u n d f o r s o m e tim e.
L1 -
v + -2 "
B ut i t 's q u ite p o ssib le .

T h e t h i n g i s , It w o u ld p r o b a b l y d e s t r o y I B M 's e n t i r e
p r o d u c t l i n e - - s n d p r i c i n g e d if i c e .
 Few p e o p le Know a ll of APL. o r w ould w an t to .
T h e o p e r a tio n s a r e d lv e re e a n d o b e c u r e .
a n d m a n y o f them a r e c o m p re h e n s ib le o nly
to p e o p le In m ath em atical field s.
H ow ev e r, if y o u know a dozen o r so y ou c an
r e a l l y g e t off Ihe g r o u n d .
A* In BASIC , y ou c an u s e s u b s c r i p t s to
get a t s p e c if ic e lem en ts In a r r a y s . R e f e r r i n g to
th e e x a m p le s a b o v e . If yo u typ e
JO E [ 2]
yo u get b a c k o n y o u r t y p e w rit e r Its va lu e
7 .1
a n d If y ou ty p e
NORA 2.4J
T h e r e a r e b a sic a lly fou r k ln d a of In fo rm atio n
u se d b y A PL . a n d a ll of them c a n be p u t In a r r a y s .
T h r e e o f th e s e ty p e s a r e n u m e ric a l, a n d a r r a y s of
th em look lik e Ih ls o n pa per:
I n te g e r a r r a y e ; 2 4 - 6 6 10 2040
S c a la r a r r a y s : 2 .5 -3 .1 4 16 0.0 01 2705333.1
(a e c s la r Is som e th ing th a l c a n b e
m e a su r e d on a r u l e r - l t k e s c a le ,
w h e r e th e re a r e a lw ay s p o in ts
i n b e tw e e e n .)
L og ical a r r a y e ; 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
( th es e a r r a y s of o n e s s n d z e r o e s a r e
c a lle d "lo gic al" fo r a v a rie ty of
r e a s o n s ; In Ih ls caa e we c o uld c a ll them
" lo g ic a l" sim ply b e c a u se th e y a r e u se d
fo r p ic k in g a n d e ho oaln g a n d d e c i d i n g .)
T h ea e t h r e e n u m e ric a l ty p e s o f I nform ation may be
fre ely In te r m ix e d In y o u r a r r a y e . One m o re ty p e ,
h o w e v e r. Is a llo w e d . Its h a rd to f ig u r e o u t from
the m s n u a la . b u t e v id e n tly th ia ty p e c a n 't b e
mixed In w ith th e o th e r s too f r e e l y . We r e f e r lo
Ihe a lp h a b e tic a l o r "lite r a l" a r r a y , a s in
T h e q u ic k b r o w n fox Jumped o v e r th e la zy d o g .
Now . p r e - w r i t t e n APL p ro g ra m s c an p r in t out
lite r a l In fo rm a tio n , a n d acc ep t It from a u s e r a t
a te r m in a l. w h ic h Is why APL Is good for th e
c re atio n of s y s te m s fo r na iv e u e e r s (see "Good-G uy
S y s te m s . p . i j ) .
L ite ra l v e c to r s may b e p ic k ed a p a r t .
r e a r r a n g e d a n d assem b led b y all th e r e g u l a r APL
o p e r a to r s . T h a t 's how we tw idd le o u r te n t.
CRASHING THE SYMBOLS TOGETHER
It w o r k s o n a r r a y s , sin g ly a n d In p a i r a .
a c c o rd in g to th o s e fu n n y -lo o k in g sy m b o l s . a s th e
APL p r o c e s s o r s e a n a r l g h t- to - le f t.
IVERSON'S TAFF Y-PULL
A n u m b e r o f b a sic APL o p e ra to r s h e lp yo u
a tr e tc h . a q u le h a n d p u ll a p a r t y o u r a r r a y a .
C o n sid er th e low ly comma (called " r a v e l , " w h ic h
m eans t h e aam e a s " u n r a v e l " ) .
A f o rg e l A 's o ld d im e n s io n s ,
m ake It o n e -d lm e n a lo n a l.
A .B m ake A an d B on e long
o n e -d im en sio n al a r r a y .
H ere la how w e m ake t h in g s a p p e a r a n d d is a p p e a r .
( " C o m p r e s s i o n .")
A /B A must be a o n e -d lm en a lo n al
a r r a y o f on e s and t e r o e s .
T h e r e s u l t l a t h o s e e le m e n ts
o f B s e lec te d b y th e o n e s .
Exam ple:
1 0 1 / c a 1
r e s u l ts In
c t
T he o p p o s ite s l a s h h a s th e o p p o site e ff e c t.
I n s e r tin g e x t r a n ull e lem ents w h ere th e re
a r e zaroea:
1 1 0 l\3 5 B
r e s u l ts in
3 5 0 9
H e r e 's a n o th e r se le c to r . T h is o p e ra to r
ta k e s th e f i r s t o r la s t few o f A. d e p e n d in g o n siz e
and sig n o f B:
Bt A
an d B ^ A Is th e o p p o site.
If y o u w a n l to know Ihe re la tiv e p o s itio n s of
n u m b e rs o f d if f e r e n t s iz e s In s o n e -d im e n sio n a l
a rra y .
^ (nam e o f a r r a y )
w ill te ll y o u . It g iv e s y ou th e p o s it io n s . In o r d e r
of s iz e , o f t h e n u m b e r s . And 4 d o e s It fo r
d e s c e n d in g o r d e r .
T hese a re Just sam ples. The lin g o e s on
H ere is a n APL p r o g r a m th a l ty p e s o u t
b a c k w a r d s w hat y o u ty p e I n . F i r s t lo ok a t the
p r o g r a m , th e n th e e x p la n a tio n be lo w .
V REV
M k n o w s h e u s e s en o u g h d ifferent symbols; doubling
V s e r i e s o f o p e r a tio n s in a sto un ding combinations.
E x p la n a ti o n . T h e d o w n - p o l n lln g tr ia n g le s
( " d e ls " ) sy m b o lize t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d o f a
p r o g rs m . w h ic h In th is c a a e w e h a v e c a lle d REV.
On L in e 1. th e " Q u o te -Q u a d " sy m bo l (on th e r ig h t )
c a u s e s th e APL p r o c e s s o r to w all for a lp h a b e tic a l
i n p u t. P re su m a b ly Ih e u s e r w ill ty p e so m e th in g .
T h e u s e r ' s lin e o f I n p u t Is stu f f e d Into th in g o r
a r r a y 1. T h e u s e r ' s c a r r i a g e r e t u r n te lls th e APL
p r o c e s s o r h e h a a f i n is h e d , s o It c o n tin u e s in th e
p r o g ra m . On Ihe s e c o n d l i n e . APL la k e s a r r a y 1
a n d doea a o n e - s i d e d to II. w h ic h h a p p e n s to
m ean tu r n in g il a r o u n d . L e f t- a r r o w in to Ihe
q u o te -q u a d sy m bo l m e an s p r i n t II ou t.
B e ca u se of A PL 'a c o m p a c tn e s s , in d e e d . Ihls
m a g nifice n t p r o g ra m c sn e ll g o o n o ne line:
^ REV
[]
V a r t i s t . E xsm ple:
F irst th e in p u t g o e s in to I . t h e n Ih e p r o c e s s o r d oes
s 1 ( r e v e r s a l) a n d p u ts it o u l.
A nd h e re Is o u r o ld f r i e n d . th e fo rtu n e - c o o k ie
1 0 0 - 'H ELP. I AM CAUGHT IN A LOOP1
[i] -> 1 f or I n sta n c e . T h e le ft a rro w :
On lin e 1 th e p r o g ra m p r i n t s o u t w h a l e v c r 's In
q u o te s. And lin e 2 c a u s e s It to go b a c k a n d do
lin e 1 a g a in . F o r e v e r .
frte mn VL
II sh o u ld b e m e n tio n e d a t th is p o in t tha t
b ra n c h in g te s t s a r e c o n d u c te d in APL p r o g ra m s
b y sp e c if y in g c o n d itio n s w h ic h a r e e ilh c r tr u e or
f als e, a n d A PL's a n s w e r is 1 if i r u e . 0 if f als e.
(T h is is s n o lh e r th in g th e s e log ic a l a r r a y s a r e f o r . )
Exam ple:
3>2
T h is o p e ra tio n le s v e s th e n u m b e r 1. b e c a u s e 3
is g r e a te r th a n 2. So yo u c o u ld b r a n c h o n a test
w ith som e thing lik e
w hich b r s n c h e s to lin e 7 in th e p r o g ra m if A Is
g r e a te r tha n B . a n d Is ig n o r e d (as a n u n e x ec u lab le
b r a n c h to lin e z ero ) if B la g r e a t e r tha n A.
THE APL ENVIRONMENT
A sid e from th e APL la n g u a g e its e lf , to
p r o g ra m in APL y ou m ust le a r n a lo t of " sy ste m "
c om m ands, a lp h a b e tic a l c om m a nd s b y w hic h lo tell
t h e APL p r o c e s s o r w h a t y o u w a n t to do ln g e n eral
w hal to s to r e , w hat lo b r i n g forth from a to ra g e .
a n d so o n.
O rd in a rily yo u h a v e a w o r k s p a c e , a co lle c
tion o f p r o g ra m s a n d d a ta w h ic h y o u may summon
b y nam e. When il c o m e s- - th a t i s . w h en th e com
p u te r haa fetc h ed th ia m a te ria l a n d a n n o u n ce d on
y o u r te rm in al lh a t It ia r e a d y - - y o u c an r u n the
p ro g ra m s a n d u s e th e d a ta ln y o u r w o rk s p s c e .
You c a n a lso h a v e p a s s w o r d s f o r y o u r d ifferen t
w o rk s p a c e a , so o th e r s a t o th e r te rm in a ls c an no t
ta m p e r w ilh y o u r stu ff.
T hia i s not th e p ie c e to g o in to the sy ste m
co m m and s. If y o u 'r e s e r i o u s , y o u c a n le a r n them
from th e b o ok o r t h e APL s a le s m a n .
T h e r e a r e m a n y . m an y d if f e r e n t e r r o r
m e saa g es th a t th e APL p r o c e s s o r c s n se n d y o u .
d e p e n d in g o n th e c ir c u m s t a n c e s . It Is p o a slb le
lo m ake m a n y , m any m is ta k e s in APL. a n d
th e r e a r e e r r o r m e s s a g e s for a ll o f I h e m . All
of th e m , th a t I s , lh a t lo ok to th e c o m p u te r like
e r r o r s ; If y o u d o so m e th in g p e r m i s s ib le th a t's
n ot w h at y ou i n te n d e d , th e c o m p u ie r w ill not
te ll y o u .
But It is a te rm in a l l a n g u a g e . d e s ig n e d to
h e lp p e o ple m u d d le t h r o u g h .
Smvfoe MISlOoMbttfUt
C H o ie e j o f m ttts
I v e r s o n 's nota tion is built around the
c u r io u s p r in c i p le o f h a v in g the same symbols mean
tw o th in g s d e p e n d in g on c o n tex t. (Goodness
u p s i le ast m e an s h e d o e sn t need any more.) It
t u r n s o u t th a t ih ia nota tion r ep rese n tsT c on sisie ni
T h e o v e ra ll APL la n g u ag e , rea lly , la the
c a r r y i n g t h r o u g h of th is nota tion to create an Im
m e n sely p o w e r f u l p rog ram m in g la nguage. The
im p e tu s o b v io u s l y came from the de sire lo make
v a r io u s i n tr ic a t e m athematical operations easy to
c o m m a n d. T h e r e s u l t , h o w ev e r, le a programming
l a n g u a g e w ith g r e a t pow er for sim pler tasks as well.
N ow . t h e c o n se q u e n c e s o f ihls o verall Idea
w e r e nol d e te r m in e d b y God. They w ere worked
o u l b y I v e r a o n . v e r y th o u g h tfu lly , so a s lo come
o ul s y m m e tr ic a l-lo o k ln g a n d e asy lo remember.
What we se e i s th e c le v e r exploitation o f apparent
b u t Inex a ct s y m m e lr le s In the Id ea s. Often APL'a
o n e - s i d e d a n d tw o - s id e d p a ir s o f operato rs a re
m ore s u g g e s tiv e ly sim ila r th a n really th e same
I h in g .
When I v e r s o n s sslg n 6 on e -a ld ed an d two-
s id e d m e a n i n g s to a sy m b ol, often the two meanings
m ay look n a t u r a l o n ly b e ca u se Iverson Is su c h sn
tw o - s id e d o n e -sid ed
AX B a B
A tim es B the sig n o f B
T h is m ak es s e n s e . T o a r g u e th a l It ia in h e re n t in
" ta k i n g a w a y h a lf th e id ea o f m u ltiplic ation ."
h o w e v e r, i s d u b io u s .
Some sy m m e tr ie s I v e r so n h s s m anaged to
come up w ith a r e tr u ly r e m a r k a b le . T h e a r r o w ,
A aaig nm ent sta te m ent; B (w hich
m ay hav e b e e n com pute d d u r i n g
Ih e le ftw a rd sc a n ) ia a s s ig n e d
the name o f A:
a n d Ihe r lg h l a rr o w :
T h e Jump sta te m en t, w h e r e B
(w hich may h a v e b e e n com
p u te d d u r i n g th e le ftw a r d s c a n )
Is a sta te m ent n u m b e r: th e
p r o g ra m now go e s a n d e x e c u t e s
th a t lin e .
T h is sy m m etry Is m y stica lly i n t e r e s t in g b e c a u s e
the a saig n m en l a n d Jum p sta te m en ts a r e so b a s i c
to pro g ra m m in g -
O r c o n s id e r this :
< - x
p r in t X.
x-n
-> e/ a
(one way of w ri t i n g . "Jum p lo A if B Is t r u e " )
Is a sp e cia l c a s e o f th e '' c o m p re s s io n " o p e r a t o r .
( B e rr y 360 p r i m e r . 72 a n d 16 5 .) T h is i s v e r y
h a r d to u n d e r s t a n d , a lth o u g h it se em s c l e a r w h i l e
y o u 'r e r e a d in g il.
On Ihe o th e r h a n d , th e r e i s e v e r y in d i c a t i o n
th a l APL la ao d e e p y o u k e e p f in d in g new t r u t h s
i n i l . (L ike th e a b o v e p a r a g r a p h . ) T h e w h o le
th in g is Just u n b e lie v a b le . H ooray fo r a ll t h a t .
APL FOR USER-LEVEL SYSTEMS
(See "Good-G uy S y a te m e ." p . )
B e ca u se APL c a n s o licit te x t Inp ut from a u s e r a n d a n a ly z e I t.
th e la n g u a g e ia p o w erfu l fo r Ih e c re a ti o n of u s e r - l e v e l e n v iro n m e n ts
a n d s y s te m s - - w ith the d r s w b a c k , u n i v e r s a l to a ll IBM te r m in a l s ,
th a t in p u l linea m u st e n d w ith s p e c if ic c h a r a c t e r s . In o th e r w o rd s ,
It c a n 't b e aa fully I n te r a c tiv e a s c o m p u te r la n g u a g e s th a t u a e ASCII
t e rm in a ls .
N ee d le ss to s a y . Ih e m athe m atica l e le g a n c e and p o w e r of the
s y ste m Is com p le tely u n n e c e s s a r y fo r most u s e r - le v e l s y s te m s . But
I t 's n ic e to know i t ' s t h e r e .
APL Is p r o b a b ly b e s t f o r s y s te m s w ith w e ll-d e fin e d a n d s e g
r e g a te d fileB-* " a r r a y - t y p e p r o b le m s ," lik e p a y ro ll , a cc o u n ts an d
s o o n . Il Is not s u ite d fo r m u c h l a r g e r a m o rp ho us and e v olutio na ry
stu ff, the w ay lis t la n g u a g e s lik e TRAC a r e . D on't u se APL If
y o u 'r e g o in g 10 s to r e la r g e e v o lv in g te x ts o r h u g e b ro k e r a g e data
b a s e s , lik e w hal ta n k e r a a r e f r e e in th e M e d ite rran e an .
T h e q u ic k e s t p ay oR may lie in u s in g APL to r e p la c e b u s in e s s
form s s n d h a ate n the flow o f I n fo rm a tion th r o u g h a c o m p a n y . A
sa le s m a n on the r o a d w ith an APL te r m in a l. fo r In sta n c e . c an a t once
e n te r h is o r d e r s in th e c o m p u te r from the c u sto m e r's o ffice, c hecking
in v e n to r y d i r e c t l y . If th e p r o g ra m i s u p

ROUND (n o b sc u re a n d d onnish Joke)
p , th e G re ek le tte r " rh o ," Is an APL operato r
/ for (eating th else of a rr a y s . Whan used
In the o ne -e lded form at. II f iv e s lha s it e s
of e ach dim ension of an a r r a y .
And now
T hu s
Is 2 2 .
M . when A Is
*[;}]
n 'YOUR BOAT'
I equala 0, sin c e th e re a re 9 letters
in the a rr a y 'YOUR BOAT':
'YOUR BOAT'
If' Is 1,
since p 9 la 1. and
M 'YOUR BOAT'
' Is likewise 1.
T h is la n gu ag e Is su p e rb for "scientific" program m ing,
Inclu ding heavy n u m b er c ru n c h in g a n d exp er
im entation with dif ferent formulae on small
dale b a se s. (Big d sia ba ses s r e a p ro blem .)
It Is a lso not b ad for s v a rie ty of simple b u sine ss
a p p lic atio n s, suc h a s p a y ro ll, accounting,
b illin g a n d In v en to ry .
PAST ANSWERBACK IN APL
If you want quic k a n a w e rs. the APL term inal
Just g iv e s you Ihe r e iu l t o f w hatever you typ e In.
For In slsn c e.
3i 4
will cause It to p r in t oul
12
and the same goes for far le aa com prehensible
stuff like
1 ^ ^ ^ ? 1 2 3 4 (ca rria ge r e tu r n )
ty pe d-ln array
PROGRAMS IN APL
But lhe -larg er function of APL Is lo create
p ro g ra m s th a t ean be e to re d . named and c arried
oul at a la te r lime.
For t h i s . APL allow s you to define p r o g ra m s.
a line al a tim e. The p ro g ra m s rem ain sto red In the
system s s lo ng sb you w anl. Using the "Del
o p e ra to r ( V ) you tell the system th al you wanl lo
p u t In a p rog ra m . Del cauaes the te rm in al to help
you alo ng In v a rio u s w a y s .
A nic e feetu re is lh al you can lock y ou r APL
p r o g ra m s, lh at Is, make them Inaccessible and
u n rea d ab le by o lh e re . w hether Ihey are
p ro g ra m m e rs o r n o t. In th la case y ou define a
p rog ra m s ta r tin g w ilh ihe mystical sig n del-tlld e
( l ^ i ) Instead of del ( V ) an d Invoke Ihe names
of d a rk s p ir its .
APL, like BASIC, can b e c lassed a a a n "algebraic"
la n g u a g e -- but ih le one la bulll to pleeee
rea l mathematicians, wilh high -lev el stuff
only th ey know abo u t, like Inn er an d O ute r
Prod uc ts.
P a rad o x ic ally , Ihls makea APL te rrific for teachin g
the ae de ep e r mathematical c on ce pts, help in g
y ou se e the c onsequences of o pe ra do ns and
tha un d e rly in g s tr u c tu re of mathematical
th ln g a . Matrla a la e b ra . for Insta nce , c an be
v lau allced a lol b e tte r b y w orking u p to It
w ith le ase r concepta (like v e ctors and
Inn er p ro d u cts ) en acted on an APL te rm inal.
It w ould b e really sw ell If eomeone would p u t to
g e th e r a tou r-gu id e book of h ig h e r mathem
a tic s a t the gTad e/h lg hschool level for people
w ith access to APL.
In te r e stin g ly . Alfred Bork (U. o f C a l. a t I rvin e)
is tsk ln g a sim ilar approach to teachin g
p h y s ic s , u sin g APL a a a fundamental
la ng uage In his ph y sic s c o u rse s.
SNEAKY REPEATER STATEMENT IN APL?
O ne o f th e APL o p e ra to r s . "lota" ( i ) .
seeme lo make Its own pro gra m loop w ithin a line.
When u se d o n e -sid ed , ll fu rn ish es a se rie s of
a sce n d in g n um b e rs u p to lh e n um ber I t's operating
o n . T h is u n til th e laat o n e la reach ed.
You typ e : I n T ta n g u a g e . Document Number
APL r e p lie s : 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
In o th e r w o rd s , o n e -sid ed lota looks to be
d o in g Its ow n little lo op, Increasing Its sta rtin g
nu m b er b y 1. u n til II g e ts to th e va lu e on Us r i g h t .
a n d chug* o n down th e line with each.
V ary sneaky way of d oin g a lo op.
However! II isn 't rea lly loopin g, e x ac tly .
What the Iota doea Is croa ie a one-dim ensional
a r r a y . a row o f Integ ers from 1 u p lo th* n um ber
o n Its r ig h t . T hla rea ult la what the n moves on
le ftw a rd .
WHERE TO GET IT
IBM d oe sn 't se ll APL s e rv i c e s . T h e ir time*
sh a ri n g APL is a v a ila b le . h o w e v e r. from v a rio u s
s u p p li e r s . Of c o u r s e , lh at meana you pro bably
hav e to have an IBM-type te rm in a l. u n le ss you find
a s e rv ic e lh at offers APL to Ihe o th e r h in d - - an
add itio n whic h seem s to be becoming fashionable .
Usual c h arg e la about te n bucke a n hour
o>nnect c h a r g e , g lu e p ro c e ssin g , whic h de pends
on w hai y o u 'r e ckilng. It can easily r u n o v e r $15
an h o u r , th ou gh , a n d more for heavy c ru n c h in g
o r p r in to u t. eo watch I t.
T h e aale sm an w ill come lo y o u r ho use o r
o fn c e . ve rify th at y o u r te rm inal w ill w o rk (or
te ll y o u w h ere you c an ren l o n e ) . p atiently show
yo u how to sign o n . le ach you th e la n gu ag e (or
maybe an h ou r if h e 's a nice g u y . sn d proffer
ihe c o n tra ct.
^A P L s e rv ic e s a r e prob ab ly sa fe r lo sig n
o n to . In lerm e of r is k e d e x p en se s. tha n moat oth er
tim e - sh a rin g s y ste m s. (Though of co u rse ell
tim e - sh a rin g Involves financia l r i s k . ) Because
th e syste m is r e s tric te d only an d exactly to APL.
y o u 'r e not pa ying for capabilities you w on 't be
u s in g , o r for m assive d isk s to ra g e (which y o u 'r e
not allow ed In moel APL a erv lce s a n y w a y ) . or
for a c r e s of co re memory you mlghl b e temple d
to f ill.
]n o th e r w o rd a . APL is a comparatively
str a ig h t p rop ositio n, sn d h ighly recom mended if
you ha v e a lol of tnalh o r sta tistics y o u'd like lo do
on a fairly small n u m b e r of e s s e s . Also good for
a v a rle ly of o the r th ln g a . th ou gh . Inclu ding fun .
Different v e n d o rs offer in te resting v srlslio n s
on IBM's baalc A P L \ 360 p ackag e, as note d b e lo w .
In o th e r w o rd s. th e y \o m p e le with each olhe r in
p a rt by a d ding fea tu res lo the baalc A P L \3 8 0 p r o
g r a m , v ying for y o u r b u sln e e s . Each of Ihe v e n
d o r s lis ted also o ffe rs v a rio us p ro gra m s In APL
you can u se interactiv ely al an IBM-type te rm inal,
In many c ase s u s in g a n o rd in ary lypeball and not
se e in g the funny c h a r a c te r ! ; though how c le a r and
e asy iheBe p ro gra m s a r e will v a ry .
And r em e m b e r. of c o u rse , th at yo u can do
y o u r own th in g . o r h a v e o lh e rs do II for y o u ,
u sin g APL.
APL Is also a vailable o n the PD P-10. and
presum ably o th e r non-IBM b ig m achines.
THE VENDORS
Scie ntific T im e -S h a rin g C orporation (7316 Wiscon
s in A v e .. Belh eada MD 20014) call s He
v e rsion A PL'PLUS. T hey 'll se n d you a
nic e pocket c a r d summ ariz ing the commends.
APL*PLUS offers o ver tw entyflve
co ncentrators a ro un d th e c o u n try , p e r
mitting lo cal-call se rvice s In suc h m etr o
politan c e n te rs aa Kalamazoo a nd R ochester.
(Firms with offices In both c itie s . ple ase
n ote.)
T hey also have en "AUTOSTART"
featu re w hic h perm lis Ihs c hainin g of pro
gram s Into g r a n d comple xes, so you don't
have lo call them all Individually.
APL*PLUS charges the following for
sto ra g e, if you can dig It: $10 PER MILLION
BYTE-DAYS. (A byte Is usually one
c h a r a c te r .) T he census Is pro bably taken
o nce a d a y .
T h is firm also se rv ice s ASCII te r
m in als. w hic h some people will con sider
to b e a b ig h e lp . Thai means you can have
Inte racli ve u a era of APL p rog ra m s at ASCII
te rm inals, and that you ean also program
from (he few APL terminelB lh at a r e n 't of
th e IBM t y p e .
Tim e Sha ring R e sou rce s. Inc. (17? N orthern B l v d ..
Great N eck. N .Y . 11022) offers a lot of APL
s e rv ic e . Includ ing text syetem s and verlo us
k in ds of file hen d lln g , u n d e r lhe name
TOTAL/APL.
Among the Interesting featu res
Time S h a rin g Reaourcee. Inc. have added
ia a n EXECUTE command, whic h allow s an
APL sir in g e n tered al the k e y bo ard In
u a a r o n -lin e mode to be executed as alraig ht
APL. T hla I b heavy.
P e rh ap s the most v e re atile-a o un dlng APL se rvice
rig h t now is offered b y . of all p e o p le . a
su b sid iary of th e American Can Com pany.
American Information Serv ices (Am erican
Lane. G re enw ic h CT 06630) c alls Iheir
v e rsio n VIRTUAL APL. meaning lh at It can
ru n In " v ir tu a l mem ory"-- a p opula r
mienomer for virtually unlim ited memory
and c onsequently lhe program m er Is h a rdly
subje ct to spa ee lim itations at a l l . M oreover,
f iles on th e A1S system a re com patible with
o the r IBM la n g u a g e s, so you c an use APL lo
iry things oul q uickly and th e n c o nv ert lo
Fortran, Cobol o r w h atev e r. ( O r. c o nv ersely ,
a company may go from those o lh e r la nguages
to APL wllhoul chang in g Ihe way th e ir files
a re sto red on th is s e r v i c e . ) APL may Indeed
In term it w ith th ese oth e r la n g u ag e s, how
is u n c lea r.
And th e p ric e s look especially good:
$8.75 a n h o u r c o n n ec t. f IS a m onlh minimum
(actu ally th e ir minimum d isk spa ce ren tal
- - 1 IBM c y lin d e r so for lhat am ount you
get a lot of s to r a g e ) . But rem em ber the re
a re etill c o re c h a r g e e , a nd $1 p e r thouaand
c h a r a c te r s prin te d o r tr a n s fe rr e d lo sto ra g e.
In the Weei. a b ig v e n d o r la P ro p rie tary Computer
Syste m s. I n c . . Van N u y s. California.
TERMINALS
F o r an APL term inal, yo u m ight Juat w anl a
2741 from IBM (about a h u n d r e d a m o n lh . b u t on a
y e a r c o n tra c t ) .
O r se e Ihe lis t u n d e r " T erm in a ls" ( p . \ H ) .
o r aak y o u r f rien d ly APL com pany when y ou s ig n u p .
Tw o m ore APL te rm inals m entioned he re
Inste ad of u n d e r "T erm inals" fo r no apeclal reason:
T ek tro n ix offers one o f ils gree n le g r a p h ic s
term inals (Bee n ip sid e ) to r APL (the model 4013).
T h is perm its APL to d raw p ic tu r e s for y o u . 11
seems lo be an ASCII-type u n i l .
Com puter D evices. Inc. su pp ose d ly makes an
an APL te rm in al u sin g the nic e NCR th erm al p r i n t e r .
w hic h Is much faster a n d q u ie te r lh an a mechanical
ty p e w rit e r . Spo o k ier, th o u g h . And lhe special
pa p er coals a lo t of money.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Iverson h a s a formal bo ok . Ig no re ll un le ss y o u 'r e
a mathematician: Kenneth E. Iverson.
A Program min g L ang uag e. Wiley. 1662.
Paul B e r r y . A P L \3 6 0 P r im e r . Slu dent T e n t.
A vailable "thro ug h IBM b r a n c h o ffices." or
IBM Technic al Publications Department.
112 East Post Road. While P lain s . NY 10601.
No IBM p ub lication nu m b er on It. whic h Is
so rt of o d d . 1966.
- + T h ls Is o ne o f lhe most beautifully
w ritte n , sim ple, clea r com pute r manuale
lhat Is lo be found. Such a sta te ment may
a stound r e a d e r s who have se en o lhe r IBM
m a n u als, but I t's Iru e .
A .D . Falkoff a nd K .E . I v e rso n . A P L \3 6 0 U sers'
M anual, AIbo a vailable from IBM. no
p ub lication num ber.
POCKET CARDS (giving v e ry com pressed sum
m a ries) a r e available from both:
Scie ntific Time S h a r in g Corp.
(see WHERE TO GET IT)
Technic al Publications D e p t., IBM,
112 Eesi Post Road. While
P lain s. N .Y . 10601.
ABk for APL Reference
Data card S210-0007-0. May
cost a q u a r te r o r something.
Paul B e r ry . A P L \ l l 3 0 P r im e r . Adeplcd from 360
m e n u al. Same p u b . Bui (o r v e rsion of APL
th a t r u n s on the IBM 1130 minicomputer.
Roy A . S y k e s . "The Use an d Mieuse of APL."
$2 from Scientific T im e -S h a ring C o r p . ,
7316 Wisconsin A v e .. Belheada MD 20014.
A Joker for you msth ( re e k s. T re n c h a rd More.
J r . . "Axioms and T heorem e for a T heory o(
A r r a y s ." IBM J o u rn al o( Reach- 4 D evi. .
MBi-ch 73. U S-157. T h is Is a h igh-le vel
th in g , a so rt of m assiv e eel theory of APL.
Intended lo make APL o p e ra to rs apply lo
a r r a y s of a r r a y s , and le ad ultim ately to the
prov ab ility o( p ro gram s.
"Get o n T arg e t with APL." A sug ge stiv e c irc u la r
sa les t h ln g y . IBM GS20-2439-0.
IBM has a vid eota ped c ourse In APL by A ,J . Rose.
(Done 1966.)
^ > W h a l you really need to gel elerted la B e r ry 's
Prim er. Felkoff end Iv erso n 's m anual, an d a pocket
c a r d . PIub of c ou rse lhe syetem an d the (riend to
Power a nd sim plicity do not oflen go t o g e th e r .
APL Ib an extrem ely powerful language for
methemallca, p h y sic s, sta tistic s , simulation
a n d so o n .
H ow ever, It Is not exactly sim ple. It's not easy
to d e b u g . Indeed. APL p ro gra m s s r e h a rd
to u n d e rsta n d becauee of th e ir d e n s ity .
And th e APL language doea not fit ve ry well on
APL ia not Just a prog ram m in g lang uage.
It le a lso u se d by some people a s a definition o r
deecrlpllon la n g u ag e , th at la , a form of notation
for sta lin g how thlnga w o rk (la w s of n a tu re ,
algeb raic sy ste m s, com pu lers o r w h s le v e r ) .
For In sta n c e , w hen IBM's 360 compute r
came o u l . Iv erson a n d his f rie n d s did a v e ry
h lg h -clae a a rtic le d e s c r ib in g formally in APL
Juat w hat 360s do (the m a chln e'e a rc h ite c tu r e ).
Bui of c o u rs e th is w as e v en le s s com prehensib le
lhan the 360 program m ing m a n u a l.
Falkoff. A . D .. K .E . Iv erao n and E ,H .
S u sae n gu lh . "A Formal Deecrtp don
o f S yete m /3 60." IBM System s J o u r n a l.
v . 3 no. 3, 1964.
The form al de scrip tio n in APL.
IBM System /3 60 O p eratin g System: A ssem ble r
C26-6S14-X ( w h e re X Is a num ber
sig nify in g th e la te st e d itio n ) . IBM
Technic al P u b lica tio ns, While Plalne
New Y o rk .
The M anual.

An a r r a y (a ls o c a ll e d a t a b l e ) la a se ctio n
or co r. m w . 1 * * 0 P W " <=
lo r I I* P " * " < P> f * m ' P lh s P ^ C E H Cl)
SPENCER is th e n am e o f I h e a r r a y , th e n SPENCER (1)
f . T . . m e m o ry . l o , in I I. S P ^ C E < 2 , I . Ihe
c ec o n tl. a n d . o o n u p lo h o w e v e r b ig it I . .
FAST-CHANCING DATA
O ne o f t h e u s e s of s u c h slr u c lu re s is in
s t r a n g e ty p e s o f p r o g ra m s w h ere Ihe Interconnec
tio n s o f in fo rm atio n a r e c h an g in g quic kly and
u n p r e d i c t a b l y . S u c h o p e ra tio n s happen fast In
c o r e m e m o ry . In t h i s k in d o f programming (for
w h ic h l a n g u a g e s lik e LISP. SNOBOL and TRAC
L a n g u a g e a r e e sp e c ia l ly c o n v e n ie n t), th e pointers

jW A ^TPO CTO ^ a r e c h a n g e d b a c k a n d forth In c ore memory, every

w h ic h w a y , all th e lim e . Presum ably according to
Ihe p r o g r a m m e r 's fie n d ish m a ste r plan -- if he's
go tte n th e b u g s o u t . (See D eb ug gin g, p . 3 0 ,)
IM F O R M P 0 * 1 i c t v r s

O n e o f th e commonest a n d most d e s tr u c ti v e
rov t h . a b o u t c o m p u te rs Is the Idea th a t th e y "o nly
" e l w ith n u m b e r s . " T h is Is TOTALLY FA L S E .
Not o nly Is i t a gh a stly m is u n d e r s ta n d in g , b u t It is
often an I n ten tio n al m is re p re s e n ta tio n , a n d a s s u c h ,
not o nly i s It s m is re p re se n ta tio n b u t It Is s d sm n e d
l ie . a n d a n y o n e w h o telle il Is u s in g " m ath em a tic s"
a s s w et n oo dle to b e at th e r e s d e r w ith .
C o m p u te r s deal w ith sy m bo ls s n d p a t t e r n s .
C o m p u te r s de al w ith sym b ols o f a n y K ind-*
l e t t e r s , m u sic a l n o te s . C h in ese id e o g ra m s , a r r o w s .
le e c re a m f la v o r s , an d of c o u rs e n u m b e r s . (Num
b e r s com e a lso In v a rio u s f la v o r s , s im p le e n d
b a r o q u e . S e e choeola te b o a , p. 2.1 .
Data s t r u c t u r e m eans a n y sym b o ls s n d p a t
t e r n s Bet u p f o r u se In a c o m p u te r. It m e an s w hat
t h in g s a r e b e in g ta k e n in to a cc o u n t b y a c o m p u te r
p r o g ra m , a n d how th e se t h in g s a re se t u p w h at
sy m b o ls a n d a rr a n g e m e n ts a r e u s e d to r e p r e s e n t
them .
T h e p r o b le m , obvio u sly . Is R e p r e s e n tin g
T h e In fo rm a tio n You Want J u s t T h e Way Y ou Want ft.
In all Us t r u e c o m p le x itie s.
FANCY FILES
But th e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e not restric te d to
(You c an g e t a feel f o r ho w t h is o r d in - d a ta in c o re m e m o r y . C om plex a n d changeable
s r i l y r e la te s lo in p u t from o u t s i d e - - s e e "How f iles c an b e k e p t o n d i s k in v a rio u s ways by the
D ata C o m e s. C o e s , s n d S i t s , " n e a r b y . ) sam e k in d o f th r e a d i n g (called "chaining " on mass
s to r a g e ) .
T h e c o n te n ls of a n u m e r i c a l f i e l d , o r
p ie c e o f d a ta c o m in g I n , c a n sim p ly b e stu ffed CHAINED FILE ON DISK
b y Ihe p r o g ra m m e r in to a v a r i a b l e .
T h e c o n te n ts o f a r e c o r d , o r un ifie d
s e l of fieldB . c a n ge t p u l in to a n s r r s y . T he
p r o g ra m c a n th e n p ic k in to it f o r s e p a r a t e
v a r ia b le s , 1/ d e s i r e d , o r j u s t le a v e them
t h e r e to b e w o rk e d o n .
T h e n y o u tw id d le y o u r v a r ia b le s w ith
y o u r pro g ra m s s d e s i r e d .
A n o th e r w ay o f h a n d lin g c h an g e ab le file s is
When y o u 'v e d o n e o n e r e c o r d , yo u th r o u g h s ao -c aJJe d d i r e c t o r y b lo c k , which keeps
r e p e s l. T h a is how lots of b u s i n e s s p r o g ra m s t r s c k o f w h e r e a ll t h e o lh e r b lo c k s a re sto r e d .
g o. Some o th e r r o u tin e k i n d s , too.
FANCY STRUCTURES ifo tt
Many form s o f a d v a n c e d p ro g ra m m i n g are
b a s e d on Ihe id e a th a t t h i n g s d o n t h a v e lo be s to r e d I M .J f.k
n e x t lo e ac h o t h e r , o r In a n y p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r .

If th in g s a r e n 't n e m to e a c h o l h e r . we n e ed B ut th e se te c h n i q u e s , y o u s e e . may be used

a n o th e r w ay Ih e p r o g ra m c a n te ll how th e y b e lon g
t o g e th e r.
A p o in te r . t h e n - - so m e tim e s c a lle d a lln k - -
1s s pie ce of d a ta th a t te lle w h e r e a n o th e r p ie c e of
d a ta I s, In som e form of m em ory . P o i n te r s often
c on nec t p ie ce s o f d a la .
In b o th fast a n d slo w o p e r a t i o n s , a n d for any pur*
p o s e . so t r y in g lo c a te g o ri z e th e m te n d s not to be
h e lp fu l. (Note a lso th a t ih e se te c h n iq u e s w ork
w h e t h e r y o u 'r e d e a li n g w ith b i t s , o r c h a r a c te r s ,
o r a n y o lh e r form o f d a t a .)

P o inter

if
A p o in te r c a n b e a n a d d r e s s in c o r e m em ory; il
' p ie c e ]
) a ta |

( T h is Is often f o rb id d in g ly s ta te d a s "m ak ing
a m athe m atica l model"*- b u t t h a t 's u s u a lly in lite
r h e t o r i c a l , fa r -f e tc h e d a n d s s t r s l s e n s e in w h ich
a ll r e la tio n s a r e " m athem atical a n d l e t t e r s of Ihe
a lp h a b e t a r e c o n sid e r e d lo be s sp e cia l d is to rte d
k in d of n u m b e r . )
c a n b e an a d d r e s s on d is k (d l s k p o i n l e r )i It can
p o in t to a w hole s t r i n g e t d a ta . s u c h s s a n a m e .
w hen th e re is n o w ay o f k n o w in g in a d v s n c e how
lo ng ihe s tr i n g may b e (s l r i n g p o l n t e r ) .
A s e r i e s of p ie c e s o f d a ta w h ic h point to each
o th e r in s c o n tin u in g s e q u e n c e i s c a lle d s th r e a d e d

Now it h a p p e n s th at th e re a re m an y k in d s of
d a ta s t r u c t u r e , a n d th e y a r e In te r c h a n g e a b le in
in tr ic a t e w a y s.

T h e sam e d s ta . w ith a ll its r e la tio n s h ip s s n d

i n t r i c a c i e s , c s n be se l up in a v a st v a r i e t y o f a r
ra n g e m e n t s a n d a ty le s w h ich a r e i n s i d e - o u t and
u p s id e - d o w n v e rs io n s o f e s c h o th e r. T h e sam e
th in g ( s a y . th e s e ri a l n u m b e r. 24965, of a n a uto
m o b ile) may be r e p r e s e n te d in o n e d s ta s tr u c t u r e
by a s e t o f sy m bo ls (such a s Ihe de cim al d ig its
2. 4 , 9 . 6 . S in Ih st o r d e r ) , sn d in a n o th e r d sla
s t r u c t u r e b y th e position of so m e th in g e ls e (su ch
as t h e 24965th n am e in a iis l of autom ob ile o w n e r s
r e g i s t e r e d w ith Ihe m a n u fa c tu re r) .
F u r t h e r m o r e . many d ifferen t form s o f d a ta
may b e co m b in e d o r tw isted to g e th e r in th e sam e
o v e ra ll s e t u p .
F or th is r e a s o n Ihe h a n d lin g o f d a ta h e ld to g e th e r
by p o in te r s - - e v e n th o u g h it m ay m ake all s o r ts of
Note: By d e c e n t s t a n d a r d s Of E n g lis h ,
d ifferen t p s l t e r n s - ' is c alled l is t p r o c e s s i n g . (The the w o rd da la sh o u ld be p lu r a l , datu m s i n
(T h e te rm " list p r o c e s s in g m ig h t seem to go a-
g u la r. Bul ihe m a tte r i s too far gone: d a ta
g a in sl common s e n s e , a s it m igh t su g g e s t som e th in g is now u tte rly s in g u l a r , lik e " c o r n an d
lik e . s a y . a la u n d ry li s t , w h ic h is s t r u c t u r e d in a
" in fo rm a tio n." a g r a n u la r co llective w hic h
v e ry sim ple b lo c k lik e form . But th a t 's w h al we may b e sco o ped, p o u r e d o r co u n ted .
calf i t . )
But I d raw Ih e lin e al m e d ia . Media
Prom inent l i s t- p r o c e s s i n g la n g u a g e s inc lu de a re m a ny , "m edia" i s plural!
SNOBOLi I 6 a nd LISP ( se e p - 3 1 > T h e r e i s s r g u -
m enl a s to w h e th e r TRAC L a n g u a g e ia a l is t- p r o c
e s s in g la n g u ag e .

T h e d s ta s tr u c tu r e c h o s e n g oe s a lo n g w ay
in im p o s in g te c h n iq u e s a n d s ty l e s o f o p e r a tio n on H ere a r e some I n te r e s tin g s t r u c t u r e s th a t
Uie p r o g r a m . p r o g ra m m e rs c re a te b y lis t p r o c e s s in g :

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e co m p u te r la n g u a g e
you u s e h a s a c o n sid e r a b le efTect u po n t h e d a ta
s t r u c t u r e s y o u may ch o o se. L an g u a g es t e n d to
Impose s ty l e s o f h a n d lin g In fo rm a tio n . T h e d e c i
sio n to p r o g r a m a give n p ro b lem in a s p e c if ic la n
g u a g e . s u c h a s BASIC o r COBOL o r APL o r TRAC
L a n g u a g e . e ith e r locks y ou in to s p e c if ic ty p e s of
d s ta s t r u c t u r e , o r e n e r is c o n s id e r a b le p r e s s u r e lo
do it s c e r t a i n w a y . In most c ase a y ou c a n 't s e t It
u p Ju st a n y w ay yo u w a n t, b u t h a v e to a d ju a t to
Ihe l a n g u a g e y ou a re u s in g - - a ltho ug h to d a y 's
la n g u a g e s te n d to allow more a n d m o re t y p e s of
d a ta.
RINGS (o r c y c le s ) . T h e s e a r e a rr a n g e m e n ts
o f p o in te r s th a t go a ro u n d in a c ir c l e to th e ir f irst
item a g a in . " C om p ute rs p u t e v e r y t h i n g into p i g e o n h o le s .''
W rong. Pe op le p u t t h in g s into p i g e o n
h o le s. And d e s i g n e r s o f c o m p u te r p r o g r a m s
c a n se t u p lo usy p ig e o n h o le s . If y o u le t 'e m .
More s o p h is tic a te d p ro g ra m m i n g c a n often
a v oid p ig e o n h o le s e n t i r e l y .
T RE E S. T h e s e a r e s t r u c t u r e s lh a t fan o u t .
( T h e r e a r e n o r in g s in a tr e e s t r u c t u r e , te ch n ica lly
sp e a k in g .)

P l a i n l y . t h e n , It is th e s e o v e ra ll s t r u c t u r e s
th a l w e r e a lly c a r e about; b u t to u n d e r s t a n d o v e r
all s t r u c t u r e s , we n e e d an Id ea o f all th e d ifferen t
form s o f d a ta th a t may be p u t in th e m .
VARIABLES AND ARRAYS
T h e e a r lie a t d a ta s tr u c t u r e s in c o m p u t e r s ,
a n d s ti ll th e p re d o m in a tin g o n e a , e r e v a r ia b le s a n d
a r r a y s . (We met them e a r l i e r u n d e r BASIC , s e e
{P-lfc-17' a n d A P L , s e e q . ) GRAPH STRUCTURES ( so m e tim e s c alled
A v a r i a b l e i s a sp a c e o r lo catio n in c o re
m e m ory. ( F o r c o n v e n ie n c e , m ost p r o g ra m m in g
l a n g u a g e s allow th e p r o g ra m m e r to c all a v a r ia b le
b y a n a m e , s o th a t h e d o e sn 't h a v e to k e e p t r a c k
of ita n u m e r i c a l a d d r e a s .)
/ \
o n n _ n
People w ho w a n t to feel With It
o c ca sio n ally u s e th e te rm "bU " for
a n y old c h u n k of in fo rm atio n , lik e a
n am e o r a d d r e a s . T h i s is W ron g.
p l e x e s ) . H ere the w o rd " g r a p h i s n ot u s e d in the A Bit i s th e s m a lle s t p ie e e of b in a ry
o r d i n a r y w a y , to m ean a d ia g ra m m a tic s o r t o f p ic I n fo rm a tio n , an Item lh a t c a n b e one
of tw o th in g B , lik e h e a d s o r t a ils ,
tu r e , b u t to m ean a n y s t r u c t u r e o f c o n n e c te d
X o r O , o n e o r ze ro ; a n d a ll o lh e r
p o in ts . R ing s a nd t r e e s a r e s p e c ia l c a s e s of g r a p h
in fo rm ation c a n b e p a c k e d in to a
s tru c tu re s.
c o u n tab le n u m b e r o f b i t s . (How many
may d e p e n d o n t h e d a ta s t r u c t u r e
c h o s e n .)

A s a h a n d y r u l e of thumb:
e v e r y le tte r of th e a lp h ab e t o r p u n c
tu a tio n m a rk la e ig h t b its (ae e ASCII
b o x ) ; f o r h e a v y s to r a g e of e v er y d a y
decim al n u m b e r s , e v e r y nu m e rica l
d ig it c a n b e f u r t h e r p a c k e d d ow n (to
G ra p h s t r u c t u r e s
f o u r b its in BCD c o d e ) .
c a n go a n y w h ic h w a y .
 A CONCRETE EXAMPLE. S u p p o s e we w an t
to r e p r e s e n t th e g e n e a lo g y o f (he m o n a rc h s o f Eng*
E n g la n d , bo f a r a s Is k n o w n . In a c o m p u te r da ta
S t r u c t u r e . NOTE THAT A DATA STRUCTURE IS
DIFFERENT FROM A PROGRAM: If s e v e r a l p r o g ra m -
m e re a g r e e b e fo r e h a n d o n a d a ta s t r u c t u r e . th e n
( h e y c a n go s e p a r a t e w a y s a n d e a c h c a n w rite a
p r o g ra m (o d o so m e th in g d if f e r e n t w ith it If th e y
h a v e r e a lly a g r e e d o n a com plete a n d e x a c t la y o u t,
w h ic h th e y may o n ly th in k th e y 'v e do n e .
F i r s t we c o n s id e r th e s u b je c t m a tte r . G en
e alo g y Is c o n c e p tu a lly sim p le to u s , b u t a s d a ta
i s n o l a s tr iv i a l a s It m ig h t se em a t f i r s t . E v ery
p e r s o n h a s tw o p a r e n ts a n d a s p e c if ic d a te of b i r t h .
Each p a i r o f p a r e n ts c a n h a v e m o re th a n o ne c h ild ,
an d In d iv id u a l p a r e n ts c a n at d iffe re n t tim es a h a r e
p a re n th o o d w ith d if f e r e n t o th e r I n d iv id u a ls .
P r e s u m a b ly we w o u ld like a d a ta s tr u c tu r e
th a l allo w s a p r o g ra m to f ln d o u t w ho w as a g iv e n
p e r s o n 's p a r e n t , w ho w e r e a g iv e n p e r s o n 'a c h il
d r e n , w hat b ro th e rs a n d s iste rs each p e rso n h a d ,
a n d s im ila r m a tte rs (so f a r a s is kn ow n b y h is t o r
ia n s - - a n o th e r d if f ic u lty ).
Note th a t Juat b e c a u s e It ia sim p le to p u t th is
In form a tio n in a w all c h a r t , lh at d o e s n ot m ean ll
la s im p le to f ig u r e out a n a d e q u a te d a ta s t r u c t u r e .
N ote to o . th a l a n y a s p e c t o f th e d a ta w h ic h
Is le ft o u t c a n n o t th e n b e h a n d le d b y Ihe p r o g r a m .
W hat's n ot th e r e i s nol t h e r e .
T h e e a s y w ay o u l Is to u se a la n g u a g e lik e ,
s a y , TRAC L an g u a g e , a n d u se Its b a s ic u n its (In
t h is c a s e , "fo rm a 11) lo m ak e u p a d a ta s tr u c t u r e
w h o se i n d iv i d u a l s e c tio n s w ou ld sh ow p a r e n ta g e ,
d a l e a , b r o t h e r s a n d s l a t e r s an d s o o n .
T h e b r a v e r a p p r o a c h ie to tr y to a et it up
f o r so m e th in g lik e FORTRAN o r BASIC, la n g u a g e s
w h ic h t r e a t c o re m em ory m ore lik e a n u m e ric a lly -
a d d r e s s e d a r r a y o r b l o c k , a s doee ro ck -b otto m
m a ch in e la n g u a g e .
Let ue assu m e th a t we h a v e d e c id e d to u s e
an a r r a y - t y p e da ta s t r u c t u r e , f o r In sta n c e to go
w ith a p r o g r a m In th e BASIC la n g u a g e on a 16-
b lt m in ic o m p u te r . We d o not h a v e m u ch room
in c o re m e m o r y , so for e ac h p e rs o n In o u r da ta
s t r u c t u r e w e a r e g o in g lo ha ve to s to r e a s e p a
r a te r e c o r d on a d i s k m e m o r y , a n d call It into
c o re m em o ry a s r e q u i r e d .
A fte r m uch h e a d - s c r a t c h i n g , we m igh t
come u p w ith so m e th in g lik e th e fo llo w in g . It
la n o t a v e r y good d a la s t r u c t u r e . It la no t a
v e ry g oo d d a la s t r u c t u r e o n p u r p o a e .
It u s e s a bloc k o f 28 w o r d s , o r 448 b its ,
p e r i n d i v i d u a l , not c o u n lin g th e le n g th o f h is
n a m e , w h ic h Is an a d d itio n a l 6 b its p e r c h a r
a c te r o r s p a c e . H o w e v e r, th is In I tse lf Is n e i
t h e r go od n o r b a d . I t's more lh a n y o u might
e x p e c t, b u t le s s th a n y o u m ight n e e d .
( I n c id e n ta lly , o ut o f c o n ce rn for sto r a g e
s p a c e , some d a ta flelda s r e p a c k e d more th a n
on e lo e 16-blt c o m p u te r w o rd . T h is Is s c o r n
f u lly c a lle d b it- f id d lin g b y c o m pu te rfo lk who
w o rk o n b ig m a chln ea a n d d o n 't h a v e to w o rr y
a b o u t s u c h m a tte r s .)
1 m o na rc h n o . (If a n y )
I n d iv id u a l's ow n 2 se rial ho.
(n am e ) 3, a tri n g p o in te r -------------
4 (tw o 16-b it w o rd s lo n g ) 0 p ly s e l a p a r t i c u l a r b it to 1 in th e s e r i a l n u m b e r
m o ther 5 . s e r i a l no.. _
f a th e r 6 1 a e r ia l n o . _ d a le s a n d g e n e a lo g ie s lh a l a r e r e g a r d e d a s u n
b ro th ers 7 ^ s e r ia l no.
(u p to flv e) 6 1
9 : * lon gtim e r e s e a r c h o f one A nalol H o lt, who
10 i b e tr o u b le so m e .
ll : m e m o r y . a nd a ls o , c o n v e n ie n tly , s H eb rew
sisters 12 s e ri a l n o .
( u p lo fiv e) 13 , d e a li n g w ith c om plex d a ta ; p e r h a p s y ou c a n b e
14
15
16 . ----------------
da le of l e t r e i g n , if any 17 _ s l e r t Q l b ite ) | n o . months^
da te o f 2d r e i g n . If any 18 :__ s t a r t (11 b i t s ^ i n o . month s
female c h ild r e n . 19 ' se rial no.
u p to flve 20 | THE FRONTIER: COMPLEX FILE STRUCTURE
21 I : h e a r It for t u r n in g R u ss ell on h is h e a d .
22 <
H era a r e some a ae u m p tio n s 1 h a v e e m b od ied
I n th ia d a la s t r u c t u r e . T h a t i s , I h a d th e m In
m in d . ( T h e p a r t s y o u d i d n 't h a v e In m in d a re
w h at get y o u l a t e r . )
P a r e n ts a n d c h ild r e n o f m o n a rc h a
a r e in c lu d e d , a s w ell a s
m o n a rc h a .
All m o n a rc h s ha ve a s e p a r a t e m o n
a rc h n u m b e r.
No m o n a rc h r e ig n e d m o re th a n
tw ic e . (?)
No m o n a rc h o r p a r e n t of a m o n a rc h
h a d m o re th a n flv e c h ild r e n
of one sex . (Note th e d a n g e r
o f th e s e a s s u m p tio n s .)
We a r e no t i n te r e s t e d In g r a n d c h i l
d r e n o f m o n a rc h s u n le s s th e y
a r e a lso m o n a rc h a . o r a lb lin g s .
o r p a r e n t s o f m o n a rc h a .
T h e in fo rm atio n a bo ut the d iffe re n t
p e o p le c an b e I n p u t in an y
o r d e r , a s th e y e a r s o f r e ig n
c a n b e ste p p e d t h r o u g h b y a
p r o g r a m lo And the o r d e r of
re ig n . " T h e r a is a g r o w in g fee lin g th at d a ta p r o c e s s in g p e o ple
w o u ld b e n efit if th e y w e r e to a cc ep t a r a d ic a l ly new
If th ia se em s lik e too much b o th e r , th a l is
p o in t of v ie w , on e th a t w ou ld lib e r a te Ihe a p p lic a tio n
In a w ay the p o in t. D ata s tr u c tu r e s m ust be
p r o g r a m m e r 's th in k i n g from the c e n tr a l is m o f c o re
th o u g h t o u t . S in c e c o m p u le rs h a v e no I n tr in s ic
s t o r a g e a n d allow him th e freedom lo a ct a s a n a v ig a
w ay of o p e r a tin g o r of h a n d lin g d a ta (tho ug h
to r w ith in a d a ta b a s e . T h la r e o r le n ta l lo n w ill
p a r t i c u l a r la n g u a g e s w ill r e s t r ic t y ou in p a r t i c
c a u s e a s much a n g u is h am ong p r o g ra m m e rs a6 th e
u l a r w a y s ) , yo u w ill h a v e to w o rk a ll Ih ls o u t,
h e lio c e n tr ic th e o ry d id am on g a ncie n t a s tr o n o m e r s a nd
a n d a c a r e l e s s l y c h o s e n d a la s t r u c t u r e w ill le a v e t h e o lo g i a n s .
s o m e th in g o u t. o r fail to d is t in g u is h am o ng im
C h a r le s W. Bachm an
p o r ta n t d if f e r e n c e s , o r o th e rw is e h a v e Its r e v e n g e .
(p iec e c ite d in B i b lio g r a p h y )
(F o r i n s t a n c e , if y o u h a v e n 't n o tic e d yel:
we le ft o u t le g itim a c y . F o r many p u r p o s e s we
w an t lo know w h ic h k i n g s w ere b a s t a r d s . )
(Self-teBl: i s flv e b its lo n g e n o u g h to e x
p r e s s Ihe g r e a te s t n u m b e r of m o nths a n y E n g lish
m o n a rc h r e ig n e d ? - - se e " B in a ry P a t t e r n s . " O r
do we h a v e to fix t h is d a ta s t r u c t u r e on th a t R em em ber th e s o n g th a t had
a p o in te r d a ta s tr u c tu re ?
s c o re a lso ? )
( in a lp h a b e tic a l o r d e r )
T o g iv e yo u a s e n s e of the s o r t of p r o g ra m
th is d a la s tr u c t u r e allow s: ANKLE BONE
BACK BONE
A p r o g ra m lo a s c e r t a in how many k in g s FOOT BONE
w ere th e s o n s of k in g s w ould look a l e ac h e n try ----- > H t A U BONE
th a t h a d a m o n a rc h n u m b e r , te at w h e t h e r th e HIP BONE
m o n a rc h w as m a le , a n d i f m ale, w ould look al KNEE BONE
th e m ale p a r e n t 's s e r i a l n u m b e r. T h e n It w ould NECK BONE
look u p lh a t p a re n t'B e n t r y , a n d se e w h e t h e r il SHIN BONE
in tu r n h a d a m o n a rc h n u m b e r , a nd if s o . add SHOULDEII B<
on e lo t h e c o u n t it w as m a k in g . T h e n il would THIGH BONE
go b a c k to the e n lry il h a d b e e n loo king a l.
a n d s te p on to the o n e a fte r th a t.
T h i s is a ctu a lly a p re tty lo u sy d a la s t r u c
t u r e . T h e c lu m s in e s s o f th is a p p ro a c h to s u c h
d a ta - - a n d y ou a r e w elcome to th in k o f a b e tte r
o n e - - s h o w s some o f Ih e d ifficu ltie s of h a n d lin g
com plex d a la a bo ut th e r e a l w o rl d . T h in g s like
le n g th s o f na m es a n d n u m b e rs o f r e la tiv e s p r o
d u c e g r e a t i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , bu t m ake th e s e k in d s
of d a ta n o le s s w o rth o f o u r a tte n tio n .
Malcolm C . H a r r is o n , D s ia -S tr u c tu r e s a n d
P r o g r a m m in g . S c o n , F o r e sm a n . 1973.
We c o uld a d d lotB o f th in g s to o u r da la
s t r u c t u r e (a n d so m ak e il more u n w ie ld y ) . For
- T h is book c a n be r ec o m m e n ded to
, a e In
x -s ta
- (nl cbel, we m igh t w a n t to m a rk e ach s e r i a l a m b itio u s b e g i n n e r s . It h a s u se fu l s u m
n u m b e r sp e c ia lly if it r e f e r r e d to som eone w ho
m a ri e s o f d iffe re n t la n g u a g e s , a s w ell as
w as Ihe o f fs p r in g o f a m o n a rc h . We c ou ld s im
fu n d am e n ta l tre a tm e n t of d a ta s t r u c t u r e s
a s Ihey In te r tw in e w ith s p e c if ic ls n g u e g e s .
for th em (ca lle d a f la g o r la g ) . We c o u ld a lso fla g
An o b s c u r e a n d in tr ic a t e stud y of th e in t e r -
c e r ta i n . T h e r e is n o lim it lo th e e x a c tn e s s an d
c h a n g e a b ility o f d a la s t r u c t u r e s - - how Ihey
c o m p le x ilv w ith w h ic h in form ation may b e r e p
fu n d am e n ta lly in te r c o n v e r t h a s b e e n th e
r e s e n te d , But d o in g ll rlg h l c a n . a s a lw a y s ,
callB h is w o rk M e m -T h e o ry , Mem la from
A lo t o f c o m p u te r pe o ple w an l to avoid
l e tte r .
g in to s e e w h y . o u t w e m ust d e al w ith lh e
T h is Is an e x tre m e ly a m bitiou s s t u d y ,
tr u e c o m p le x itie s o f in fo rm atio n ; th e re f o re la n
a s it in p r in c ip le e m b ra c e s n o l Ju s t m u ch
g u a g e s a n d s y ste m s lh a l allow c om ple x in fo rm a
o r a ll of c o m p u te r s c ie n c e , b u t p e r h a p s
tio n s t r u c t u r e s m ust becom e b e lte r - k n o w n a n d
m a the m atics Itse lf. Math f r e a k s a tte n tio n :
e a s ie r lo u s e .
Holt h a s sa id he in te n d e d to d e riv e a ll of
sy m b o lic logic a n d m ath em atics from
r e la tio n a a n d p o in te r s t r u c t u r e s . L e t's
T h e a rr a n g e m e n ts o f w hole f lie s g r o u p s

m ale c h i l d r e n .
24 U -
, se rial n o .
- o f r e c o r d s o r o lh e r info c h u n k s - - s r e u p to th e
p r o g r a m m e r . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f flleB I s c a ll e d ,
I d o n 't know if Holt h a s p u b lis h e d
a n y th in g on it in t h e op en l i t e r a t u r e o r n o t.
u p lo flve 25 | nol s u r p r i s i n g l y , file s t r u c t u r e , a n d It Is u p lo
26 I : th e p r o g ra m m e r to d e c id e how hla file s sh o u ld H o w ev e r, h e d oe s h a v e a gam e
27 | be a r r a n g e d . a v a ila b le w h ic h se em s w e ird ly to em body
28 I ---------------------------J th e s e p r in c i p le s . T h e game o f Mem Is
H a b its d ie h a r d . T h e notion of s e q u e n c e - - a v a ila b le for $6.5 0 p o stp a id ($ 6 .8 6 to
A s e x p la in e d a l r e a d y . th a t w a s th e b a s ic e v e n f a l s e , im p o s ed s e q u e n c e Is d e e p In Ihe P e n n s y lv a n ia n s ) from S t e ll e d a r, I n c . .
b lo c k . We s till h a v e lo ke ep th e n a m es so m e r a c ia l u n c o n s c io u s of c o m p u te r p e o p le . An i n t e r 1700 Walnut S t . . P h lla . PA 19103. It h a s
w h e r e , In a s tr i n g a r e a . W h eth er lo k e e p th la e s t i n g c o n c r e te te rm sh o w s th is n ic e l y . B e ca use b e a u ti fu ll y c o lo re d p le c e a , lo o ks d e c e p tiv e
I n c o re a ll th e tim e, o r on d i s k . Is a d e c isio n c o m p u te r p e o p le o f te n th in k an y file s h o u ld h ave ly s im p le , a n d Is u n lik e a n y th in g , e x c e p t
w e n e e d n 't g o Into h e r e . a b a s ic s e q u e n c e , (h ey u s e Ihe te rm in v e r t e d d i s c r e t e a b a lr a c tiv e th in k in g its e lf . Recom
f ile fo r a file th a t h a s b e e n c h a n g e d from its

m-MSN (riM on u ttW evew term s

b a s ic s e q u e n c e (o a n o th e r s e q u e n c e . B ut in c r e a s
i n g l y , a ll th e s e q u e n c e s a r e fala e a n d a r ti f i c i a l .
W here now a r e I n v e r te d flies? All flle a s r e In
v e r te d If t h e y 'r e a n y th in g .
m e n d ed .

C h a r le s W. B a chm an. " T h e P ro g ram m er a s N av i

g a t o r . " CACM Nov 1973.

Bachm an w a s th e p rim e m o v e r In the

F o r t u n a t e l y , th e f in al f ro n t ie r o f d a ta
s t r u c t u r e la now I n c r e a s in g ly r e c o g n iz e d a s th e
c o n tro l o f com plex s t o r a g e o f f lie s on d i s k mem
o r y . T h e la te st fa n c y te rm f o r th is Is d a ta b a se
s y a le m . m e an in g p la n n e d - o u t o v e ra ll s to r a g e lh al
yo u c a n se n d y o u r p r o g r a m s to lik e m e s s e n g e r s .
d e v elo p m en t of l a r g e lin k e d d i s k d a la s y s
te m s at G e n e ra l E le ctric ; h e la th e P io n e e r.
T h i s is a bout b ig n - d lm e n slo n a l s tu f f .
D av id L efk o v itz. F ile S t r u c tu r e s to r O n-L in e
S y s te m s . S p a r ta n - H a y d e n Bo ok s, $12.

T h e facl th a t IBM now h a s moved in to th is A lfonso F . C a r d e n a s . "E valu a tio n of File O r g a n

a r e a (w ith Its I n tr ic a te " a c c e s s m e th o d s" a n d all
t h e i r I n itia la ) m e an s c o m p lex s to r a g e c o n tro l has
filia lly a r r i v e d , a lth o u g h th e p io n e e r in g w o rk
w aa d o n e b y B achm an at GE som e y e a r 6 ag o
(ae e b ib li o g r a p h y ) . T ill th e la s t few y e a r a ,
e x te r n a l s to r a g e , w ith p o in te r s a n d e v e r y th in g ,
h a s n o t b e e n c o n v e n ie n tly u n d e r the p r o g ra m m e r's
c o n tro l e x c e p t in c r u d e w a y s . F inally we a r e
s e e in g s y s te m s b e g in n in g lo ge l a ro u n d th a t
a u to m a tic ally h a n d le c om plex file s t r u c t u r e s in
v e r s a t i l e w ay s th a t p r o g ra m m e ra c a n u s e more
e a s il y .
iz a t io n - - a Model a n d S y s te m ." CACM
S e p 7 3. 540-548. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , it
t u r n s o ut th a l d if f e r e n t file o rg a n iz a t io n s
h a v e d if f e r e n t a d v a n ta g e s .
E d g a r H . Sibley a n d R o b e rt W. T a y l o r . "A D ata
D efin it io n a n d M app in g L a n g u a g e ." CACM
D ec 73. 750-759.
E xam ple of c u r r e n t so p h is t ic a te d
a p p ro a c h e s : a w h ole la n g u a g e fo r n a ilin g
t h e d a ta Ju sl th e w ay it sh o u ld b e . H as
h e lp fu l f u r t h e r c ita tio n s.

ITM
S o n e n n ts n h a s to b e f o r th e c o m p u t e r . In t h e w o r s t c a s e s
D ata u s u a lly h a s to b e m a r s h a l l e d Into
r o w s , o r e v e n r e g im e n ts a n d b a t t a l i o n s , be fo r e
It c a n g o In to a c o m p u te r.
(So m e p e o p le Ju s t g e t t h e i r d a t a i n to a
c o m p u te r b y s it tin g a t a te rm in a l s n d ty p i n g
it I n . p e r h a p s a n s w e r in g q u e s tio n s t y p e d to them
b y a f r o n t - e n d p r o g r a m . But t h e y 'r e th e lu c k y
o n e s . Most o f u s h a v e lo ge l th e d a t a s e l up
on so m e Kin d o f h o ld in g s u r f a c e b e f o r e i l g e ts
fed I n . T h a t 's an I n p u t m e d iu m . )
DATA MEDIA
A d a l a m edium ( "m ediu m " Is t h e s i n g u l a r
o f " m e d i a " ) Is a n y th in g th a l h o ld s Ihe m a r k s of
d a ta o u t s i d e Ihe c o re m em ory of a c o m p u i e r .
T h u s p u n c h e d c a r d s a n d p u n c h e d p a p e r lape
may b e u s e d aa In p u t m e d i a . u s e d f o r p u tti n g
In fo r m a tio n Into a c o m p u te r. (E ach m e diu m
n e e d s a c o r r e s p o n d i n g I n p u t o r o u tp u t d e v i c e ,
to w h i s k a c r o s s th e a u rf a c e a n d I r a n a l a le it s
m a r k s o r h o le s Into t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e le c tr o n ic
p u lse s.)
T h e r e a r e th r e e t y p e s of d a ta m edia ;
In p u t, o u t p u t a n d s to r a g e m e d ia . A n in p u t
m e d iu m c a r r i e s th e d a la I n . A n o u tp u t m ediu m
r e c e i v e s th e r e s u l ts o f a p r o g r a m ; f o r i n s t a n c e ,
a s h e e t o f p a p e r coin in g o u t o f a p r i n t i n g d e v ic e
Is a n o u t p u t m ed iu m , a s Is a p u n c h e d c a r d o r
p u n c h e d p a p e r tap e.
S t o r a g e media a r e o u tp u t m e d ia t h a t may
be u s e d a s in p u t media la t e r o n . T h u s p u n c h e d
c a r d s a n d p u n c h e d p a p e r la p e c a n b e s to r a g e
m e d ia . B u l Ih e b e t t e r s to r a g e m e dia u s e m a g
n e tic r e c o r d i n g (w h ich Is f a s t e r a n d l e s s b u l k y ) ,
lik e m a g n e t ic ta p e a n d d i s k s , o r Ju s t p la in
" d i s k s " a s w e g e n e r a ll y call the m . (S e e f u lle r
lis t o f m a g m e d ia u n d e r " P e r i p h e r a l s . " p . 5 7 )
T h e u n i t s a n d a r r a n g e m e n ts of d a l a u s e d
fo r i n p u t . o u tp u t an d s to r a g e a r e In p r i n c i p l e
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y ih e tr u e o n e s of th e d a l a s t r u c t u r e
u s e d b y th e p r o g r a m . T h e b lo c k s a n d r e c o r d s
o f s t o r a g e , f o r i n s t a n c e , may h a v e i r r e g u l a r
d a ta w i t h p o in le r e sit tin g in th e m . ( U n f o r tu n
a te ly t h e r e i s so m e c a r r y o v e r , in t h a t p r o g r a m
m e r s a r e te m p te d to u se d s t a s t r u c t u r e s w h ic h
a r e e a s y lo s lo r e a n d r u n in a n d o u t . r a t h e r
th a n h a n d l i n g th e tr u e co m p le x itie s o f t h e s u b
je c t . T h i s i s a lw a y s a te m p ta tio n .)
L et u s c o n s i d e r th e u n its a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s
f d a ta u s e d l o r In p u t a n d o u tp u t a n d s t o r a g e .
T h e s e a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f ie l d s , r e c o r d s , f lie s
an d b lo c k s .
THE PUNCH CARD
L e t 's b e g in w ilh a fun e xam ple; th a t
h o a r y o ld m e d iu m for i n p u t a n d o u t p u t , th e
pu n c h ed (or "p u n ch ") c a r d . T h e p u n c h c a r d
w ill s h o w u s w h at a field i s .
T h e p u n c h c a r d Is g e n e r a ll y b e l i e v e d lo
h a v e b e e n I n v e n te d b y H erm an H o lle rith ( a l
th o u g h t h e a u t h o r ' s I n -l a w s h a d b i t t e r r e c o l l e c
tio n s io th e c o n t r a r y ) . It w a s f ir s t u s e d o n a
b r o a d s c a le to c o u n t u p th e c e n s u s o f I9 6 0 , a n d
la t e r b e c a m e a n e a r ly c o r n e r s t o n e o f IBM, b u t
t h a ts a n o t h e r s t o r y .
T h e p u n c h e s o n a c a r d r e p r e s e n t s row
o f In fo r m a tio n ( s u c h aa a row o f ty p e d l e t t e r s ) ,
th i s la n o t o b v io u s b e c a u s e th e c a r d la a r e c
ta n g le r a t h e r lh a n a li n e . H o w e v e r, t h e le n g th
o f ih e c a r d 1b a c tu a lly d iv id e d in to e i g h t y p o sl
b o n a , e a c h o f w h ic h may h o ld o n e n u m b e r ,
a lp h a b e tic c h a r a c t e r o r p u n c tu a t io n m a r k .
T h e s e p o s it io n s a r e a c tu a lly n a r r o w c o l u m n s ,
e ig h ty o f th e m , w ith d if f e r e n t p o s it io n s I n w h ic h
h o le s m a y b e p u n c h e d . O ne ho le In a c o lu m n
r e p r e s e n t s a n u m e ra l; w h ic h p o s itio n i n th e
co lu m n s p e c i f i e s w h a t n u m b e r . T w o h o le s In
a c o lu m n g e n e r a l l y mean a le tte r of th e a l p h a b e t ,
th r e e h o le s i n a c o lu m n m e an a p u n c tu a t io n
m a rk .
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D a l a Is p u n c h e d Into c a r d s a c c o r d i n g to
so m e p l a n a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e p r o g r a m .
B e y o n d th o s e s im p le m a tte r s t h e r e I h no
p r e o r d a i n e d a r r a n g e m e n t f o r In fo rm a tio n on a
p u n c h c a r d ; It ail d e p e n d s on w h a l th e p r o g r a m
c a l l s f o r - B ut e a c h a e P 8 r a le p i e c e o r se c ti o n
o f I n f o r m a tio n - - e a c h b u n c h o f c o n s e c u tiv e
c h a r a c t e r s t h a l t o g e t h e r h a v e a s p e c if ic m e a n i n g
- - a re c alled a f ie l d .
A f ie ld c a n b e a n a m e , a n u m b e r , an
a m o u n t o f m o n e y , a n a lp h a b e tic a l c o d e r e p r e
s e n tin g so m e th in g , a n u m e rica l code r e p r e s e n t
i n g s o m e th in g , o r o l h e r s tu f f . When th e c a r d s
go Into t h e p r o g r a m , i h e p r o g r a m c an p ic k ofT
th e In fo r m a tio n it n e e d a o n e f ie ld a t a ti m e
p u l l i n g t h e f ie ld ln c o lu m n s 1 lo 17 In to one
p r o g r a m v a r i a b l e , t h e f ie ld from c o lu m n s n in e
to te n Into a n o t h e r p r o g r a m v a r i a b l e , a n d so
T h e p u n c h c a r d i s a n I m p o r ta n t e x a m p le
o f a n i n p u t u n it I n f l u e n c i n g th e s t r u c t u r e o f
c o m p u te r p r o g r a m s , It I s c o n v e n ie n t lo u s e
f ie l d s on a p u n c h c a r d a s I h e b a s i c d a t a s t r u c
t u r e o f a p r o g r a m a n d s a y . " T h a i ' s Ihe w a y it
we s e e t h e w o r k i n g s o f th e " p u n c h c a r d m e n
ta lity " o r " 80- c o lu m n m in d " ( s e e b o x ) .
- * P e o p le w ill o f te n t h r u s t a p u n c h e d d a ta
c a r d a t y o u s n d a s k , "W hat d o e s th i s m e an? "
Who k n o w s? It m a y h a v e l e t t e r i n g b a n g e d a lo n g
th e l o p . s h o w i n g w h a t c h a r a c t e r s th e h o le s r e p
r e s e n t . b u t If th e s e c h a r a c t e r s d o n t shqw a n y
th i n g u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , s u c h a s t h e p e r s o n ' s n a m e ,
y o u 'r e i n th e d a r K . T h e c a r d may h a v e p r e
p r i n t e d se c ti o n l i n e s d i v i d i n g it u p , b u l th e s e
a r e r a r e l y s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y . I t ' s o f te n Im
p o s s i b l e J u s t to lo o k a t a p u n c h e d c a r d a n d
te ll b y e y e w hal th e I n d i v i d u a l f ie l d s a r e f o r ,
o r e v e n w h e r e ih e y b e g i n a n d e n d ; a ll lh a l
d e p e n d s o n th e p r o g r a m . O nly so m e o n e w ho
u n d e r s t a n d s th e p r o g r a m , o r a l l e a s t k n o w s
what f ie l d s Ihe c a r d i s d i v i d e d Inlo a n d w hal
t h e c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t t h e r e , c a n h e lp .
So m etim es , in d i s m a l s y s te m s w e e n c o u n
t e r d a y - t o - d a y l ik e f o r u n i v e r s i t y r e g i s t r a t i o n
a p u n c h c a r d w ill h a v e a p e r s o n ' s n a m e in
t h e f ir s t few c o l u m n s , o r w o r s e , s p e r s o n a l
s e r i a l n u m b e r . O t h e r In fo r m a tio n c o n tin u e s
fro m t h e r e . T h e s e m a y o r m a y not b e r e c o g
n iz a b l e . e i t h e r fro m r e a d i n g th e h o le s by e y e ,
o r from d e s i g n a t i o n s p r e - p r i n t e d on th e c a r d .
ASCII c o d e . You c a n f i g u r e o u t from
th e ta b le th e b ll p a t t e r n f o r a n y l e t t e r , o r
w h a l a n y g iv e n c o m b in a tio n of s e v e n b its
Just c h an g e som e th in g in th e m id d le o f a b lo c k ;
E x a m p le . F i n d i h e c a p it a l le t t e r G
In th e ta b le . F o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e b i t s o f the
c o d e , look s t th e top o f t h e colu mn: 100.
F o r th e n e x t f o u r , look s i d e w a y s lo th e
left; 0111. So G Is; IOOOIU.
(An e i g h t h b it Is u B e d a s a c h e c k on
t h e n u m b e r o f o n e s In t h e c o d e : t h i s is
c a ll e d th e p a r i t y b i t , a n d e i t h e r r o u n d s to
a n e v e n n u m b e r o f b i t s ( e v e n p a r i t y ) o r an
o d d n u m b e r o f b its ( o d d p a r i t y ) . T h u s If
a code com es th r o u g h to t h e c o m p u te r w ith
a w ro n g n u m b e r of o n e s , t h e c o m p u te r
c a n ta k e r e m e d ia l a c t i o n . )
T h o s e f u n n y m u lU le tte r c o d e s a r e for
c o n tr o l lin g t e r m i n a l s a n d l i k e th a t.
P o c k e t c a r d c o u r t e s y o f C o m p u te r
T ra n s c e iv e r S y s tem s, in c .
MAGNETIC STORAGE
T h e s e m e p r i n c i p l e of fie lds applies in
o t h e r d a ta m e d ia , e s p e c ia l ly magnet ic ta pe and
d i s k . We m ay e x t e n d th e notion of a field to
e x p la i n r e c o r d s a n d f ile s .
A f i e l d , g e n e r a ll y s p e a k i n g , Is a section
of p o s i t i o n s o n so me mediu m r e s e r v e d for one
p a r t i c u l a r p ie c e o f in f o r m a t io n , o r lha data In || ,
A r e c o r d i s a b u n c h of fie lds stored on
som e m e diu m w h ic h h a v e so me organiz ed use.
( F o r I n s ta n c e , t h e a c c o u n tin g Information held
b y a n e l e c t r i c u til ity com pany a bout a particula r
c u s to m e r Is lik e ly to b e s to r e d a s a r ec o rd with
a t l e a s t th e s e fie l d s : a c c o u n t n u m b e r; Iasi name;
I n itia ls ; a d d r e s s ; a m o u n t c u r r e n t l y ow ed.)
A Ole i s a w h o le b i g com ple te b u n c h of
in f o r m a tio n lha l Is Bt o re d s o m e p la c e . In many
a p p lic a ti o n s a file I s co m p o sed o f num ero us
s i m i l a r , c o n s e c u tiv e r e c o r d s . F o r I nsta nce,
a n e l e c t r i c c o m p a n y m a y well s to r e ihe re c o rd s
f o r a l l o f i t s c u s to m e r s o n a m a g n etic la p e,
o r d e r e d b y a c c o u n t n u m b e r ( ac co u n t 000001
firs t).
S t o r i n g s e q u e n c e s of sim ila r r e c o rd s In
lo n g f ile s is ty p ic a l o f b u s i n e s s p r o g r a m s ,
th o u g h p e r h a p s t h i s sh o u ld b e g in lo change.
I t 's e s p e c ia l ly s u i t e d to b a tc h p r o c e s s in g ,
t h a t i s , h a n d lin g m a n y r e c o r d s In ihe same
w ay a t th e sa m e tim e . (S e e " S y ste m P ro g r a m s.")
N ow , th e d i v i s i o n s o f f i e l d , r e c o r d and
f ile a r e c o n c e p tu a l: th e y a r e w h a t th e p r o g ra m
m e r t h i n k s a b o u t, b a a e d on th e Information
n e e d s o f a s p e c if ic c o m p u te r p r o g r a m .
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jh t i:
BLOCKS
A b lo c k Is s o m e th in g e l s e , w h ic h may b e
r e la te d o n ly lo q u i r k s o f ih e s it u a ti o n .
A b lo c k i s a s e c tio n o f s t o r e d m a te r ia l,
d iv id e d e i t h e r a c c o r d i n g to th e d i v is io n s of th e
d a la o r p e c u li a r itie s o f th e d e v ic e h o l d i n g i t ,
s u c h a s a d i s k d r i v e . S h o r t r e c o r d s m ay b e
s t o r e d m a n y to a b lo c k . If r e c o r d s a r e lo n g
th e y m ay b e made u p o f m a ny b lo c k s .
- I n p a r t i c u l a r , tape b lo c k s c a n b e a lm o st
a n y s iz e , w h ile d is k b lo c k s ofte n h a v e a c e r ta i n
fix e d siz e ( n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r s o r b i t s ) b a s e d
o n th e p e c u li a r itie s of Ihe I n d iv id u a l d e v ic e .
( T h is c an be a p a in In th e n e c k . )
On t h s o th e r h a n d , d u e to. th e q u i r k s of
m a gnetic r e c o r d i n g , y o u r p r o g r a m u s u a lly c a n t
th e whole d is k block o r ta p e file h a s to b e r e
p la c e d . T h is Is le s s t r o u b le w ilh a s h o r t d is k
b lo c k lhan a lo n g tape file.
TRADITIONAL CONVEYER-BELT PROGRAMS
Many tr a d i tio n a l b u s i n e s s p r o g r a m s a r e o f
t h i s t y p e , r e a d i n g In o n e d a la r e c o r d a t a tim e ,
d o in g s o m e th in g to it (Buch a s n o tin g t h a t a n
in d iv i d u a l h a s p a id t h e e x a c t a m o u n t o f h i s g a s )
a n d w r i t i n g o u t a n e w r e c o r d f o r t h a t c u s to m e r
o n th e c u r r e n t m o n th s t a p e .
THE PROBLEM
S tan d a rd ize d f ie l d s , b lo c k s a n d r e c o rd s
a r e often n e c e s s a r y o r c o n v e n i e n t . B u t , o n th e
o t h e r h a n d , t h e k i n d s o f c o m p u te r p r o g r a m s
p e o p le fin d o p p r e s s i v e o f te n h a v e t h e i r r o o ts ln
t h i s k i n d o f d a ta s t o r a g e a n d i t s a s s o c i a te d s ty l e s
of p r o g r a m m i n g , e s p e c ia l ly th e u s e o f flx e d - f le ld
r e c o r d s a s th e b e - a l l a n d e n d - a l l . T h e m ore
i n t e r e s t i n g u s e s of th e c o m p u te r ( in te r a c t iv e ,
o b l i g i n g , a r t i s t i c . e t c . ) u s e a g r e a t e r v a r ie ty
of d a ta s tr u c tu re s .
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P e o p le 's n a iv e I d e a o f " p r o g r a m m in g " la o f te n a r e a so n a b le
a p p ro x im a ti o n to th e n o tio n o f " d a ta s t r u c t u r e . " D ata s tr u c tu r e
la how In fo rm a tio n Is s e t u p . A ft e r i t ' s s e t u p . p r o g ra m s
c a n tw id d le it ; b u t th e tw id d l i n g o p tio n s a r e b a s e d o n how
th e in f o r m a tio n Is s e t u p to b e g i n w i t h .

tfc K*$IC OFMTA
How d o e s a c o m p u te r p r o g r a m
p r i n t so m e th in g o u t o n a p r i n t i n g
m a ch in e? It s e n d s t h e c o d e f o r e a c h
le tte r o u t to th e p r i n t i n g m a c h i n e .
How d o e s a c o m p u te r p r o g ra m
r e s p o n d to s o m e th in g a u s e r ty p e * in?
II c o m p a r e s th e c o d e s th a t com e in
from t h e l e t t e r s h e ty p e s w ith a
s e r i e s o f c o d e s I n m e m o r y . a n d w h en
it B n d s a m a tc h b e tw e e n l e t t e r s ,
n u m b e rs , w o rd s o r p h r a s e s , b r a n
c h e s to t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a c ti o n .
How d o e s a c o m p u te r p r o g ra m
m e a s u r e so m e th in g ? ft ta k e s in
n u m e ri c a l c o d e s from a d e v ic e w h ic h
h a s a lr e a d y m a d e th e m e a s u r e m e n ts
a n d c o n v e r te d th e m to c o d e e .
DOE9 NOT COMPUTE!
Som e TV w r i t e r 's
Id e a o f a c o m p u te r
a n n o u n c e s th le w h en
d a ta a r e I n su ff ic ie n t o r
c o n t r a d l c l o i y . Ho h u m .
AN W * W H 0 /t-P M I
C o d e s a r e p a l l e m e o r s y m b o ls w h ic h
a r e a s s ig n e d m e a n i n g s . Som etim es we
m ake u p s p e c ia l c o d e s lo c u t d o w n Ih e s -
m ount o f in f o r m a tio n tha t h a s to be s t o r e d .
On y o u r d r i v e r ' s L ic ense, f o r i n s t a n c e .
Ihey m ay r e d u c e y o u r h a i r c o lo r lo on e
d e cim al d ig i. ( fo u r b its o f in f o r m a t io n ),
s in c e t h e r e a r e le a s lh a n n in e p o s s ib i liti e s
fo r q u ic k id e n tif ic a ti o n of h a ir - c o lo r a n y w s y .
O b v i o u s l y . c o d e s c a n b e an y d a r n
thing*, an y s e l o f s y m b o ls lh a t i s l e s s th a n
w h a i y o u s t a r t e d w i t h . But b y c o m p re a s ln g
In fo rm a tio n th e y lose in f o r m a tio n , s o th a t
s u b tl e ti e s d is a p p e a r ( c o n s i d e r th e u s e of
le lte re A lo F to g r a d e s t u d e n t s ) . When
y ou d iv id e a c o n tin u u m in to c a t e g o r i e s , not
Ju st lh e f e w n e s s o f th e c a t e g o r i e s , b u t the
p la c e s y o u d r a w th e lin e - - c a lle d " b r e a k s "
o r " c u t l l n g - p o i n t s " - - p r e s e n t p r o b le m s . Suc h
c h o p p in g f re q u e n t ly b l u r s o u l I m p o rtan t d i s
tin c tio n s . C o d in g Is a lw a y s a r b i t r a r y , f r e
q u e n tly d e s t r u c t i v e a n d s t u p i d .
Lola o f w a y s now e x i s t to h a n d le w r i t
te n In fo rm a tio n b y c o m p u te r. T h e s e often
p r e s e n t b e t t e r w a y s lo o p e r a te lh a n b y u s in g
c o d e s of t h i s ty p e . Bui m a n y c o m p u te r p r o
g r a m m e r s p r e f e r to m ake y o u u s e c o d e s .
(NOTE: t h e r e s r e tw o o th e r s e n s e s o f
" c o d e u s e d h e r e a b o u ls : 1) th e b i n a r y p a t
t e r n s m ad e to s ta n d for a n y I n fo r m a tio n ,
e s p e c ia l ly on in p u t a n d o u tp u t; 2) w h a t
c o m p u te r p r o g r a m s c o n s is t o f. lh at i s , lin e s
of c o m m a n d s .)
"L o gica l d e d u c ti o n " r e a lly c o n s is ts of te c h
n iq u e s f o r f in d in g o u l w h a t 's a lr e a d y
i n a d a la s t r u c t u r e .
"L o gica l I n c o n s i s te n c y " m e a n s a da ta
s t r u c t u r e c o n tr a d ic ts i t s e l f . R a r e ly
d o e s It h a p p e n I J u t c o m p u te r h e lp s
y o u d is c o v e r so m e th in g n e w a b o u t a
su b je c t th a l y o u d i d n 't s u s p e c t o r s e e
c o m in g w ith o u t lh e c o m p u te r; a fte r
a l l . y o u h a v e lo s e l u p a stu d y In
s u c h a w a y a s to m a k e room to find
th in g s o u l . a n d y o u c a n o n ly m ak e
ro om to f in d some t h i n g s o u l .
ptwHew& nmw'rf
P u n c h c a r d s a r e n o t in lr in s l c a U y e v il.
T h ey h a v e s e rv e d many u se fu l p u r p o s e s .
B ut t h e p u n c h - c s r d m e n ta lity i s s till a r o u n d .
T h i s w ill b e s e e n In (he p r o g r a m m e r w ho
h a b itu a lly s e t s t h in g s u p s o w e h a v e to u se
p u n c h c a r d s ( w h e n o t h e r m e d ia , o r I n t e r
a c ti v e t e r m i n a l s , w o u ld b e b e t t e r ) ; w h o in
s i s t s o n t h e u s e r o r v ic tim p u tti n g d o w n
n u m b e r s ( w h e n w ith a lit tle m ore e ff o rt th e
p r o g r a m c o u ld h a n d le t e x t , w h ic h i s e a s ie r
t o r t h e h u m a n , o r e v e n lo ok u p lh e I n fo r
m ation in d a ta It h a s a l r e a d y ) ; w h o I n s is ts
t h s t p e o p le s l a s t n a m e s b e c u t do w n to
e le v e n l e t t e r s b e c a u s e h e d o e s n 't fee l lik e
l e a v i n g a lo n g e r f ie ld o r h a n d lin g e x c e p tio n s
i n h i s p r o g r a m ; w h o I n s is ts o n Ihe o u t s i d e r
c u t t i n g h i s in fo rm atio n in to s n a r f y lit tle c o d e s ,
w h e n s u c h d i g e s t i o n , i f n e e d e d a t a l l , c o u ld
b e b e t t e r d o n e b y th e p r o g r a m ; a n d s o o n .
T h e p u n c h c a r d m e n ta lity i s r e s p o n s i b le
f o r m a n y o f t h e w o e s th a t h a v e b e e n b la m e d
on " c o m p u te rs ."
I F V bU W A N T H 0 t \ 5 t K 5 ,
WE G 0 T
T h e b a s ic k i n d s o f n u m b e r o p e r a tio n s
w ir e d in to aU c o m p u te r s a r e few ; J u s t a d d
(a n d so m e tim es s u b t r a c t ) b i n a r y n u m b e r s .
H o w e v e r, u p a b o v e t h e m in ic o m p u te r r a n g e ,
a c o m p u te r may h a v e m u lt ip ly , d i v i d e , a n d
m o r e . P a n d e r c o m p u te rs o f fe r m ore ty p e s
a n d o p e r a tio n s o n th e m .
PLAIN BINARY-* V e r y im p o r ta n t f o r c o u n
ti n g . R e p r e s e n ts n u m b e r s aa
p a t t e r n s o f l ' s a n d 0 's ( o r X 's
an d O h s . if y o u p r e f e r ) . How
to h a n d le n e g a tiv e n u m b e rs ?
T w o w a y s;
TRUE NEGATIVE b i n a r y n u m b e r
w ith a s i g n b it a t th e b e g i n
n i n g , follow ed b y th e n u m b e r .
bti ii i m
T r o u b le I s , th e a rit h m e t ic Is
h a r d e r to w ir e f o r th is k i n d ,
b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e tw o z e r o e s
( p lu s a n d m in u s ) b e tw e e n 1
and -1 .
ADDABLE NEGATIVE t h i s sy s te m
d o e s s s o r t of Q lp a n d b e g in s
a n e g a ti v e n u m b e r w ith a il
o n e s . It m e an s th a l th e m a
c h in e d o e s n 'l h a v e to h a v e s u b
t r a c tio n c ir c u itr y : y o u J u s t a d d
t h e Q lp p e d n e g a ti v e v e r s i o n of
a n u m b e r , a n d th a l a c tu a lly
s u b t r a c t s I t. T h is h a s now
c a u g h t o n g e n e r a ll y . ( I t 's
u s u a lly c a lle d " tw o s co m p lem en t
n e g a t i v e , " w h ic h h a s som e o b
s c u r e m a th e m atica l m e a n in g .)
BCD ( B in a r y - C o d e d D e c im a l) -- lh e a c c o u n
t a n t 's n u m b e r i n g s y s te m . U se d b y
COBOL ( se e p . 3 1 ) . I t 's p la in o ld
d e c im a l, w ith e v e r y n u m e ra l s to r e d
i n f o u r b its ; t h e m a ch in e o r la n g u a g e
h a s to a d d th e m one n u m e r s l a t a
t im e . I n s te a d o f c r u n c h in g to g e th e r
full b i n a r y w o r d s .
FLOATING P O IN T -- t h e s c i e n t i s t 's n u m b e r
t e c h n i q u e f o r a n y th in g th a t m a y not
com e o u t e v e n . E x p r e s s e s a n y
q u a n tity s s a n am o un t a n d a s iz e .
i * l Ze- _#
( m m it I
T h e " a m o u n t" p a r t c o n ta i n s Ihe a c
tu a l b i n a r y n u m e r a l s . Ih e " e ls e " Is
Ih e n u m b e r o f p la c e s In f ro n t o f o r
a fte r th e d e c im a l p o in t lh a t th e n u m
b e r s t a r t s . V e r y im p o r ta n t f o r a s
tro n o m ic a l a n d in f in ite sim a l m a tte r s ,
s in c e s f lo a t in g - p o in t n u m b e r c a n be
b i g g e r , s s y , th a n
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c is e e n o u g h , s o I h sy p r o g r a m u p
" in f in ite p r s c l s l o n a r i t h m e t i c ." w h ic h
c a r r i e s o u t a rith m e tic to a s m any
p la c e s a s th e y w a n t. II la k e s m ue h
l o n g e r , th o u g h .
WHAT'S AVAILABLE IN
MACHINES AND LANGUAGES
Som e m a c h i n e s . lik e th e 360 . a r e
m o r e - o r - l e s s w i r e d u p lo h a n d le s e v e r s l
n u m b e r ty p e s : b i n a r y , f lo a tin g p o i n t , BCD.
L ittle m a c h in e s u s u a l l y o n ly h a v e p la in b i n
a r y . s o o t h e r ty p e s h a v e to b e h a n d le d b y
p r o g r a m s b u ilt u p from th a l fu n d am e n ta l
b in a ry .
L a n g u a g e s m a k e u p f o r th le b y
p r o v i d i n g p r o g r a m s to h a n d le n u m b e r s in
s o m e o r a ll o f t h e s e f o rm a ts. T h e r e a r e
l a n g u a g e a th a t o f fe r e v e n m o re k i n d s of
n u m b e rs--
IMAGINARY n u m b e rs
(tw o -p a rt n u m b e rs
f o llo w in g c e r t a i n r u l e s )
QUATBRNIONS
(U ke I m a g in a r y n u m b e r s
b u t w o rs e)
a n d goo d n ess know s w hat e lse .
O n lhe o t h e r h a n d , so m e la n g u a g e s
r e s t r i c t w h a t n u m b e r f a c ilitie s a r e a v a il
a b le fo r s im p li c i t y 's s a k e . B A 9 IC , for
i n s t a n c e , d o e s n 't d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n
i n t e g e r s (c o u n ti n g n u m b e r s ) a n d th o s e
w ith d e c im a l p o in ts ; a ll n u m b e r s m ay h a v e
d e cim al p o in ts . TRAC L a n g u a g s o nly
g i v e s y o u I n t e g e r s to s t s r t , s in c e I t 's e a sy
e n o u g h to p r o g r a m o th e r k i n d s o f n u m b e r
b e h a v i o r In ( lik e in f in it e p r e c i s i o n ) .
F o r h is t o r i c a l r e a s o n s c o m p u te rs h a v e
b e e n u s e d m o s t ly w ith n u m b e r s u p to now ;
b u t lh a t i s g o i n g to b e t h o r o u g h ly t u r n e d
s r o u n d . W ith in a few y e a r s t h e r e may b e
m o re t e x t w r i t t e n p r o s e a n d p o e t r y
s t o r e d o n c o m p u te r s lh a n n u m b e r s .
D u r i n g t h e r e c e n t m a s s iv e la w s u it by
C o n tro l D a is a g a in s t IBM. ll w a s r e v e a le d
lh a t IBM h a d a n a w e so m e n u m b e r o f le tte r s
a n d c o m m u n ic a t io n s s t o r e d o n m a g n e tic
m em ory.
W hen I liv e d in New Y o r k , I h a d a
d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e w ilh ih s s t a g g e r i n g s e r i a l
num ber
NO 5443 12903 3 -41 21 -3 7
Now i t m a y v e r y w ell b e . a s In some
s e r i a l n u m b e r s , th a t In fo rm a tio n is h id d e n
in t h e n u m b e r th a t I n s i d e r s c a n d o p e o u t.
lik e m y c r im i n a l r e c o r d o r au to m o b ile a c c i
d e n t s , If a n y . (N Is my in i t i a l , a n d two
o f th e d i g i t s s h o w my d a te o f b i r t h , a h a n d y
c h e c k a g a i n s t a lte ra tio n b y t h i r s t y m in o r s .
B ut th e r e s t o f it Is r id ic u lo u s .) T h e fsct
th a t th a l l e a v e s 15 m o re d e cim al d ig i t s m eans
( if n o o t h e r c o d e s a r e h id d e n ) lh a l New Y ork
S la te h a s p r o v i s i o n in t h e i r lic e n s e n u m b e r i n g
f o r u p lo 9 9 9 .9 9 9 . 9 8 9 , 9 9 9 . B99 I n h a b it a n ts .
It i s d o u b tf u l th a l t h e r e w ill e v e r b e lh a t
m an y N ew Y o r k e r s , o r I n d e e d th a l m any
h u m a n b e i n g s w h ile th e s p e c ie s e n d u r e s .
In o t h e r w o r d s , e i t h e r New Y ork
S tate Is p l s n n l n g on h a v in g m a n y , m any
m o re o c c u p a n t s , o r a n a w fu lly in e ffic ie nt
co de h a s b e e n a d o p te d , m e a n in g a lo t of
m e m o ry s p a c e Is w a ste d h o ld in g tho se
s il ly b i g n u m b e r s f o r m illio n s o f d r i v e r s .
H o w e v e r, l h a t d o e s n 't r e p r e s e n t a lo t o f
m o n e y . 10 m illio n d e cim al s p a c e s th e s e
d s y s f its o n s c o u p le o f d i s k d r i v e s . Bui
I t 's a n a w f u l p a in In t h e n e c k w h e n y o u
w a n t lo c a s h a c h e c k .
i^ut m CUTfUT
D ata h a s to g e t I n s id e Ih e m a ch in e
so m e h o w , a n d r e s u l t s h a v e to g e t b a c k o u l.
T w o m a in ty p e s of c o d e s - - th a t I s , s t a n
d a r d i z e d p a t t e r n s - - e x i s t , a lth o u g h w h s l
fo rm s o f d a ta p r o g r a m s w o rk o n in s i d e
v a rie s c o n sid e ra b ly . ( T h e I n p u t d a ta c an
b e c o m p le te ly tr a n s fo r m e d b e f o r e I n te r n a l
w o rk a l a r t s . )
1. A SCII ( p r o n o u n c e d " A s k e y ,"
A m e ric a n S t a n d a r d C od e fo r I n fo rm a tio n
E x c h a n g e . T h i s allo w s a ll th e k i n d s o f
n u m b e r s a n d a lp h a b e ts y o u c o u ld p o s s ib l y
w a n t (fo r in s t a n c e , S w a h ili) f o r g e ttin g
I n fo rm a tio n In a n d o u t o f c o m p u te r s .
ASCII i s u s e d lo a n d from m ost
T e l e ty p e t e r m l n s l s a n d k e y s c o p e a .
H o w e v e r , ASCII Is a ls o u s e d for
I n t e r n a l s t o r a g e o f a lp h a b e tic a l d a la In
m a n y no n -IB M s y s te m s , a n d lt Is a ls o the
r u n n i n g f o rm o f a n u m b e r of p r o g ra m m i n g
l a n g u a g e s , s u c h a s TRAC l a n g u a g e (see
p . \ 3 ) , TBCO a n d GRASS
(see p .* 3 i) .
IB M 's d e lib e r a te u n d e r m i n in g o f the
A SC II c o d e Is a s o u r c e o f w i d e s p r e a d a n g e r .
(S e e IB M , p . 5*2..)
2 . EBCDIC ( p r o n o u n c e d " E b s a d lc k , " )
E x te n d e d B i n a r y C od e d D ec im a l. T h i s w as
th e c o d e IBM b r o u g h t o u t w ith th e 360,
p a s s i n g A SCII b y . (IBM s e e m s to th in k of
c o m p e t lb llll y a s a p r i v i l e g e th a t m u sl be
e a r n e d , i . e . . p a id f o r . ) EBCDIC a lso a l
low s n u m b e r s , Ihe E n g lis h a lp h a b e t , a n d
v a r i o u s p u n c tu a t io n m a r k s . T h i s i s u s e d
to a n d f ro m m o st IBM t e r m in a l s ("2741
ty p e " ) .
HOLLERIT H, m e a n i n g l h e c olu m n
p a t l e m s t h s t g o in o n p u n c h e d c a r d s .
( T h e y c a n a ls o come o u t th a t w a y , If yo u
w a n t th e m lo .)
CARD-IMAGE BINARY. If f o r some
rea so n yo u w anl exact b in a ry p a tle m s
fro m y o u r p r o g r a m , th e y c a n b e p u n c h e d
o u t a s r o w s o r c o lu m n s on p u n c h c a r d s .
ST E R LIN G . J u s t lo sh o w y o u how
c o m ic al t h i n g s c a n g e t , I h s o r i g i n a l PL/I
s p e c if ic a t io n s ( se e p - 3 p a llo w ed n u m b e r s
to b e I n p u l a n d o u tp u t in t e r m s of P o u n d s ,
S h i llin g s a n d P e n c e (12 p e n c e to t h e s h i l
l i n g , 20 s h i l l i n g s to t h e p o u n d ) . No p r o
v is i o n w a s m a d e f o r G u in e a s (th e 2 1 - a h ll-
U n g u n i t ) , o r f s r t h l n g s . u n f o r t u n a te ly .
 J)
c a r r i e s out e a c h i n s t r u c tio n

klOlK,?
a s I t's e n c o u n te re d .

IW S& mGwzz
A c o m p u te r l a n g u a g e ia sya iepi for c a s t i n g s p e lls .
T h i s ! n o l m e t a p h o r b u t t n e x a c tly t r u e s ta te m e n t . Each
B a s ic a l ly t h e r e a r e two d ifferen t m e th o d s .

A c o m p ilin g l a n g u a g e , 3 u c h a s FORTRAN or COBOL,

h a s a c o m p ile r p r o g r a m , w h ic h s j i s In the c o m p u te r, and
r e c e i v e s lh e in p u t p r o g ra m . o r " s o u r c e p r o g r a m ." th e way
th e a s s e m b le r d o e s . II a n a ly z e s th e s o u rce p r o g r a m and
s u b s ti tu te s for it a n o b je ct p r o g ra m . in m achine Isn guage.
la n g u a g e h w a v o c a b u l a r y of c o m m a n d s, lh a l I s , d if f e r e n t w h ic h la a tr a n s la t io n of the s o u r c e p r o g r a m . and can actu ally
o r d e r * y o u c a n g i v e t h a t a r e fundam e nta l lo lhe I s n g u a g e , be r u n on th e c o m p u te r, T h e r e la tio n of th e h ig h e r la nguage
a n d a i y n l , t h a l i s . r u l e s a bout h o w to g iv e th e c om m ands i s not o n e - to - o n e to m a ch in e la n g u a g e : ma ny Instru ctio n s
r i g h t , a n d h o w y o u m ay fit them to g e th e r a n d e n t w i n e ih e m . in m a c h i n e l a n g u a g e a re often n e e d e d lo compile tt single
in s t r u c t i o n o f th e s o u r c e p r o g ra m . (A s o u r c e p r o g ra m of
L e a r n in g to w o r k w ilh o n e la n g u a g e d o e s n 't m e an 100 l i n e s c a n e a s il y come o u l a th o u s a n d lin e s lo n g In lie
y o u 'v e le a r n e d a n o t h e r . You le a r n th e m one a l a rim e, o u t p u t v e r s i o n . ) M o r e o v e r, b e c a u s e of th e in te rd ep e n d en c y
bu t a lte r to m e e x p e r i e n c e il g e ls e a s i e r . of th e in s t r u c t i o n s in lh e s o u r c e p r o g r a m . lh e com piler
u s u a lly h a s to c h e c k v a rio u s a r r a n g e m e n ts all o v e r the
T h e r e a r e c o m p u te r l a n g u a g e s f o r te s tin g r o c k e ts h ip s p r o g ra m b e fo re i t c a n g e n e r a te th e final c o d e .
an d c o n tro llin g o il r e f i n e r i e s a n d m a k in g p i c t u r e s . T h e r e
a r e c o m p u te r l a n g v - g e s for so c io lo gic al s t a t i s t i c s a n d d e s ig n in g Most c o m p ile rs come In s e v e r a l sta g e s . You have
a u to m o b ile s. A n d t h e r e a r e c om pute r l a n g u a g e s w h ic h to put th e f i r s t s ta g e of I h e c o m p ile r Inlo the c o m p u te r,
will d o a n y o f th e s e t h i n g s , and m o r e , b u l w ilh m o r e difficu lty th e n r u n In th e s o u r c e p r o g ra m . a n d th e f i r s t s la g e p u ls
b e c a u s e th e y h a v e n o p u r p o s e b u ilt i n . (D ul e a c h o f th e se o u t a f i r s t in te r m e d ia te v e r s i o n o f th e p ro g ra m , T h e n yo u
g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e la n g u a g e a le n d s to h a v e its ow n o u tlo o k .) p u t t h i s v e r s i o n In to a se cond s t a g e , w hic h p u ls out a second
in te r m e d i a te v e r s i o n ; a n d so on t h r o u g h v a r io u s s ta g e s .
Most p r o g r a m m e r s h a v e a f a v o r ite la n g u a g e o r Iw c, T h i s i s d o n e f a ir ly auto m a tic ally on b i g c o m p u le r s , bul
an d th is i s n o t o r a t i o n a l m i l l e r . T h e r e a r e m a n y d if f e r e n t o n little m a ch in es i l ' s a p a in .
co m p u te r l a n g u a g e s in fact th o u s a n d s b u t w h a t th e y
all h a v e In c om m on i s a ctin g on Beries of i n s t r u c t i o n s . (In f a c t , c o m p ile rs le n d to b e v e r y slo w p r o g r a m s ;
Be y o n d lh a t , e v e r y la n g u a g e i s d if f e r e n t. S o f o r e a c h la n g u a g e ,
lhe q u e stio n * a r e

WHAT ARE THE INSTRUCTIONS?

*A COWIM# c h e w s th e I n s tr u c ti o n s
of lh e la n g u ag e
b u t th a l d e p e n d s on th e amount o f " o p tim isin g " th e y d o ,
t h s t i a , ho w effic ient th e y t r y lo m a k e the o bje ct p r o g r a m . )

A n i n t e r p r e t i v e la n g u a g e w o r k s d if f e r e n t l y , T h ere
s i t s in c o re a p r o c e s s o r for the la n g u a g e call ed an in t e r p r e t e r ;
HOW DO THEY FIT TOGETHER? in lo a n o th e r form t h i s g o e s t h r o u g h th e p r o g ra m o n e s te p al a tim e , a ctu a lly
l o b e p r o c e s s e d la t e r . c a r r y i n g out e ach o p e ra tio n In th e lis t and g o in g o n to th e
Most c o m p u te r la n g u a g e s in v o lv e som ehow ty p in g
n e x t . TRAC and APL a r e i n t e r p r e t i v e : it s a good way
in th e co m m a n d s o f y o u r s p e ll lo a com pute r s e t u p f o r tha t
to d o q u ic k ie la n g u a g e s.
la n g u a g e . ( T h e c o m p u te r i s se l u p b y p u ttin g i n a b i g g e r
p r o g r a m , called th e p r o c e s s o r for lha l l a n g u a g e )
I n t e r p r e t e r s a r e p e rh a p s Ihe eaBler method of th e
tw o lo g r a s p , sin c e th e y seem to c o r r e s p o n d a little b e tte r
1 W A> lo t h e w ay many p e o p le t h in k of c o m p u te rs . T h a t d o e sn 't
m e a n t h e y 'r e b e lte r . For p r o g r a m s that have to b e ru n
o v e r a n d o v e r , com p ilin g is u s u a l l y m o re econom ical In
lh e lo n g r u n ; b u t for p r o g ra m s tha t ha v e to be r e p e a te d ly
c h a n g e d , i n t e r p r e t e r s a r e ofte n s im p le r lo w ork w ilh .

f& rn t C f f ' f o ' / j j A BLACK ART

if? ep'Z M a kin g l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s o r s , e s p e c ia l ly c o m p ile rs ,

i s w id e ly r e g a r d e d a s a b la c k a r t . Some pe ople have ( ri c k s
l h a t a r e v i r t u a l tr a d e m a r k s ( s e e b e lo w ) .
T h e n , a fte r v a r i o u s S t e p s , you ge l lo t r y y o u r p r o g r a m .
A c t u a ll y , th e d e s i g n of a l a n g u a g e - - e s p e c ia l ly lhe
O n ce y o u k n o w a la n g u a g e you con c a s t s p e l l s in s y n t a x , ho w i t s com m a nds fit t o g e t h e r - - s tr o n g ly in f lu e n c e s
il ; b u t lh a l d o e s n 't m e a n i t ' s e a s y . A s p e ll c ast in a c om pute r th e d e s ig n o f i t s p r o c e s s o r - BASIC a n d APL. for i n s t a n c e ,
la n g u a g e w ill m a k e th e co m p u te r do w h a t you w a n l - -
w o rk l e f t - l o - r ig h t on e a c h l in e , a n d to p - to - b o tto m On a
p r o g r a m . Both a ct o n som e th in g s t o r e d in a w ork a r e a .
IF i l ' s p o s s i b l e lo d o ll T R A C , o n th e o th e r h a n d , w o rk s leM -IO -rlght on a te x t
w ith l h a l c o m p u te r;
s t r i n g lh a t c h a n g e s s iz e lik e a r u b b e r b a n d , O th e r la n g u a g e s
IF i l ' s p o s s i b l e lo d o it e x h ib it c o m p a r sb le d if f e r e n c e s .
in l h a t la n g u a g e :
IF y o u u s e d t h e v o c a b u la ry MIXED CASES AND VARIATIONS (for lh e w h im sica l)
an d r u l e s o f Ihe la n g u ag e
c o rre c tly ; T h e r e a r e a lot of m ix ed c a s e s . A l o a d - a n d - g o c o m p ile r
an d IK y o u la id o u l in th e spe ll ( s u c h a s WATFOR) i s p u t into th e c o m p u te r w ith t h e p r o g r a m ,
a p l a n l h a l w o u ld effectively c o m p ile s I t , a n d th e n s t a r t s it g o in g im m ed ia te ly . An i n t e r p r e t iv e
d o w h a i y c j h s d in m in d . c o m p ile r lo oks up w h a t lo do w ith a g iv e n in s t r u c tio n b y i n
t e r p r e t i n g it inlo a s e r i e s of ste p s , bul com p ilin g th e m in s te a d
BUT i f you m a k e a m is ta k e in c a s tin g y o u r s p e l l , l h a t is
a BUG. (Aa y o u s e e fro m th e iFs a L o v e, m a ny ty p e s of
{\ IxVjrtfci'- ervitt cuf, of c a r r y i n g the m Out. (A firm call ed D ig itek i s wel l know n
for m a k in g v e r y good c om pile rs of I h is t y p e . ) An I n c r e m e n ta l
b u g a re p o a s i b l e . ) P r o g r a m b u g s call c a u s e u n f o r t u n a te c o m p ile r ju s l r u n s a lo ng c om pilin g a command at a tim e;
r e s u l t s . ( S u p p o s e d ly a b i g NASA r o c k e t failed in ta keoff t h i s c a n b e a lot f a s t e r b u l h a s d r a w b a c k s .
on c e b e c a u se of a m is p l a c t d do lla r s ig n in a p r o g r a m . )
Getting [he b u g s o u t of a p r o g ra m i s Called d e b u g g in g .
It'S v e r y h a r d .
fi|w t i \ s BIBLIOGRAPHY.

DESIGNING COMPUTER LANGUAGES D avid G r l e s . C om piler C onstru c tio n for D ig ital C o m p u te r s

Not for b e g i n n e r s , but a be autiful book. Good on
E v er y p r o g r a m m e r w h o 's d e s ig n e d a l a n g u a g e , a n d a b s tr a c t th e o ry of la n g u a g e s, too.
c re ate d a p r o c e s s o r f o r i i . h a d c e r ta i n ty p ic a l u s e s in m in d .
If you w ant lo c r e a t e y o u r own la n g u a g e , you f ig u r e oul
w h ai a o rls of o p e r a t i o n s y ou w o u ld lik e lo h a v e b n ba sic.
In l l , a n d ho w y o u w o u ld lik e i l all lo f it to g e th e r s o as
Id allow th e v a r i a t i o n s y o u h a v e in m in d . T h e n y o u p r o g ra m
y o u r p r o c e s s o r ( w h i c h i s u s u a lly v e r y h a r d ) .

A p r o g ra m Is lik e a nose:
Soma tim es ll r u n s , so metim es It blo w s.
je g O G 6ikl<s-
A ttr ib u te d lo H o w ard Rose.
(D a ta m a tio n . 1 Se p 7 1 . 3 3 .)

c andid p hoto s

D ebugging means c h a n g in g and j i* program t i l l i t v c r k s th e oay you

Th ie i s th e p a r t o f prograprring p e o p le l i k e th e l e a s t .

You run y o u r program a n d th e n tr y to f i n d o u t u h a t v e n t u rong. I t c o u ld be

a m ista k e i n th e b a s ic th in k in g ( " lo g i c e r r o r " ) , o r a c l e r i c a l e r r o r in th e
p a r ti c u la r c h o ic e o f cormands to c a rry o u t a u e ll- th o u g h t- o u t p ro c e ss
("c o d in g e r r o r " ) .

Some sy ste m s a llo t) y ou to debug i n t e r a c t i v e l y , fro m a te r m in a l. T h is h e lp s

a l o t . You can ru n p a r t s o f y o u r program , g e t i t t o s to p a t c e r ta i n p o in ts
A cc o rd in g to th e g r a p e v i n e . .. to l e t y o u lo o k a ro u n d , and s o on.

a p r e s t ig io u s S o u t h e r n u n iv e rs ity
h a d a p r o g ra m
w h e r e th e n u m b e r o f m onth s
w as c a r e l e s s l y se t t o 10
(as a d im e n sio n in a n a r r a y ) . For e v e r y b u g lha l goes o u t.
In N o v e m b e r . No p r o g ra m is e v e r f u lly d e b u g g e d . tw o m o r e b u g s go In .
n o b o d y got t h e i r c h e c k s
ti ll th i s e r r o r w as found, - - folk s a y in g - - fo lk s a y in g

A c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f c o m p u te r l a n g u a g e s
a r e v e r y w id e ly a c c e p te d a n d u s e d ; I l i s t th e m
h e r e . If y o u w a n t to l e a r n a n y o f t h e m . ! b e l ie v e
th a t D aniel M c C r a c k e n h a a w r i tte n a m a n u a l o n
e v e r y o n e o f th e m . (N ot the v a r l a n t e l i s t e d ,
t h o u g h .)
Why t h e i r n a m e s a r e a lw a y s s p e l l e d w ith
c a p ita l l e t t e r s I d o n t k n o w . ( G e n e r a lly th e y
g e t le t d o w n In lo n g e r a r t i c l e s , t h o u g h . )
, T 5
C$5 O U R e s e a r c h a n d h o b b y ty p e s h a te COBOL o r
i g n o r e I t , b u t i t ' s t h e m a in b u s i n e s s p r o g r a m m i n g
la n g u a g e . Y o u r In c o m e l a x , y o u r c h e c k i n g a c
c o u n t , y o u r a u to m o b ile l i c e n s e - - a ll a r e p r e s u m
a b ly h a n d l e d b y p r o g r a m s i n I h e COBOL la n g u a g e .
CO BO L , o r CO m m on B u s i n e s s O r i e n t e d L a n
g u a g e , w a s m ore o r le s s d e m an d e d b y th e D ep a rt
m e n t o f D e f e n s e , a n d b r o u g h t I nto b e i n g b y a
C irc le . Be woo amused by my prw-
c<un-n tio a o f alph abetizin g phone num- c o m m itte e c a l l e d C O D A SY L , w h ic h i s a p p a r e n t l y
s t i l l g o i n g . CO BO L u s e s m o stly d e c im a l n u m b e r s ,
e Si iljll li *, and u rote a progran to do i t
is d e s ig n e d b a s ic a lly for b a lch p r o c e s s in g (d e s
c r ib e d e ls e w h e re ) , a n d u s e s v e rb o s e a n d p lo n k in g
" " m i... t>W eU^ u l c o m m a n d f o r m a ts .

J u s t b e c a u s e I t 's s t a n d a r d f o r b u s i n e s s
S S r th at
W o w p r o g r a m m i n g d o e s n 't m ean i t ' s t h e b e s t o r m ost
e f f ic ie n t l a n g u a g e f o r b u s i n e a s p r o g r a m m i n g ;
I 'v e t a l k e d to p e o p le w h o a d v o c a te b u s l n e s a p r o
g r a m m in g ln F O R T R A N , B A S IC . T R A C a n d e v e n
A P L . B ul th e n y o u g e l in to th o s e e n d l e s s a r g u
m e n t s . . . a n d i t t u r n s o u t th a t a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n
FORTRAN w a s c r e a t e d in t h e l a t e f if tie s , o f b u s i n e s s p r o g r a m m e r s o n ly k n o w C o b o l , w h ic h
la rg e ly b y J o h n B a c k u s , a e a n a l g e b r a i c p r o p rag m a tic ally s e ttle s th e a rg u m e n t.
g r am m in g s y s te m f o r t h e o ld IBM 7 0 4 . ( H o w e v e r,
Ihe u s u a l s t o r y I s th a t It s t a n d s f o r F O R m ala T h e r a a r e p e o p le w ho s a y t h e y 'v e d isc o v e re d
T R A N alato r.) h i d d e n b e a u t i e s i n COBOL; f o r I n s t a n c e , th a l I t 's
a s p l e n d i d l a n g u a g e f o r c o m p le x p o i n t e r m a n ip u la tio n
F o r tr a n la " a l g e b r a i c , " th a t I s , H u s e a ( s e e D ata S t r u c t u r e s , p . Xlff ) T h a t 's w h a t m a k es
a n a lg e b r a i c s o r t o f n o ta tio n a n d w a s m o stly h o rse r a c in g .
s u it e d , In t h e b e g i n n i n g , to w r i t i n g p r o g r a m s
th a t c a r r i e d o u t th e s o r t s o f f o rm u la e t h a t y o u
u se In h lg h a c h o o l a l g e b r a . I t 's s t r o n g o n n u m
b e r s c a r r i e d to a lo t o f d e c im a l p l a c e s ( " s c ie n tif ic "
n u m b e rs ) a n d t h e h a n d l i n g o f a r r a y s , w h ic h Is
so m e th in g e l s e m a th e m a t ic i a n s a n d e n g i n e e r s do
P - ...... -
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e * / / f J t o p i t k k k j
Joe e * il !f
fo r six months, i t makes
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1 t h w h ich y o u l u l a i t p r o g r i
F o r t r a n h a s g r o w n a n d g r o w n , h o w e v e r; p u te r. s u h n it* la r ig h t. I
T T sb T 'S b : r tio i ! i sks * ........... - ................ .............................. duplication*/ which many call unnecessary* syabollz
a fte r F o r tr a n I c am e F o r t r a n I I, F o r t r a n 111 a n d
F o r tr a n IV; a a w e l l a s a lo t o f v a r i a n t s lik e
F o r tr a n FI ( " I r r a t i o n a l , a n d s o m e w h e r e b e tw e e n
srainsss: the career of eubuleaion to IBM upon which the 360

111 a n d I V " ) . WATFOR a n d WATFCV. s a - s r 'i ., ..... ............................ ,

T he l a r g e r F o r tr a n s th a t Is , la nguage
p r o c e s s o r s th a t r u n o n th e b i g g e r c o m p u t e r s - -
now h a v e m a n y o p e r a t i o n s n o t c o n te m p la te d ln
th e o r i g in a l F o r t r a n , I n c lu d i n g o p e r a t i o n s for
h a n d lin g te x t a n d s o o n .
BASIC , p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r , i s In so m e r e s
p e c ts a s im p lif ie d v e r s i o n o f F o r t r a n .
W O L IP S T ,
ALGOL i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y lo be
o ne o f th e b e s t " s c i e n ti f ic " la n g u a g e s ; ll h a s
b e en w id e ly a c c e p te d l n E u r o p e , a n d I s th e
s ta n d a r d " p u b lic a ti o n la n g u a g e " In w h ic h p r o c e d u r e s
for d o in g t h i n g s a r e p u b l i s h e d in t h i s c o u n t r y .
It Is d if f e r e n t f ro m FORTRAN ln m a n y w a y s ,
b u t a k e y r e s p e c l I s th i s : w h ile i n FORTRAN
the p r o g r a m m e r m u s t l a y o u t a t th e b e g in n in g
o f h is p r o g r a m e x a c tly w h a l s p a c e s o f c o re
m emory a r e to h a v e w h a t n a m e s , In ALGOL
the s p a c e s i n c o r e m e m o r y a r e n o t g i v e n n a m es
e x c e p t w ith in s u b s e c t i o n s o f th e p r o g r a m ,
o r " p r o c e d u r e s . " W h en ihe p r o g r a m f o llo w er
g e ts to a s p e c if ic p r o c e d u r e , t h e n Ih e l a n g u a g e
p r o c e s s o r n a m e s t h e s p a c e s ln c o r e m e m o r y .
T h ia h a s s e v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s . O n e ia
th a t It c a n b e u e e d f o r s o - c a lle d " r e c u r s i v e "
p r o g r a m s , o r p r o g r a m s th a l c a ll n e w v e r s i o n s
of th e m s e lv e s in to o p e r a t i o n . I g u e s s w e b e tte r
n ot g e t Into t h a t . B u t m a th e m a t ic i a n s lik e
SNOBOL i s t h e f a v o r ite c o m p u tin g la n g u a g e
o f a lo t of my f r i e n d s . It la a l l a l - p r o c e s s i n g
l a n g u a g e , m e a n i n g Its g o o d f o r a m o r p h o u s d a t a .
(It d e r i v e s f ro m s e v e r a l p r e v i o u s l i s t - p r o c e s s i n g
l a n g u a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y IPL-V a n d CO M IT .)
Behold eare o f the eomUnaticms. The re c ip ie n t p ieke out the one he lik e e from 2* oaaes o f them
SNOBOL Is a b i g l a n g u a g e , a n d o n ly r u n s
E S S : S s i E k iS E jsH S S E = S s i : :;S i o n b i g c o m p u t e r s . T h e m a in c o n c e p t o f It Is
th e " p a tte rn m a tc h ." w hereb y a s t r i n g of sym bols
Is e x a m i n e d to s e e if ll h a s c e r t a i n c h a r a c l e r i a t l c s ,
in c l u d i n g a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t s , r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n
c o n t e n t s , o r o t h e r v a r i a t i o n s th e p r o g r a m m e r c a n
s p e c if y ; a n d t h e s t r i n g s u b s t i t u t i o n , w h e r e so m e
E E i s S i i ls il S ! SS! 8 S i S i ! : ! S s p e c if ie d s t r i n g o f s y m b o l s la r e p l a c e d b y a n o t h e r
th a t Ih e p r o g r a m m e r c o n t r i v e s .
S 5 3 S S 5 5 S S 3 2 ::r: g - * 3 s 3 S2S
S s : S S = j S S j E j j S 3 | j ;= ; S g i 2 3 = 3 E E jj E
ia p r o b a b l y t h e f e v o r ite l a n g u a g e o f th e a r t i f l c i a l -
I n t e l lig e n c e f r e a k s ( s e e A f o n d n e s s s for
L I S P , i n c i d e n t a l l y , i s n ot c o n s i d e r e d to r e f le c t
o n y o u r m a s c u l in ity .
L ISP Is a " c u l t " l a n g u a g e , a n d I ts a d h e r e n t s
a r e som e tim e s c a l l e d L ls p i a n s . T h e y e e e c o m p u ie r
a c ti v itie s in a s o m e w h a t d if f e r e n t l i g h t , a s com
2 5 i H S S : isiiii S 3 S S S S S S S S H ii i S S S S S S S S S 3 : p o s e d o f e v e r - c h a n g i n g c h a i n e o f t h i n g s c a ll e d
gp: Kjs ;ax: a s srx " c a r s " a n d " c u d d e r s , " w h ic h w ill n o t b e e x p la i n e d
h e re .

LISP w a s d e v e lo p e d b y J o h n M c C a rth y a t
O r i g in a l ly th ia la n g u a g e w a s c a ll e d IAL. M IT , b a s e d l a r g e l y o n th e L a m b d a - n o ta tlo n of
for I n te r n a tio n a l A l g e b r a i c L a n g u a g e , b u t th e n A lo n z o C h u r c h . It a llo w s t h e c h a i n i n g o f o p e r
a s It g r e w a n d g o t p o l i s h e d b y v a r i o u s i n t e r a t i o n s a n d d a ta I n d e e p ly I n t e r m i n g l e d f o r m s .
n a tio n a l c o m m ittee s i t w a s g iv e n I ts n e w n a m e . W hile It r u n s o n e le g a n t p r i n c i p l e s , m o st p e o p le
0 d o n 't k n o w I f a n y o n e c o n s c io u s ly n a m ed o b je c t to ite in n u m e r a b l e p a r e n t h e s e s ( a f e a t u r e
It a f te r A lg o l, th e s l a r . ) s h a r e d to so m e e x t e n t b y T RA C L a n g u a g e ) .
Belou: N elle e ' program to c a lcu la te the da te o f Easter.
It h a s g o n e t h r o u g h s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s . The language i s A lgol. J o s e p h W e is e n b a u m , a l s o o f M IT . h a s
Algol 6 2, th e p u b lic a t i o n l a n g u a g e , Is on e \. - - T - r r r - , . - . T/ r. ' T. T. r. v. r .c v- r vt .t - . t ~ - t t ............................... c r e a t e d a l a n g u a g e c a ll e d S U P , s o m e w h a t r e s e m
th in g ; A lg ol 7 0 . th e 1070 v e r s i o n . I s m u c h b l i n g L IS P , w h i c h r u n s in F O R TR A N . T h a t m e a n s
more c o m p lic a te d a n d s t r a n g e . y o u c a n r u n L I S P - l l k s p r o g r a m s w ith o u t h a v in g
a c c e s s to a L ISP p r o c e s s o r , w h i c h I s h e lp f u l .
S e v e r a l v e r s i o n s o f ALGOL h a v e g o tte n
p o p u la r In th ia c o u n t r y . O n e , d e v e lo p e d a t 'ftfGIM' INTfC'# ' Yeit.v6*.*,SU"SrS 5TARTI 1MINTEGER 10. VEMl'l I _ . _ . . . . ....
UpMt | ltN T fr.f( in .'IF * * TufN1 GOTO* u t t : :
th e U n iv e r s i ty o f M ic h ig a n , i s c a ll e d MAD
(M ic hig an A lg o r ith m D e c o d e r ) ; Its s y m b o l Is
of c o u r s e A lf r e d B . N e w m a n . A n o th e r f a v o r ite 1 i- i:;; ,.; ; j :: v m 's
(for i t s n a m e , a n y w a y ) i s JO VIAL ( J u l e s ' O w n OCiO __ _________ ipe : ruvo, . veaj t : x t: i : i- ___! _ __
V ersio n o f t h e I n te r n a t i o n a l A lg e b r a ic L a n g u a g e ) , V i " !? T ' *i*lS*C6NT-CrST'/*.-ieCFNTl3l*/Ji
d e v e lo p e d u n d e r J u l e s S c h w a r t s ( a n d s u p p o s e d ly
na m ed w ith o u t h i s c o n s u lta tio n ) a t S y s te m D e v e l _00r r . __ j _________.. * .j . .. i ________
op m e n t C o r p o r a ti o n .
i _- 4: |i ! s . :S ; s i ;
___J 'GOTO' ALI8!
:
1/1 lEZ2l
r
_ l]_________ I______
i ... If y o u f e e l l i k e m a k in g p r o g r a m s r u n f a s t ,
a n d n o t t a k e u p v e r y m u c h c o r e m e m o r y , y o u go
When IBM a n n o u n c e d i t s S y s te m 360 h a c k ----- EAUTiE^Tcsi/<(AV.?/i:.Ciier<i: ' I f Cu*vs>-eP? to m a c h i n e l a n g u a g e , th e c o m p u t e r s v e r y o w n
_____ s i a i : c w w : cii i ; K4v:*vii COiO1 fiOt : _______________________ _____ _
In 1904. t h e r e h a d b e e n h o p e t h a t t h e y w o u ld w i r e d - u p d e e p - d o w n s y s te m o f c o m m a n d s (see
s u p p o r t th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e c o m m ittee s .s s ; :s s s ;s s :: | c P* ^ 5 2 ,). It t a k e s l o n g e r , u s u a l l y , b u t m a n y p e o
* SMlfl f* * w : t SrEO' IN ILnUTSCP-l 'DO* | .............. |
an d m a k e A lg o l t h e b a s i c l a n g u a g e o f t h e i r new p l e c o n s i d e r It v e r y s a t i s f y i n g .
c o m p u te r l i n e . No s u c h l u c k . I n s te a d th e y
" 0 0 1 * ______ f -GIH* | ._____ T h e n , o f c o u r s e , If y o u h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r
announced PL /I (P ro g ra m m in g L an g u a g e I ) , a 'o o r n ' f n easieri/h.i/js "i
c o m p u te r la n g u a g e l h a t w a s g o in g to b e all __| _______ _ A t.F ^ n e m / R it.j/ ti _______ sty le an d a p p ro a c h and se t of In te r e s ts , you
no^s r f M r' m /^ iv .^ /ii. E nsT E si/ *.? /! ! 1 w ill p r o b a b l y s t a r t b u i l d i n g u p a c o lle c ti o n of
th in g s to a l l m e n . j w * ___ 1__________L. * ST 5R (r t .. Vl ! .i - - - [ _________ I_______________
in d i v i d u a l p r o g r a m s f o r y o u r o w n p u r p o s e s .
ln p r o g r a m m i n g s t y l e i t r e s e m b l e d COBOL,
b u t h a d f a c ilit ie s f o r v a r i e t i e s o f " s c i e n ti f ic "
S ---- --------------------------
00C*> ___________ : RFCIN1 I F1 F STf Rt/< y, I / 1 TMEH' ____|__________ _____ T h e n y o u 'l l w o r k o u t s im p lif ie d w a y s o f
10P41* ' ' OUTSTRINit I . ! *4arN > l -Else- " 1 c a l l i n g th e s e I n to o p e r a t i o n a n d t y i n g t h e i r
n u m b e rs a n d s o m e g o o d d a ta s t r u c t u r e s y s te m s , _________ _ regi n* Ditr sr aisc11.*i* pi< i i " i ' l l __ J_______ I____
it Is a v a il a b le f o r th e 360 a n d f o r c e r t a i n b i g o n rt* . C * < ffB (/ y .i/|i.f* 5 iE 0 (/< i* T . U -S l ' r e s u l t s a n d d a t a to g e t h e r .
"C'1** ________ _ _ _ f'UTlNT:f . CRt l . E \ S T f l ( / H T . l / m ___________________
H oney w e ll c o m p u t e r s ; i n d e e d , t h e o p e r a t i n g s y s
te m f o r MULTICS ( a e e p . { S ) w a s w r i tte n l n
P L / I . W h e th e r t h e r e a r e p e o p le w h o lo v e t h e ooo r
I Z i L r T r i a a i c i M M . i r r ; i 11 s r s * t r c i . n , n -eno* H
___ r i W hic h m e a n s y o u 'l l h a v e a l a n g u a g e o f y o u r

la n g u a g e 1 d o n 't k n o w ; t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n l y
p e o p le w ho h a te I t.
r: ri - i i - - - i: j; ' - H - h --------

t u u o tib * a n d gotten ba ck on
n w l 6 H r lA X W JW S
Bre ry e m p u l a r U w ir e d to accept *p-
m *yn*m o f command*. When lh**e commands
i n rto r*d In th* c o m pute r'* memor y, *nd lh
c m p u t a r ' r p n g r m follower gala lo thm. Ihay
cause U to resp o n d direc tly by electr onic refle x.
Thi* la caUed mac h in t la n g u ag e lhe v a ry la n
gua ge of (ha machine Itaalf.
in moat available m m p u le r e th machine
lang uage * are b in a ry , m e an in g composed of only
two *lt*m*liv* symbol*- B in ary because It* *
sensible w*y o f o rg anis in g th a machine'* str u c
ture; It p a m i l * progrero* lo b e reduced to *
Ingle common form of Information, sn d permits
pr ogra ms to be *iored In b in a r y memory- Each
Individual ln*1ruction o r command ordin aril y
occupies ana memory *lot. th o u g h some compu
ter* have ann manda of v a ry in g length .
Different romp u t e r i ha v e different machine
la n g u ag es, b u t th* in stru c tio n s of all computers
are basically sim ila r. Big cxnnputer* have more
commands, with more v a ria tio n s . and carry
them out Faaler; b u t Ihoee v a r i a t i o n are Jusl
e x tra way* of sa v in g ste p * , n o t qualitatively
d ifferent feature*.
Ths deep-down o p e ra tion* ARE ALL THE
TKINO3 THE COMPUTER HVER DOES. However.
In th e ir comblnallcst* lhe*e lnatr ucti one can be
woven Into chain s and d isd a in s of complex a cti ons.
ALL COMPUTER PROGRAMS ARB EVEN
TUALLY WRITTEN OR ENACTED IN THE MACHINE'S
PARTICULAR BINARY LANGUAGE,
Now, ll Is en tirely p o ssib le lo write your
prog ram* si th is leva], c o n sid e r in g aAd a rr a n
ging rock-bottom commands. T h is Is called
machine-language p ro g ra m m in g (an d assembly
pr ogramming: see eaam ple s a little la le r on).
In dee d, working al this le vel Is v e ry highly
reapeeted In some quart e r a . Other* avoid ll.
Thla Is a v e ry se rio u s m a ile r o f ta ste and whsl
y o u 'r e working on.
Hig her-le vel la n g u a g e s , se en on e a r li a r
p a g es, have more convenient form s for people,
but must be ir m s U te d , e ith e r ahead of lima or
on a ru n n in g b a s is , lo Ih e bottom-m ost codes
thal make things happen lh th e machine. All of
them are built out of machine la n g u ag e. Writ
in g (he lang uage p r o c e s s o r s , p rogra m s lhal
enact o r transla te these h ig h e r- le v e l la nguag es.
Is considered a black a r t . (Bee p . J O . )
Every programmable de v ic e h as a "machine
la n g u ag e." o r rock bottom code system thal acti
vate* the th in g directly; ita p ro g ra m follower
responds ele ctr ic ally 10 th e se co d es, and enacts
them m e in stru ctio n al a tim e .
T ru e compulers a re programmable devices
th al can modify th e ir own Inal r u c ti o n s , change
Ih elr se quen ce of op era tio n s an d do olh er ve rsa
tile stuff.
RJ^tM lArL
of
A0WT MmM X
V AS c 9 T T o O ftJ ? O l ,
YOUR BASIC COMMANDS. NOW
( C o a p u ta n exist which d o Uttle more lhan th ese,
and yet they can In p rin cip le do any th in g
f o n d e r computer* can d o . )
TO BE BHOWN; Th* ta llowing a r e the rock-bonotn
basic op eration* of co m p u te r* , available aa
a pacific Inal ructi ons In a ll computers (with
some v ariation).
The Br*t se v en lis te d below will be
use d in th* e xte nded example In the next
s p rea d .
LOAD a b in ary p a tte rn from co re memory to a
main reg la te r.
STORE a b in a ry p attern in c o re memory from a
main reg is ter.
ADD TWO b in a ry pa ttern * to g e th e r. (Thl*
cause* them to be tr e a te d a* n u m be r*,
w hether they w ere lo b e g in with o r no t.)
Go to a noth er p a r t o f (he pr ogram
end forget you w ere h e r e .
TEffT TWO b in a ry p a tte rn s a g ain st each oth er,
a n d b r a d i o r not in (he p rogra m depen
d in g on th a resu lt.
t v * W * 4 M b
Computers a re basic ally a lik e . Ignore Ihelr
a ppearances: a roomful of r o a r in g cabinet* may
have a g r e a t deal In common with a sm all blin king
bo a; Indeed, Ihey may have the aame arc hite cture ,
o r s tr u c tu re , and there fore be Ihe same com puter.
T he stru c tu re of c om pute r* , In ih e lr glorious
sim ila rities and fiu d n a t in g dif ferenc e*, is called
computer a rc h ite ctu re .
(For the a rc hitectu re of a b e g in n e r 's com
p u te r , see p . J * ; to r (he a rc h ite ctu r e of some
famous com pule rs, se e f p .1 -} .)
Computer a rc hitectu re c o v ers th ree main
th ings: register* (place* w here so meth in g ha ppen s
to Information); memories (pla ces w here nothing
ha ppens to Information); th e ir Interconnections;
and machine la nguage, oil lhe bottom -l ev el I n stru c
tio ns (for (hi* la st see "Rock Bottom," p . 3 2 , ) .
REGISTERS AND MEMORIES
Com puters are ma de, ba sic a lly , of two
thing*: regis te r* snd m em orie s. A r eg is ter is
where som ething happens to Information: a memory
is w here nothing ha ppens lo inform atio n. Let's
go ov e r lhal alowly.
A r e g is te r 1* a pla ce w h e r e som ething
h appens to Information: lhe information ean be
flippe d aro u n d , te ste d, c hanged by arithm etic,
o r w h atever. (We noted e a r lie r lhal r egis te rs
a re whai connect a computer 10 it s a cc essorie s.
T hey a re also prin cipal p a rts of the computer
its e lf .)
A memory la a pla ce w here nothin g hap
pens to Information. A progra m pula the Infor
mation th e re , end th e re ll a lays IUI some p r o
gram pulls 11 out again o r r ep la ce s it.
A main or general r e g is te r (often called
lhe acc um ula to r, for no good r ea so n ) Is w here
the program b rin g s Ihings lo b e w orke d o n .
t e ste d , compared , added lo and so o n . T here
can be se veral of them In a co mpute r.
Oth er regis te r* perform oth e r functions In
the computer; * giv en c om pute r's d e sig n , o r a rc hi
t e c t u r e . is larg ely lhe arr ange m e nt of r egis te rs
a nd lha operations lhal lake pla ce betw een them.
The reason we do n't Juat ha v e aU regis te r*
a nd no memories *t a il 1* thal r e g is te r s tr a d i
tiona lly coal more lhan memories. (However, some
machines a re bein g trie d lhat have aU working
r e g is te r s Inste ad of memory. See ST ARAN. p . H J . )
Memories come In all s iz e s and apee da .
So lola of compulers have big slow memories ,
su ch a s d is k memories, along with Ihelr small
faat memories.
A memory consis ts of num e rous holding
places o r stor age location*, each holdin g one
s ta n d ard pie ce of Information f o r Ihe co mpute r,
a word ha vin g a specific num be r of b its (eee p .
.) We must Blress: a "COMPUTER WORD"
HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH ENGLISH WORDS OR
ALPHABETICAL CHARACTERS. T he term refer*
to * specific machine's sta n d ard memory slot,
havin g a Axed num ber of bit position*.
One Important reason (or I h ls sta n d ard isa
tion I* lhal each hold in g p la ce , o r memory loca
tio n , can bo given a num ber o r a d d re * * . If
e v e r y slot in the memory ha* an a d d r e s s , Infor
mation can be stored In sp ecific place*:
NOT TO BE SHOWN: Here a r e th e r e s t of lhe
utterly fundamental commands o f computer*.
(T hese are not use d In th e forthcoming
TEST ONE SPECIFIC b ln sry p a tte r n , and branc h
in lhe program dependin g on th e result.
SET AN ACCESSORY IN OPERATION/TURN IT OFF.
REVERSE ( o r "COMPLEMENT") a b in a ry p a t t e r n -
c hsngln g aU lh* X* to O'* a n d vice v e rsa .
SLIDE (or "SHIFT") a bina ry p a tte rn eldelong
th rough a r e g i s t e r .
FLIPPER (or "LOGICAL") o pe ra tions betw een (wo
b in a ry pa tte rn*, esp ec ially --
OR ( o r "INCLUSIVE OR" o r "tOR ) ~
r esu lt Is an X w h ere e ithe r
orig in al pa tte rn w aa an X.
AND (or "MASK") r e s u l t 1* an X
FANCY OPERATIONS
T he following opera tions a re d e sir a b le bul nol
atrlcUy n e ce ssary , and many com pute rs , e s
pe cially minicomputer*, d o n 't have them all.
SUBTRACT. (Can also be do ne If n e ce ssary
with combination of a dds and f lip s .)
MULTIPLY. (Can also be do ne if ne ce ssary
wilh combination of a d d s, shifts and te sla .)
DIVIDE, (Con also be done if n e c e ssa r y with
combination of s u b tr a c ts , ahlft* a n d te a l s .)
MORE FLIPPER ("LOGICAL") opera tions:
XOR - (or "EXCLUSIVE O R ") resu lt
la a n X only w h e r e one pattern
had an X, but not both.
NAND-- reve rse d AND.
NOR-- reve rse d OR.
ilace*:
i*o*r*W 71
A core memory ha s a defin ite rhyth m or
c y c le . Into which tl div ide* the p a s s in g time.
T h e memory cycle of a core memory Is s o Im
p orta nt that it s durati on is often called the
c ycle lime of (he c o n fe r. A reque st lo ih e core
memory mde a t lhe begin n in g of th e cycle
i s honored al lhe end of the c ycle . Core cycles
a re v e ry fast, bein g th ese day* about one
m ic rosecond, o r millionth of * second.
A core memory can on ly pe rform one act
( sto re o r fetch) d u r in g one memory c y cle .
Core cycle* d u r in g which n o th in g la
r e q u e s te d of Ihe memory sim ply go b y .
One la st point about core mem orie s. T he
n u m b e r which specifies an a d d re s s to lh e mem
o r y i s a b in a ry p a tte rn - - Jusl like all th e olh e r
Information (see "Bin ary P a tle m s ," p , 3 } ) .
(Or more ex ac tly , w hateve r bina ry p a tte rn Is su p
p lie d lo Ihe memory as th e a d d re ss to sto r e or
from which to fetch, thal pattern will be tr eate d
a s the a d d re ss to sto re o r from w hic h to fetch,
t h a t p a tte rn will be tr eate d as a b in a ry num be r
w h eth er it w as suppose d to be o r n o t. It could
be (he a lphabetic w ord ORINCH w hic h got there
by mis take (see "Debuggin g." p . ) . bul Ihe
memory will tr ea t 11 a s an a d d re s s n u m b e r and go
to the a d d re ss specified by lhat p a tte rn .
T he w ord length
(num ber of b it-sp a ce s In a main
r e g is te r and memory slot)
T he num be r of main r e g is te r s
and what (hey can do; i . e . . how
th e y a re se l up and w hat o pe ra tions
can lake pla ce In and among them:
i.e .,
the Instruction Sel (see n e a r b y );
T he amount of memory;
T he accessorie s o r p e rip he rals ;
T he cycle time.
H ere's the com pute r, Ihen. in ail Its glory:
a de vic e with a symbolic pr o g ra m , sto r e d In a
memory, b e in g ste pped th rough by a progra m
f o llo w er,
T he commands of the progra m c a u se the
progra m follower to c a r ry oul th e in div idual
s te p s req u e ste d by each command of th e program .
SUBROUTINE JUMP
"Go to a noth er p a r t of th e progra m
b u t remeroernber th is pla ce because y o u ll
be coming back on y o u r ow n."
RETURN FROM SUBROUTINE-
"Oo ba ck lo w h e r e v e r it w as in lhe
progra m thal you la st came fro m ."
PUSH (on Stack mach ines o n ly , see p . ) A nd p a r t of the p ow er, of c o u rs e , la in \
ta k e * b in a ry pa tte rn and pul It on top
o f the Stack.
POP (an Stack machine* only , aea p . ) -
ta k e w hateve r bin ary p a tte rn la now on
th e lop of (he Slack.
ADD ONE ( o r "INCREMENT") (Useful w hen
y o u 'r e c ounting the num ber of time* so me
th in g ha* be en d one .)
SUBTRACT ONE (or "DECREMENT." nol " e x c re
m e n t" )- - (Also useful when y o u 'r e c ount
ing the num ber of time* som ething has beei
d o n e .)
ASTRONOMICAL/INFIN1TBSIMAL ARITHMETIC (or
"FLOATING POINT" a rit hm etic )-- o p e ra tes
on a certa in num ber of Significant Digits
and keepa se parat e tr ac k of lhe decimal
poin t- - actually a Binary Point, sin ce ll'a
r a r e l y If e v e r don* decimally.
V e r y Important In the ph ysical
s c ie n c e s.
Almost any opera tions can be "buill i n " ." T he
s k y is of c ourse the lim it, sin ce any elec
tr onic opera tion ean be added to a compu
t e r ' s In structi on-set If d e s ir e d * a y , " tu rn
o n Ihe ele ctr ic b le nder" o r "m ulti ply q u a t
e rn io n s " but the form er is mere eaaUy
do ne aa an output instruc tion, and lhe
la tte r aa p a rt of a p r o g ra m .
each with its exac t r e su lt* .
H ow , you aak d e sp eraialy . do** thl* innar-
mo*l p ro g ra m follower w ork ? The on* lhat la
built Into lh* m n p u t a r t
A ha.
B asic ally II co nsist* o f two pacific regis
te rs , th e Program C ounter (usually abbreviated
PC) and th e I nstr ucti on R e gis te r (usually abbre
via te d IR ), and o th e r electr onic R uff, loosely
te rm ed " d e o id l n g lo g ic .
(Sinc e we a re a lr e ady visual icing the
progra m fo llow er aa a Uttle h a n d . 1*1'* think of
the in de x f in g e r aa the progra m counter and
Imagine tha t th e thum b e a n (Up an Instruction
inlo a little c u p . the Instr ucti on R e g u la r o r CR.
Whai lhe h e c k .)
WHEN a progra m la se t into ope ration, tiw
bina ry p a tte rn spe cif yin g Ha Ural addreaa in
memory 1* p u t Into lhe progra m counter.
T h e n the in stru c tio n *1 lhal addre ss Is
fetched lo the progra m follower (lhal 1*. pul in
the I nstr ucti on r e g i s t e r ) , decoded and carri ed
THEN THE PROGRAM COUNTER AUTOMAT
ICALLY HAS ONE ADDED TO IT , SO IT POINTS
TO THB NEXT INSTRUCTION.
T he in struc tion p ulle d from memory ia
held in th e command o r Instruction regis te r
and th e re decoded by the syste m 's electronic*.
II Is of no conce rn to lhe programmer how
thia la d o n e ele c in x ilca U y . (And Indeed elec
tronic s Is g e n erally of little conce rn lo computer
pe ople , u n le s s ihey a re tr y in g to desig n o r o p
timise c om pule rs o r o th e r device* themselve*.
In dee d, lh e e le c tr onic technique* a re constantly
c h a n g in g .)
All we ne ed lo know Is that an electrical
decodin g sy ste m (called th e logic c ir c u its) c a r r i e s
out lhe spe cif ic in stru c tio n for In stance, by
h u tti n g off th e pa th to Ihe memory, tu rn in g on
the a d d in g c irc u it, and ope nin g path* th rou gh
Ihe a d d in g c irc u it and back lo the main r e g is te r .
Now lhat th e progra m c ounte r ho lds (he
number o f th e n e a t Instr ucti on it In tu r n 1*
accord in gly retched and execute d.
And so It continues.
When an in struc tion call s for a Jump o r
branc h In th e pr o g ra m , whai ha ppens?
T h e ju mp command c au se s a new nu m b e r
lo be stu ffed Into the progra m cou n te r, th at's
w hat, and so ( h at's w here Ihe program goes n e x t.
ALTERNATING CYCLES
Many Instr ucti ons (ell the program follower
(o take a da ta w ord (also a bin ary p a tte rn ) from
memory a n d p u t It In a main r egis te r o r vice
Su ch an Instructi on Is tr ansla ted by the
decoding logic Into a reque st to (he memory.
Since a core memory can only d o one
thin g d u r i n g one of Its c y c le * , th e n e x t in s t r u c
tion In lh e p ro g ra m cannot be fetched un lll the
date ha s moved to o r from lh e memory.
Instr ucti on cycle (fetch (he next)
Dala cycle
(d ala goes to o r from m e m o r y ) ,
Instr ucti on cycle ,
Data cycle,
Somehow
LOADING. STORING,
MODIFYING
\
\
J
AND TESTING
BINARY PATTERNS
DOESN'T SEEM
TERRIBLY FRAUGHT
I
I
I
WITH POSSIBILITIES: \
bul the e ndle s* variation* and ramifications [
make chea s look like ll c - tac - to e. |
Ihe grea t s p e e d , Ihe te eny fract io n o f a second \
e ach alep ta kes; five h u n d r e d operation* y e( 1
lake only a bout a th ou sa n d th of * se co n d . So I
no matter how Intr ic ate th e enactment lo w hic h /
th ese liny ste p s a re buU t. It atill h a p p en s J
awfully f a s t. /
A c o m p u te r, the n, in te m a U y Ju st c o n sis ts
of certa in pla c e s to w ork on information (main
r e g i s t e r s ) . c e r ta i n places lo ke ep ll lhe rea l o f
the time (m em ories), c ertain pa th w ay s and in t e r
connections betw een th em , a n instru c tio n -se t
havin g c e r ta i n p o w er s w hose Instruction* c an b e
o pera te d on oul of memory, a n d * p ro g ra m fol
lower that c a r r i e s oul th e I nstr ucti o n * o f th a t
In struct ( o n -s e t.
INSTRUCTION-SET.
T ha sy stem o f command p a tte rn *
d e sig ned and w ir e d into a p a r ti c u la r c o n p u te r ,
(The in stru c tio n s In th* se l a r e th* v o c a b u la ry
of a m a chine l a n g u a g e .)
 H S lC iK SlRocr*B C f T*|r f ' . y O W ff U yv u want Information on lha machine
H W K J j-W language and aaaanb ly Language of m y given
machine, w rite Ihe manufacturer for Uie g n r
a ^ O 5 W O (^ P U Z Z L E arammlng ma nual. T h ar a may also be a
pockel c a r d .
pattsm pattern selecting
We look at l u t at whal really bap pa n t selecting w h e n to perform
Im M* given computer. It mult be a specific operation) operation)
computer because tha ra la no single Innar li - . .. OPCODE y j ADDRESS OPBRATION CALLED FOR
guage tor all computer*. For simplicity's aaka Jil. >I* C-.
Olka moat Introductory te ats) we hereby pre
sent a fictitious machine.

T flC
CLEAR AC
Thia instruction causes the AC to be
filled with eeroes.
IWtYtoM L W r
An occult asp ect of compuier deaign la the
F H > 0 * 0 0 XO 0 C ADD (from memory lo AC)
This adda Ihe contents of Ihe speci
matter of how lo pack Into the so-many bi ts of
an Inaiructlon word all the options Ihe [
fied memory location io the conlenta of lha
AC. Reaull remains In the AC. Whatever
(Faithful Instrument. Domesticated and Obliging).
was In the memory before Is etlll there.
This Instruction is also used lo brin g e
Tha FIDO la a Iwelve-bll macKin*. The new psttem to the AC. copying 11 from ihe
main ragla ier (ll haa only ona) la twalva blia specified memory location; bul you have to
long, and ever y memory slot la twalva blls l n g . CLEAR the AC fi rs t, ao youre adding II to
i*jTtvcivs
Bvary Inaiructlon la twelve blia long;
va ry dala word la twalva blta long, though of For no pa rti cu la r reason the Instruction
STORE select bits sr e usually on the left, the address
course muh longar placaa of data can be pul This Instruction copies ihe contents
Bge tber by taking n o n lhan ona twelve-bll bits on Ihe ri g h t. and option blls (no room for
of Ihe AC lo lha specified memory toc al lm. them In this book, unfortunately) In the middle.
word. Whatever waa In Ihe memory location Is
destroyed. The number of bits In the address d et er
Some rudlmantary inalmctlone of lha FIDO
a n Uatad In a nearby box. Tha Inelmcllone of mines the numbe r o f places In Ihe memory lhat
Whatever n the AC Is silll there the programmer can choose among. IS bite in
lha FIDO a r t of two types: plain onee thal Just
uaa tha main raglalar (like CLBAR). and Ihe the addreaa means a choice of 32,768 memory lo
divided onea, which select a memory alot or cations. 7 bits meane a choice of only 128,
X X0 0 0 o INPUT* (See "Binary P st te rn s." p . 3 3 .)
output device. On the FIDO lhaee a re divided Thle Instruction copies the contents
Into an operation code (opcode) of Ave blta address goes here of a specified device regis ter io Ihe AC.
lha blta thal tell (lie program follower whal Ihe Generally a specific n m p u ie r haa more lhan
operation Is to be; and an addreaa of le ven one instruction layout.
OUTPUT*
blta. specifying which memory elot (or ei le m al This Inaiructlon copies Ihe contents
device) la lo be operated on. Deciding what the Instruction layouts are
addreaa goes here of Ihe AC lo a specified device register. lo be hinges on the architectural deaign of the
These a tv sn blta allow exactly 120 differ computer (eee p . 72. ) and ihe In slr ucllon-sel.
JUMP It all gets worked out together,
ent p a tle m a, (from OOOOOOO lo XXXXXXX). This Instruction makee the program
which means we can s e ls d among exactly 128 follower lake Its nexl Instruction al ihe
sddress goes here

0
different memory alow. (See Binary Patterns, Its ultimately a matter of deaign elegance,
specified addreas and go on from there. bul Ihe consequences a re very concrete. An
p . .) ( H k R*.>
elegant Inslrucllon-sel Is easy lo use and the re
O O O X e TEST. SKIP IF EQUAL** fore savea a lot of time and money. (Anyone
This la a common leal Inaiructlon, Inlereated in studying the matter might want lo
Tha Fide cornea wilh one row of llghta permitting the program lo branch depen
and switches; the row of lights can ehow the compare the PDP-11, a 16-bll compuier wilh a
ding on various conditions. The contents brilliantly designed inslrucllon-sel. wilh some
conlenta of any speclAe working regis ter or of the AC are compared wilh the specified
memory alot. When Ihe computer la slopped, other 16-blt computer,)
core memory location. If they are not the
Ihls la helpful for debugging programs (sa eame. Ihe program continues snd takes ihe
neat Instruction In Ihe normal fashion. IP
Ihe two patterns are Ihe ti m e , the pro
Ah, if only we could lell you all about lh< GUESS WHAT!
gram follower SKIPS the next Inaiructlon
FIDO here! lie many more Instructions. The and goea on lo the one after.
option blta In the commands lhal allow fancy The FIDO is nothing bul a stripped-down
varlatlona, or ihe option bits In the Inlerfeces. version of lhat beloved family pooch of compulerdc
spoken of e ar lie r, which allow Ihe program to Whatever the noxl Instruction is.
give different commands lo external devices. the n, determines Ihe course of events
If the two pstterns l u m oul to be Ihe

For Instance, lhat middle Inatruc-

f t 'ifePDP-?- (Described p .'jo )

WQ.W an be a JUMP Inaiructlon. taking

i whole nother part of
lory and s new aeries of even's

D " njefl0nB "*** bee

If you buy a PDP-8 from Digital Equipment
Corporation, you get all Ihls and more. (Except
for the external d e v ic e s. ) And ihc PDP-8. of
co urs e, allows much bigge r memories ihsn 128
slola. bul that's too complicated for h e r e . ) Arf.
AcluaJiy 1( _ not ' '

* 1,8 man 12-bj, efficient

Thl* br in g s up some Iniereellng f a c u .

Actually computers with small ward lengths CERTAIN NUMBERS ARE SPECIAL because
like these sr<i called mlnlcomputera. Big computers they a re Ihe number of things lhal can be specified
have much bigger word lengths. The IBM 360 by a cer tain number of b its.
ha* a 32-bll word la ngth. The Control Dala 6600
haa a 60-bll word.
Special number
2 one bit Q
Now, It is an Interesting facl lhat nol only
4 two bite cm
a re what Ihe computer operatee on deep down. "Binary* r e co np uie r memories divided up Inlo *loit, or thr ee bll*
0 rm
Just mean* (bat only two symbols a re uaed (Just as locations, of equal length.
10 four blls n i t ~j
"decimal1 Beau* lhal ten symbols a re u a e d ) . Patterns 32 five bit* r r i I r*\
of binary symbol* ha ppe n lo be electrically omve nle nl. 64 six bits
t o thats how computers are bulli . bul that would 128 seven blls
change If tome mere convenient at of symbols came tk -
250 eight blls
612 nine blls
1024 len bits
Binary patte rns a re va ry systematic and May ("ONE K" Is 1024: memories and everything
to deal with. Consider Ihe number of bina ry symbols else c-amo in K's. o r multiples of 1024.)
you csn have In Just four sp aces. LET'S USB THE However, we will have lo stop u sin g these
LETTERS X AND 0 . AND PUT THEM IN ALPHABETICAL X's and 0 ' s . It's not really done, so we will
ORDER. SO YOU'LL SEE THAT WE'RE TALKING ABOUT switch to Ihe more usual way of writing binary
PATTERNS , RATHER THAN NUMBERS. patterns with l ' s and ta ro e s. (Apologies to reader* Actually Ihs term " k ." standing for " k i l o - s h o u l d
who hate numbers; but remember that these patterns mean one thou sa n d , and the term BK, o r Binary K,
O O O O while we may write them cu t a* l ' s and zeroes, 1a used by fuss y people to sta nd for Ihe ve ry Important
O 0 |Q X may repr ese nt wholly non-numerical kind s of near by num be r 1024. Bul computer people generally
o o xlo Information.) Thai means the letter Q is use ex pr e ss io n s ending In K (or th e following special
numbera:
THAT'S HOW MANY
0 X can b e found. And these numbe rs a re bina ry. M ilo l- W W I NUMBER COMBINATIONS FIT IN
X 0 but It's n l l l the letter Q. 2048 ("2K ) eleven blls
olxjx X Many forma of Information a re kepi In binary 4000 ("4K") twelve bits
,'0 0o
lw patterns which a ra nol numb ers . For Instance, Of co urse, blta may alao rep resent numerical 8102 ("OK") thirt een bits
o o X letters of the alphabet a re usually stored aa 8- Information. And so we pa ss on te 16,304 ("16K") fourteen bile
0X 0 bit p stt er ns . 32,708 ("32K") (lfleen b lls.
0 X X BINARY NUMBERS.
X 0 o U I |o | |o |o |o M Abovs thl* nu mber they Increase v e ry fast , and
X 0 X These a re the same old binary paiterne, we generally hav e to look th a n u p , bul Ihe Idea la
X X o bul when we decide to treat them as numbers, Ihls: the num be r of bits us e d lo select something
XXX they a re binary numb era . limits the nu mb er of thing s ou can select among.
For I n sta n ce, If you have a computer memory wilh
You csn see thal the pattern repe ats In certain Let's count. Note thal these a re Ihe eame 32K dUTereni locations, you need fifteen bit* eiaclly
fntarestlng w a y s . Each column repe ats Itself a s you atmblnahona of bit* as be fo re . merely pul In the ID specify a location Ln memory.
r v d down; add ing a new position lo the left doubles more usual notation
ll* number of possible pattern* you can have in the Hare ai him ramifications:
All compute can
In principle do decimal number binary number
0 000 T he wo rd length of a compuier determines
Th es e a re lha Infamoua "blia" you have heard Ihe eame things, hew la rge a number ll can hold. A compuier wilh
eotne (eater. 1 001
of. Aa you a n see. the re 1* nothing h a rd or compli 2 010 a twelve -bit w o rd can only hold number up to
cated about them. The number of bit* In a thing However, some a n 4006 tn one memory location (since we u se 000 000
loo alow or too small 3 Oil
i n the number of space s which can b e either X or 4 100 000 000. the fi r st combination, to stand (or zero);
ever lo do whal olher* can.
though Ihe types of Ihelr 6 101 If wo want lo u s e longer numbe rs we have lo set
operations a re slmllsr. 6 110 si de two or more word locellons per number. (A
Now, the moat basic facl about an y computer 7 111 16-bll com pute r can hold number up lo 6S.63S In
Is He word len gth; thal I s . Ihe number of spaces Some computers (and Ihelr 08 1000 one memory location.)
In a stan dar d momory elot of thal computer. languages and fadlltlee) 00 1001
are much mere convenient 10 1010 ln de sig nin g dala s tr u c tu re s . If you use
IZ -V T O '- t 'V 11 1011 bina ry cod es (rBlher tha n, s a y, alphabetical ch ar ac te r s) .
for programmer* lhan o i h e n .
a i l i i i i n m because ihelr InMruction-set* 12 1100 you hav e to allow enough bi ts (or all ihe allemaUve*
It-m M'-.r't-*- we*A 13 1101 lhal might tu r n up.
l 1 M I I I Cl I I 1T T I 14 1110
Th is Is no small mailer. 15 1111 In Ihe des ign of Ihe wir ed- In Instructions
A *11-1111 conp utar* u i u lha PDP-8) haa moaery for a c o m p u ie r , there fo re. Ihs number of bits sel
v o t f a that are all twelve blta long. A "16-bll (But ll'e a big matter of aside to s pecify an a d d re ss In core determines whether
o m p u tc r (like lha PDP-11) haa memory word* thal A> y o u o bse rve , the highe r n u m w n need more
laata and argument thal Ins tr uct io n can select from ihe whole memory.
are all l e b l t a U*ig- and n o r * blls lo hold l h a n .
among computer people.) o r Juat a p a ri of It.
 Co o*iT iN i q a e r

*va$yv R jm w e< *
T h e r e ia a c e r ta i n folk h e ro w hom the
kw A v ia

pe op le a ll c a ll B u c k y . It le e a ld th a l h e w e a r s
th r e e w rla tw a tc h e a : o ne to r w h e r e h e a n o w . 0 0 - 0 0
on e f o r w h e r e h e w ill b e n e x t, a n d o n e th a t b<Vtff x v in tcviti sxv*
M ils w h a t tim e It i s a t blfl h o m e - 5 7 6 S
Well n o w . H e r e 's a n e x a m p le o f a lit tle
p ro b le m o n w h ic h to tr y o u r FIDO c o m p u te r .

L e t 's w ir e u p a magic w rl e tw a tc h to r
B uck y t h e F o lk H e r e , o n e th a t w ill u s e a te e n y
0
bewrt
12,
0 - 0 0
jsvkc
-Ll
svi<
lo

f
?T
O 0:0 0
FIDO o n a c h i p ( th e c om in g t h i n g ) . a tta c h e d to
th r e e r o w s o f n u m e ric a l r e a d o u ts (lik e th o s e
on p o c k e t c a lc u la to r s ) .

T h i s a p p lic a tio n le n o l so a b s u r d a s y o u s E5
m igh t t h i n k .

It ia o b v io u s l y qu it e si m p le In p r i n c i p l e .

It * u i le t u a s e e ew oe o f th e w a y s th a t
th e ro c k - b o tto m m ach ine l a n g u a g e s of c o m p u te rs
a re u s e d .
Note t h a t I n t h i s f lo w c h a r t t e s tin g w h e t h e r t h e rig h tm o s t d igit 1b a nin e.
(ll o n ly h a s lo le s t o n e . s in c e m lnules a r e lhe

A v - 3 sam e r o u n d th e w o r l d . ) If I t's nol n in e , il

N a t u ra lly th is got s a v e d fo r l a s t , a n d
w h at la p r e s e n t e d h e r e sh o w s ll.
T h e e x a m p le waa m eant to be a c a s e o f
n o t- v e r y - n u m e r ic a l p r o g ra m m in g th a t w o u ld
ahow th e a b s t r a c u i e a e o f it e l l . T h e p r o g r a m
I tse lf h a s n o in tr i n s i c q u a lity r e la te d to th e
problem ; lh a t m u ch sh o u ld be v is i b le .
A n y h o w . I p ro g ra m m e d t h i s m y se lf a few
w eek e a g o in th e FIDO la n g u a g e , a n d w a s v e r y
p le a se d w ith I t , b u l the n d is c o v e r e d a c o u p le
o f a p p a ll in g b u g s . As dm e c lo sed In on t h is
p r o je c t I a s k e d my f rie n d Mike O 'B rie n t o cod e
t h s p r o g r a m , a n d h e k in d ly c o n s e n te d , t a k in g
tim e o ut o f h ie p r e v io u s w ee k en d p la n s . H e r e
Is M ik e 's p r o g r a m , fo r w hich I am g r a te f u l.
j u s t a d d s o n e lo e a c h a p a r i o f Ihe program
neans, ' s t u f f the n ia b e r 3 c a lle d ADMIN, s t a r t i n g a l XXO 0 X 0 . If il's
i n t o th e v a r i a b l e A.* A n in e , h o w e v e r, ll s e ls t h e lln a l d ig its all to
v a ria b le la a n a n d lo c atio n z e r o , a n d th e n te s ts Ihe le n s d ig it to se e If Il's
In co re M n r y . a f i v e , m e a n in g th e e n d of a n h o u r . (The num
b e r f iv e h a s b e e n I n g e n u o u s ly s to r e d in a loca
tio n w h ic h M ik e h a s c a ll e d FIVE, w hic h assem
b le d lo slo t n u m b e r X 0 X 0 0 X 0 . If you look
( h e r e , y ou w ill s e e lh a l Ih e slo t d o e s . Indeed,
c o n ta in Ihe b in a r y p a tte r n to r th e n u m b e r S.)
Whai a p ily t h e r e is n o lime to la ke you on
a g u id e d lo u r o f th is p r o f o u n d , m agnif icenl p r o
g r a m . If y o u d ig th is s o r t of th in g , h ow ev er,
yo u m ig hl J u s l b e a b le to d o p e il out-
A n y w a y , y o u 'v e h a d y o u r ta s te . Hope yo u
w ant m o re.

H ow E V e r, a fte r ll w a s e et In t y p e , Mike - .//

r e a ll t e d th a l 11 loo ha a some g r o s s flaw s a n d i t fh S :
w ould n o l w o rk aa h e r e p r e s e n te d . We th o u g h t
of h a v in g c h o co la te c h ip cookie c o n te st f o r e k e ir n t
c o r r e c tio n s , e e n d in g o ul ch oco late c h ip c o o k ie s
lo e n t r a n t s f ix in g ll u p , b u l w e d o n 't h a v e
e u c h a c o m p u te r a n d we w o u ld n 't r u n th e p r o 4- let TUT-I
g ram U w e h a d o ne an yw a y . s o se e If y o u c a n fr- 3
gel lh e b a s i c id e a o f i t . an d If y o u a r e a r e a l
M ien
w le e gu y Ax t h e p r o g ra m for y o u r ow n s a tie -
fac tio n, a n d th a t w ill be th a t. -tv e
l H*U !(WV.

T h e b a s i c Id e a le th a t w e h ave a FID O .
p r e s u m a b ly on a s in g le I n te g r a te d c ir c u it c h ip ,
a tta c h e d to t h i r t e e n e x te r n a l d e v ic e s ( o r p e r i p h
e r a l s , o r I n p u t- o u tp u t d e v ic e s , o r I/O d e v ic e s
o r w h a t e v e r ) . T h e s e de v ice s a r e a tim e r o r
c lo c k , w h ie h r e a c h e s zero on c e p e r m in u te
th le Is a c o m p u te r c lo c k , m e a n in g a ti m e r , not
som e th in g lh a l p e o p le c an r e a d - - a n d th e t h r e e
ro w s of n u m e r i c a l rea d o u ts th a t a r e th e d e s i r e d
S u p e r w a tc h .

F o r s im p lic ity 's sa k e w e assu m e h e r e th a t

e ach n u m e ra l le in te r fa c e d to d o e ith e r In p u l o r
o u tp ul; t h u s ih e FIDO com p ute r c a n a s k an y
g iv e n n u m e r a l w h a t i t s a y s , a n d c h a n g e Its c o n
te n ts . H i k e O B r i e n s
s li g h tly d isg ru n tle d
p o s t s c r i p t t o t h e p r o g Pi
T h e f in is h e d W rlstw atc h Is g o in g to g iv e
d m e o n a t w e n ty f o u r - h o u r b a s i s , nol tw e lv e , lik e
a l NASA a n d s u c h lik e p la c e s . A fter 12: $9 com es
13:0 0. A ft e r 2 3:59 comes 01:0 0.

J j 0 MK

r ,< : r
I!
II Lo o p
Ii
ii vlW t
^ * eh . tm is) cW do r?

T h e b u l k o r lh e p r o g ra m la o c c u p ie d w ith
te s tin g th e n u m e ra l* a n d c h a n g in g th e m . How - * l| $
e v e r , in p r o p o r t io n s of a c ti v ity , th e p o o r th in g L
la g o in g to s p e n d m ost o f its d m e s a y in g . "la
ll lime ye t? I s li d m e yet? Ia It d ise y e t? "
( T h a i's th e s e c o n d , t h ir d a n d fou rth I n s t r u c t i o n .) loop.

B e c a u se t h e FIDO se le c ts th e p a r t i c u l a r
in p u t- o u lp u t d e v ic e w ith th e la at se v en b its of N-tr -tut
a n in p u t o r o u tp u t in s t r u c tio n , th is haa b e e n N . V .~ V
d o n e w ith " a d d r e a s m odif ic atio n" a rithm etic: r j
c r e a ti n g a n o u tp u t I n str u c tio n to a d d r e s s a p a r UfVt
tic u la r d e v ic e b y a d d in g (he I n str u c tio n to th e
nam e o f th e d e v i c e . T h is ia an a n c ie n t a n d - -
h o n o rab le p ro g ra m m i n g tr i c k . " * * * KJ
U *rWl
In s e v e r a l c a s e s , the p r o g ra m c h o o s e s a
d e v ice lo e x a m i n e , o r f ill, b y ta k in g a b la n k
i n p u t o r o u tp u t I n str u c tio n (k ep t al lo c atio n s
X OXO XOX a n d X OXO XXO. re a p e c tlv e ly ) a n d
j d g j i t . In t h e A C , to a c o u n tin g n u m b e r th a t g
la b e in g u s e d to e te p a ro u n d In th e a r r a y o f in
n u m e ra ls . ( T h is c o u n tin g n u m b e r la " N ,"
o r e d in lo c a tio n X OXO X X X.) ( T h ese I n a tr u c - t o x o x x x __
d o n s w e r e p u l In to th e slo ts In o c tal fo rm , aa
60MB" a n d "6 2M B " r e s p e c t iv e l y . T h e s la s h e s
a w m e an t lo d is t i n g u i s h z ero es from O h s The
endw.(ln ** aM em bly U siln g ) m e an s
' tr a n s la t e t b . s e
n n n b . to B l n u y . u u , th .m i h r e , b l i . , , ,
ttM - H l l cm n ea o u t to XXO OOO OOO O O O .)

Thl * whal O' p ro g ra m looks lik e in Ihs
com p u te r's co re memory. (A prlnloul
like th e following la called a machlne-
laniruagB H atin g . )
Since all ihe a d d re s s e s a r e filled I n , thia
p ro g ra m la sa id lo be In absolute
b i n a r y . Lf they w e r e n 't filled I n , It
would be call ed relo catable b i n a r y .
H ac hin e-language lis tin g s come In different
f la v o r s. A b in a ry lis tin g (or dump)
Ifl ge n erall y In o n e s and z e r o e s. An
octal lis tin g g r o u p s (he bits by threea
and s u b stitu te s the n um bers zero
th ro u g h se v en fo r ihe different com
bination a of th r e e b lls . T he olh e r
main k in d , Ihe hexad ecim al listing
o r dump (an IBM th in g ) , groups Ihe
blls b y fo u rs a n d substi tu te s th e num
be r* 0-9 an d the le tte rs A to P. for
the six tee n differen t combinations of
fo ur b lia.
T hia la What the progra m looks like when
you sel ii up for ihe A sse m b le r ,
which la the easie r w ay.
A progra m laid oul like Ihle la call ed an
Assembly L isting. S tudyin g ll may
he lp you de bug (see p . J O ) .
An easy-lo -re m e m ber alphabetical code i s
use d to r ep rese n t each final I n str u c
tion dee 1red . Such an abbreviation
Is called a mnemonic; usually th e y 'r e
more c ry ptic. The mnemonics arc
tu r n e d by Ihe assem ble r Into the
bina ry opcode.
You do n'l have lo know ihe actu al a d d re s s e s
In core memor y. you ju s t use a lp h a
betical names o r la b e l s , and th e Ag
ue mbler fig ures oul w here th e y r e a lly
go and pu t* in the bin a ry a d d re s s e s .
D esire d num bers , su c h as B, a re plugged
Into Ihe a d d re ss p a rts o f In structi ons.
YOUR OWN COMMENTS (here se t off with
sla shea) can stay he re too.
ln Ihls FIDO exam ple, ihe Assembler follows
two common practices: il recogniz es
a label because II ends In a comma,
and rec ognizes a comment be ca use It
begin s with a slash .

B u etsi I k j r ' i f iv.

g !K (M X
W te if ow m vrs
pk> Cp w v i i s

QoteHEMQJK
ooo XXXXXOOOOOOO START, CLEAR
oox xxoooooooooo
CHKCL, INPUT 0 /CLOCK IS I/O SLOT IOOOOOOO.
oxo ooooxxooxxox TEST ZERO /A NEW MINUTE?
oxx xoxoooooooox JUMP CHKCL /N O, CHECK CLOCK AGAIN.
xoo xxooooooooox
INPUT 1 /Y ES. READ MINUTE SLOT OF 1ST WATCH.
xox ooooxxoxooxx TEST NINE / i s IT A 9?
xxo xoxoooxxooxo JUMP ADMIN /N O . GO TO MINUTE INCREMENTEH
XXX XXXXXOOOOOOO L a y ? CLEAR /Y ES. SET EACH
OOX OOO XXOOXOOOOOOX M TT ^ 5 3 OUTPUT 1 /TEN-MINUTE DIGIT
OOX OOX XXOOXOOOOXOO -O' OUTPUT 4 /TO ZERO, T en m in utes aftor sta rling 10 progra m In
OOX 0X 0 XXOOXOOOXOOX T OUTPUT 8 Machine Lan guage you will pr obab ly want Assem
OOX OXX XXOOOOOOOOXO INPUT 2 /CHECK TEN-MINUTE DIGIT, bly Language.
oox XOO OOOOXXOXOOXO TEST FIVE /NEW HOUR?
OOX XOX XOXOOOXXOXXX JUMP AD2TEN /NO. GO TO TEN-MINUTE INCREMENTER, Its a pain tr y in g 10 tJe< 811 lhe o nc s and
oox XXO XXXXXOOOOOOO CLEAR /Y ES. SET EACH zeroes r ig h t. (xj Ot} H*
OOX XXX XXOOXOOOOOXO OUTPUT 2 /TEN-MINUTE DIGIT
0X 0 OOO XXOOXOOOOXXO OUTPUT 6 /TO ZERO. It's a p a in tr y in g to keep track of bin a ry
0X0 OOX XXOOXOOOXOXO OUTPUT 10 num be rs for w here th in g s a r e slored.
0X0 0X 0 OOXOOXOXOXXX ROUND. ADD N /GET CLOCK-NUMBER COUNTER
0X 0 OXX OOXOOXOXOXOX ADD INPUT /AND FORM INPUT INSTRUCTION SO: le l'9 giv e Ihetn alphabelical names.
0X 0 XOO OXXOOOXOOOOX STORE INI /PUT IT WHERE IT BELONGS. Thats assem bly la nguage . (And the conversion
0X0 XOX OOXOOXOOXXXO ADD ONE /FORM OTHER INPUT INSTRUCTION. program we p u l o u r a lp h a b e tic a l Into, 10 tu rn
0X 0 XXO OXXOOOXOOXXX STORE IN2 /P UT IT WHERE IT BELONGS. them back into ih e b in a ry p a tte rns lhat really
0X0 XXX OXXOOOXXXXXO STORE IN2P1 /HERE TOO. r u n ih e m achine-- lhal conversion progra m ia
OXX OOO XXXXXOOOOOOO CLEAR call ed ihe A sse m ble r.)
OXX OOX OOXOOXOXOXXX ADD N /GET COUNTER AGAIN.
OXX 0X 0 OOXOOXOXOXXO ADD OUTPUT /AND FOHM OUTPUT INSTRUCTION. An a ssem ble r is a dir ect and n on-tr ic ky
OXX OXX OXXOOOXOXXOX STORE OUT1 /PUT fT HERE WHERE IT BELONGS. tr an s lato r, inte nded mainly lo ha ndle the details
OXX XOO OXXOOOXXOOOO STORE 0UT1P1 /AND HERE. of exact tr anspositio n betw een inst ru ction code
OXX XOX OXXOOOXXXXOX STORE 0UT1P2 /HERE TOO. w ord s and th e ex actly c orresponding machine-
OXX XXO OOXOOXOOXXXO ADD ONE /FORM OTHER OUTPUT INSTRUCTION. la nguage progra m tha t you inte nd.
OXX XXX OXXOOOXOXOXX STORE 0U T2 /PUT IT WHERE IT BELONGS.
XOO OOO OXXOOXOOOOOO STORE OUT2P1 /HERE TOO . IT WORKS LIKE THIS: T he a ssem ble r
XOO OOX OOOOOOOOOOOO IN I,# /BECOMES "INPUT N" s c a n s through th e assem bly -l an guage p r o g ra m ,
XOO 0X 0 OOOOXXOXOOXX TEST NINE /IS HOUR DIGIT A 9? te stin g th e su c ce ssiv e alp hab etical c h a r a c te r s.
XOO OXX XOXOOOXOOXOX JUMP PAST /N O . TEST AGAIN A fter finding the key punctu at io n m ark s o r
XOO XOO XOXOOOXXXXOO JUMP AD10HR /Y ES. GO FLIP IO-HOUR DIGIT d elim it ers (sh ow n as comma and sla sh for the
XOO XOX OOOOXXOXOOOO PAST. TEST THREE /IS HOUR DIGIT A 3? FIDO a sse m b le r ) , it sc a n s for the alphabelical
XOO XXO XOXOOOXOXKXX JUMP INCHR /N O . GO INCREMENT HOUB. in stru ction mnemonics, and tran ala le a the m by
XOO XXX OOOOOOOOOOOO 1N2.0 /BECOMES "INPUT N *l." a ta ble in c o re memory Into the c orresponding
XOX OOO OOOOXXOOXXXX TEST TWO /IS TEN-HOUR COUNTER A TWO? b in ary c o d e s . (It Ignore s e veryth in g on a line
XOX OOX XOXOOOXOXXXX JUMP INCHR /NO, INCREMENT HOUR NORMALLY after a s l a s h , w hic h i s luc ky, sin c e ln the
XOX QXO XXXXXOOOOOOO CLEAR /Y ES, IT WAS 23: S9. SO SET comments you may u se w ord s which a r e the same
XOX OXX OOOOOOOOOOOO OUT2.0 /TIME TO 01: 00. ''OUTPUT N ln IS HERE. as in stru c tio n mnemonic s.)
XOX XOO OOXOOXOOXXXO ADD ONE /S ET AC TO 1.
XOX XOX OOOOOOOOOOOO OUT1.0 /AND "OUTPUT Nn HERE. T he a ssem ble r also counts th e instruc tions,
XOX XXO XOXOOXOOOOOX JUMP INCN /GO INCREMENT CLOCK-NUMBER COUNTER and ( sta rtin g w h e r e v e r yo u say) f ig ures where
XOX XXX OOXOOXOOXXXO INCHR. ADD ONE /ADD 1 TO HOUR in core me mory th e Instr ucti ons (an d any data
XXO OOO OOOOOOOOOOOO OUT1P1.0 /BECOMES "OUTPUT N". o r sp a ce s you put In) g o . Then it makes a Hat
XXO OOX XOXOOXOOOOOX JUMP INCN /GO INCREMENT CLOCK-NUMBER COUNTER of the se a d d re sse s , called a symbol ta ble (also
XXO 0X 0 OOXOOXOOXXXO ADMIN, ADD ONE /ADD 1 TO MINUTE DIGIT. called e name Hal al le s s elega nt pla c e s) .
XXO OXX XXOOXOOOOOOX OUTPUT 1 /AND PUT IT
XXO XOO XXOOXOOOOXOX OUTPUT 5 /IN ALL An assem ble r Is ih e simplest form of
XXO XOX XXOOXOOOXOOX OUTPUT 9 /THE MINUTE DIGITS. co mpiler (see p . 3 o ) . Basically it tr anslates an
XXO XXO XOXOOOOOOOOX JUMP CHKCL /THEN GO BACK TO CLOCK-WATCHING. ss sem bly -la nguage program , which cannot be ru n
XXO XXX OOXOOOOOXXXO AD2TEN. ADD ONE /ADD 1 TO TEN-MINUTE DIGIT d ir e c tly . Into a bina ry program which can,
XXX OOO XXOOXOOOOOXO OUTPUT 2 /AND PUT IT
XXX OOX XXOOXOOOOXXO OUTPUT 6 /IN ALL Then from th is symbol table ll fills Ihe
XXX 0X 0 XXOOXOOOXOXO OUTPUT 10 /THE TEN-MINUTE DIGITS. resu ltin g b in a ry a d d re sses Into Iho b in a ry com
XXX OXX XOXOOOOOOOOX JUMP CHKCL /THEN GO BACK TO CLOCK-WATCHING, mands of th e program.
XXX XOO XXXXXOOOOOOO AD10HR, CLEAR /FIRST CLEAR
XXX XOX OOOOOOOOOOOO 0UT1P 2, 0 /HOUR DIGIT (BECOMES "OUTPUT N") A re n 't you glad you do n'l have lo?
XXX XXO OOOOOOOOOOOO 1N2P1, 0 /THEN GET TEN-HOUR DIGIT
XXX XXX OOXOOXOOXXXO ADD ONE /AND ADD 1 TO IT. Cenerally the assem ble r then se n d s oul
X OOO OOO OOOOOOOOOOOO OUT2P1.0 /BECOMES "OUTPUT N+l". the b in a ry program lo some external d e vice ,
X OOO OOX XXXXXOOOOOOO INCN. CLEAR /ROUTINE TO GET NEXT CLOCK NUMBER. suc h as a dlak memory o r paper tape punch.
K OOO 0X 0 OOXOOXOXOXXX ADD N /ADDING FOUR TO CLOCK NUMBER Than It c an be pul Into core memory when you
X OOO OXX OOXOOXOXOOOX ADD FOUR /TAKES US TO NEXT CLOCK. wanl to ru n l l ,
X OOO XOO - OOOOXXOXOXOO TEST FTEEN /HAVE WE RUN OUT OF CLOCKS (N=1S)?
X 000 XOX XOXOOXOOXOXX JUMP STORN /NO. GO STORE N AND RETURN (You c an pul a pr ogram Into core memory
X OOO XXO XXXXXOOOOOOO CLEAR /Y ES. SET one bit at a lime through lha fro nt-p anel sw itches;
X OOO XXX OOXOOXOXOXXX ADD N /N=3 but nobody likes doing th is except for le eny p r o -
X OOX OOO 00X 00X 0X 0000 ADD THREE /AND RETURN
X OOX OOX OXXOOXOXOXXX STORE N /TO START OF PROGRAM
X OOX 0X 0 XOXOOOOOOOOX JUMP CHKCL /(WE'VE DONE CHECKING CLOCKS). (Nole: an a ssem ble r for one co mpute r (say
X OOX OXX OXXOOXOXOXXX STORN, STORE N /STORE NEW CLOCK-NUMBER COUNTER th e PDP-B) lhat ru ns on a different com puter
X OOX XOO XOXOOOOXOOXO JUMP ROUND /AND SERVICE NEXT CLOCK . END OF MAIN PROGRAM . ( s a y . ihe 380) Is called a c ross a sse m b le r . )
X OOX XOX OOOOOOOOOOOO ZERO, 0 / THESE ARE CONSTANTS.
K OOX XXO OOOOOOOOOOOX ONE. 1
X OOX XXX 0000000000X 0 TWO. 2
XOXO OOO OOOOOOOOOOXX THREE. 3
X 0X 0 OOX 000000000X 00 FOUR, 4
X 0X 0 oxo oooooooooxox FIVE. $
X 0X 0 OXX 00000000X 0X 0 NINE. 9
X 0X 0 XOO OOOOOOOOXXXX FTEEN, IS
X 0X 0
X 0X 0
X 0X 0
XOX
XXO
XXX
XXOOOOOOOOOO
XX0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OOOOOOOOOOOO
INPUT. 6000B
OUTPUT, 6200B
N, 0
/RAW INPUT INSTRUCTION, (OCTAL)
/RAW OUTPUT INSTRUCTION. (OCTAL)
/COUNTER FOR WHICH CLOCK WE'RE ON,
t o you see
w h v we u se

IP THl*
TM over. tu

"Assembly la nguage programming Is good for th e BOul."

Folk sa yin g
 Minicomputers are now being found
in highschools; active marketing to
highschools is now being done by both
DEC and Hewlett-Packard.

Children's museums in Brooklyn

and Boston have recently obtained PDP-
11s for the kids to interact with. In
the Brooklyn case, the computer will
even demonstrate the exhibit and help
the child discover things about it, in
ways worked out by Gordon Pask (see p.
JM 3 )*

In the future, networks of minis

may be the systems to offer low-cost
information services to the home (for
speculations, see 51).
But minis will alsA start to make big
ger and bigger incursions on the terri
tory of the big machines. For instance,
one group proposes a time-sharing sys
tem which will simply consist of Novas
interconnected in a ring, the so-called
STAR-RING, which will supposedly com
pete with big time-sharing.

Thia is a PDP-11, one of the world's best-designed minicomputers (see p. If*).

The PDP-11 is a 16-bit machine. Shown ie Model 45, the fastest PDP-11, which
has various special features. Stripped, with 4K of core memory (that's 4096
locations), it costs about $13 grand. A smaller PDP-11 goes for some $5000. Here's that selfsame PDP-11
in its overall setting. With
peripherals shown, plus the
magnificent Vector General
display (shown later on in
The idea of owning a computer book, & elsewhere),
may* seem strange to some people, this setup cost well over a
A minicomputer simply means a but with prices falling as they are hundred grand. (This is the
small computer, no different in it makes perfect sense. Numerous Circle Graphics Habitat, oth
principle from the big ones (see individuals own minis, and as the erwise known as the Chemistry
next spread), and it can do all the price continues to drop the number Department Computer, U. Illi
same things except as limited by will shoot up. For several families nois at Chicago Circle. Why
speed and memory capacity. with children to pool together and do chemists need such things?
buy one for the kids makes a lot of See p. 1.)
(Mind, we are talking about sense. One friend of mine has an 8 ,
real computers, not the little cal- another is contemplating an 1 1 .
culators you "hold in your hand that (I've been trying to get ray own for
just do arithmetic. A real compu years; perhaps this book...) A n y
ter is one which works on stored how, the general price range is now
programs and all kinds of data, $3000 to $6000 plus accessories,
working not merely on numbers but and that's dropping fast. Rental
on such other things as text, m u is usually a great mistake: prices
sic and pictures if supplied with are very high and after six months
appropriate programs; see flip side.) or so you'll have paid for it with
out owning it. (But names of rental
There is some argument over places will be found in this book,
what constitutes a minicomputer; and some of them may offer good ar
basically we will say it's any com rangements.) Minis may now be had
puter with a word length of.18 bits in quantity for $1000 each-- price
or less (see "Binary Patterns,1* p. of the PDP-8A in May 1974-- and soon
27). (Some companies, like Data- that will be the consumer price. The good o V PDP-8, perhaps
craft and Interdata, are trying to the most popular minicomputer
peddle their worthy computers as Unfortunately, the price of the (12 bits). Full PDP-8b now
"minicomputers" even though they're computer itself is dropping faster cost about $3000, "kits" less.
24 and 32 bits, respectively, but than that of the accessories, such Shown here with a Sykes cas
that's very odd. Interdata says as the basic terminal you'll need, sette tape deck a nice,
any computer under ten thousand is which still weighs in at $1000-5000. rather reliable unit and a
a mini-- which means all computers Moreover, as soon as you want to do screen display (see ppPn2Z~3)
will be minis by and by; a vexing anything serious you'll need a disk Courtesy Princeton University ,
thing to do to the term.) (starting around $4 500) or at least & H.E.S.I.S.T.O.R.S. (see p.
a cassette memory (starting around
Traditionally minicomputers $1500). But these prices too will
come with much less. In the old come way down as the consumer market
days pretty much all the programs opens.
you got with it were an assembler
(see p, 35) and' a debugger (see p. Some of us minicomputer freaks
J o ) and a Fortran compiler (see p. see little real need for big computers.
54-) if you were lucky. Today, Minicomputers are splendid for inter
though, with minis having highly active and "good-guy" systems (see
built-up software like (see pp. Y0 -y P* 13) as personal machines, to han
for descriptions) the PDP-8, the dle typing and bookkeeping; even for
PDP-11 and the Nova, you can get a business systems, if you recognize
lot of different assemblers, to the value of working out your own in
gether with Fortran, BASIC, and a BASIC or, say, TRAC Language. Kids love computers.
little disk or cassette operating They belong together.
system (see p . tfS') to make your Minicomputers are being put in This lad flips panel
life a little easier. side all manner of other equipment switches on a Nova,
to handle complex control. (However, perhaps the third most
for repetitive simple tasks, the lat popular mini after the
est thing is microprocessors (see p. 8 and 11 (26 bits; see
tf lf) , which cost less but are harder P . *fi j .
to program.)
 tW H Rt s u r e its ,r te & if T f ty

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There is g r e a t co nfusion as between

W lN lftK P iT O vj a JIW
op o | W
Ci p.
P en sliev jli
N
various types of small computer, with the
latest stupid term, "microcomputer," a dd
S 'jjc r cou*.uvJ*n
ing to the confusion. We have: A e f t * L > J ***** s * .

minicomputer or mini
Tradit ion all y, any computer hav
ing an a rch itecture (memory and
mai n registers) of 18 bits or
less. Lately, unfortunately,
some p eop le hav e been adver
tising their 24-bit and even
32-bit c omp ute rs as minis. This A p r o d u c t c a lle d C lin g F ree
is just confusing. co m es sc e n te d in a sp r a y c a n ,
(They bas e this on the fact fo r p r e v e n t i n g s t a t ic i n y o u r
that "minicomputer" has also re l a u n d r y i s s a i d to e lim in a te
fe rred to a machine sold without s t a t ic e l e c t r i c i t y i n c a r p e te d
a lot of programs. But that's c o m p u te r r o o m s . S p r a y it a ll
re ally a se par ate issue.)
o v e r th e r u g , e s p e c ia lly n ea r H E Y , SOME MINI RENTALS MAY BE REASONABLE
microprocessor
t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d y o u w o n 't
Tw o - l e v e l c omputer (see p. )
microcomputer z a p p t h e c o m p u te r w ith s p a r k s N o v a m in ic o m p u t e r s a r e l e a s a b l e from:
Cr umm y t e r m apparently being used from y o u r f i n g e r s .
to m e a n any t iny computer, rega rd R e n ta l E l e c t r o n i c s , I n c .
less o f its structure. Thus all (a s u b s i d i a r y o f P e p s i c o )
com put ers w i l l be "microcomputers" 99 H a r t w e ll A v e .
in a fe w years. This clarifies
L e x i n g t o n , MA 02173
no t h i n g as to their structure or
use.
midi c omputer fo r a s l ittle a s $ 2 5 0 / m o . , l o n g - t e r m .
R e m e m b e r m i d i skirts? Well, this
term h a s b e e n used for computers
larger tha n 16 bits or faster than
u s u a l , b y p eo ple seeking to give
the i m p r e s s i o n that their machines
are b i g g e r than minis and less than A long but incomplete list of minicomputer manufacturers is at the bottom of p. Lj 5
bi ggies. E v e n the PDP-10 (a genuwine
biggie) h a s sometimes been called
a midi.

-FOM OF X ^ B u G 6 | HG- O K w v- LW A * IreaJLov- pokc^. ^T**' :

hu U K . P'A t o h T ri|
"fa ,h tin* t.
fta [ o * io v ok

The mini man is like a rock climber,

chimneying and twisting to squeeze through
to his goal not his body, of course, but
his program.
 Operator's c onsole of

^BIGGIE
this particular setup.
The operator m a y use the
keyboard or light^-pen
(see p. J M 2 3 ) to select
among w aiting programs,
submitted by various
programmers a nd d epa rt
ments .

The parts of a computer are set

up to be gotten at, to be refilled and
repaired. Their innards swing open
like refrigerators. Similarly, the
wiring of computers is in separate sec
tions or modules ("module" merely be
ing today's stylish term for "unit),
having very orderly connections among
them. Individual circuits are on cir
cuit sheets or cards" which plug in
sideways and may be replaced easily.
T h e r e s nothing really computerish
about this, i t s merely sensible con
struction; but it is traditional in
other fields to build something as a
tangle of wires. (When TV makers fo l
low these rational practices, they
call it "space age construction.")
The operator muses at the console of the main computer at the University
of Illinois at Chicago Circle. It is an IBM 370 model 156, which rents for Why are the different parts so
about $50,000 a month, including all accessories and a d oze n o r so terminals far apart? So there's room to swing
in the parlanc e of big-computer people, a "medium-sized installation." them open, refill or change them, sit
down and repair them. Refrigerators
could, and perhaps should, also be
built in separate sections, but it's
not traditional. Automobiles can't
be spread out because they have to e n
dure the jostles of the road. But
computers like this baby aren't going
anywhere.

This is a big computer. Also intimidating is the fact

that you have to step up as you enter
In principle i ts no different from a small one; but it has
a computer room. That"^ because co m
bigger memories, more registers, more program followers. There puter rooms ordinarily have raised
are more specialized parts.and more things happening at once.
floors, permitting cables to be run
(Thus the term "digital computer complex is sometimes used for
around among the pieces of equipment
a big computer.) It comes supplied with a monitor program or
without your tripping.
operating system (see p. ^5) and a variety of other utility pr o
grams and language processors.
Computer rooms are generally lit
by millions of fluorescent bulbs,
Biggies have many ominous and seemingly incomprehensible
making them garishly bright. This is
things to scare the layman.
simply tradition.
For one thing, where is the computer? All you see is a lot
of roaring cabinets. Whicli is it"? Big computers can have millions
of words of core memory. Moreover,
Answer: all of them. "The computer" is divided among the there are usually several disk drives
different cabinets (note diagram and cluster of pictures locating and tape drives, as seen in the p i c
the operator among them, below).. The external devices or peri tures, used to hold data and programs.
pherals (see p. 5*7) are usually in separate housings. Usually (Some of the programs are the system
there is one single box or "mainframe" containing core memory, programs, especially the language p r o
mafn registers, program-following circuitry, etc., as in the m a cessors and the operating system--
chine illustrated, but these things d o n t have to be in one box, see p. ^5*-- but o t h e T programs and
and sometimes aren't. most of the data belong to the users.)

AN OPERATOR IS N OT A PROGRAMMER

Cindy W oe lfe r is the day-shift operator of Circle's big computer.

The job mainly consists of changing dinks and tapes, starting and stop
ping different jobs listed on the scope, and restarting the computer
when the system crashes (gratuitously ceases oper ati on) .

Ms. Woelfer, a thoughtful person, says she does n o t find h er job

very stimulating. S he can program, b u t the job doesn't in volve p r o
gramming. It's also a lonely job. Non-systems people, e x cep t Mayor
Daley, aren't ordinarily allowed around. About the only p e o p l e to talk
to are the systems programmers who stop through to look at the scope
and see whether their programs are up next.
 Ii used to be traditional for
machines like this to have many many
rows of blinking lights, showing what
was in all the main registers at any
fraction of a second. But there's
really no point in seeing all that,
since about all you can tell from it
is whether the computer is going or
not (if it's not, the lights are stop
ped) and other high-level impressions.
For that reason some big computers,
beginning with the CDC 6600, started
C o a t m em o ry doing away with the fancy lights and
bringing written messages to the op
erator on a CRT scope instead (for
lots more on the glories of CRTs,
see the flip side, pp. |)P\ 2.1<
u ^ lo sg
- - p ------1 T o r i, B i g computers can have multiple
fcoMNnJii- program followers and sets of regis
I FULST ' *ir TH</ HWTftMr ters (a program follower and its
ttP & O * main registers are together called a
f o u o u 1^ C P U , Central Processing Unit). A
computer with two CPUs, i.e., two
sets of program followers and regis
ters to carry the program^5ut, is
called a dual processor; a computer
with more than two CPUs is called a
multi-processor.

Separate independent sections of

ClMMiJT
core memory may be put in one computer,
allowing separate program followers
and data channels to work at the same
time. (Note: a "bank" of core memory
is an independent section. Except in
this sense of "core memory bank" or
"core bank," there is no other correct
usage of the layman's vague term
"memory bank." Computer people only
say "memories," and distinguish fur
ther among core, disk, tape, etc.
Note that "<Iata banks" are a separate
issue-- see "Issues," p .J? .)

DINOSAURS?

Many computer people, the author

KOMlTOl^ r U P H J T ttf e r
DrefcATiWfr sV5ie*\
,. " S u i t O 'S O E .:
1 M " of- /p it s IM fo rt
ry ^ v ( a tj< ? y ~
included, entertain certain doubts a-
bout the long-term usefulness of big
computers, since minicomputers are
cheaper, especially in the long run,
and can actually be in the offices and
_ homes where people create and use the
information. Big computers are neces
| sary for time-sharing (see p. 45) and
huge "number-crunching" jobs (see
"Grosch's Law," nearby). However, it
will soon be cheaper to put standard
ized number-crunching jobs in stand
alone or accessory hardware; see "Mi
croprocessors," p. 4^.

Fans of big computers also argue

that they are necessary for business
programming, but that only means tra
ditional business programming-- non-
mteractive and batch-oriented. For
tomorrow's friendly and clear business
systems, networks of minis may be pref
erable. But makers of big computers
may be unwilling to adroit this possi-
billty.

l\< )
C o^ m o i j i c ^ t i o k ] \ l
>w C D K jre o tc e i^ V w y

1 i u

T e n d s t o h a p p en s e v e r a l t i m e s a d a y .

rw r
rnc
L'iJE

M i n i c o m p u t e r s a r e s o n i f t y l h a t w e may a s k
w h y h a v e b i g c o m p u t e r s at a l l . T h e a n s w e r ie
th a t t h e r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e e c o n o m i e s , e s p e c i a l l y
Q ? V J C K lT R ^ (? In a p p l i c a t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e m a n y r e p e t i t i v e O p e r
a tio n s a n d d o n 't n e e d I n t e r a c t i o n w ith u s e r s .
v J T -S fe C 5 ^
A h y p o th e s is a b o u t th e e c o n o m y o f b ig
c o m p u t e r s w a s f o r m u la t e d a l o n g tim e a g o b y
H e r b e r t J . R . G r o s c h , o n e tim e d i r e c t o r of IB M 's
W ats on Lab a n d now a h e a v y d e t r a c t o r of IBM .
T h u s I t i s c a ll e d G r o s c h 's L a w . T h e id e a is
b a s i c a l l y th a t t h e r e i s a e q u a r e - I a w r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n a m a c h i n e 's s i z e a n d Its p o w e r ( n a r r o w l y
d e f i n e d in t e r m s o f th e c o s t o f m il lio n s o f o p e r a t i o n s ,
a n d w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g th e a d v a n t a g e s o f i n t e r a c t i v e
s y s t e m s o r o t h e r f e a t u r e s w h i c h m a y b e o f m o re
u lti m a t e valu^). A n y w a y , w h e n I a a k e d h im r e c e n t l y
KoiH5TOV!f f o r h i s fo rm u la tio n o f G r o s c h ' s Law , I got th e f o l
l o w in g :
V*Vf
"G r o s c h ' s Law ( fo r m a l) : E c o n o m y in c o m p u t i n g i s a s t h e

y w .
CWMi]
s q u a r e r o o t o f th e s p e e d .
( i n f o r m a l) : I f y o u w a n t t o d o it te n lim e s
a s c h e a p , y o u h a v e t o do it a h u n d r e d tim e s
a s fast.
( i n t e r p r e t i v e ) : N o m a t t e r how c l e v e r t h e
h a r d w a r e b o y s a r e , th e s o f t w a r e boys p i s s It a w a y ! "
J D M t
H e r e , t h e n , a r e som e th u m b n a i l d e s c r i p
t i o n s o f som e g r e a t , c l a s s i c o r p o p u l a r c o m -
p u t e r s , e x p a n d in g o u r b a s i c d ia g ra m s a s n e e d e d .
In d iv id u a l c o m p u te rs r e p r e s e n t v a r i a t i o n s
o f th e p a tte r n s show n so f a r .
The p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f r e g i s t e r s ,
m e m o r i e s a n d p a t h w a y s am o n g th e m i s c a l l e d t h e
a r c h i t e c t u r e o f a c o m p u te r ( s e e p . O Z, ) . The
b in a ry i n s t r u c t i o n s a v a il a b le to th e p ro g ra m
m er a re c a l l e d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t o f th e
p a r t i c u l a r c o m p u te r ( s e e p . 3 3 ) . (T he w o rd
" a r c h i te c tu r e " i s o f t e n ^ s e d to c o v er b o th ,
in c lu d in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t as w e l l.)
T h e p r i n c i p a l v a r i a t i o n s am o n g c o m p u t e r s
a r e t h e w o rd l e n g t h ( i n b i t s - - s e e " b i n a r y
p a t t e r n s , " p . 3 ^ ) * n d t *'e n u m b e r a n d a r r a n g e
m e n t o f m a in r e g i s t e r s . T h e n com e t h e d e t a i l s
o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t , e s p e c i a l l y t h e w ays
i n w h i c h i t e m s a r e s e l e c t e d f r o m c o r e m e m ory
- - th e a d d re s s in g s t r u c t u r e . Then th e i n s t r u c
t i o n - s e t , w hose c o m p l i c a t i o n s and s u b t l e t i e s
can be c o n s id e r a b le in d e e d .
T he i n d i v i d u a l c o m p u te r i s t h e c o m p le x
r e s u lt o f a ll o f th e s e . I f th e y f i t t o g e t h e r
w e ll, i t is a good d e s ig n . I f th e y f i t to
g e th e r p o o T ly , i t i s a bad d e s ig n . A bad d e
s i g n i s u s u a l l y n o t s o m u ch a m a t t e r o f o v e r t
s t i n k y f e a t u r e s a s o f r a m i f i c a t i o n s w h ic h f i t
to g e th e r d i s a p p o in ti n g ly . ( G litc h i s a te rm
o fte n used fo r such s tin k y fe a tu r e s o r r e l a
ti o n s h i p s .)
The p o s s i b l e w ays o f o r g a n iz in g c o m p u tin g
h a rd w are a re v a s t , a n d o n ly p a r t l y e x p lo r e d .
(A n a s i d e t o c o m p u t e r g u y s : o n t h e I n t e l c h i p
d e b u g g in g c o n s o le s th e y hav e an a d d r e s s t r a p
( t r a p p i n g on a p r e s e t t a b l e e f f e c t i v e a d d r e s s )
and a p a ss c o u n te r (tr a p p in g a f t e r n p a s s e s ) .
How co m e we h a v e n t s e e n t h e s e s o o n e r ? )
The m a c h i n e s m e n t i o n e d h e r e a r e a n a r b i
tr a r y s e le c tio n . Som e o f th e m a r e t h e G r e a t
N u m b e rs, c o m p u te rs s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t f o l k s u s e
t h e i r n u m b e rs a s p r o p e r n o u n s , w i t h no b r a n d
nam e:
"D o y o u h a v e a 360 u p th e re ? "
" P e rs o n a lly , I 'd r a t h e r w o rk o n a 5 S 0 0 ."
H ere is w hat th e y a re ta lk in g a b o u t.
The PDP-8 warn d esigned by Gordon Bell
(in it* original version, the PDF-5) about
I960. Originally it c ost about $25,000| am
of May 1974'that p r i c e ia d o n to about $ 3 0 0 0 ,
or learn than a th o u s a n d dollar* lf you want
to buf t he eircuita a n d wire It all up your-
If* Top, her* come* that Bsathkit.
The PDP-8 b aa b o o n D E C * hottest seller)
you'll find t h a in industrial plant* and
M o a i , or oven h i d d e n in the weirdest eq u i p
at, from typesetting devices to b i g disk
drive*. At univer s i t i e s all over the r e are
kids who loo t h a I nside out.
Today the PDP-8 s e w archaic, with its
ons a e c w l a t o r a nd awkward addressing ickeatti
you can only get to ZS6 different addresses in
core a a o r y directly, a n d it's chopped u p into
page*. But for i ts t i m e it was a brilliant
design, packed l ike a parachute, and even t o
day there are p e ople w h o swear by it. (But
look at what B e l l s d o n e latelyi the PDP-11.)
So m a n y p rograms exist for the FDP-fl,
tlwwigh , and so m e h sentimental fondness, that
It will be with u s f or the foreseeable future.
Ttaa the teclcy's W r i s t v s t c h 1 example ( s e e n ,
dl-ft is not t o t ally frivolousi we m a y aeaume
that a PDP-8 on o n e o r two wristwatch-sized
chips is only a y e a r o r so away. But let's
hope t hey do t h e 1 1 first.
(Look*likes a v a i l a b l e f rom Digital Coa p u t e r
Controls and Pabrl-Tek.)
%
S t L1J)
The I B M 7090 was the classic computer.
Introduced about I960 and mostly gorte by '66,
it was s imple and powerful, with cle a n and
decent instructions. With its daughter the
7094, it b e c a m e virtually standard at u n i
versities, research institutions and scien
tific establishment*. At man y installations
that went on t- 3 6 0 s they long for those
clearminded days.
The 90 h a d three index registers and
fifteen b i t s to specify core addresses.
(Thia mesnt, of course, that core memory
could o r dinarily be no longer than 32,768
word* (a3 2 K B see "Binary patterns,* p. 7 3.)
A later m odel, the 94, went up to 7 index
registere, sin c e there were three bit * to
eelect t h e m with.
Though these were million-dollar a a .
chinee ten year* ago, you now hear of them
being offered free to anyone who'll cart
them away) p artly because they needed a lot
of power, airconditioning and oso on. But
they were great number crunchers. (If you
want a 90, 1 believe that 90 lookalikes are
still available from Standard Machines in
California.)
U n i v a c 's 1106 a n d 1108 a r e f a s t , h i g h l y
reg a rd e d m a c h in e s. In d e s i g n i n g th e c o m p u te r
U n iv a c d i d a c l e v e r t h i n g : t h e y b u i l t a n u p
g rad ed 7094. T h is m eant (a s I u n d e r s ta n d i t )
t h a t a l l t h e p ro g ra m s fro m th e o l d 7094 w i l l
ru n on i t . B u t i n s t e a d o f tw o m a in r e g i s t e r s
t h e y h a v e 2B .
( W h e re t h e y f o u n d t h e b i t s i n t h e i n s t r u c
t i o n w o r d t o s e l e c t am o n g a l l t h o s e r e g i s t e r s
I c a n 't t e l l y o u .)
The 1108 i s a l a r g e r v e r s i o n , w i t h tw ic e
a s m any m a i n r e g i s t e r s .
(o
T
D E C 'S P D P -1 0 i s i n so m e w a y s th e s ta n d a rd sc ie n tific
c o m p u t e r t h a t t h e IBM 7 0 9 4 w a s i n th e six tie s .
T h e P D P -1 0 i s e x c e l l e n t f o r m a k i n g h i g h l y i n t e r a c t i v e
s y s te m s , s in c e i t can resp o n d to e v ery in p u t c h a ra c te r
ty p e d by th e u s e r .
I t i s a f a v o r i t e b i g c o m p u t e r am on g r e s e a r c h p e o p l e
and th e w e ll-in fo rm e d . T h e ARPANET, w h i c h c o n n e c t s b i g
c o m p u t e r s a t so m e o f t h e h o t t e s t r e s e a r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ,
i s l a r g e l y b u i l t w i t h P D P - l O s . T h e r e a r e PD P * 10 s a t MIT,
II. o f U t a h , S t a n f o r d , Y a l e , P r i n c e t o n a n d E n g e l b a r t s s h o p
(see p . ) T h e W a t k i n s B ox ( s e e p . ^ -* } ) h o o k s t o a 1 0 .
D i g i t a l E q u ip m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n , a w a re t h a t i t s c o m p u te r
t r a d e m a r k "PD P" c o n n o t e s m i n i c o m p u t e r s t o t h e u n in f o r m e d ,
now w a n t s t h e 10 t o b e c a l l e d D E C s y s t e r n - 10 r a t h e r t h a n PDP.
W e 'l l s e e i f t h a t c a tc h e s o n .
Who d e s i g n e d i t i s n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r . I 'v e he ard
p e o p l e a t t r i b u t e i t v a r i o u s l y t o t h e M o d e l R a i l r o a d i n g C lu b
a t M IT , t o G o rd o n B e l l , a n d o n e A la n K o to k .
O r i g i n a l l y i t w as t h e P D P -6 , w h ic h a p p e a r e d a b o u t 1964,
a nd w as th e f i r s t c o m p u te r to b e s u p p li e d w ith a tim e - s h a r in g
s y s t e m , w h ic h w o rk e d fro m t h e b e g i n n i n g , i f r o c k i l y . Now
i t ' s g o o d and s o l i d . D E C 's o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m f o r i t ( s e e p .
4 5 ) i s c a l l e d T O P S , b u t DBN s e l l s o n e c a l l e d TENEX, a l s o
h ig h ly re g a rd e d . T h e 10 d o e s t i m e - s h a r i n g , r e a l - t i m e p r o
g ra m m in g a n d b a t c h p r o c e s s i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s w a p p in g to
c h a n g e a b l e a r e a s o f c o r e m em ory. (T h is f e a tu r e sh o u ld soon
b e a v a i l a b l e , a t l a s t , o n IBM c o m p u t e r s ( " V S 2 - 2 " ) . )
PD P -1 0 t i m e - s h a r i n g w o rk s e v e n i f y o u d o n ' t h a v e a d i s k ,
u s i n g D E C ta p e ( D E C 's c u t e l i t t l e t a p e s ) . Of c o u rs e , w ith o u t
d is k i t s r e a lly h o b b lin g , b u t t h i s c a p a c ity is n e v e rth e le s s
n o te w o rth y .
T h e P D P -1 0 h a s d e b u g g i n g c o m m a n d s w h i c h w o r k u n d e r t i m e
s h a r i n g a n d w ith a l l la n g u a g e s , a n d h u g e ly s im p lif y p ro g ra m
m in g .
U n l i k e t h e IBM 3 6 0 , w h o s e h a r d w a r e p r o t e c t i o n c o m e s i n
o p t i o n s , t h e 10 h a s s e v e n l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t h e u s e r c a n
s p e c i f y w h o may r o a d h i s f i l e s , r u n t h e m , c h a n g e t h e m , a n d d o
fo u r o th e r th in g s . T h e P D P -1 0 d o e s h a v e j o b c o n t r o l c o m m a n d s ,
b u t t h e y a r e n o t e v e n c o m p a r a b l e i n c u m b e r o s i t y t o IBM s JCL
L a n g u a g e ( s e e p . 3 1 ) , a n d t h e y a r e t h e sa m e f o r a l l t h r e e
m odes o f o p e r a t i o n : t i m e - s h a r i n g , r e a l - t i m e and b a t c h .
T h e P D P -1 0 h a s 36 b i t s b u t h a s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o o p e r a t e
on c h u n k s , o r b y t e s , o f an y l e n g t h . I t h a s s i x t e e n m a in r e g
i s t e r s , a s J o e s th e 3 6 0 , b u t u s e s th e m m ore e f f i c i e n t l y .
T h e P D P -1 0 a l s o h a s u n l i m i t e d i n d i r e c t a d d r e s s i n g : a n
I n s t r u c t i o n c an ta k e i t s e f f e c t i v e a d d r e s s fro m a n o t h e r l o
c a t i o n , w h ic h c a n in t u r n s a y t o ta k e i t s e f f e c t i v e a d d r e s s
e ls e w h e re , ad in fin itu m . For your heavy tig h t e le g a n t s t u f f .
P e r h a p s m o st im p o r t a n t , t h e 10 h a s a f u l l s e t o f s t a c k
i n s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e "T h e M a g ic o f t h e S t a c k , " p . 4 2 ) , a l l o w i n g
pro g ra m m e rs to u se m u l t i p l e s t a c k s f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h e i r ow n.
( T h e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m ' s ow n s t a c k s a r e p r o t e c t e d . ) Program *
m e rs d o n o t h a v e t o sa v e e a c h o t h e r ' s r e g i s t e r s , a s o n t h e 3 6 0 .
P ro g ram m ers a r e r e l a t i v e l y s a f e fro m e a c h o t h e r .
St. H.
H A * r-12-
rp-ro
wrntv<t(o( ^ L.f*
So m e t h i n k o f t h e P D P -6 a n d 1 0 a s a g l o r i f i e d 7 0 9 4 ( w i t h
IB a d d r e s s i n g b i t s , i n s t e a d o f 1 5 ) . I n t h i s c a s e we m i g h t
c o n s i d e r t h e 3 6 0 a s t r i p p e d - d o w n v e r s i o n o f t h e 6 , s i n c e IBM
t h r e w o u t t h e s t a c k a n d i n m o s t m o d e l s t h e m e m o ry n a p p i n g .
P D P -lO s a r e o r d i n a r i l y s o l d w h e r e t h e v ie w s o f s c i e n t i s t s
an d e n g i n e e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t , an d c o m p t r o l l e r s do
n o t have f i r s t c h o ic e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , so m e s a y t h a t i t s b u s i -
n e s s - p r o g r a m m i n g f a c i l i t i e s ( i . e . , COBOL, d u h ) a r e j u s t a s g o o d
a s t h o s e o f c o m p a n ie s w ho c l a i m t o h a v e d e s i g n e d c o m p u te rs " f o r
a l l p u r p o s e s ." F i r s t N a t i o n a l C i t y B a n k o f New Y o r k h a s f o u n d
t h a t t h e P D P -1 0 m a k e s a s p l e n d i d b a n k i n g c o m p u t e r f o r i n t e r n a l
u s e , p r o f i t a b l e a t an i n t e r n a l c h a r g e o f J 3 .7 S an h o u r p l u s
p r o c e s s in g c h a rg e s. P r i c e s f o r a P D P -1 0 s y s t e m w i t h d i s k s t a r t
s t a r t a b o u t $s00,000, o r $ 1 5 g r a n d a m o n t h , a n d g o u p i n t o t-he
m illio n s .
H o w e v e r , DEC s a l e s m e n a r e n o t l i k e I B M ' s , w ho c a n r e p u t e d
l y s e l l E sk im o s to i c e b o x e s . F o t o n e t h i n g , DEC s a l e s m e n a r e
on s a l a r y . T h a t f i t s D E C 's d e m u r e , a w - s h u c k s i m a g e , b u t i t
d o e s n 't e x a c t l y s e l l b ig c o m p u te rs .
(F o r you F ire s ig n T h e a te r f a n s , th e m u tte rin g s o f th e
d y i n g c o m p u t e r o n t h e " B o z o s " a l b u m a r e v a r i o u s P D P -1 0 s y s t e m
th in g i e s , a r t i s t i c a l l y ju x ta p o s e d .)

i l f r A W (}l ^ M), 8 Li(?, H i fe j
M i~ )
' * oerporatien ^ t m m U u l l a a o ^ i t a r Uks Oti*. - - a e il e rt . '( i 0
The IBM 360 (now c a l l e d 370 beca use we r e In th e 70s) is
riwr w th* _
th e c o B o n w t and most s u c c e s s f u l l i n e o f c o a p u te r In t h e world
T hi s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean I t Is th e b a s t . Th er e a r e th o se
who a p p r e c i a t e IBM t y p e w r it e r s b u t no t t h e i r c o ^ u t o r s . C o n tr ol D a t a 's 6600 c o a p u te r was th e
f i r s t r e a l l y b i g c o a p u te r. The f i r s t one
360s a r e bought beca use th e r e p a i r s e r v i c e 1s g r e e t i be* d e l i v e r e d aro un d 194S. The a a c h in e and i t s
c a u se IBM h a s v e ry tough sa le s m en ; and p o s s i b l y f o r o t h e r r e a o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a , CHIPPEWA, were c r e e t e d by
so ns { s e e pp . S Z - 6 ) . Se ya ou r Cray and h i s t e s a i n h i n t e r l a n d Min-
A s t r a n g a un se en c u rse seems to ha u n t th e 360 s e r i e s ; I n
d e e d , s o u c y n i c s even th in k i t r e s u l t s f r o a d e l i b e r a t e p o l i E i t r e a e sp e ed was d e si gn ed I n to th e coi
c i e s o f IBM! Yet th e 360 (and i t s s o f tw a r e ) s e e n soaehow or* p u t e r i n a number of ways. The a a l n coap uti
f a n ! t e d t o s a k e p r o g r a a s I n e f f i c i e n t and slo w ; t o aa ke p r og ra as has no in p u t o r o u tp ut a t a l l ; t h i s i s hand
b i g , n e e d i n g l o t s o f co re memory (w it h n ua ero us e n t i c e a e n t s f o r le d by d a t a ch an n e ls which have been b u i l t u)
th e pro gramm er t o te k e up mor e); to p r e v e n t th e c o a p a t i b i l i t i e s In to f u l l - s c a l e a inic oapute rs or " p erip h e ra l
t h a t a r e so w id e ly a d v e r t i s e d , ex ce pt thr ou gh e x p e n si v e o p t i o n s ; p r o c e s s o r s '' o f l g b i t s .
t o a i e th i n g * e x c e s s i v e l y c om p li c a t e d , thus J o c l i n g in froth I t s
c u st o m e rs an d th e employees o f I t s c u s t o a e r s t o p r a c t i c e s and
i n t r i c a c i e s t h a t a r e somehow un ne ce ssa ry on o t h e r b ra nd s of 7 ***( (l> Ifc) Im
c oapute r. ~
s f f t s c h s : * ! ' V -g *
ffO tU K u l .
fW'fiW** f c e w i o o (M
- *S
n tn g s p e ed , nuch f a s t e r than th e u su a l Micro
se con d or t o . However, s in c e c o re a ea o ry is
nuch slow er tha n th e a a l n r e g i s t e r s , a t r i c k
i s us ed : p r o g r a a i n s t r u c t i o n s a re drawn f ro a
c o r e I n t o a s u p e r f a s t i n s t r u c t i o n l i s t f o ft e n
c a l l e d a c a c h e ) , and any Juap s or lo op s w l t h
The d e s i g n o f th e 360, which was b a s i c a l l y d e c e n t , Is gen
e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o Amdahl, Blaauw and Brooks. Those who ha te
in t h i s se ven-word cache can be e x ec u te d a t
u n t h i n k a b l e s p e e d s - - pe rha ps te n s o f a i l l i o n s
of t i n e s p e r secon d.
The machine i s e s p e c i a l l y ge ar ed f o r
i t , and t h e r e a r e many, base t h e i r co m pl a in ts l a r g e l y on the f l o a t i n g - p o i n t numbrrs ( see p . 9 SI) Because
r e s t r i c t i o n s and c o m p li c a t io n s a s s o c i a t e d w ith i t s o p e r a t i n g o f th e i n te n s e spe ed o f th e f a s t i n s t r u c t i o n
s y s t e a OS, wh ic h i s n o t o r i o u s l y I n e f f i c i e n t ( s e e p . <15 ) . c a c h e , aany i n s t r u c t i o n s (su ch as n u l t t p l i e a -
The a r c h i t e c t u r e o f th e 360 was q u i t e s i a l l a r t o th e PDP-6 p l i s h e d ( a s t e r by a sh o r t p r o g ra a tha n i f
(now t h e PD P -1 0) , d e si gn ed ab o u t th e sa a e t i a e : s i x t e e n a a ln
g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e r e g i s t e r s o f over t h i r t y b i t s , and u s in g the
16 a a l n r e g i s t e r s as e i t h e r a c c u a u la to r s or inde x r e g i s t e r s . They 6600 beca ae ilie s t a r t of a whole
l i n e , in c lu d in g th e 6400, 6800 and o th e rs *
A c u r i o u s f o r a o f a d d re s s in g was a do p te d , c a l l e d "b as e - The 6400 i s u se d by PLATO ( se e p.JMI ifl.
r e g l s t e r a d d r e s s i n g . 1 Th is had c e r t a i n a d v an ta ge s f o r th e o p e r
a t i n g s y s t e a t h a t waa p la nn ed , and was th ou gh t to be s u f f i c i e n t
ly p o w e r f u l t h a t you w o u ld n 't need I n d i r e c t A d d re ss in g . Two
a a l n r e g i s t e r s w er e r e q u i r e d , one ho ld in g a " b a se " a o r e o r le s s
e qu al t o t h e p r o g r a a ' s s t a r t i n g a d d r e s s , end an " l n d e i r e g i s t e r , "
whose c o n t e n t s a r e added to th e base t o s p e c if y an a d d r e s s .
O ft en a t h i r d n u a b e r , o r o f f s e t , " la added a s w e l l . ( i t i^ i)
Tli* i d e a o f t h i s te ch n iq u e I s t h a t p r o g r a a s c an be " r e l o
c a t a b l e , ' 1 o p e r a t i n g anywhere In co re a e a o ry . A few i n s t r u c t i o n s
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f each program can a s c e r t a i n where i t i s run*
Ding f r o a , and e s t a b l i s h th e Base a c c o rd in g l y .
The b a s i c i d e a o f the. 360 se ea s t o have been doped ou t fo r
B u l t i p r o g r a n i n g , o r th e sim u lta n eo us ru n n in g o f s e v e r a l p r o The beaic design of tha
grams i n c o r e , a f e a t u r e IBM h as pushed h e a v i l y w i t h t h i s coa- and alaple four maio r(Ul
well-designed Inetructiooa.
think) the flret eoput<
HAT'S WRONG HITH THE 360T Grand Bus (o , < d e a ig a wbich
The m a in d i f f e r e n c e s be tween th e 360 and th e PDP-6 sn d 10 haa caught an rather widely.
r e p r e s e n t c o n s c i o u s and l e g i t i m a t e and a rg u a b le d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s . Data General (the coapuj mentioned)
To f a n s o f t h e PDP-6 and 10, he re a re th e 3 6 0 's a a l n drawbacks: haa used a vary Interesting marketing atrat-
e*y. Inatead of bringing oat a variety of
NO INDIRECT ADDRESSING. T hi s was b e c a u s e , w i t h i n t h e ad new eonputere aa tine gone on, they eoacea-
d r e s s i n g sc hem e a d o p t e d , i n d i r e c t a d d re ss e s co u ld n o t b e a d j u s t e d tr<t on makiitf tk* leva /#ter aad jaaJler.
a u to m a tic ally . (But i t a l s o makes p r og ra as more i n e f f i c i e n t ,
th us more p r o f i t a b l e to IBM.) They began by competing against PEC es
pecially In *the OgM Market, purchasers 4to
NO STACK. Why? Too e x p e n si v e , s a i d Amdahl, Blaauw and are burying minicomputers In larger equipment
Brook* I n t h * IBM S y s te a s J o u r n a l . Funny, the y hav e s t a c k s on they ia turn eake but more recently they
ISOOO P D P - l l s - - an d i t wouia nave saved everybody a l o t o f here actually started to market asalnat IBM
money on pro gra mm in g. w ith taislaeaa eyateaa. la reeeat aD tk,
Data General ado have ridiculed tbe complex*
HO MEMORY MAPP1NC ( ex c ep t on c e r t a i n a o d e l s ) . Where the Ity and mystery of IBM aystws, arguing quite
PD P -6 's s u c c e s s o r , t h e PDP-lo, a u t o a a t l c a l l y ta k e s c a r e o f r e rightly that minicomputers progressed la
d i s t r i b u t i n g a d d r e s s e s i n c o re t o s e r v i c e ev er y prog ram a* i f BASIC are a reaaonable alternative for a wide
i t w er e o p e r a t i n g f r o a l o c a t i o n t e r o on up , th e 360 l e f t t h i s variety of business applioatons.
g e n e r a l p r o b le m t o l o c a l p r o g r a n e r s and (on c e r t a i n l e v e l s ) to
o p e ra tin g system s. Tbe lova's instructloo-set Is oleaa
tad straightforward. Hey examples (first
H a n d l i n g t h i s a u t o a a t l c a l l y i n th e PDP-10 s he rd w ar e ob bits only)!
v i a t e s t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f b a s e - ln d e c a d d r e s s in g and makes p o s
s i b l e t h e e f f i c i e n c i e s o f I n d i r e c t a d d re s s in g . 00000 Jump (thus an allaero in-
atruetloa Jumpe to loo 4)
00001 Su b r o u ti n e Jump
OOOIO lacraait, skip if aero
360 l o e k a l l k e s were s o l d by RCA and Un iva c. Now t h a t RCA OOOIX Doormasnt, skip if aero
no l o n g e r makes co m p u te rs , Univac i s s e r v i c i n g th e on es they OOI Load AC
made.
0X0 Stare AC
X Instructions among registers.
And Amdahl, no l m g e r w it h IBM and no* he ad o f th e Amdahl
C o r p . . 1* co ming down th e p i k e w it h a s u p e r - 360 o f h i s own. in
p a r t b a c k e d by J a p a n e s e n ose y, i t w i l l be b i g g e r th a n IBM's One competitor, Distal C<pnter Con
b i g g e s t - - a n d c h e a p e r . (See Heah N ie n e r , "Ou td oin g IBM: th e trols, aella a Bora looksLike. Whether Data
Amdahl C h a l l e n g e , Computer D e c i s i o n s . March 73, 1 0 -2 0 .) taertl will soil yon its profrana to run os
it is another ae*tioo.
I k C la s s ic L J t T C L ( '! U j)
-A
A c o a p u t e r named the L1NC, no* u s u a l l y
r e f e r r e d t o a s " t h e c l a s s i c l i n e , " was pe rh a ps
th e f i r s t m in ic om p u te r. I t was an im p o r ta n t
f o r e r u n n e r o f out h ig h l y I n t e r a c t ! ' e s y s t e a s of
t o d a y , n o t a b l y In c lu d i n g t o d a y 's gi a p h ic d i s -
p la y s w i t h do ub le p r o g r a a f o l i c -----
. . \ >.L> . CCar .V . k i . k . i t a c t? ie
Pe rh ap s a o s t i a p o r t a n t l y , i t was d e si g n ed
w it h none of tb e b i a s e s t h a t c re e p in f r o a the
t r a d i t i o n s o f b u s i n e s s computing.
I t was c a l l e d th e Line be ca us e i t was
d e s ig n e d a t Lin c ol n L a b o r a to ri e s (a bo ut i 9 6 0 ) ,
f o r "b io m e d ic a l r e s e a r c h - - a c t u a l l y i t was
t h e s o r t o f computer you d wan*, f o r hoo king
up to a l l s o r t s o f in p u ts and o > t p u t s , t o
a ake a u s i c , t o run y o u r d a rk r o o a , b u t o n ly
a e d i c a l s c i e n t i s t s c e u ld a f f o r d I t , so t h a t ' s
what th e y s a i d i t was f or .
The UNC had two ire s tin g in n ova tions.
I t was p r o b a b ly th e f 1: c o ap ut e r to be des*
Igned w it h a b u i l t - i n i d i s p l a y ( see f l i p
side ). I t a l s o c aae wj a funny l i t t l e ta p e
d r i v e , d e s ig n e d f o r re: > i l i t y and h ig h r c s -
p on se , t h a t was suppos<
is k and be r e l i a b l e even
in d u s ty o r 'B e s s y e n v l r o n a e n t s . T hi s was th e
LINCtape, s t i l l o f f e r e d as an a c c e ss o r y by one
coap an y. DEC ad ap te d i t soaewhat and Bade i t
th e DECtape, handy po c ke t ta pe u n i t of th e PDP
com pu ter l i n e .
I t was nev er s o l d c o a a e r c i a l l y . A do ie n
o r so wer e Bade up s p e c i a l l y o u t o f DEC n o d
u l e s and d e a l t ou t t o va ri o u s s c i e n t i s t s , and
th e g e n e r a l hope was t h a l DEC would ta k e the
n a ch in e up as p a r t o f i t s p ro d u ct l i n e , b u t
t h a t s no t what ha ppened. DEC I n s t e a d pushed
i t s PDP-8 and aave us i n s t e a d , by and by,
* (ilC -8
(it
V
It.
fir-8 HC- )
DEC was o f f e r e d th e o p ti o n of b u i l d i n g
Lin c ol n L a b o r a t o r i e s c l a s s i c LINC, b u t d e c i
ded I n s t e a d to c o at u n e i t , in th e n l d - s k x t i e s ,
w it h th e a l r e a d y - s u c c e s s f u l PDP-8. Th at way
a l l th e PDP-8 p r o g ra n s and n o s l of th e LINC
p r o g ra a s would work on i t . The r e s u l t i s kind
o f s t r a n g e , b u t very po p u la r in b i o a e d i c a l r e
s e a r c h : two c o a p u te r s in on e, ha nd ing c o n t r o l
back and f o r t h a s ne ede d. You can w r i t e p r o
g r a a s on th e Line w it h s e c t i o n s f o r Ihe 8, and
v e r s i o n i s c a l l e d th e PDP-12.
H h il e you e i g h t h a l f - t h l n k t h a t both
s i d e s o f th e comput er cou ld o r i j l m u l t a o e o u s l y ,
g iv i n g you doublo s p e e d . I t d o e s n ' t work t h a t
way. T n e r e ' s o n ly one core a e a o r y , and t h a t
s e t s th e b a s i c sp e ed ; e i t h e r a PDP-9 i n s t r u c
t i o n o r a Line i n s t r u c t i o n can be underway a t
o n c e, b u t no t b o th .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , we se e he re th e double
s t r u c t u r e t h a t p la y s such an im po r ta nt p a r t
In h ig h l y i n t e r a c t i v e c o ap ut e r d i s p l a y s (s ee
P< )* I nd eed , Line p r o g r a a n e r s o f t e n
use th e n a c h in e J u s t t h a t way: th e PDP-8 r u n
nin g an a c t u a l p r o g r a a , th e Line p a r t ru nn in g
th e CRT d i s p l a y in c o n ju n c t io n w it h i t .
A h o r r i f y i n g and w e i rd p i c t u r e o f an e x p e r i
m e nt a l monkey s i t t i n g on a PDP-12 and making
l i k e th e C r e a tu r e f r o a the Black Lagoon i s
to be s e e n in Time. 14 Ja n 74, p . S4. I t
lo o k s v e ry s c i e n t i f i c .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The c l a s s i c book: C. Gordon B e ll and A ll e n
N ewe ll, Computer S t r u c t u r e s : Readings
and E xaa ple s . RcGraw-lll 11 , I TTT
Note t h a t Be ll de si g n ed v a r i o u s
o f th e PDPs, and Newell p io n e e r e d In
l i s t p r o c e s s i n g ( see p . Z f c ) .
Computer C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Review keeps you
in tou c n w u n in a t r a i t s o f a v a i l a b l e
c omputers and p e r i p h e r a l s . $Z S/y ear
(3 I s s u e s ) GH. C o r p ., S94 M a r r e t t Rd.,
L ex in gt o n , MA 02173.
O th er f i r a s , such a s Au erb aeh ,
o f f e r s o r e ex pe n siv e s e r v i c e s o f th e
sa ae n a t u r e .
B. B e l t e r , The A r c h i t e c t u r e and E n a l n e e rl n a
of D l a l t a l iQBPUter~CoBpTeesT t*ienua
T'tbss T 2 v o T s . 7 J*0 .
H ea v ie r than B e ll and N ew e ll. A
c a t a l o g o f th ou sa nds o f s t r u c t u r e s and
t r i c k s , s a p h a s l t i n g th e t r a d e o f f s among
them.
 6000 ' 1,5*00-
p r a i s e d aa on g co mp ute r p e o p l e t h a n Che Bur
ro u g h s 5000 ( r e p l a c e d by th e 5 5 0 0 ) . The 5000
v a s d e s i g n e d a b o u t 1960 by Edward G l a s e r and
Bob BaY ton . I t was d e s i g n e d t o be u s e d o n ly
w ith h ig h e r la nguage s. not a llow ing p ro g ra a-
E 7 7 a c c e s s t o th e B i n a r y I n s t r u c t i o n s them
se lv es . I n d e e d , I t was p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i g n e d
to be u s e d w i t h ALGOL, wh ich wo uld h a v e been
th e s t a n d a r d la n g u ag e I f IBH ha d a l l o w e d i t
( s e e p . S t ) *d i s s t i l l th e " i n t e r n a t i o n a l "
language.
B e ca u se o f t h i s a p p r o a c h , i t s s a i n r e g i s
t e r s w er e t o be h id d e n f r o a t h e p r o g r a n e r ,
and a t t e n t i o n c e n t e r e d i n s t e a d upo n Che s t a c k ,
a h i g h - l e v e l p r o g r a a a i n g d e v i c e ( s e e box on
S t a c k s ) . However, in d e x r e g i s t e r s w e r e added
t o a a k e i t b e t t e r foT F o r t r a n .
The S000 was a a r k e t e d a s an " a l l - p u r p o s e "
c o a p u t e r w i t h an o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a , a n t i c i p a t i n g
IBM's 360 o f a few y e a r s l a t e r . Indeed, a fte r
th e 360 was ann o u n ced , Bu rr ou gh s s a l e s p ic k e d
up , b e c a u s e IBH s a l e s a e n wer e a t l a s t - p r o a o t i n g
th e c o n c e p t s t h a t c u s t o a e r s h a d n t u n d e r s t o o d
when th e y h e a r d a b o u t t h e a f r o a B u r r o u g h s
s a le s a e n y ears be fore.
a a c h l n e s In t h e l i n e < i th e
6500, iw ::
The B ur ro ug hs C o r p o r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s to
be an ack no w le dg ed l e a d e r i n c o a p u te T d e s i g n .
A p p aren tly t h e i r s a le s fo rc e i s s o a e th i n g e l s e ,
u n fo rtu n ately . 1 once s p e n t so a e t i a e w i t h a
B u r r o u g h s sa le s m a n who n o t o n l y knew n o t h i n g
a b o u t t h e M a g n i f i c e n t s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a a c h ln e
he r e p r e s e n t e d , b u t would n o t g e t a e f u r t h e r
I n f o r a a t i o n u n l e s s I d e a o n s t r a t e d t h a t th e
c oa pa ny' I r e p r e s e n t e d (a l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n )
was s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d . He wore v e r y fan c y
O E tfT W
I?
I M T E ^ iU G L tD .
In e l e c t r o n i c s , a " b u s " i s a co aa on
c o n n e e to r t h a t s u p p l i e s power o r s i g n a l s t o
and f r o a s e v e r a l d e s t i n a t i o n s . In c o a p u te rs ,
a " b u s " I s a c o aa o n c o n n e c t i o n aao ng s e v e r a l
p o i n t s , u s i n g c a r r y i n g a c o a p le x p a r a l l e l
s ig n a l.
The Gra nd Bu s, a new id e a aao ng c o a p u t e r s ,
is catch in g on. (The t e r i I s u s e d h e r e b e
cau se t h e c o l l o q u i a l t e r a , " U n i b u s , " i s a DEC
trad e aa rk .)
B a s i c a l l y t h e Grand Bus i s a c o n n e c t o r
o f M u l t i p l e w i r e s t h a t goes aao ng s e v e r a l
le c e s o f e q u l p a e n t . So f a r t h a t ' s j u s t a
E u s . But a Grand Bus i s one t h a t a l l o w s t h e
d i f f e r e n t p i e c e s o f e q u l p a e n t t o be ch an g e d
and r e p l a c e d e a s i l y , be c a u s e s i g n a l s any
c o n o n p i e c e o f e q u l p a e n t j u s t go o u t on th e
bus.
T h is Beans t h a t th e i n t e r f a c e p r o b l e a
I s d e e p ly s i a p l i f i e d , b e ca us e any d e v i c e w i t h
a p r o p e r bus I n t e r f a c e c a n s l a p l y be p l u g g e d
on to t h e b u s .
I t d o e s k b d a l o t a o r e c o m p le x it y o f
s i g n a l s . The U nl bua , f o r e x a a p l e , h a s a b o u t
f i f t y p a r a l l e l s t r a n d s . But t h a t a e a n s v a r
io u s t r i c k y e l e c t r i c a l d i a l o g u e s c an r a p i d l y
g i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o d e v i c e s and c o n s i d e r r e
p l i e s a b o u t t h e i r s t a t u s , i n q u i c k and s t a n
d a r d i z e d w ays .
P r o a l n e n t g r a n d b u se s i n c l u d e :
The Nova bus ( n a a e l e s s ; th e f i r s t ? )
PDP-1 l ' s Unibus
Lo ck he ed SUE'S I n f i b u s
P D P -S 's Omnibus.
n e r a l. For your
t t a n c e , Gra nd Bus
a r c h i t e c t u r e w oul d s i m p l i f y e v e r y t h i n g .
Not o n l y t h a t , b u t D e t r o i t i s s u p p o s e d l y
g o in g t o p u t y o u r c a r ' s e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e a on
a Grand B u s. T h i s w i l l a e a n you ca n t e l l a t
once w ha t I s an d I s n ' t w o rk i n g , and hoo k up
mw goodies e a s i l y .
The S t a c k i s a m e ch a ni sm - - e i t h e r b u i l t T h is
in to th e c o ap u te r ("h a rd w a re ") o r In c o r p o ra Bakes p o s s i b l e " r e - e n t r a n t " p r o g ra a s
t e d i n a p r o g r a a ( " s o f t w a r e ) w h ic h a l l o w s a a e a n i n g s ub
r o u*'
t i n e- s t h a t c a n be u se d s i a u *' -
c o a p u t e r t o keep t r a c k o f a v a s t n u a b e r of t a n e o u s l y by d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a a s w i t h o u t b I xud
d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s , I n t e r r u p t i o n s and c o a - and r e c u r s i v e " p r o g r a a s . Meaning p r o g r a r -
p l i c a t i o n s a t the s a ae tim e. t h a t a a n a g e t o c a l l t h e a s e l v e s when the y
th e a se lv e s are in n r D i r x c
B a s i c a l l y , I t I s a a e c h a n i s a w h ic h a ll o w s
a p r o g r a a t o th ro w s o a o t h i n g o v e r I t s s h o u l d e r
i n o r d e r t o do s o a e t h i n g e l s e , t h e n r e a c h hack
o v e r i t s s h o u l d e r t o g e t b a c k w h at I t was
p r e v i o u s l y w or k in g o n . B ut no n a t t e r how aany
t h i n g s i t th ro w s o v e r i t s s h o u l d e r , e v e r y t h i n g
s t a y s o r d e r l y an d c o n t i n u e s t o wo rk s a o o t h l y ,
r e t
t i l l i t ha s r e s u a e d e v e r y t h i n g and f i n i s h e d
thea a l l .
I t goe s l i k e t h i s : i f t h e p r o g r a a has
t o s e c a s i d e one t h i n g , i t p u t s t h a t one t h i n g
i n c o r e a e a o r y a t a p l a c e s p e c i f i e d by a
n u a b e r c a l l e d a s t a c k p o i n t e r . Then i t adds S tacks a re a ls o used for h a n d lin g " in te rr u p ts "
s i g n a l s f r o a o u t s i d e t h a t r e q u i r e th e
one t o t h e s t a c k p o i n t e r , t o be Teady i n e a se
s o a e t h i n g e l s e h a s t o go o n t h e s t a c k . T h is c o a p u t e r t o s e t a s i d e one Jo b f o r a n o t h e r .
Havi ng a b u i l t - i n ha rd w ar e s t a c k e n a b l e s th e
i s c a l l e d a PUSH.
i n t e r r u p t s t o p i l e up w i t h o u t c o n f u s i o n :
F i n a l l y , s t a c k a r i t h m e t i c , l i k e t h a t done on
th e B u r r ou gh s S55B, e n a b l e s a r i t h m e t i c (and
o t h e r a l g e b r a i c t y p e s o f a c t i v i t y ) t o be h a n
d l e d w i t h o u t s e t t i n g a s i d e r e g i s t e r s o r s p a ee
When a p r o g r a a i s r e a d y t o r e s u a e a i n c o r e a e a o r y . As a s i m p l e - a l n d e d e x a a p le
io u s a c t i v i t y , i t s u b t r a c t s on e f r o a t h e on a h y p o t h e t i c a l a a e h i n e , s u p p o s e we wan te d
s t a c k p o i n t e r and f e t c h e s w h a t e v e r t h a t j t o h a n d le
p o i n t e r p o i n t s t o . T h is i s c a l l e d a POP.
2 7 3
On t h i s a a e h i n e , l e t ' s s a y , t h i s g e ts c o ap lled
t o a p r o g r a a and a s t a c k :
I t aa y n o t b e l a a e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s , b u t
t h i s t r i c k h a s i a a e n s e p ow er . Fo r i n s t a n c e , Then t h e o p e r a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t on th e
we a a y s t a c k any n u a b er o f t h i n g s t o g e t h e r - - sta ck i t s e l f :
th e a d d r e s s e s o f p r o g ra m s , d a t a we a r e moving
b e tw ee n p r o g r a a s , i n t e r m e d i a t e r e s u l t s , and
c o d e s t h a t show wh at th e c o a p u t e r was d o in g
m-
prev io u sly .
Using s t a c k s , p r o g r a a s Bay u s e e ach o t h e r
v ery f r e e l y . I t is p o ssib le , for instance,
... i = i j
t o j u a p aao ng s u b r o u t i n e s - - in d e p e n d e n t l i t t l e
p r o g r a a s - - w i l l y - n i l l y , u s i n g a s t a c k t o keep
t r a c k o f where y o u 'v e b e e n .
S t a c k p r o g r a a a i n g te n d s t o be e f f i c i e n t ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y in i t s u s e o f c o r e a e a o r y .
Soa e l a n g u a g e s , su ch a s A l g o l and TRAC
L an g u a g e, r e q u i r e s t a c k s .
Soa e c o a p u t e r c o a p a n l e s , s u c h a s IBM,
r e s o l u t e l y Ig n o re s t a c k a r c h i t e c t u r e , tho ugh
h a rd w a r e s t a c k s ha v e be co a e w i d e l y a d o p te d
i n th e f i e l d .
I n t h i s c a s e th e s t a c k h o ld s t h e p r e v i
l o c a t i o n s and i n t e r m e d i a t e d a t a , so t>
p r o g r a a f o l l o w e r ca n go ba ck w h er e i t
f r o a a t th e end o f e a c h s u b r o u t i n e .
The PDP-11 i s n o t a b e g i n n e r ' s c o a p u t c r . B a s i c a l l y i l i s a 1 6 - b i t M ach in e, w i t h
But th e power an d e l e g a n c e o f i t s a r c h i t e c t u r e most i n s t r u c t i o n s o p e r a t i n g on 8 - b i i d a t a a s
have e s t a b l i s h e d i t , s i n c e i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n i n
19 70, a s p e r h a p s t h e f o r e a o s t sm a ll com pu ter w ell.
in th e w o r l d .
T h e r e a re e i g h t a a i n r e g i s t e r s . Two,
A c t u a l l y , th o u g h , we c a n ' t b e to o s u r e
a b o u t th e word " s a a l l . " Because a s s u c c e s s i v e
p a r t s o f th e l i n e a r e u n v e i l e d , i t b e co a es i n
c re asin g ly c l e a r th a t t h i s lin e of " s a a ll"
co m p u te rs h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d t o I n c lu d e soa e
v e ry p o w e r f u l a a c h i n e s and c o u p l i n g te c h n i q u e s
aaon g t h e a ; an d i t would s e e a t h a t we h a v e n ' t
11 (*
th o u g h , f u n c t i o n s p e c i a l l y - t h e p r o g r a a c o u n
t e r ( t h a t p a rt o f the p r o g ra a fo llo w er t h a t
h o ld s th e nu a be r o f th e n e x t i n s t r u c t i o n ) , and
th e ha rd w ar e s t a c k p o i n t e r , b o t h f o ll o w th e
sa a e p r o g r a a a i n g r u l e s a s t h e a a i n r e g i s t e r s - -
an u n u s u a l t e c h n i q u e . Thu s a j u a p i n t h e p r o
g r a a i s s i a p l y a na o v e" I n s t r u c t i o n , i n w h ic h
th e n e x t p r o g r e a a d d r e s s i s " a o v e d i n t o a a i n
se e n e v e r y t h i n g y e t .
r e g i s t e r 17, t h e p r o g r a a c o u n t e r .
In a d d i t i o n , a l l e x t e r n a l d e v i c e s s e e a t o
th e p r o g r a a t o be s t o r e d i n c o r e a e a o r y . T h at
I s , th e I n t e r f a c e r e g i s t e r s o f a c c e s s o r i e s
have " a d d r e s s e s " n u a e r i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o c o r e
l o c a t i o n s - - so th e p r o g r a a j u s t " a o v e s " d a t a ,
w i t h MOVE i n s t r u c t i o n s , t o do or wa ys i n c o r e .
( T h is I s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e a u t o a a t l c h a n d l i n g
o f p r e v i o u s l y b o t h e r s o a e s t u f f , l i k e R ead y,
H a l t and Done b i t s . )
P h y s ic a lly a l l d e v ice s a re s la p ly a tta c h e d
to a g r e a t sash of w ires c a l l e d a Unibus. (See
I n o t h e r w o r d s , DEC's PDP-11, Grand Bus b o x . )
which ha s a l r e a d y c u t i n t o s a l e s
o f t h e i r PDP-8 1 2 - b i t s e r i e s and
PDP-15 1 8 - b l t s e r i e s , aa y soon c u t BIBLIOBRAPHY
i n t o i t s PDP-10 3 6 - b i t s e r i e s - - as
d e sig n e r B e ll u n v e ils (perhaps) ........ ........... , _________ Ming
F u n d a m e n t a l s . (. F r o g ra aa ed work
a o n s t e r P D P -l ls i n a r r a y s o r do ub le
w o rd -len g th o r w h atev e r. b oo k. no p r i c e l i s t e d . ) A lg o n
q u i n C o l l e g e B o o k s t o r e , 138S Kood-
r o f f e A v en ue , O t ta w a , O n t a r i o ,
The PDP-11 was d e s i g n e d by C. Gordon B e l l Canada 12G-1VB.
and h i s a s s o c i ; # s a t C a r n e g ie -M e ll o n U n iv e r S 'r Z i!T 7 L ,
sity . I n d e s i g n i n g th e a r c h i t e c t u r e , and e s
p e c i a l l y th e I n s t r u c t i o n - s e t , th e y s i a u l a t e d
a wide v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s b e f o r e th e
PDP-11 l o o k a l i k e s a re
f i n a l d e s i g n was d e c i d e d . The r e s u l t i n g a r s o l d by C a l D a t a . O t h e r f i n s
c h i t e c t u r e i s e x t r e a e l y e f f i c i e n t an d p o w e r f u l have be en s c a r e d o f f b y DEC's
( s e e bo x, "The l l ' s Modes ) . s t e n t , b u t Cal D a t a s a y th e y
E ave a p a t e n t t o o .
NiniOMputere a re crasi
p r o b la in a in l a rc h lte c tu r
the In stru ctio n enough chol
In daal^ninq the POP-11, Gordon t e l l and hU
eo-^rorkere sy stem atically sought a powerful mol-
ution. lim ile tin q varloue peaalble stru c tu re s by
c ^ u t a r program, try in g out a v a rie ty of d if f e r
ent r f felnatlonm and e tru c tu ree .
The elegance and pornr o f tha aolutlon are
l i t t l e ehort o f hroath tah ln g . Basically the PDP-
11, the f in a l design, provides aeven d iffe re n t
type* o f In d irect addreaaing. The e c ^ u te r 'e
main re g ls ta r e may be ueed both to ooarata on
Information (the usual technique, here ealled
mode s e re ) . or to p o in t to location* to b . o p tr-
eted <a> (In d ire ct medee 1 through 7). Thee*
provide eatrem ely e f f l e l . n t means for atepplng
t h r a s h ta b la s , TUSH and POP, dlapatch ta ble*,
and various other p rogram ing technique*. The
following dlagra 1* a ia n t for handy reference.
 Tli.ro r* a lot ot traao eoaputara being
doalgnod lt'a a traditional occupation ot

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in t h e n i d - s i x t i e s .

The U l i a c IV i s t h e b i g g e s t and a o s t
a n y t h i n g th e y wan t t o t h i n k a b o u t .
The I l l i a c 4 c o n s i s t s o f s i x t y - f o u r b i g
g i s h c o a p u t e r s , a l l g o in g a l once u n d e r th e
e k i ; 1: ; " s t a ; : r ^ S i i ;r
i s t h e b r a i n c h i l d o f D a n i e l S l o t n i c k , who ^
presse d fo r i t s c re a ti o n for y e a rs; e v e n tu a lly
b u i l t by B u r r o u g h s , i t s i t s a t an a i r b a s e b u t
i s a v a i l a b l e t o o u t s i d e u s e r s t h r o u g h th e
c . i:
s v s r A a ^ s s s sn srau b .
p e o p le p u t t h i s a a e h i n e t o g e t h e r f o r h i g h l y
e f f i c i e n t h y b r i d c om pu tin g.
The e s s e n t i a l i d e a was t o have a h i g h l y
v e n t i l a t e d a a e h i n e t h a t c o u ld ta k e i n and p u t
out o e s s u ra b le e l e c t r i c sig n a ls a t high r a t e s .
Nhat th e y c r c a t e d was a r a t h e r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
c o n v e r t e r ^ t o ^ e n d * a n a lo g * i n f o r n a t i o r ^ o u t ^ n d
b r i n g i t ba ck i n . T h i s nc a n t t h a t p r o b l e a s
s u i t e d t o r e p e t i t i v e e l e c t r i c a l t w i s t i n g and
ss i!g n: a:l s,s cso uj{l d sgush
. ! braicta-k in: .. 2s # : r s i : L -
The i n s t r u c t i o n - s e t was d e s i g n e d f o r t h i s

It vorlta Ilka thia. Haring aa l_aa* 256-
f * r m t rpartBPop,,eield**h*fPthSPopdr( M e p.
to pacify what other information ia io Iti
i s an a r r a y , c e r t a i n o p e r a t i o n s c an t a k e p l a c c
v e r y a u e h f a s t e r b e c a u s e th e y h ap pen i n p a r a l
l e l u n its sim u ltan eo u sly . M atrices, p a r t i c
u l a r f o r n a l k in d s o f a r r a y , a r e u s e d i n a 1>. I Ii^ iL >
t h a t t h e th e o r y o f w e a th e r p r e d i c t i o n h a s be en
w e l l w ork ed o u t f o r d e c a d e s , b u t b e c a u s c th e
s w i r l y b e h a v i o r o f th e a t a o s p h e r e i s so i n t r i -

en ce s e s s i o n I b e l i e v e i t was e x p l a i n e d t h a t
i t us e d t o t a k e t w e n t y - f i v e h o u r s t o p r e d i c t
v h ic h 'n e a n s y o S ^ e / t h e a nsier*a n hour a f t e r
i t s ha p p en e d a l r e a d y : now i t i s p o s s i b l e ,
u s i n g I l l i a c IV, t o do th e whole p l a n e t ' s wea
t h e r in an ho u r and a h a l f , s a i d t h e s p e a k e r .
econda. Or It can direct all aaaorr location*
hTlo partleular^ldontlfiera^to eultiply^one So a e s a y t h a t a a y be i t s o n ly u s e and
t h e w h o le p r o j e c t was in a d e q u a t e l y t h o u g h t
o u t. O t h e r s s u s p e c t i t ' s r e a l l y i n t e n d e d as

e v e r a a r k e t e d , nay p r o v i d e a new p r i c e b r e a k
t h r o u g h f o r s a a l l hig hp ow e r s y s t e n s .

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t f mil , traaaportatlon roaarvatloaa, air traffic Incid e n ta lly , " Il lia c " i s th e t r a d i t i o n a l
control. Truth ^ - o - t computer pooplo ^ l d ^

D a n i e l J . S l o t n i c k , "U n c o n v e n t io n a l S y s t e m s . "
P r o c . SJCC 1967, 477- 40 1.

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*Blg flaaa have U t t l e fleae th a t b it* 'em
And a t forth. I n f i n i t e .*
Proverb
M ic r o p ro c e s s o r s e re w h a t 's h a p p e n in g .
C o a p u te r) c o s t s e v e r a l th o u sa n d buc ks on up.
Microprocessors c o s t s e v e r a l hundred on u p , and
t h a t p r i c e ra n g e I s f a l l i n g f a s t .
So ae a lc r o p r o c e s s o r s a re a l r e a d y on I n t e g r a
t e r i r c u l t s . p o sta g e s t a a p - s i z e d e l e c t r o n i c
F a n c ie s t h a t a r e s l a p l y p r i n t e d and b a k e d , r a t h e r
th a n w ir e d up; t h i s a e a n s th e r e i s e f f e c t i v e l y
no b o t t o a l l a i t to th e p r i c e of a l c r o p r o c e s s o r s .
B f F T K I T w e l l " I t Beans t h a t in a few y e a r s
t h e r e w i l l be a m i c r o p ro c e s s o r in y o u r r e f r i g e r
a t o r y o u r t y p e w r i t e r , y o u r la w nao w er, y o u r c a r ,
and p o s s i b l y yo u r w a l l e t . ( I f you d o n ' t b e l i e v e
t h i s , lo o k w hat happened lo poc ket c a l c u l a t o r s in
th e l a s t c o u p le o f y e a r s . The c h ip t h o s e a re
b u i l t a ro u n d c o a t* f iv e b u c ks. But n e x t coae th e
n r o a r a a a a b l e c h i p s , th e a l c r o p r o c e s s o r s .)
M ic r o p r o c e s s o r s sh o u ld not be c a l l e d a l c r o -
r o a n u t e r a . a t e n t h a t se e a s to have c a p t i v a t e d
Wall S t r e e t l a t e l y . " M lc ro c o a p u te r " j u s t aeans
any te e n y c o a p u t e r ; b u t t h e r e i s an e a a c t and
c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e ta e e n an o r d i n a r y c o a p u te r
(w h a te v e r i t s s i i e ) and a a l c r o p r o c e s e o r (w ha t
ever i t s s i t e ) .
A a i c r o p r o c e s s o r i s a tw o - le v e l c o a p u t e r .
You w i l l re a e a b e r f r o a th e "Rock B o tto a "
s e c t i o n (p p . 32-3) t h a t e v e r y c o a p u te r has an
I n t e r n a l la n g u ag e o f b i n a r y p a t t e r n a o r " n ac h in e
la n g u ag e " ( I l l u s t r a t e d In horre n d o u s d e t a i l tn
th e p r o g r a a c a l l e d "Buckys R r l s t w a t c h , " p p . 3 5 - 4 ) .
The h i s t o r y books te n y e a r s f r o a now, i f any,
w i l l n o te t h a t th e f i r s t c o a p u te r - o n - a - c h i p was pro
duced by I n t e l . I n t e l , an a s t u t e l y aanaged coapany,
chose to sa k e a a i c r o p r o c e s s o r t h a t would be s u it e d
to p la c e a e n t i n o t h e r s ' a a c h in e s a t low c o s t. This
a e a n s t h a t i f you aake a fanc y b u l l d o z e r or bake-
o v e n, and want i t to have soae f o r a of i n t r i c a t e
p r e - p la n n e d b e h a v io r , y o u ' l l p u t " t h e I n t e l chip"
A c t u a ll y th e I n t e l c h ip Is a n u a b er of se p arate
c h i p s , which s t a r t low in c o s t - - a f a i r l y c oople to
s e t can be had f o r u n d e r $S00-- and can be assea ble d
i n to a f u ll co ap u te r. ( In d e e d , v a r io u s f i r a s do o f
f e r c o a p l e t e c o a p u te r s b u i l t o u t o f I n t e l e h ip s . In
c lu d in g one th e s i z e o f an Oreo c o o k ic , guara nteed
f o r 2$ y e a r s . )
The o r i g i n a l I n t e l c h ip s a re th e MCS-4 and
MCS-S, v i z . :
The t r i c k t h a t Bakes t h i s a l l w ork-- w hether Upper l e v e l Lower l e v e l
f o r th e hld den-a w ey ty p e o r t h e c o a p u te r ty pe of
a i c r o p r o c e s s o r - - I s t h a t th e low er l e v e l has a nuch MCS-4 4 b its B o r 16 b its
f a s t e r a ea o ry th a n th e u p p e r l e v e l . T h is Beans
(1 0 .8 (900 nanoseconds)
t h a t an u p p e r - l e v e l word c a n be ta k e n , and looked a ic r o s e c o n d s )
up in th e low er l e v e l , and a l l th e lo w e r - l e v e l s te p s MCS-8 8 b its 8 to 24 b its
c a r r i e d o u t , v e ry f a s t c o a p a r e d to th e u p p e r - l e v e l (12.& (900 nanoseconds)
a e a o r y . Many suc h a a c h i n e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , havo a ic r o s e c o n d s )
l o w e r - l e v e l spe eds In th e na nosec onds ( b i l l i
o f a s e c o n d ) , w h ile th e u p p e r- < W hile th e s e i n d i v i d u a l c h ip s c o s t under a hundred
ly in th e a ic r o a e c o n d s ( a i d o l l a r s e a c h , a c a o r i e s and o t h e r n c c e s s a r y s e c ti o n s
c o s t e x t r a . For p e o p le who want to de velo p s y s te a s
ip o r t a n t c h a r -
A l a s t p o i n t . One o f t h e a o s t around th e s e c h i p s , I n t e l has c a n n il y p r e p a re d a nua-
: t e r i s t l c s of an a r d l n a r y c o a p u te r b e r o f se tu p s. I f you want to go 4 - b i t , you ge t the
n g th , t h a t i s , I lie n u a b er o f b i n a r y pos " I n t c l l e c 4 , " {2200, whic h a l s o needs a T e l e ty p e .
u s u a l chunk o f 1t s I n f o r m a tio n . T h is g iv e s yo u v a r io u s d i s p l a y l i g h t s and debugging
f e a t u r e s . M eanwhile, you c an a s s e a b le and s i o u l a t e
on s i n u l a t l o n p r o g ra a s o f f e r e d on n a t i o n a l t i o e - s h a r -
in g . I f you want to go 8 - b i t , you g e t th e " I n t e l l e c
8" f o r $2400 ( a l s o w i t h o u t T e l e t y p e ) , and b e n e f i t ad
d i t i o n a l l y f r o a th e f a c t t h a t you c an p r e p a re the
undcrw are in P L / I . and c o a p i l e i t on n a t i o n a l t i a e -
But s i n c e a l c r o p r o c e s s o r s ha ve two s e p a r a t e l e v e l s ,
th e y o f t e n have two s e p a r a t e word l e n g th s i C r a f ty and c l e v e r I n t e l , which has c a p tu r e d ouch
th e u p p e r--l................................
e v e l and th e l o w e r - l e v e l . o f th e o v e r a l l a a r k e t a l r e a d y , has now b ro u g h t out
au ch f a s t e r v e r s i o n s o f th e s e c h i p s . Rail.

W e ll , a a i c r o p r o c e s s o r has two l e v e l s . It
has an u n p o r - l o v e l p r o g ra a f o llo w e r w i t h i t s r A ijo u p j te r w i t t i l y c a l l e d th e Meta 4 (heh heh)
b in a r y p r o g r a n ; b u t each I n s t r u c t i o n o: i s a f a i r l y n e a t a a c h in e aade by D i g i t a l S c i e n t i f i c
u p p e r - l e v e l p r o g r a a i s in tu r n c a r r i e d C o r p ., 1 MS5 S o r r e n t o V a l le y R d., San Diego CA 92121.
p r o g r a a f o l l o w e r runnin g a p r o g ra a a t i
l e v e l - - c a l l e d a a ic r o p r o g r a a . I.ower a e a o ry : 16 h i t s , 90 na nosec onds ( o r 35
n a n o sec o n d s, p r o g r a m e d by a c a r d ( on
M ic r o p ro c e s s o r s a r e u s u a l l y s o ld in q u a n t i t y , which you d a rk e n th e sq u a re s .)
to pe ople who a r e b u i l d i n g s u p e r - c a s h - r c g i s t c r s or
p i n b a l l a a c h in e s o r th e l i k e . So t h e i r n c n o r ic s Upper menory: 16 b i t s , 900 nan o sec o n d s.
coae In aany s i z e s and s p e e d s , to be t a i l o r e d to
an a p p l i c a t i o n . You sh o u ld know th e d i f f e r e n c e s What t h i s i s i s a v e ry hig h -p o w er n i n i c o a p u t e r :
b e tw een-- i t c an be t u r n e d i n t o a lo o k a l i k e f o r any o t h e r 1 6 - b i t
n i n i c o a p u t e r . For i n s t a n c e , th e y c an s e l 1 I t t o you
ROM-* Read-Only Menory. C o n te n ts c a n ' t be
changed, c o s 's l e s s th a n c h an g e ab le ( a t l i v e l y i n t o an IBM l l J o ! Froa a a a r k e t i n g p o i n t o f
any g iv e n S p e e d ). v ie w , t h i s e f f e c t i v e l y means a f i r a owning an IBM 1130
RAM- Rapid -A ccess Menory. A ls o c a l l e d can r e p l a c e i t w ith a Meta 4 which r u n s th e s a a e p r o -
re a d -w r i te n e n o ry . Saco as c o re acniory: g r a a s , sa ves aoney and g iv e s you in a d d i t i o n th e o o t-
May have I t s c o n t e n t s c hange d. NOTt: I f t o n - l e v e l f e a t u r e s o f a f a r n o r e po w erfu l c o a p u t e r .
you s i a u l a t e so a e c o a p u t e r w ith a a i c r o - (Such an u n d e r - l e v e l p r o g r a a t h a t a a k e s one a a c h in e
p rogra B , i t s s i n u l a t e d " r e g i s t e r s are e f f e c t i v e l y i a i t a t e a n o t h e r computer i s c a l l e d an
u s u a l l y lo c a t i o n s in th e lo w e r - l e v e l RAM. e a u l a t o r . ) T h is c a p a c it y to c a u l a t c o l h e r c o a p u t e r s
RMM-- Read-Mostly Meaory. You can (jet out i t s i s th e "a e tn p h o r " a llu d e d to i n th e a a c h i n e ' s n a a e .
c o n te n t s f a s t , h u t change th e n o nly ve ry
Slowly.
F i r s t o f a l l , i t aeans t h a t th e u p p e r - l e v e l (The l o w e r - le v e l a en o ry i s s o a e t i n e s c a l l e d
b in a r y la n g u ag e can be a n y th in g you w a n t- - t h a t I s , " p r o g r a a a e a o ry " and th e u p p e r - l e v e l n c ao ry i s o f te n
any f e a s i b l e c o a p u te r la n g u a g e - - b e c a u s e each of c a l l e d " d a t a a e a o ry , b u t t h i s i s a c o n fu s i o n r e s u l t
I t s i n s t r u c t i o n * , in t u r n , w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t by ing f r o a c e r t a i n t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f th e d e v ic e s ,
r a t h e r th a n t h e i r i n h e r e n t n a t u r e . You can have
p r o g ra a s a t b oth l e v e l s . )
T h is a e a n s , f o r I n s t a n c e , t h a t a a c h in e s can
be c r e a t e d which aay be pr o g ra a a e d d i r e c t l y in soa e
h i g h e r - l e v e l la n g u ag e , such a s APL ( n o te Canad ian BIBLIOGRAPHY
a a c h in e d e s c r i b e d on p . 2 . 1 ) o r BASIC ( n o te one of
th e H e w le tt- P a c k a r d a a c h in e s d e s c r ib e d on p . J 7 ) Rayaond M. H olt and Manuel R. L ea as , " C u r re n t The Lockheed SUE ("Byetem Uaer-Englnaered
The c h a r a c t e r s in th e u p p e r - l e v e l p r o g r a a (APL or M lc rocoa puter A r c h i t e c t u r e . " C oapute r Conputer") Is a very Inlenating and dealrable
BASIC), s te p p e d th ro ugh by th e u p p e r - l e v e l p r o g ra a D esig n . Feb 74, 6 5 -73.
f o l l o w e r , c a u s e th e l o w e r - le v e l p r o g r a a f o llo w e r to machine. The central proceealng unit coala a little
c a r r y o u t th e o p e r a tio n s o f th e la nguage . S u a a a r iz e s n i n e te eny a a c h in e s now over els hundrvd and forty doUare! (Thal'a without
on th e a a r k e t ( s o a e 1 - l e v e l ) . Good bib - menory. power aupply or card cage.) It ueea a
S e c o n d , th e a a c h in e c o s t s l e s s t o a a k e th a n an l io g r a p h y a l s o . Grand Bus ayaten of lntarannection (aeia p . H Z )
o r d in a r y c o a p u t e r . The r ea so n Is t h a t t h e a r c h i
t e c t u r e o f o r d i n a r y c o a p u te rs i s d e s ig n e d now ( a t ll'a a microproceaaor. The tower-levl cycle
l a s t ) f o r n r o a r a a a e r c o n v e n ie n c e . Thus a a a c h in e time la 90 nenoaeconda. eo ll can be programmed to
l i k e th e P u r - u , wnicIT in p r i n c i p l e doe s n o th in g
any o t h e r c o a p u t e r d o e s n 't d o , Is s t i l l a o re d e s i r Imitate any microsecond mini.
a b le th a n n o s t , be ca use I t s I n s t r u c t i o n s a r e so
w e ll d e s i g n e d . I t i s c l e a r and s e n s i b l e to th e pro- One nice thing la lhat you can put together
g r a a a e r , w i t h th a r e s u l t t h a t p r o g r a a a in g I t ta k e s o w e N iic < e p * p m K n 4 B u d p fc fo re a s .* eaveral cpu'e and different memoriae-- c o re ,
l e s s t l a e and c o s t s l e s s aoney . eemlconductor and ROM-- aala din g with aw Itches
S ta n d a rd C onputer 19 b i t s 36 b i t s Big ( Lxpensive. which epua have what prleritlee In what memories.
M ic r o p r o c e s s o r s r e v e r s e t h i s t r e n d . The lower- Meta 4 16 b i t s 16 b i t s Up to 32 ha rd- as well aa Interrupts, etc. Darn nice-- eapedally
le v e l s t r u c t u r e o f r e g i s t e r s and i n s t r u c t i o n s can be 90 or 3S nsec 900 nsec ware r e g i s t e r s . coisldering the upper-level InetnicUon-eel.
a n y th in g t h a t i s c o n v en ie n t t o a a n u f a c t u r e , w hether Burro ughs 1700 16 b i t s 24 b i t s Coaes w ith c a s s e t t e
o r n o t p r o g r a a a e r a l i k e I t . Low a a n u f a c t u r i n g c o s t 60 nse c 666 nse c h o ld in g v a rio u s
la one o f t h e B a in d e s ig n c r i t e r i a . e m ula to rs. The microprogram it comes with makee the
Lockheed SUE 36 b i t s 16 b i t s *650 s t r i p p e d . Lockheed SUB Into a eo n of copy (??) of ihe PDP-11.
The p u r p o s e o f a l c r o p r o c e s s o r s , you s e e , la H e w le tt- P a c k a r d 2100 ? 16 b i t s Already a lc r o p r o - Including Its eight reflelera and similar address
g e n e r a l l y t o be h id d e n In o t h e r e q u lp a e n t and do graa ac d to be l i k e modes ( e e e p . r U .
s o m s i a p l e t h i n g over and o v e r; n o t t o have t h e i r o t h e r IIP c o a p u te r s
p r o g ra a s ch an g e d aro und a l l th e t t a e a s on an o r d i -- but th e r e 's Was the name SUB actually Lockheed's
n a ry c o a p u t e r . space f o r y o u r s . impudent challenge to DEC? DEC did aue. bul no
as w e l l . )7$00.
t t i e r e a r e e x c e p t i o n s , c o a p u te r s w hic h have a M lc r o d a ta 3200 32 b i t s 16 b i t s $8000 up (110,0 00 outcome haa been publicised,
second l e v e l down where you c an p u t a i c r o p r o g r a a s ; 135 nsec f o r a o d e l 32/S ,
and th e s e a r e c a l l e d , s e n s i b l y enough, a i c r o p r o g r a a - sta ck -o rien ted ).
a a b le c o a p u t e r s . They a re b ought and s e t up w ith V arla n 73 64 b i t s 16 b i t s $15,000 to 1100,000
r e g u l a r c o a p u t e r a c c e s s o r i e s , p lu s f a c i l i t i e s to 16S nsec, 660 n se c (heavy upgrade o f
change th e a i c r o p r o g r a a s . Thus th e y c o s t a l o t a o r e ; (190 r e a d - w r l t e ) V aria n 62 0 ).
b u t oh, th e y do so Mich a o re f o r you. You c an d e s ig n IBM 360 a o d e l 25 ? 16?
y o u r own c o a p u t e r - - i . e . , i t s I n s t r u c t i o n - s e t - - and P r la e 200 64 b i t s 16 b i t s
t n e s c r e a t e I t , w ith a a i c r o p r o g r a a . (S e a th * Stan* 160 nse c 7S0 nse c
d a rd C o a p u te r and th e M eta -4, n e a r b y .) I n t e r d a t a 8S 32 b i t s 16 b i t s 123,000
160 nsec 320 nse c
A a i c r o p r o g r a a a a b l e b i g g i e has be en a v a i l a b l e '
H /lK M U ..
fa t Hicorftuiroer a*sot u- m(ro f o r so a e t i a e . I t s a 3 6 - b i t c o a p u t e r o a n u f a c tu r e d
by S ta n d a rd C o a p u te r C o r p o r a t i o n , 1411 W. O ly a p lc
equipment llaalf. B o u le v a rd , Los A n g eles, CA 90015.

SOfTUhtt:
computer p n g r m a
I n t e l MCS-B 6 to 24 b i t s
900 n se c
8 b its
12 .5 usee
S t a c k - o r i e n t e d (now
/ a s t e r a o d e l).
T h is coapute r. I s a s e r i o u s a a c h i n e , in th e
a a n y - h u n d r e d - t h o u s a n d - d o lla r c l a s s , which c an be
I n t e l MCS-4 8 o r 16 b i t s 4 b its Basic c h ip $60. s e t up to a i a i c any o t h e r 3 6 - b i t a a c h i n e . I t has
900 n se c 1 0 .8 usee been s o l d In two v e r s i o n s : one a pure FORTRAN e a
SYS 500 (H e lr d b u t I n t e r e s t i n g wid e a i c r o p r o c e s s o r - c i r c u l a t e s ch in e ( t h a t ' s r i g h t , i t s u p p e r la n g u ag e i s pure
underp io frana for aaong aany s e p a r a t e a c t i v l t e s , r a t h e r th a n b r a n c h i n g .) F o r tr a n .') and a lo o k a l i k e fOT th e IBM 7094. Lower-
mlcTuproceaaor*. CAlao M lc r o d a ta 16 F iT s 8 b its l e v e l word le n g th i s 18 b i t s .
t B u n i ^ iM M o r a Imply mama Mic ro goo 220 n se c 1 .1 use e
called Mlcrpprograma.
Should be called U nderw an.) Mic ro 1600 200 n se c 1 use e (An i n t e r e s t i n g p u z z le i s why t h i s o u t f i t has
a ctnqnitar which haa, ( re a d -w rlte) n o t g o t t e n to g e th e r w ith L in c o ln L a b o r a t o r i e s . L in
AES-80 (A u to . E l e c t r i c 12 b i t s 8 b its $9S0 w/o a ea o ry c o ln L a b o r a t o r i e s , o u t s i d e B o sto n , ha s a 3 6 - b l t ex-
uadar tba bin ary language S y s t e a s , M o n tr e a l) 240 n se c 240 n se c o r 1 usee p e r l n e n t a l a a c h in e c a l l e d th e TX-2 which h a s be en
N a t io n a l S e a ic o n d u c to r $1380 s t r i p p e d u se d f o r c o a p u te r g r a p h i c s , su ch as S u t h e r l a n d 's
IMP-16C (8 1/2 x 11-- odd s i z e f o r c o a p u t e r , c o n v e n ie n t f o r n o te b o o k .) SKETCHPAD s y s t e a ( se e p . JUsZ?) and B a e c k e r s GENE-
DEC PDP-16M 8 b its 16 b i t s $2000. ( C om pa tible SYS ( s e e p . > h 2 ? ) . How, p r e s u a a b l y L in c o ln Labs,
M b t r binary language w. PDP-11 U n ib u e .) l i k e a o s t o t h e r r e s e a r c h o u t f i t s , i s h u r t i n g for
A tr on 601 16 b i t s 16 b i t s a o nay. Why c o u l d n 't they aake an a r r a n g e a e n t f o r
260 n s e e 1 use e S t a n d a rd to s e l l i t s a a c h in e w i t h a TX-2 e a u l a t o r ,
th u s a e k l n g - a v a i l a b l e suc h p r o g r a a s as Sketc hpad
(which h a s n e v e r been e q u a l l e d ) t o a w id e r p u b l i c ?
^ ( A b b r e v i a t i o n s : nse c ( n a n o s e c o n d s , o r b i l l i o n t h s ) ;
usee (alc ro sec o n d s, B i l l i o n t h s ; usual v e ird
a b b r e v i a t i o n ) .)
A p P W i ;
I q th e eaTly th r o e s o f c o a p u te r e p th u a i a s a ,
i t i s easy to supp ose t h a t a n y th in g c an be done
by c o a p u t e r ' - t h a t I s , a n y th in g In v o lv in g th e
chew ing o r d id d l i n g o f in f o r m a t io n . T his I s
d e c id e d ly n o t so .
Fo r I n s ta n c e , i t I s e a sy enough, and o f t e n
p r a c t i c a l , to have a c o a p u te r do s o a e th i n g a few
a l l l i o n t l a e s . But I t i s a l a o s t n e v er p r a c t i c a l
to h av e a c b a p u te r do s o a e t h i n g a t r i l l i o n t l a e s .
Why? W ell , l e t ' s sa y ( f o r th e sa ke of s l a p l l -
c i t y ) t h a t a c e r t a i n p r o g r a a loop ta k e s 1/1000
o f a seco n d . To do i t a th o u sa n d t l a e s , th e n ,
-would ta k e one se co n d , and t o do I t a B i l l i o n
t i a e s would tak e a th o u sa n d s e c o n d s , o r a bout
se v e n te e n a l n u t e s . . But to do i t a t r i l l i o n tia e s
now, would p eaa doin g I t IT j OOOj OOO a l n u t e s , o r
ov e r t h i r t y y e a r s .
Now, you w i l l n o te t h a t even i f you spe ed uj
t h a t loop to 1/ 1 , 000,000 o f a se co n d , a t r i l l i o n
r e p e t i t i o n s w i l l ta k e a l a o a t tw e lv e d a y s , which
i s o b v io u sly goin g to need so a e j u s t i f y i n g , even
assumin g t h a t I t I s o th e rw is e f e a s i b l e .
(Fo r p r o b le a s o f t h i s ty p e p e o p le b e g in
t h i n k i n g a b o u t b u il d i n g s p e c i a l h a rd w a r e , any
way. I t w i l l be n o te d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t the
PDP-16-- see p . y \ l e t s you c o a p i l e y o u r own
s p e c i a l e q u lp a e n t f o r p r o b l e a s t h a t ne ed e t e r
nal re p e titi o n s .
COMBINATORIAL EXPLOSIONS
One k in d o f th in g t h a t ' s to o auch to do
I s g e n e r a ll y c a l l e d a c o a b i n a t o r l a l e i p l o s l o n - -
t h a t I s , a p r o b le a t h a t " e x p lo d e s " i n t o to o
aan y th in g s to do. Fo r i n s t a n c e , c o n s i d e r the
g aae o f c n e s s . J u s t b e ca u ae you can w r i t e a
p r o g r a a to look ahead a t a l l th e p o s s i b l e out-
co a e s o f , s a y , t i c - t a c - t o e , t h a t d o e s n 't aean
you c an c o n s id e r a l l th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c h e s s .
To lo o k a t " a l l " th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s j u s t a few
a o v es ahead In v o lv es you i n t r i l l i o n s o f
c a l c u l a t i o n s . Reneaber a b o u t t r i l l i o n s ? And
i t tu r n s o u l t h a t th e r e a r e a l o t o f p r o b le a s
lik e th a t.
IKTKBS ro* DOIHC THINGS ) S'
A a n are really clear braids
a *ahat c a^ u tera can do."
1%a preblM is always to think 19
t j a j i for doing things by n e u t e r .
(Also called a la m r lu .>
l u i a l l y what can ba dene by
tablatop with allpe of paper-- c ^ k a r-
ing, e a p flv t, sorting, marhin?. doing
u l t M U t aad handing allp a of paper
So the q in U M should w n be,
' t v aowld you do th a t by coapuur?*
but 'can you CMok o( a Mthad
(or acca^lleh log that?* The ' c o l t e r '
la really irrele v an t, (or i t has no
oaeure and aetely tw iddles Information
| on ta a n d .
.Then th e r e Is th e p r o b l e a o f " T u rin g la -
p o s s l b l l l t y . T urin g was a a a t h e a a t i c i a n who
d ls c o v e i e d t h a t so a e t h i n g s c an be done s e
q u e n t i a l l y In a f i n i t e a a o u n t o f t i a e , and
soae th in g s c a n ' t , su ch a s p ro v in g c e r t a i n
ty p e s o f a a t h e a a t i c a l t h e o r e a . In o t h e r w ord s,
a n y th in g t h a t ha s to do t h i n g s in se q u e n c e - -
w hether a c o a p u te r o r a a i n d o f God, I f any--
cannot p o s s ib l y know a n y th in g which i s n o t
T u r in g -c o a p u t a b le . A n o th e r I a p o r t a n t l l m i t a -
tlo n .
On a a o r e p r a c t i c a l l e v e l , th ough, th e r e
a re J u s t l o t s o f t h i n g s w hic h nobody has f i g u r
ed o u t how to do In any f e a s i b l e way, o r are
J u s t now f i g u r i n g o u t d i f f e r e n t s y s t e a a t i c ways
o f do in g . (For a f a v o r i t e su ch a r e a o f n i n e ,
co ap a re th e d i f f e r e n t c o a p u te r h a l f - t o n e ia a g e
sy n th e s is s y s t e a s d e s c r i b e d on pp. DM H to
ON M .)
Thus you s e e t h a t f l g g e r l n g o u t wavs of
doing s t u f f i s s t i l l one o r th e p r i n c i p a l a s
p e c ts 01 th e c o a p u te r f i e l d . (Vnole j o u r n a l s
a re d e vote d to I t , such a s CACM, JACM and so o n .)
But th e n o f c o u r s e , e v e r y few y e a r s th e re
coae s a new a o v e a e n t i n t h e f i e l d t h a t bodes to
aake us s t a r t a l l o v e r.
One su ch tr e n d I s c a l l e d s t r u c t u r e d p r o g
r a a a in g . b e in g p r o a u lg a te d by a Dutch r e s e a r c h -
e r named D l j k s t r a , aaong o t h e r s . The I d e a of
s t r u c t u r e d p r o g ra a a in g I s t o r e s t r i c t c o a p u tln g
langu ages In c e r t a i n ways and " e l l a l n a t e th e
GO TO," i . e . , no lo n g e r ha v e lu a p s to l a b e l e d
p la ce * l a p r o g r a a s . By d i v i d i n g c o a p u te r prog-
r a a s up o n ly I n c e r t a i n w ay s, goes t k l s sc h o o l
o f th o u g h t, th e p r o g r a a s c an p e rh a p s be proven
w o rk ab le , I d th e a a t h e a a t i c a l s e n s e , r a t h e r
th a n J u s t d e m o n strated to w o rk , as th e y a r e now--
a n o to rio u sly e rro r-p ro n e s i t u a t i o n . I f th e
D l j k s t r a sc h o o l la c o r r e c t , we aay ha ve to
s t a r t a l l ov e r a g a in w ith a new bunch o f p r o g
r a m i n g la n g u ag e s.
These r e a a r k s g iv e you th e f l a v o r o f soae
r e s t r i c t i o n s and l i n e s o f d e v e lo p a e n t . The r e s t
o f t h i s page i s d e v o te d to The G re a t S oftw are
P r o b le a - - t h e O p e r a t in g Syste m .
OftOTHKr
J f S T C f t '& O
' o r O S/3 60, o r OS
He have no sp a c e h e r e to d i s c u s s OS,
th e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a o f t h e IBM 360 and 370,
whic h i s J u s t as w e l l : i t l a a n o t o r i o u s l y
h eavy-handed s y s t e a , e l a b o r a t e d w ith what
so a e would c a l l d e v a s t a t i n g a e s s l n e s s . Kinds
o f co n v en ie n ce ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d by u s e r s of
su c h c o a p u te r s y s t e a s a s t h e Burroughs S000,
t h e PDP-10, DTSS and o t h e r s a r e n ' t t h e r e .
The p r o g r a a a e r h as t o c o n ce rn h i a s e l f
w ith i n t r i c a c i e s h a v in g n a a e s l i k e ACONs,
VCONs, TCBs, ECBs, and t h e c o a p l l c a t i o n s of
JCL. (While th e s e o t h e r s y s t e a s a ay have
e q u i v a l e n t c o m p l i c a t i o n s , th e p r o g r a a a e r
ne ed n o t a e s s w ith t h e a t o c r e a t e e f f i c i e n t
p r o g r a a s , a s th e 360 d e a a n d s . ) The p r o -
g r a a a e r a u s t even s e t a s i d e t h e p r e v io u s
p r o g r a n e r ' s I n fo r m a tio n i o "SAVE AREAS,"
w h ic h i s l i k e a r e s t a u r a n t g u e s t h a v in g to
c l e a r th e d i t t y d i s h e s o n s i t t i n g down--
and r e t u r n t h e a when he l e a v e s . S e v e r a l of
th e 3 6 0 's s i x t e e n g e n e r a l r e g i s t e r s a r e con
f i s c a t e d . T i a e - s h a r i n g r e q u i r e s i t s own
JC L -ty p e le o g u a g e . Ana s o on.
IBM sa y * i t s f o rth co m in g o p e r a t i n g s y s
t e a , OS/VS2-2, w i l l be b e t t e r .
BIBLIOG&APKY
A .L . S c h e r r , "The D esign o f IBM OS/VS2 Re
le a s e 2 . " P r o c NCC 7 3 , 3B7-394.
B a s i c a l l y , an o p e r a t i n g ays t e a i s a
p r o g r a a t h a t s u p e r v i s e s a l l tn e o t h e r p r o
grams Ln a c o o p u t e r . For t h i s r e a s o n l l i s
a l s o c a l l e d a su^rv l_so r o r a n o n i t o r .
Because t h e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a i s suppose d to
be In c h a r g e , aan y c o a p u te r s now o f f e r s p e
c i a l w i r e d - i n i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t o n ly th e
o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a can u s e . T h is p r e v e n ts
o t h e r p r o g r a a s f r o a ta k in g c o a p l e t e c o n t r o l
o f t h e a a e h in e .
O p e r a t in g s y s t e a s cone in a l l s i z e s .
The b i g g e r one s ta k e up a l o t o f c o a p u te r
t l o e b e ca u se th e y have to do a l o t . The
s a a l l e s t k in d ,w h ic h a r e r e a l l y k in d of
d i f f e r e n t , a r e J u s t to h e l p a s i n g l e pro*
i r i n e r aove q u ic k ly betw een h i s b a s i c
progra as. (A t y p i c a l such s y s t e o i s DEC's
DOS, o r D is k O p e r a t in g S y s t e a , whic h you
c an g e t w ith th e PDP-11.) T his s y s t e a is
r e a l l y a k in d o f b u t l e r t h a t ke eps t r a c k of
where your b a s i c p r o g r a a s a r e s t o r e d on d is k
and b r i n g s t h e a in f o r you q u i c k l y .
A s t e p up i s th e Batc h M o n it o r, o r op
e r a t i n g s y s t e a s e t up f o r Batc h P r o c e s s i n g
( s e e p.&~!!>tr). In b a tc h p r o c e s s i n g , p r o
g r a a s go th r o u g h th e c o a p u te r as i f on a
co n v ey e r b e l t , one a t a t i n e ( o r in soa e
y s t e a s s e v e r a l a t a t i n e ) . The o p e r a t i n g
s y s t e a sh e p h e r d s th e a .
Uatch p r o c e s s in g i s use d when p r o g ra a s
d o n ' t need any i n t e r a c t i o n w ith huaan u s e r s .
(O r, and t h i s i s a o r e c o a a o n , when huaan
u s e r s want t i n e - s h a r i n g b u t c a n ' t g e t i t ;
se e b e lo w .) A a u l t i p r o e r a a a l n e o p e r a t i n g
s y s t e a i s one t h a t a llo w s s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
ro g ra n s ( o r e o n v e y o r - b e lt se q u en c es of
E a tc h p r o g r a u s ) to o p e r a t e a t one t i n e .
(T h is Is how b o s t IBH 160s a re u s e d .)
SYSTStS PEOPLE \\
are the folks who bring you Che computer. \\n n H H u i
Thai la , th ay're ih eoee who try to
equipment and wsrklns rulaa and eehedulee
Systems people often loek Uka dirty LftA
r ata lo uaara ol coaputer syatems. To W fk
each ether they often look Ilk* harried, V g 2j, i ^
(and whetever else) In ihe dlka, crying
te hold back ch clda of DUorder. - T ffA
Thank you. . T . p ,Bple . BATCH SVSTE1^
Then t h e r e i s t i a e - s h a r i n g .
T i n e - s h a r i n g means th e s i u u l t a n c o u s use
o f one c o a p u te r by s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t u s e r s
a t o n c e. I t ' s b a s ic a lly a c o n p lci fo ra of
a u ltip ro g ra n n in g .
In p r i n c i p l e t h i s is l i k e a la z y su sa n .
The c e n t r a l c o o p u te r works on one u s e r ' s p r o
g r a a f o r a w h i l e , th e n on a n o t h e r ' s . . . u n t i l
i t i s back to the f i r s t u s e r .
There a r e b a s i c a l l y two k in d s o f t i a e -
s h a r i n g : t i n o - s h a r i n g where you can o nly use
c e r t a i n f a c i l i t i e s o r l a n g u a g e s , snd t i u c -
s h a r i n g where you c an use a l l th e f a c i l i t i e s
o f t h e c o n p u te r ( i n c l u d i n g p r o g r a a a in g in th e
c o m p u te r's a ssem bly la n g u a g e ).
E x aa p le s o f r e s t r i c t e d t i a e - s h a r i n g a re
th e v a r io u s a i n i c o a p u t e r s y s t e n s t h a t arc
a v a i l a b l e whic h l i n e - s h a r e th e BASIC la nguage.
(Nova and PDP-11 and H e w le tt- P a c k a r d , for
Soae examples o f u n r e s t r i c t e d t i a e -
s h a r i n g a r e t h e PDP-10 ( s e e p. i o ) , D a r t
m o u th 's DTSS, H oneyw ell'S MULTICS, IBMs TSO,
and G ene ra l E l e c t r i c ' s HARK I I I .
Bigger I s not n e c e s s a r i l y b e t t e r . For
in s t a n c e , t h e r e a r e t i n e - s h a r e d v e r s i o n s o f
BASIC t h a t run on b i g IBM c o a p u t e r s . How
e v e r , i t a ay ve ry w e l l be t h a t b ig IBM i n
s t a l l a t i o n s c an sa ve noney by e l i a i n a t l n g
t h i s f u n c ti o n and buyin g I n s t e a d a s a a l l
H ew le tt- P a c k a r d a i n i c o a p u t e r to run t h e i r
BASIC o n , th e re b y s u p p ly i n g BASIC t o a o re
u s e r s a t l e s s c o s t and f r e e i n g th e 160 f o r
w h a te v e r i t I s IBM s y s t e a s do b e t t e r .
R e s t r i c t e d t i a e - s h a r i n g , w ith o nly one
o r a few la nguage s o f f e r e d , i s auch e a s i e r to
p r o v id e f o r th a n f u l l t l a e - s h a r l n g .
P u l l t i a e - s h a r i n g Is a lw ays s h a re d w ith
b a t c h , ln o t h e r w ords , th e c o a p u t e r , d a r t i n g
aaong u s e r s , s t i l l f in d s so a e t i a e to de vote
t o th e b a tc h s t r e a a .
T l a e - s h a r l n g i s s e l f - l l a l t i n g . T hat i s ,
th e a o re u s e r s a re sig n e d o n to a t l n e - s h a r l n g
s y s t e a a t a g iv e n a o o e n t , th e a o r e slo w ly th e
s y s t e a r e sp o n d s to a l ] o f th e a .
O p e r a t in g s y s t e a s a r e b i s and ha rd to
p r o g r a a . They ta k e a l o t o T t t i e c om pute r7*
t i n e : l o r I n s t a n c e , D a r t a o u t h 's t l a e - s h a r l n g
o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a , ta k in g a s auch a s 211 o f
th e c o a p u t e r ' s t l a e . I s c o n s id e r e d e f f i c i e n t .
The la p o r t a n c e o f t i a e - s h a r i n g Is n o t In
t e r a s o f "ra w " e f f i c i e n c y , t h a t i s , th e c o s t
o f each o i l l i o n o p e r a t i o n s , b u t In t e r n s o f
huaan e f f i c i e n c y , th e a b i l i t y o f eac h u s e r to
g e t so auch a o r e o u t o f th e c o a p u te r by u s in g
I n t e r a c t i v e p r o g ra a s and la n g u a g e s.
OPERATING SYSTEMS TRICKERY
Swapping aeans t r a n s f e r r i n g one u s e r ' s
r o g r a a o u t o f c o re a e a o ry In o r d e r t o aove
! n soaeb ody e l s e ' s p r o g r a a . T h is c an happen
v e ry r a p i d l y , and even when i t ' s done to you
e v e r y t u r n , y o u r t e r a i n a l a ay s e e a to respond
a s though you are In c o n tin u o u s p o s s e s s io n o f
th e e n t i r e c o a p u te r
P a e ln a i s one o f t h e G re a t A b str u se
P r o b le a s o t aodern o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a s . The
p r o b l e a i s t h i s : y o u 'v e always g o t f a s t e x
p e n s iv e a e a o r y and c heap slow a e a o r y . How
can th e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a s t o r e a o s t o f your
p r o g r a a in c heap slow a e a o ry and s t i l l p r e d i c t
w hic h p a r t s y o u ' l l need soon enough to g e t
th e a In t h e r e f o r you? I n t h e h o t t e r s y s t e a s ,
in d e e d , t h e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a t r i e s to p r e d i c t
w h a t 's a o s t i a p o r t a n t and aove i t to a f a s t
l i t t l e a e a o ry c a l l e d a c a c h e . T h is a r e a i s
so b i i a r r e and c o a p l l c a t e a i p r e f e r n o t to
t h i n k a b o u t i t . "M ln la f o r a e , " s a y s Mr.
N atu ral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M.V. W iik e s , T i n e - S h a r in g Co nputer S y s t e a s ,
M a cD onald/A nencan E l s e v i e r p udi is h i n g C
A l1 About T l n e s h a r i n e S e r v ic e Conganie ^.
D atap ro Re se arch (1 C o rp o rate c e n t e r ,
Moorestown, NJ 0 0 0 5 ? ). $10.
|||
UTSS i s th e D artn o u th T in e -S h a r in g
S y s to n , and l e t i t be an example to us a l l .
I t was c r e a t e d by Keneny and K u r t : ,
, who c r e a t e d th e BASIC la nguag e to be use d
* on i t ( se e p. It, ) .
y T h e i r c o o p u te r a r r i v e d in f a l l '6 3 ,
f T h e i r t i a e - s h a r i n g s y s i e n w e n t in to op e ra -
I t i o n in s p r i n g ' 6 J , pr o e r a a n e d n o s t l y by
Dartmouth s t u d e n t s . and nas grown and lm-
proved c o n tin u o u s ly s i n c e Chen. On t h a t
b a s i s : p ro g ra a n e d by s t u d e n t s .
I\ tr" ''
The Dartmouth c o a p u te r p h ilo s o p h y --
'i . e . , ih e iJ c a c a r r i e d through by Jo hn
i s l i k e a l i b r a r y : i t s s e r v i c e s sh o u ld be
T ree lo a i l in a community, p a id for
th rough so a e g e n e r a l fund.
S t u d e n ts and f a c u l t y a t D artn outh
use i t f r e e . (U nless they have g r a n t s . )
You csn use i t to o , i f you pa y.
The r e s u l t : eve rybody a t D artn o u th
uso s th e c o a p u t e r . I t S always ru nnin g,
(alien) s i x days a week. There a re a lm ost
two hundrod t e r n i n a l s around th e campus;
peak a f t e r n o o n usa ge i s about a hundred
and f i f t y . F rc shnen le a r n BASIC f i r s t
t h i n g , a f t e r which th e c o a p u te r i s a
sta n d in g f a c i l i t y , to be used in c o u rs e s
e n g in e e r i n g o r w h a t e v e r; f o r inde pende nt
r e s e a r c h ; o r j u s t f o r fun and ganes and
The e n t i r e Dartmouth s y s t e o i s b u i l t
f o r s i a p l i c i t y and c l a r i t y , w ith e x p la n a
t i o n s o f a l l th e f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e a t
te rn i n a ls . (The command e x p la i n JCK c a u s
e s th e t e r a i n a l to ty p e out a p i c t u r e of
K eneny.)
Many f u d d y -d u d d ie s i n s i s t t h a t c o a p u te r
usa ge sh o u ld be b i l l e d , as i t i s on most
c o l l e g e c a n p u s e s . T h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y th e
C a l v i n i s t v ie w . But what i f we t r e a t e d l i
b r a r i e s l i k e t h a t ? I t would p r o b a b ly c o s t
S10 j u s t to borrow any book. The p o i n t i s
t h a t 11 w e ^ e l i e v e tK a l c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s
a re a s o c i a l good, th e n >e should be f l e x
i b l e a b o u t how to i s p l e n e n t th e a . (See Art h
H. Luehraann and John M. N evison, " C onpute r
Use unde r a P re e-A cc ess P o l ic y , S c i e n c e . 31
May 7 i , 9S7-961. T h is a r t i c l e c o n tin u e s th i
l i n e o f a rg u n e n t and f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e s th e
Dartmouth b i l l i n g s y s t e a . )
Anyway, Dartmouth w i l l s e l l you i t s t i l
s h a r i n g s y s t e a f o r a b o u t S7S00 a a o n th (an d
y o u ' l l ne ed a c o a p u te r s e tu p t h a t b e g in s a t
$ 1 7 ,S00 a a o n t h ) . T h a t ' l l run SO t e r a l n a l s .
A b i g g e r s e t u p w i l l c o s t a o r e . Bul t h a l gel
you F o r t r a n , COBOL, SNOBOL, e t c . , H i b e s t
BASIC In th e whole w o r l d , g a a e s , f i n a n c i a l
s y s t e a s , and a y r i a d o t h e r p r o g ra a s t h e y 'v e
b u i l t a t D a r ta o u th . F u r t h e r a o r e , Mr. A doini
t r a t o r , i t a e a n s t h e s y s t e a w i l l be a v a l l a b l
to u s e r s w ith a a i n i a u n of c o a p l i c s l i o n and
b o th e r.
A n u a b er o f c o a p a n ie s have b o u g h t. In
c lu d in g t h e U.S. Naval Acadeny a t A n n a p o l is ,
which o f f e r s D a r t n o u t h - s t y l e computing to
i t s a id sh ip n e n .
Connect c h arg e i s $2 to $9 an hour
de pendin g on yo ur t e r a i n a l
s p e e d , p l u s p r o c e s s in g c h a r g e s .
C o n t a c t: DTSS, INC., Hanover Nil
037SS. ( S e v e r a l com mercial
f i r a s a l s o o f f e r DTSS t e u s e r s ,
In c lu d i n g C onputer S h a r in g S e r
v i c e s , I n c . Denve r; Gruanan Data
S y s t e n s , Woodbury, NY; PolyCoa
S y s te n s L t d . , T o r o n to .)
Tha nest enjoyable aaaalon a t tha 197* National
Coaputar Conference vaa tha Noitalgla session on tha
Dartaouth Syataa, DTSS. The Old Hande wra th tr a - -
luye who * kids workad on tha original tlaa-aharlng
systea, and have now become grewmp* of one sort or
An elaralng statement wee aada a t that eaealon
by Jerome B. Wiener, who said he had been tha liaison
man between the Dartwuth e ffort aad the c v p u ttr
manufacturer (net I1H). He steted that ha had been
ordered by hie company te atop the Dartmouth "eapert*
aant" any way he could, or lea his Job in three
months. Re did no auch thin g, and (he said) a fte r
being fired continued to help the Derianath e ff o rt ,
holding weekend aaetlnge with ethers ir oa th a t com
pany ln hie b < . Ke deserves the Prencee O. Kelsey
we-de-owr-rnal-Job a d e l .
WHERE TO GET IT
No way c an we h e re g e t i n t o th e pro se and
cons ( both s e n s e s ) o f th e a y r i a d t i a e - s h a r i n g
s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e . An e x c e l l e n t
suamary o f f i f t y s i i d i f f e r e n t t i a e - s h a r i n g
s e r v i c e s ( v a r i o u s l y u s i n g c o n p u to rs by Honey
w e l l , IBM, DEC, U niva c, CDC, X e r o i and
Burroughs) appea re d in th e F e b r u a r y , 1973
Conputer D e c is io n s ( " P i e c i n g Out th e T in e sh a r -
in c Puz z le " by Jolin R. I l i l l e g a s s , pp. 24- 32).
T h is s u a n a r i t e s i n f o r n a t i o n a v a i l a b l e f r o a
D atapro Re se arch C o r p ., M oor estow n, NJ. The
a r t i c l e c a u ti o n s a g a i n s t th e p o t e n t i a l high
c o s t of t i n e - s h a r i n g s e r v i c e s , and urges you
to g e t a l l th e a d v ic c you c an b e f o r e commit
t i n g to a t i n e - s h a r i n g s e r v i c e .
-----------V
n w 5 !
MULTICS was announced in 196S as the
T im e -Sha rin g S y s te n o f A ll T in e , to be
c r e a te d j o i n t l y by MIT, G enera l L l e c t r i c
and Bell Labs.
Il took a l o t lo n g e r to g e t going
th a n they e x p e c te d - - I hnvc a 1968 (?)
b u tto n t h a t s a y s , YOU NHVER OUTC.ROH YOUR
FOR MULTICS - - b u t now i t ' s a v a i l a b l e
f r o n Jloncywcl 1. Tcople sa y i t ' s the
g r e a te s t, a l l r ig h t- - i t s fasc in a tin g
f a c i l i t i e s in c lu d e th e a b i l i t y to cxccutc
p a r t s of o th e r p e o p l e ' s p rogra m s, i f you
have p e r m i s s io n - - b u t i t ' s a l s o s a i d to be
aw f u lly e x p e n siv e .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , th e MULTICS o p e ra tin g
sy ste m i s l u r g v ly programmed in th e PL/1
languag e ( se e p. ).
Sys te n s ,^200 Sm ith S t r e e t ,
MS 06 1 . K a l th a a , Mass. 0 J1 J4 .
Soae t i a e - s h a r i n g s y s t e n s a rc l o c a l , o th e rs
c i t i e s lo log i n t o th e a w ith lo c a l te le p h o n e
calls.
Perhap s th e a o s t f a r - r e a c h i n g t i n e - s h a r i n g
s y s t e n , though, i s G enera l [ i l c c t r i c ' s MARK I I I ,
w ith c o n c e n t r a t o r s in many o f th e majo r c i t i e s
o f t h e w orl d ( n o s t l y L u r o p c) . The n a in com
p u t e r i s in O hio , b u t th e o v e r a l l s y s t e a aay be
th o u g h t of as an oc to p u s a ro und th e g lo b e , b e
s i d e s hundreds o f c i t i e s in th e USA, The Gb
sy ste m o f f e r s l o c a l a c c e s s in A u s t r a l i a , A u s t r i a ,
nc lgium , Canada, D cnaark, F i n la n d , Fran ce,
I t a l y , J a p a n , N e t h e r la n d s , Norway, P u e rto R ico,
Sweden, S w i t z e r l a n d , U n ite d Kingdom and West
Germany.
What t h i s b a s i c a l l y nc ans i s t h a t i f a
conpany has o f f i c e s in th e s e p l a c e s , i t can
do i t s i n t e r n a l com m unic atio n thTouch C e n tr a l
E T e c t r i c ' s c o a n m c r sys t e a .
T his p r e s e n t s ob v io u s m e r i t s and d i f f i c u l
t i e s , which t h e r e i s no roon to d i s c u s s h e r e .
The s e r v i c e i s s a i d to be e x p e n s iv e .
They a l s o o f f e r a t o l l - f r e e n u a b er fo r
C o n t a c t:
G en e ra l E l e c t r i c I n fo r n a
t i o n S e r v ic e s
B u sin e ss D iv is i o n ,
401 N ort h W ashington SI.,
R o c k v i l l e , Md. 208S0.
Y $0
IBM's "TSO", f o r T in e -S h a r e d O p eratin g
S y s te n , i s an odd s o r t o f t i n e - s h a r i n g they
have cone up w ith f o r th e 370.
I t i s a s o r t o f i n t e r a c t i v e b a tc h pro -
g r a n a ln g . T hat I s , i t a llo w s t h e u s e r a t a
t e r a i n a l to c o a a u n lc a te w ith p r o g r a a s r u n n in g
in b a tc h node .
While t h i s i s a f o r a o f t r u e t i a e - s h a r i n g ,
(th ough i t s d e t r a c t o r s te nd to c o ap a re i t w ith
what they c a l l " t r u e " t i n e - s h a r i n g , such as
t h a t on th e PDP-10) , i t ha s a number o f draw
b a c k s.
For i n s t a n c e , on t h e nodeL 1SS, a f a i r
ly la rg e n a c h ln e ( c a . 150,000 a a o n th - - see
p . 3 8 ) , TSO n o r n a l l y a llo w s o n ly twenty
The bad f e a t u r e o f TSO n o s t o f t e n nen-
tio n e d i s i t s slow r e s p o n s e t i n e . That i s ,
r e s p o n s e nay be s o n e t i n e s good, s o a e ti n e s
e x ec ra b le.
IBM i s u r g in g i t s f a n s to b e l i e v e t h a t
i t s n e i t o p e r a t i n g s y s t e a , c a l l e d OS/VS2-2,
w i l l be auch b e t t e r .

t < |t
OF
C o a p u te r p e o p le a re a a y s t e r y to o t h e r s ,
who s e e t h e a a s s o a e v h a t f r i g h t e n i n g , s o a e w h a t
r id ic u lo u s. T h e ir c oncerns se e a s o ' p e c u l i a r ,
t h e i r h o u rs so b l i a r r e , t h e i r lan g u ag e s o i n
c o m p re h e n s ib le .
C o a p u t e r p e o p l e a a y b e s t be t h o u g h t o f
s a new . e t h n i c g r o u p , v e i y a u c h u n t o th e m
s e l v e s . Now, i t i s v e r y h a r d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e
e t h n i c g r o u p s I n w o r d s , and c e r t a i n t o g i v e
o f f e n s e , b u t i f I h ad t o c h o o s e one w o rd f o r
t h e a i t w o u ld b e e l f i n . Ife a r e l i k e t h o s e
l i t t l e p e o p l e down aaong t h e a u s h r o o a s , s k i t
t e r i n g a ro u n d c o a p le te ly p re o c c u p ie d w ith
u n f a t h o a a b l e c o n c e r n s and s e e a i n g l y i n d i f
f e r e n t t o n o r a a l h u m a n ity . In th e a o o n l i g h t
( i . e . , p r e t t y l a t e , w i t h s n a c k s a ro u n d t h e
e q u ip m e n t) y o u Bay h e a r o u r a u s l c .
M ost l a p o r t a n t l y , t h e f i r s t r u l e I n d e a l
in g w i t h l e p r e c h a u n s a p p l i e s e* h y p o t h e s l t o
c o a p u t e r p e o p l e : when one p r o a i s e s t o 00 you
a a a g i c a l f a v o r , k e e p y o u r e y e s f i x e d on h i a
u n t i l h e h a s d e l i v e r e d , ffr you w i n g e l wHat
you d e s e r v e . P ro g raa ae rs' p ro ais es a re n o to r
io u s l y u n k e p t.
But th e d ip p y g l o r i e s o f t h i s w o r l d , th e
e a r n e s t n e s s a n d w h i a s y , a r e s o m e th in g e l s e .
A r e a l c o a p u t e r f r e a k , i f you a s k h i a f o r a
p ro g ra a to p r i n t c a le n d a rs , w i l l w rite a pro-
g r a a t h a t g i v e s you y o u r c h o ic e o f G re g o r i a n ,
J u l i a n , O ld R u s s i a n and F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a r y ,
i n e i t h e r s a a l l re fe re n c e p r i n t o u t s o r b ig
o n e s you c a n w r i t e i n .
C o a p u t e r p e o p l e ha ve a a n y o r d i n a r y t r a i t s
t h s t show u p i n e x t r a o r d i n a r y w a y s - - l o y a l t y ,
Cra lvde e p, atretai cp ue lr a, r v qe nugaelfiut il ne es s, s aas n dw eslol , o 6n f.
They
dogged
n e s s and c o n s t r a i n e d f a n t a s y t h a t e n a b l e t h e a
t o p r o d u c e i n t h e i r w o rk . (Onc e a t l u n c h I
asked a t a b l e f u l l o f p r o g ra a a e r s w hat p la n e
f i g u r e s t h e y c o u l d g e t o u t o f one c u t th r o u g h
a cube. 1 g o t about th re e t ia e s as aany a n s
w ers .a s I t h o u g h t t h e r e w e r e . )
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e i s no r o o a o r t l a e
t o go on a b o u t a l l t h e s e t h i n g s - - s e e B i b l i o
graphy-- b u t In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a re a o f f a n
t a s y an d e a o t i o n I h a v e o b s e r v e d s o a e i n t e r e s
tin g th in g s .
One c o a a o n t r a i t o f o u r t i a e s - - t h e t e c h
n i q u e o f o b s c u r i n g o n e s e l f - - n a y be a o r e com
a o n a ao n g c o a p u t e r p e o p l e t h a n o t h e r s ( s e e
" T he Myth o f t h e M a c h in e , p . ? , and a l s o
" C y b e rc ru d ," p . J ). Perhaps a c e r t a i n d l s -
g r u n t l e a e n t w i t h t h e w o rl d o f p e o p l e f u s e s
w i t h f a s c i n a t i o n f o r (and e nvy o f ? ) a a c h i n e s .
Anyway, a t n y o f u s who h a v e g o t t e n a l o n g b a d l y
w ith p e o p le f i n d h e re a r e a l a o f a b s t r a c t i o n s
to in v e n t and c h o re o g ra p h , p r i v a t e l y and w ith
c o n tin u in g c o n t r o l . A s t r a n g e h o u se f o r t h e
e ao tio n s, t h i s . L ik e H e g e l, who b e c a a e a o s t
e l o q u e n t a n d a r d e n t when he w as l e c t u r i n g a t
h i s a o s t t h e o r e t i c a l , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o be
a ao n g c o a p u t e r f r e a k s b o i s t e r o u s l y e x p l a i n i n g
th e c r o s s - ta n g le d r a t i f i c a t i o n s o f soae s y s te a
t h e y h av e s e e n o r w o uld l i k e t o b u i l d .
(A s y n d r o a e t o p o n d e r . I ha v e s e e n I t
a o r e th a n o n c e : t h e t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n w ho, w i t h
soaeone he c a r e s a b o u t, can n o t s to p t a l k i n g
bout h is Id ea s f o r a p r o je c t. A p o ig n a n t
ty p e o f F r e u d i a n d i s p l a c e n e n t .)
A s a d a s p e c t o f i h l s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , i s by
no a e a n s o b v i o u s . T h i s i s t h a t t h e s a a e com
p u t e r f o l k s who c h a t t e r e l o q u e n t l y a b o u t s y s
t e a s t h a t f a s c i n a t e t h e a te n d t o f a l l d a r k and
s i l e n t w h i l e sott 'e one e l s e i s e x p o u n d in g h i s own
fasc in a tio n s. You w ould e x p e c t t h a t t h e p e r s o n
w i t h e f f u l g e n t t e c h n i c a l e n t h u s i a s a s w o u ld
r e a l l y c l i c k w ith k in d red s p i r i t s . In ay e x
p e r i e n c e t h i s o n l y h a p p en s b r i e f l y : h o s t i l i
t i e s an d d i s a g r e e m e n t s b o i l o u t o f no w h ere t o
c u t t h e g o o d a o o d . My o n l y c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t
t h e s a a e s p i r i t t h a t o r i g i n a l l y d r i v e s u s m u t
t e r i n g i n t o t h e c lo c k w o r k f e e l s t h r e a t e n e d
when o t h e r s s t a r t a o n k e y in g w i t h w h a t h a s b e e n
c o n tro lle d and p r iv a te fan ta sy .
"For M I t always coses dw n to a personal
c h allenge: noC j u s t to c re a te a prograa th a t ae ti
the sp e c if ic a tio n s , but to do I t In a way that I
fin d a e s th e tic a lly p le a sin g ."
Robert B. Jones IV,
a heavy p r o g ra a e r a t ChrysleT
P r a c t i c e s a y i n g t h e a l o u d l y and f i r a l y to
y o u rself. T h a t way you w o n 't f r e e z e
when t h e y ' r e p u l l e d o n y o u .
THAT S NOT HOW YOU DO IT
THAT'S NOT HOW YOU USE COMPUTERS
f |E G 0 H T e U
THAT'S NOT WHAT YOU DO WITH COMPUTERS A very im portant kind of d iscu ssion takes
THAT'S NOT HON I T 'S DONE place between people who want c o ^ j t a r p r o ^ a s ,
THAT'S NOT PRACTICAL b u t c a n 't w rite th e a , and people who can write
HOW MUCH DO YOU KNOW ABOUT COMPUTERS? t h w . b u t d o n 't want to . Or. th a t I s , who don 't
WITH YOUR BACKGROUND, want to g e t caught having to do a l o t o f unneces
YOU COULDN'T UNDERSTAND IT sary work i f i t could be done or s la p ly .
LE T 'S CALL IN SOMEONE WHO KNOWS THIS
APPLICATION ( g e n e r a l l y a s h i l l ) P r o g f n e g o tia tio n , then, Is where the
IT ISN 'T DONE ac u i t s a c " ~ he aay a c tu a lly be the boss-* saye,
(you know t h e a n s w e r t o t h a t o n e ) *1 want a prograa ch at w ill do s ^ a n d - s o , ' and
a nd t h e one I ' v e b e e n w a i t i n g to h e a r , th e p r o g ra n e r sa ys. ' I d ra th e r do i t th is way.*
I F GOD HAD INTENDED COMPUTERS TO BE USED
THAT WAY, HE WOULD HAVE DESIGNED In a s e rie s of req u e sts and c o u n te r o f fe rs
THEM DIFFERENTLY. th e e u stea er e x plain s what he wants and the pro-
g r in r e sp la ln s why he would ra th e r do I t a d i f
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e i s no r o o a h e r e to f e re n t way. I l e s s e n t ia l fo r both elde to
c o a c h you on how t o r e p l y t o a l l t h e s e . Be aake theaselves c a s p le te lv c l e a r . Often the cus-
a s s u r e d t h a t t h e r e i s a lw a y s a r e p l y . The tner thinks he wants one th ing but would be
b r u te - f o rc e b razen coaeb ack , e q u a lly d ir ty , q u ite s a tis f ie d w ith ano ther th a t I s auch e asie r
i s j u s t to say s o a e th i n g l i k e to prograa. Often the p ro g ra m e r can aake help
f u l suggestions o f b e tte r ways to do I t th a t w ill
DIDN'T YOU SEE THE LAST JOINT PROCEEDINGS? be e a s ie r fo r h ia .
OH YEAH7 WHAT ABOUT THE x WORK Very bad thin gs csn happen i f prograa nego
USING A y? tia tio n I s n e t done c a r e f u lly and h on estly enough.
The p r o g ra n e r can a isu nd erstand and c re a te s e e
( w h e re k i s a n y p l a c e on t h e map on p . S" , th ing th a t was not wanted, o r the c u i t a s r can
a n d y i s any c u r r e n t c o a p u t e r , s u c h a s a c a r e le s s ly a is s ta te h ia a e lf and ash for tha wrong
P D P -10. ) th in g . Or w orst o f a l l the p r o g r a m r can de
lib e r a te ly k lsh e ar and do so w th ing d if f e r e n t,
saying, 'T h e re , t h a t 's what you w an ted,' a s he
hands ever s o u th i n g th a t i s n ' t what was r e a lly
asked f o r. And the poor custoswr nay even believe
I t (see Cybercrud, p, 8 ) .
Prograa n e g o tia tio n should be B r a widely
acknowledged aa a d i f f i c u l t and p a in fu l business.
I t is exhausting and fra u g h t with s t r e s s i people
(on both sid es) g e t a l l k inds o f p sy c h o so u tic
s y s p to n (lik e a b d n ln a l p a in s, t i c s and c h ills ) .
The fa c t th a t p e o p le's c a r e e rs o ften depend on
. . . p r o g ra m m e rs, in my ex p erien c e .
than fo ste rin g the thorough and sym pathetic coop
te nd lo be p a in sta k in g . lo gical. e ra tio n which is e s s e n t ia l .
Inhib ited, cauti ous, restra ined,
defe nsiv e, methodical, and rit u a listic. If t
Ken Know lton,
Collaborations with Art iste --
A Program m er's Reflections,"
In Nake a Roeenfeld ( e d s.) .
G ra phic Languages
(North-Holiand Pub. C o .) . p . 396.
USEFUL. AND POSSIBLY EMBARRASSING QUESTIONS
If lhe Computer P n e sls s u r t to pick on yo u.
he re are seme hclplul ph rase s that w ill give you
stre n g th .
I do not wanl to give the im pression thal the
G uardians ol the Machine arc alw ays bad g uy s.
N evertheless, sad to relale, they a rc not always
good g uy s. Like everyone oul 10 bo lster his position,
including the plum ber and ihe elec trician , Ihe compuier-
man haa learned how easy it is to intimidate the layman.
Now. these people a re often rig h l. Bul if
a consumer advocale o r w h atev e r-- you are probably
cnlitied to slrsig h i answ ers thal w ill help settle the
m atter honestly . without puldow ns , Any honest
man will a g re e .
Now, iheae helplul q u estion s, honesily answ ered,
may elicil long m ysterious a n sw e rs. Be patienl
and conlident. Write down w hais aaid and sil down
wiih ihe glossary in this book until you understand
the answ er. Then you can ask more questions,
I am not inviting the read er to make irouble
flippantly. 1 am suggesting lhal many people have

T h i s c a n b e summed up as f o l l o w s : NOBODY th ere may be some discomfort al f ir s t.

WANTS TO HEAR ABOUT ANOTHER GUY'S SYSTEM.
H ere a s e l s e w h e r e , t h i n g s f u s e t o b l o c k h u a a n HOW DOES IT WORK?
c o a a u n i c a t i o n : e n v y , d i s l i k e o f b e i n g d o m in a (T his question may have to be backed ' I CANT BEAR HEAT.* REMARKED LAKCW1DERE
t e d , r e f u s a l t o r e l a t e e a o t i o n a l l y , and w h a t up as follows: 'T h e re are no computer systems
ever e ls e . W h a te v e r c o a p u t e r p e o p l e h e a r whose w orkings cannoi be clearly described
a b o u t, i t s e e a s th e y i a a e d i a t e l y t r y t o to p . to someone who u nd e rstan d s Ihe basics, I THE MEETING OP THE HINDS
INSIST THAT YOU MAKE A SINCERE ATTEMPT.- )
Which i s n o t to sa y t h a t c o a p u t e r p e o p l e The CustOHr,
a r e s e r e c l o c k w o r k le a o n s o r B e t t e l h e i a i a n WHY DO YOU CLAIM IT HAS TO BE THIS WAY?
Halve Advocate The E x p e rt'
ro b o t-c h lld re n . But th e t e n d e n c ie s a r e t h e r e . (SPEAK MORE SLOWLY , PLEASE.)
WHAT IS THE DATA STRUCTURE?
COULD YOU EXPLAIN THAT IN TERMS OF THE DATA = ----------------------------------------------------------------
BIBLIOGRAPHY STRUCTURE? 1 d o n 't see why What yo u'v e g o tta
WHO DESIGNED THIS DATA STRUCTURE? since I t ' s a c ^ ^ u t e r . . . understand i s th a t th e re
G e r a l d M. W e i n b e r g , The P s y c h o lo g y o f C o a n u t e r And can I talk 10 him? These a re n o t d e ta i le a re p ro b lea s in v o lv e d ...
WHAT IS THE ALGORITHM? th a t eencern a e . . . I t c a n 't be th a t
P r r * " V T i T N o s t r e n d R e ln E o T T T -------- These a re ju s t w a y ...
WHO IS THE PROGRAMMER?
S y s te m a tic t r e a t a e n t in a r e l a t e d And can I talk to him? 1 n a n a c a p u ta r be j u s t what you w a n t...
v e in . WHY DO WE HAVE TO USE A CANNED PROGRAM FOR can do a l l th ese thin gs,
THIS?
WHY IS THE INPUT LANGUAGE SO COMPLICATED?
WHY DO WE NEED CARDS? WHY CAN'T PEOPLE TYPE C f uppancai the e u sto w r w ill g e t what he deserves.
This ease i s so c la s s ic I t ' s a l n s t a Punch Horali I f you want something, y o u'd b e tte r daan w ell
uri Judy shew. IN THEIR OWN INPUT?
n ego tiate i t a t the d e ta i le d le v e l.
WHY NOT HAVE A SIMPLE-MINDED FRONT END THAT
One o f the n a s t i e s t people I have evr a ct LETS USERS CONTROL IT THEMSELVES?
a s the head of s e c u r ity fo r a b lg - c ^ ^ u t e r i s - WHY HAVE FORMS TO FILL OUT? WHY NOT HAVE
i t a l l a t l o i . Several people agree w ith ae th a t A DIALOGUE FRONT-END ON A MINI?
d e lig h ts la te l l i n g paep le they can t de
ip e cifle thin gs a t the c e n t e r , M re ly fo r the WHY CAN T IT BE ON-UNE? AvJ *. O C T J f c w k . f r / l O M L O '^ ) T
lake of r e s t r ic tin g th M . WHY DOES IT HAVE TO BE THAT BRAND OF COMPUTER?
WHY NOT GET A SYSTEM WITH LESS OVERHEAD?
Anyway, a t th i s s m in s t a ll a ti o n th e re was WHY SHOULD ALL COMPUTER OPERATIONS BE CENTRALIZED
p r o g r a ^ r , l e t ' s c a l l h ia h . wbo d isllk w ) eu- DON'T THEY GET IN EACH OTHERS WAY?
iharley, and d is lik e d t h i s d ir e c to r of s e c u rity , WHY DOES IT ALL HAVE TO BE ON ONE COMPUTER?
Let'e c a l l h ia B, w ith a aocdy passion. WHY NOT PUT PART OF IT ON A DEDICATED MINI?
WHY CANT WE DO THIS PARTICULAR THING ALL
B spent such o f h is t b a in te n se ly , ^ e e s s - ON A MINI?
ively r n n f p la tin g poesLbls ways th a t uaere
Ight break in to th e t y i t a , a id e lab o rately WOULDNT IT COST LESS IF WE GOT A MINICOMPUTER
jrogram ing defanaee and eoim term asures in to FOR THIS TASK?
:he sem it a r . Ha I lino* th is ? I knew th is WHY CAN'T THIS BE PROGRAMMED IN SOME LANGUAGE
C ra a , who co n stan tly went through B 's w aste- LIKE BASIC?
lasket. a s t i l l p laits In ce ssan tly fo r tha day YOU KNOW AND I KNOW THAT COMPUTERS DONY
1 w ill g e t a big ta u n tin g p r in to u t, casing un- HAVE TO WORK THAT WAY. WHY DO YOU CHOOSE
a ^ c t a d l y to h ia o f f the aachin e, th a t showe TO DO IT THAT WAY?
ila a l l h is se c re te a re known. I The a trtn g e language of com puter people makes
If these suggestions seem u n n e ce ssarily contentious, more aenae than laymen necessarily realize.
il is because m t of these guys like to pick on people, Il's a ge n ersliied analy tic al way of looking
and you may have is be re a d y . And you may need at ti n e , spa ce and a cti vity. Co nsi der the
all the su pp ort you can g e l, if. s a y . you lake a stand following.
like one of Ihese:
*U Ihe Information is in th e re , I do n't see why "THERE 18 INSIGNIFICANT BUFFER SPACE IN
w e c a n 't gel it out." THE FRONT HALL." (Buffer; pla ce to put
You have no rig h t to aak q u estion s like th is, something te m porarily.)
sn d if the program req u ire s i l , change the program . *
"BEFORE 1 ACKNOWLEDGE YOUR INTERRUPT. LET
Remember. ILLEGITtMIS NON CARBORUNDUM MB TAKE THIS PROCESS TO TERMINATION.
(d on 't lei the b a sta rd s g rin d you down)
"COOKING IS AN ART OF INTERLEAVING
TIME-BOUND OPERATIONS." ( I . e . . d o i n g
pa rte of se parat a Joba In the r ig ht o r d e r
with an eye on Ihe c lo c k .)

THe w u g i e
lU F O R lh T lK fr
Their name makes people think iho y' rc a war prtitcal g ro up ,
but actually lh e R . E .S .1 .S . T . O . H . S . o l Princeton. N . J . a re o
bunch of kids who play with compulers. The y're all young; members
are purged when ihey finis h hig h school. Their clubroom Is st
Princeton U n iv e rs ity , bu t Ihe initiative Is strictly th e ir s.
The name sta nds for "Radically Emphatic Students Interested
in Science, Technology and Other Research Subj ec ts." Compulers
are not all (hey d o th ey 'v e also golien Inlo aloi rac in g and tho
game of Diplomacy but compulera are whai the y'ro known for.
The Reals tor s ( le i's spell ii the shorl way) exhibit reg ularly at
lhe computer con fe re nc es, and hi ve startled numerous people
wilh the hig h q u a li ty of Ihelr work. T hey 'v e been invited to various
conferonces a bro a d . They have built various language pro ce sso rs
and done g r a p h ic s; lately Ihelr fad Is working wilh lhe LDS-1
In Princetons Che mistry Department.
Where do Ihey le arn It *11? They loach each other, of c ours e.
Newcomera ha ng a ro u n d , learn computor lolk, work on projects,
and (ease each o lh e r. T h ey K in use the Informal trade ch an nels,
subscribing to magaz ines and filling oul Information request
cards un de r su ch company names as Plebnay International Signal
Division and Exca ll b u r Wax Fruit.
The grea l Ih ing about these klda Is th eir la n y flippancy .
They've ne ver failed, th e y'v e never beon afraid for th eir Jobs,
snd so the y co mb ine the zest of lhe young wilh Ihoir cupcrtlso.
Their forma of e xp re ss io n are as sla n lln g to professionals as
they are lo o u ts iders; do n't say anything ponderously If 11 can
be said pla yfu lly . Don'l say "bit field If you can say "funny
bits;" do n 'l say "alpha numeric buffer" If you can say "quick brown
fai bo*: " dont say "Interrupt signal" if you can Coll il s "Hey
Charlie; " don't say " re ad dr es sing logic" If you can say "whoopco
bos."
group lik e you
doing a t a
Jo in t lik e th is?
W R IT E R S a flo K e S to e /\f
T h * p u b l i c i s th o r o u g h l y c o n f u s e d a b o u t
c o m p u t e r s , an d th o p r e s s a n d p u b l i c i s t s a r e
s c a r c e ly fre e fro a b la a e . I T S TIME FOR EX
PLANATIONS. P e o p l e w a n t t o know w h at c o a p u t e r
s y s t e a s r e a l l y d o no a o r e o f t h i s " l a t e s t
s p a c e - a g e te c h n o l o g y " g a r b a g e . H r. B u s i n e s s
m a n , H r . W r i t e r , a r e y o u a an e nough t o s t a r t
t e l l i n g i t stra ig h t?
Tho c o a p u t e r p r i e s t h o o d , u n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
o f t e n w a n t s t o awe p e o p le w i t h , o r u n d u ly
s t r e s s , th e n o tio n o f th e c o ap u te r b ein g in
v o lv ed in a p a r t i c u l a r th in g a t a l l . I t is
t i n e f o r e v e r y b o d y t o s t o p b e i n g i m p r e s s e d by
t h i s a n d g e t on w i t h t h i n g s . Don t j u s t c o p y -
e d i t w h a t t h e y g i v e y o u . Hose a ro u n d and
r e a l l y f i n d o u t , t h e n w r i t e i t lo u d s n d c l e a r .
T hese s ia p le r u l e s a r e ay s u g g e s tio n s f o r
b r i n g i n g on a o r e i n t e l l i g e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s
t h a t w i l l h e lp e n l i g h t e n th e p u b l i c by o s a o s i s .
1. FIND OUT AND DESCRIBE THE FUNDAMEN
TAL APPROACH AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE PROGRAM.
T h i s c a n i n v a r i a b l y be s t a t e d in t h r e e c l e a r
E n g lis h sen ten c es o r l e s s , but not n e c e s s a r i l y
b y t h e p e r s o n who c r e a t e d I t . THIS I S WHAT
WRITERS ARE FOR: i t i s yo u r d u ty to p r o b e un
t i l t h e n a t t e r ha s b e co n e c l e a r .
Examples-
" T h is c h e ss- p la y in g p rogra n e v a lu a te s
p o s s i b l e aoves in t e r a s o f v a rio u s c r i t e r i a
f o r p a r t i a l s u c c e s s , and makes t h e no v e w h ic h
has th e h ig h e s t a e r i t acc o rd in g to th e s e
ra tin g s."
"T h is n u slc-co ap o sin g p ro g ra a o p e ra te s
on a se a l-ra n d o a b a s i s , sc re en in g p o s s ib le
n o t e s f o r v a rio u s k in d s o f a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . . .
"T h is a rc h ae o lo g ic al c a ta lo g u in g sy ste a
keeps tr a c k o f a v a rie ty of ob je ctiv e fea tu res
o f e a c h a r t i f a c t , p l u s i n f o r a a t i a n on w here
i t w as, in c lu d in g lin k a g e s i n d i c a t i n g w h at
o t h e r a r t i f a c t s were n e ar i t . "
What o r whose c o a p u t e r i s u se d t o d o a
t h i n g i s o f a l a o s t no c o n c e r n ( u n l e s s i t I s
o n e o f u n u s u a l d e s i g n , o f w h ic h t h e r e a r e com
p a r a t i v e l y few ) . Not t h o n a k e o f t h e c o a p u
t e r , b u t t h e GENERAL IDEA OF HOW THE PROGRAM
OPERATES, i s t h e a o s t i a p o r t a n t t h i n g .
O f c o u r s e , i f yo u a r e b e i n g p a i d by a
h a r d w a r e a a n u f a c t u r e r , y o u ' l l h a v e t o name t h e
e q u i p m e n t o v e r and o v e r ; b u t r e c o g n i z e t h a t
y o u r r e a l d u t y I s p u b l i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and
p u t the ta c t s acro ss. ( I f you t h i n k i t c a n 't
b e d o n e , r e a d t h e s p l e n d i d Kodak a d s i n t h e
S c i e n t i f i c A m e ric a n . )
2. Keep g e e - w h i z z i n g r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f a s y s t e a 's p s y c h o lo g ic al e f f e c t
on r e a l p e o p l e . (What l a p r e s s e s y ou a a y t u r n
o u t t o be o l d h a t . )
3. Look f o r a n g l e s s p e c i a l t o w h at y o u ' r e
rep o rtin g . P ursuing d e t a i l s i s l i k e l y to
b r i n g u p b e t t e r s t o r y p e g s and a o r e hu a a n i n
te re st. I n s te a d o f s a y in g "co m p u ter s c i e n t i s t s
h a v e d o n e s o m e t h i n g , you a i g h t f i n d s o m e th in g
m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r y o u r l e a d ; how a b o u t "The
u n l i k e l y te am o f a b i o p h y s i c i s t and a t e e n - a g e
a r t s t u d e n t . . . o r - - f i n d i n g w h a t s s p e c l a l - -
'' N e v e r b e f o r e ha s t h i s be en done o n a c o m p u te r
s o s m a l l , th e s i z e o f a p o r ta b l e ty p e w r i t e r
( a n d h a v i n g o n l y s o a e 4000 w or ds o f m e n o r y ) . . .
to w n of K.B.S.I.S.T.O.R.S.
in eza su tiu t saion,
A tlantia City
They have v aried backgrounds. The father of one is s b utcher,
lhe father of an o th er is one o f ihe country9 foremost intellectuals.
(None or thal matters to lhe k id s .) I have dined in a number ot
their homes, and find (his in common: Iheir p arents show them
great r e s p e c t. love and t r u s t, indeed. Resistor p aren ts liuvc
expressed some su rp rise lo le arn lhat their c h ild ren 's work is
al lhe full-fledged professional le vel. Tho Important ih in g , lo
lhe paren ts, ia lhal the k id s a r e w orking on constructing (hings
they e njoy.
ft.e.S.I.S.T.O.f.S.
after infamous
Onega cirew m /.
The iruUe p ress is ambivalent toward th
the one hand they moke good copy. (Al one S|
had the only working tim e sh a rin g demo-- on
a phone booth .) On the o th e r, they Ramclimes
pub licity-h u n g ry , like many cclc b rilie s. (At anol
Joinl Ihey d u g up an IBM Songbook and serenaded lhe g u y s at
lhe IBM pavilion, who had to a ct nice about i l . ) So ihey d on'l
got w ritten u p In computer m agazines so much anymore.
I first met the R esistors in 1970. aril sto n e d hanging around
with them for Iwo reasons, F i rs t. Ihey a rc p crf:lly d elightful:
enth usiastic In the way lhat most Adults forego, and v e ry w itty.
To them compute r lulk was nol u thing a p a rt, a s it is fur both out
sid e rs and m ony professionals.
Secondly, and this wos lhe self-seeking n sp c cl. 1 noted
that those k id s w ere q uite e x p e rt, and inte rested in giv in g me
advice w here computer professionals would nol- They got inte rested
in helping me with my (perhaps quixotic) Xuiiudu1"1 project (see
flip s id e ) . T h is w os enough to keep mu v isiting for a vouple of
y e a r s , Now, some people a r c loo proud lo ask c h ild ren for Informa
tion. T h is Is du m b . Information is w here you find il.
T h e last I h e ard , the Resistors w ere Ml work in ,i COUOL
compiler for th e PDP-11. hoping il would snvc the local high school
from lhe d isa stro u s (lo Ihcm) p urchase of a n 1IIM 1130. (Since
the school's in tent was to leueh business programming, they hoped
lhal th e availability of COUOL would cnceurngc lhe school (o buy
lhe more powerful and less expensive PDP-11.)
T h e Rcsislor6 re few, bui I think (hey lire v e ry important
in p rin cip le, u n existence proof. They show how silly and artificial
Is o u r edifice o f pedagogy , with all its scqucnccs and sterilizations,
and how onybody c un learn unyIhing in lhe r ight a tm osphere,
stripped of ils pomposities. T h e Resistors a r e nol obsessed with
computers; Ih eir love of compute rs is purl of Ih eir love of ev ery th in g ,
ond e v ery th in g is what compute rs a rc for.
4 . A tte m p t Co f i n d o u t how e l s e c o m p u te rs
a r e u s e d i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , anH- m e n tio n
th e s e t o h e lp o r i e n t t h e re a d e r .
T h is goes a g a i n s t t h e e x c l u s i v i s t te n d e n
c i e s we a l l ha v e when we w ant t o b a l l y h o o
so m e th in g . I t i s a n a t t e r o f c o n s c i e n c e , an
im p o rta n t one .
5. q u e stio n s to ask:
What a r e t h e p r e a i s e s o f y o u r p r o
gram?
What i f p e o p l e t u r n o u t t o ne ed
What c o u l d go wrong?
And most I m p o r t a n t : What i s t h a t ?
IMPORTANT DISTINCTIONS
I t i s o n l y by c l a r i f y i n g d i s t i n c t i o n s
th a t p e o p le a r e e v e r g o in g to g e t a n y th in g
stra ig h t.
6 . Do n o t s a y " t h e c o m p u te r" when y ou
aean " th e syste m " o r " t h e p r o g ra a ."
7 . D o n 't s a y " a a a 1 f u n c t i o n i n g c o n p u t e r "
( h a r d w a r e e r r o r ) i f t h e c o m p u te r f u n c t i o n e d
as i t was d i r e c t e d o n an i n c o r r e c t p r o g r a a
(so ftw a re e r r o r ) . (And re a em be r t h a t t h e
b e s t p r o g r a a a e r s make m i s t a k e s , s o t h a t a
c a t a s t r o p h i c bug i n a s y s t e a i s no s i g n t h a t
i t was p r o g r a a e d by a n in c o m p e t e n t , o n ly
th a t i t i s n t f in is h e d .)
6. (A p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t a b o u t g r a p h i c s .
Se e f l i p s i d e . ) D o n 't s a y "TV s c r e e n " i f a
c o n p u t e r s c r e e n I s n o t TV, i . e . , S25 h o r i
z o n t a l l i n e s t h a t y ou c a n s e e on t h e s c r e e n
i f y o u lo o k f o r th e m . (S e e p . V \ 6 v e r s u s p .
>*21 . ) HOW ABOUT: " v i s u a l d i s p l a y s c r e e n " ?
- - you c a n a d d , " o n w h ic h t h e c o a p u t e r c a n
draw a o v i n g l i n e s , " o r w h a t e v e r e l s e t h e
p a r t i c u l a r syste m does.
9 . D o n ' t assume t h a t y o u r a u d i e n c e i s
c o a p u te r-illite ra te .
1 0 . Don t assum e t h a t i t c a n ' t a l l be
s a i d s i a p l y . O n ly l a 2y o r h a r d - p r e s s e d w r i t e r s
a re u n c lea r.
1 1 . Do n o t u s e c u t e s y - t a l k , p a r t i c u l a r
t h a t w hic h s u g g e s t s t h a t c o a p u t e r s h a v e a n i n
t r i n s i c c h a r a c t e r . By " c u t e s y I a e a n s e n
te n c e s l i k e " S c i e n t i s t s hav e r e c e n t l y t a u g h t
a c o n p u t e r t o p l a y c h e s s , " M is - L e ad s l i k e
"Whet d oes a c o m p u te r so un d l i k e ? " (when t a l k
i n g a b o u t m u s l e c o n s t r u c t e d by a p a r t i c u l a r
p r o g r a a i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y ) , and a w e - s t r u c k
d e s c r i p t i o n s l i k e , " A t l a s t t h e S p a c e Age h a s
come t o t h e r e a l e s t a t e b u s i n e s s . . .
1 2 . Do n o t u s e t h e g a rb a g e t e r m ^compu
t e r i z e d , " u n le s s th e re i s a c l e a r sta te m en t
o f w h ere t h e c o m p u te r i s i n t h e s y s t e a , w hat
th e c o n p u t e r i s d o i n g end how. A " c o m p u t e r
iz e d t r a f f i c s y a to m ," f o r i n s t a n c e , c o u ld be
any damn t h i n g , b u t a " s y s t e m o f t r a f f i c l i g h t s
under c o a p u te r c o n t r o l , u sing v a rio u s tim in g
te c h n iq u e s S t i l l unde r dev elo p m en t, sa y s
so a eth in g .
13. D o n 't p u t i n c l i c h e s a s f a c t , f o r
exam ple by t h e u s e such t e r a s a s " n ath e -
n a t l c a l " o r "com puter s c i e n t i s t u n le s s th e y
r e a l l y a p p ly . Do n o t im p l y an y a a t h e a a t i c a l
c h a r a c t e r u n l e s s you know t h e s y s t e m p o s s e s s e s
i t : many p r o g ra m s c o n t a i n no o p e r a t i o n s t h a t
can f a i r l y be c a l l e d m a t h e a a t i c a l . S i m i l a r l y ,
a " c o m p u t e r s c i e n t i s t " i s some one w i d e l y o r
R .w .iJ .T -e .iy . ^ tc d v .
L auren. 14. was talking to another g irl ol lhe ACM 70 con
feren ce. A p a sserb y h eard h e r explaining lh e differences among
lhe languages BASIC. POHTRAN. COBOL and TRAC. "How long
have you been programming' " h e asked in s u r p ris e . "O h. almost
a m onlh." she said .
I was driv in g some Resistors a round Princclon; they were
y ellin g contradic tory d riving instructions "I demand triple r e
dundancy in th e directions." I sa id . "Right u p oheud you turn
rig h t right a w a y ," said a spokesman.
Since (here was a lol of e x cc ss capacity. (he Rcsis(ors got
a fre e account on a national tim e-sharing system . Though they
d id n 't have to p a y , the system kept ihcm informed on what (hey
would have owed. In a y ear o r so they r u n u p funny-m oney bills
of severol hundred thousand dollars.
Did (hey ra(e free subscriptions lo computer magazines?
I asked, Could Ihey chiim Ihey really "make decisions affecting
Iho p urchase of computers"?
"Of co u rse we do!" w as lhe r e p ly . "All logc(hcr: shall
Resistors (in unison) "NO!"
T heir o riginal advisor, whom we shall call Gaston . is mis
chievous in h is own rig h t, II w as meeting-lime at G oslon's place
o n a b rig h t S a tu rd ay , and I was on the fawn w orking on Xanadu
with Nat and Elliou when Gaston in te rru p ted to say lhat an unwelcome
salesman of b u rg lar alarms was about lo a rr iv e . "L ei's have
a little fun wilh h im ," said Gaslon. The k id s w ere to b e introduced
as Gaston's c h ild ren , I was an uncle. We took our stations.
T h e salesman may hove realized he w os walking inlo a Irap
from a ll the slrangcly beaming adolescents (hot siood in the living
room, lie gol oul h is w ares and s ta rted lo demonstrate the burglar
alarm , bul il d id n t go right- P e te r, stan d in g in fron( o f (he equip
ment wilh a demonically vacuous g r in , hud rev e rse d a diode behind
h is back so that lh e alarm r an g continuously u n less you broke
lh e light beam.
" I l u m p f s a i d Gaston, "you want to Bee a real security
system?" We trooped Inlo lhe kilch o n , w h ere Gaston- kepi a Teletype
ru nning,
ANY NEWS? typed Goslon.
CREAM YEMAW JMJICK PULLED INTO DRIVEWAY . replied
lh e T elety p e. JEIISEY LICENSE PLATE . . . (and lhe salesman's
license n u m b er), und finally. OWNER OK RECORD NOT KNOWN.
John was ty p in g th is from ihe o th e r Teletype in the b a rn .
The salesman stared al (he T eletype, lie looked around
a l o u r ch eru b ic smiling faces, lie looked al Ihe T eletype. "Thai's
all r ig h t. suid lh e salesman. "Hut now I'd like lo show you a
r e a l security system . . ." And it w as back to the old b u rg lar
de ep ly v e rs e d in co m p u ters o r s o f tw a r e , n o t
j u s t a p r o g ra m m e r. (Anyway, i f s o m e th in g h a s
b e e n program me d by a n e n t o m o l o g i s t , i t i s
p r o b a b l y a o r e i n t e r e s t i n g t o r e f e r t o him a s
i n e n to m o lo g is t th a n a s a " c o a p u te r s c i e n t i s t . " )
14 . Do n o t r e f e r t o a p p a r e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e
o f t h e c o m p u te r ( u n l e s s t h a t i s a n i n t e n d e d
f e a t u r e o f t h e p r o g ra r^ . C r e d i t r a t h e r t h e i n
g e n u i t y o f t h e s y s t e m s c r e a t o r . Do n o t s a y
" t h e c l e v e r c o m p u t e r . " I f any body i s c l e v e r
i t i s t h e prog ra m m e r o r p r o g ra m d e s i g n e r , and
i f you t h i n k s o , s a y s o . T hese g uy s d o n ' t g e t
th e r e c o g n itio n th e y d e s e r v e .
1$. N ev e r, n e v er sa y " te a c h th e c o n p u te r"
a s an e l l i p t i c a l way o f s a y i n g " w r i t e c o m p u te r
p r o g r a m s . Prog ram m in g means c r e a t i n g e x a c t
and s p e c i f i c p l a n s t h a t c a n b e a u t o m a t i c a l l y
f o llo w e d by t h e e q u i p m e n t . To s a y " t e a c h " when
yo u mean " p r o g r a m " i s l i k e " p e r s u a d i n g " a c a r
i n s t e a d o f d r i v i n g i t , o r making a t o i l e t " c r y
in stea d o f flu sh in g i t .
( T h e r e a r e s y s t e n s , d e s c r i b e d on t h e f l i p
s i d e , w h ic h s i m u l a t e i n t e l l i g e n t p r o c e s s e s and
a a y t h u s ' be s a i d t o " l e a r n " o r " b e t a u g h t . "
B ut n e i t h e r p ro gra m m in g n o r s i m u l a t e d l e a r n i n g
s h o u l d be d e s c r i b e d i n a s l i p s h o d f a s h i o n t h a t
s u g g e s t s t h e c o m p u te r i s some s o r t o f t r a i n a b l e
b a b y , puppy o r d e a o n . )
1 6 . Do n o t im p ly t h a t s o a e t h i n g i s " t h e
l a s t w o r d , " u n l e s s y ou h a v e c h e c k e d t h a t i t i s .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E r n e s t G o w er s, P l a i n W o rd s.
T h i s w o n d e r f u l l i t t l e b oo k sh ow ed
E n g lish c i v i l Se rv an ts " b u re a u c ra tic
w r i t i n g " was t o t a l l y u n n e c e s s a r y . Its
p r e c e p t s - - n a in ly c o n cern ed w ith c a l l i n g
a sp a d e a sp a d e ( s e e p . ) - - tran s p o s e
e x a c t l y t o th e c o n p u te r w o rld .
You Blew I t ,
bd new* for
studane
pro q rtM H
In chair
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p r in to u ts.
U. I l l i n o i s
a t Urban*.

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fW M lS C lK F
A ll k i n d s r f d u m b J o k e s a n d c a r to o n * c i r c u l a t e a m o n g
th e p u b l i c a b o u t o m p u t a r a . T h e n o u r f r i e n d * r e g a l e u a
c o D p u tcrfo lK w ilh th e s e J o k e s a n d c a r t o o n s , a n d b e c a u s e
w e d o n 't l a u g h th e y s a y w e h a v e n o s e n a e o f h u m o r .
O h w e d o , w e d o - B u t w h a t w e l a u g h a t la r a l h o r
m o r e c o m p lic a t e d , a n d r e l a t e s to w h a t w e t h i n k of a s th e
r e a l s t r u c t u r e o f th i n g *
o f th e b a s t h u m o r In th e f ie ld 1* r u n In D a t a m a tio n ;
a n a n th o lo g y c a ll e d F a i t h , H o p e a n d P a r ity r e r a n a lo t of
U w lr b e st p i e c e s tr a m t h a e a r l y s i x t i e s . C l a s s i c w a s th e
K lu d g e s e r i e s , a r o m p d e s c r i b i n g v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s a n d
p r o d u c t s <rf t h e K lu d g e K o m p u te r K o r p o r a tlo n , w h o se f o ib le *
d i a illl e d m a n y at th a m o r e Id io tic th in g e t h a t h a v e b e e n
d o n e l n t h e f i e l d . ( " K l u d g e . " p r o n o u n c e d " k l c o j . " I s a.
c o o p u t e r m a n 'a te r m f o r a r i d i c u l o u s m a c h i n e . ) D a t a m a tio n 's
h u m o r o u s t r a d i t i o n h a s c o n t i n u e d In a p o n d e r o u s b u t e x t r e m e l y
f u n n y s e r i a l t h a t r a n In '7 2 c a l l e d A ls o S p r s c h v o n N e u m a n n ,
w h ic h In m e llif lu o u s a n d e l l i p t i c a l e u p h e m i s m s d e s c r i b e d
th e a u t h o r ' s a d v e n t u r e s a t t h e " a i r s h i p f o u n d r y " a n d o t h e r
c o n f u w d c o m p a n i e s t h a t h a d h im d o in g o n e p r e p o s t e r o u s
th i n g w ith c o m p u te r a a f t e r a n o t h e r .
C !p * W T E * f* W lK J
P r a n k s a r e a n i m p o r t a n t b r a n c h o f h u m o r In t h e f ie l d .
H e r e a r e so m e th a l w ill g i v e y o u a s e n s e o f it.
ZAP THE 94
O ne o f th e m e a n e r p r a n k s w a s a p r o g r a m t h a l r a n
oir Ih e o ld 7094. It c o u ld fit o n o n e c a r d (In b i n a r y ) , a n d
p u t th e c o m p u te r In a n I n e s c a p a b le l o o p . U n fo r tu n a te ly
th e u s u a l "ST O P " b u tto n w a s d is a b le d b y t h i s p r o g r a m ,
so to sto p Ihe p r o g r a m o n e w o u ld e v e n tu a lly h a v e to p u ll
th e b i g e m e r g e n c y b u t t o n . T h i s b u r n t out all th e m a in
reg is ters.
TIMES SQUARE LIGHTS
One o f t h e w e i r d e r p r o g r a m s w aa th e o p e r a l o r - w a k e r -
u p p e r so m e b o d y w ro t e f o r t h e 7094. It w a s a b i g p r o g r a m ,
a n d w h a t It d i d w as DISPLAY ALPHABETICAL MESSAGES
ON THE CONSOLE L IGH T S, s l i d i n g p s s l l ik e th e n e w s in
T im e s S q u a r e . You p u t I n t h i s p r o g r a m a n d f ollow ed it
w ith th e m e ea ag e ; th e c o m p u t e r ' s c o n so le b o a r d w o u ld lig h t
u p a n d th e n e w s w o u ld g o b y . S in c e th e l i g h t s u s u a l l y
b li n k In u n i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n s , t h is w a s v e r y s t a r t l i n g .
T h i s p r o g r a m w a s e x tr e m e ly c o m p le x . S i n c e th e
94 d i s p l a y e d th e c o n te n t s o f a ll main r e g i s t e r s a n d t r a p ,
a rit h m e t ic a n d o v e rf lo w l i g h t s , it w a s n e c e s s a r y to d o v e r y
w e i r d th in g s in th e p r o g r a m to t u r n th e s e l i g h t s on a n d
off a t (h e r i g h t d m e e .
THE TIME-WASTER
In o n e c o m p a n y , f o r so m e r e a s o n , it w a s a r r a n g e d
th a l l a r g e a n d l o n g - r u n n i n g p r o g r a m s h a d p r i o r i t y o v e r
s h o r t q u ic k o n e s . V e r y w e ll: so m eone w r o t e a c o u n t e r a t t a c k
p r o g r a m o c c u p in g s e v e r a l b o x e s o f p u n c h c a r d s , to w h i c h
y o u s d d e d th e s h o r t p r o g r a m y o u r e a lly w a n t e d r u n , a n d
a c a r d s p e c if y in g h o w l o n g y o u w a n te d ih e f ir s t p a n of
th e p r o g r a m to g r i n d b e f o r e y o u r r e a l o n e a c tu a lly s t a r t e d .
T h is w o u ld b l i n k l i g h t s a n d s p i n ta p e s I m p r e s s i v e l y
a n d le n g th e n t h e r u n o f y o u r p r o g r a m to w h a t e v e r ' y o u w a n t e d .
BOMBING THE TIME-SHAAE
One o f th e c l a s s i c b a d - b o y p r a n k s la to bom b ti m e
s h a r i n g s y s i e m s - - t h a t i s . fo u l th e m u p a n d b r i n g th e m to
a h a l t . Many p ro g T am m era h a v e d o n e th is ; o n e h a a t o ld
me i t ' s a w o n d e r f u l w a y to g e t r i d of y o u r a g g r e s s i o n s .
Of c o u r s e , it c a n d a m a g e o t h e r p e o p l e ' s w o r k ( e s p e c i a ll y
if d i s k s a r e b o m b e d ); a n d It a lw a y s g e ts t h e s y s te m p r o g r a m
m e r s h o p p i n g m a d , b e c a u a e It ro eana y o u 'v e d e f ie d t h e i r
a u th o r i ty a n d m a y b e f o u n d a h o le th e y d o n 't know a b o u t .
H e r e a r e a c o u p le o f e x a m o l e a .
T he w ay t h i s s t o r y Is t o l d , o n a o f th e t i m e - s h a r i n g
s y s t e m s a l MIT w o u ld g o d o w n a t c o m p le te l y m y s t e r io u s
t i m e s , w ith all o f c o r e a n d d i s k b e i n g w ip e d o u l . a n d
th e i i n e p r i n t e r p r i n t i n g out THE PHANTOM STRIK ES.
F o r a lo n g lim e th e g u ilt y p r o g r a m c o u ld not be
f o u n d . F in a lly it w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e b o m b w aa
h i d d e n In a n old a n d v e n e r a b l e s t a t i s t i c s p r o g r a m
p r e v i o u s l y b e lie v e d to b e c o m p le te l y r e l i a b l e . T h e
r e a s o n th e p h a n to m d i d n ' t a lw a y s s t r i k e w a s t h a t th e
B om b p a r t q u e r i e d th e s y s te m c lo c k a n d m a d e a p s e u d o
r a n d o m d e c is i o n w h e t h e r (o bom b t h e s y s te m d e p e n d i n g
o n th e I n s ta n ta n e o u s s e t t i n g of t h e c l o c k . T h i s i s w hy
i t to o k s o lo n g to d i s c o v e r ; th e p r o g r a m u s u a l l y b id e d
i l s tim e a n d b e h a v e d p r o p e r l y .
A p p a r e n t l y th ia w a s th e r e v e n g e o f a d i s g r u n t l e d
p r o g r a m m e r , lo n g s in c e d e p a r t e d . Not o n ly t h a t , but
h i s r e v e n g e w a s t h o r o u g h : ih e Bom b p a r t of th e p r o g r a m
w a s to ta lly k n itt e d in to th e r e s t o f i t . it w a s a v e r y
i m p o r t a n t p r o g r a m lha t h a d to b e r u n a lot w ilh d if f e r e n t
d a t a , a n d n o d o c u m e n ta tio n e x i s t e d , m a k in g it f o r
p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s im p o s s ib le lo c h a n g e .
T h e f in a l s o l u t i o n , s o th e a t o r y g o e s , w a s ih ls :
w h e n e v e r th e r o w d y p r o g r a m h a d to b e r u n . th e r e s t
o f t h e m s c h in e w a s c l e a r e d o r p u t on p r o t e c t , ao il r a n
a n d h a d ita fits in m a je alic s o l i t u d e .
2. RHBOMB
T h e t i m e - s h a r e a t th e L a b s , n e v e r m in d w h ic h
L a b s , k e p t g o in g d o w n . M is c h ie f w a s s u s p e c t e d . Mis
c h i e f w a a v e r if ie d : a p r o g r a m c a l l e d RH BOMB, s u b
m i t t e d . b y a c e r t a i n p r o g r a m m e r w ith t h e in it ia l s R . H . .
w a s r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d t u r n e d oul a l w a y s to b e p r e s e n t
w h e n t h e te rm in a l s p r i n t e d T S S HAS GONE DOWN. It
w a s v e r i f i e d b y ( h e s y s t e m s p e o p le l h a t th e p r o g r a m
c a l l e d RHBOMB w aa in fac l a Bom b p r o g r a m , w ith no
o l h e r p u r p o a e th a n lo ta k e d o w n t h e l i m e - s h a r i n g s y s t e m .
R . H . w a s s p o k e n to s t e r n l y a n d il d id n o t h a p
p e n ag a in .
H o w e v e r , so m e m o n th s l a l e r a sn o o p y s y s te m s
p r o g r a m m e r n o te d th a t a (lie c e ll e d RHBOMB h a d be en
s t o r e d o n d i s k . R a l h e r lh a n h a v e R . H . s c a lp e d p r e
m a t u r e l y , h e t h o u g h t h e w o u ld c h e c k t h e c o n te n t s .
He s a t dow n a t Ihe te rm in a l a n d t y p e d In t h e com
m a n d , PR INT RHBOMB. B u t b e f o r e h e c o u ld s e e it s
c o n t e n t s , (he t e r m in a l t y p e d I n s te a d
T S S HAS GONE DOWN
B u t t h i s w a s i n c r e d ib le ! A p r o g r a m s o v i r u l e n t th a t
If y o u J u s t t r i e d to r e a d ils c o n t e n t s . w ith o u t r u n n i n g
i t . it s t i l l b o m b e d th e s y s te m ! T h e s y s t e m s man
r u s h e d from th e ro om to s e e w h a t h a d g o n e w r o n g ,
He d id ao p r e m a t u r e l y . T h e c o n t e n t s o f th e
ne w file RHBOMB w e r e s im p ly
T S S HAS GONE DOWN
f o llo w e d b y t h o u s a n d s of n u ll c o d e s , w h i c h w e r e s i l
e n t l y b e i n g fed (o th e T e l e t y p e , 10 p e r s e c o n d , p r e
v e n t i n g it fro m s i g n a l l i n g th a l it w a s r e a d y for th e
n e x t I h in g .
NON-OBVIOUS RESULTS OF SOME SIMPLE PA TTERN S:
acme d i e . one b l i n k s b a c k a n d f o r t h , o t h e r s b e c o m e s t a b l e .
( C o n w a y 's Game of Life p r o g r a m m e d f o r PL A T O b y D a n n y S l e a t o r . )
G am ea w ilh c o m p u te r p r o g r a m * a r e u n i v e r s a l l y e n jo y e d
In th e c o m p u te r c o m m u n ity . W h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e g r a p h i c
d i s p l a y s t h e r e la u s u a l l y a v e r s i o n o f t h e g a m e S p a c e w a r .
( s e e S t e w a r d B r a n d 's S p a c e w a r p i e c e I n R o l lin g S t o n e ,
m e n tio n e d e l s e w h e r e . ) S p a c e w a r , l i k e m a n y o t h e r c c o ip u t e r -
b a s e d g a m e a , I s p la y e d b e tw e e n p e o p l e , u s i n g th e c o m p u te r
a s a n a n im a te d b o a r d w h ic h c a n w o r k o u t th e r e s u l t s of
c o m p le x r u l e s .
S om e I n s ta lla tio n s h a v e c o m p u t e r g a m ea y o u c a n plo y
a g a i n s t ; y o u a r e e f f e c tiv e ly " p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e h o u s e , "
t r y i n g to o u tfo x s p r o g r a m . T h i a i s r a r e l y e a s y . A v a r ie ty
o f t e c h n i q u e s . h i d d e n f ro m y o u , c a n b e u s e d .
W hen " a c o m p u te r " p l a y s a g a m e , a c t u a l l y s o m e b o d y s
p r o g r a m la c a r r y i n g o u t a s e t of r u l e s t h a t th e p r o g r a m m e r
h a s l a i d o u t ln a d v a n c e . T h e p r o g r a m h a s a n a t u r a l e d g e :
i t c a n c h e c k a m u c h l o n g e r s e r i e s o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n lo o k in g
f o r th e b e s t m ove ( a c c o r d i n g t e t h e c r i t e r i a In th e p r o g r a m ) .
T h e r e Is a m o r e c o m p lic a t e d a p p r o a c h : th e c o m p u te r
c a n b e p r o g r a m m e d to te s t f o r t h e b e s t s t r a t e g y i n a g a m e .
T h i s la m u c h m o re c o m p lic a t e d , a n d I s o r d i n a r i l y c o n s i d e r e d
a n e x a m p l e o f " a r tif ic ia l in te l l i g e n c e " ( s e e " T h e G o d - B u l l d e r s , "
e l s e w h e r e in t h i s b o o k ) .
A G r a n d F a d a m o n g c o m p u te rf o lk In th e la s t c o u p le
of y e a r e h a s b e e n t h e ga m e o f " L ife ," in v e n te d b y J o h n
H o rto n C o n w a y .
T h e r u l b s a p p e a r e d l n t h e S c ie n tific A m e ric an In
O c t o b e r 1970, in M a rtin G a r d n e r ' s ga m es c o lu m n , a n d th e
w h o le c o u n t r y w e n t w i l d . G a r d n e r w a s sw am p ed w ith
r e s u l t s (m any p u b l i s h e d In F e b . 71); a fte r a c o u p le m o r e
i s s u e s G a r d a e r w a s h e d h i s h a n d s of i t , a n d It goea on
in I ts o w n m a g a z in e .
T h e g a m e Is a s t r a n g e m o d e l of e v o lu tio n , n a tu r a l
s e l e c t i o n , q u a n tu m m e c h a n ic s o r p r e t t y m u c h w h a t e v e r
e l s e y o u w a n t to s e e in i t . P a r t o f it a in itia l f asc in a tio n
w a s t h a t C onw ay d i d n ' t k n o w i t s lo n g - te rm o u tc o m e s, a n d
h e ld a c o n te s t ( e v e n tu a l ly w o n b y a g r o u p fro m M I T ) .
T h e r u l e s a r e d e c e p t i v e l y sim ple : s u p p o s e y o u h a v e
a b i g c h e c k e r b o a r d . E a c h c e ll h a s e ig h t n e ig h b o r s : th e
c e ll a n e x t to it u p , d o w n a n d d ia g o n a l ly .
T im e flo w s In th e g a m e b y " g e n e r a t i o n s . " T h e p a t t e r n
o n th e b o a r d i n e a c h g e n e r a U o n d e l e r m i n e s th e p a tte r n
o n th e b o a r d In th e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n . T h e gam e p a r t sim p ly
c o n s i s t s of t r y i n g o u t new p a t t e r n s a n d s e e i n g w h a l t h i n g s
r e s u l t In th e g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r i t . E ac h c e l l I s e i t h e r OCCUPIED
o r EM PT Y . A c e ll b e c o m e s o c c u p i e d ( o r " i s b o r n " ) i f e x a c tly
t h r e e o f l l s n e i g h b o r s w e r e f u ll In th e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n .
A c e l l s t a y s o c c u p ie d if e i t h e r tw o o r t h r e e o f its n e i g h b o r s
w e r e o c c u p ie d in th e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n . A ll o t h e r c e l l s
b e co m e e m p ty ( " d i e " ) .
T h e s e r u l e s h a v e th e fo llo w in g g e n e r a l e ffect: p a t t e r n s
y o u m a k e w ill c h a n g e , r e p e a t , g r o w , d l a a p p e a r In w i l d
c o m b i n a t i o n s . Some p a t t e r n s m o v e s c r o s s t h e s c r e e n In
s u c c e e d i n g g e n e r a t i o n s ( " g l i d e r s " ) . O lh e r p a t t e r n s p u l s a t e
s t r a n g e l y a n d e je c t g l i d e r s r e p e t i t i v e l y ( g i l d e r g u n s ) .
Som e p a t t e r n s c r a s h to g e th e r in w a y s t h a t p r o d u c e m o v i n g
g l i d e r g u n s . W eird .
W hile t h e g a m e of L i f e , aa y o u c a n s e e fro m t h e r u l e s .
h a s n o th in g to d o w ith c o m p u t e r s i n t r i n s i c a l l y . o b v i o u s l y
c o m p u te r s a r e t h e o n ly w a y to t r y o u t c o m p le x p a t t e r n s
in a r e a s o n a b l e le n g th of tim e .
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
D o n ald D . S p e n c e r . G am e P l a y i n g w ith C o m p u t e r * .
( S p a r t a n / H a y d e n , $ 1 3 .) T h i s i n c l u d e s f lo w -
c h a r ta . p ro g ra m s an d w h at-h a v e-y o u for som e
25 g a m e s , a n d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r m o r e .
A c o n tin u in g s e r i e s o f g a m e p r o g r a m s (m o stly o r
a ll in BASIC ) a p p e a r s in P C C , a n e w s p a p e r
m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r .
S t e w a r t B r a n d 's m a r v e l o u s S p a c e w a r p i e c e , a ls o
m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r . I s h ig h l y r e c o m m e n d e d .
n r i i e r t c . Garmaill, "An e x a m i n a ti o n o f T ic - T a e - T o e -
l i k e G a m a .* P r o c . NCC 7 4 , 34 9-355.
E xamines s t r u c t u r e o f s im p le gamea
(ep. 3D t i e - t a c - t o e o r guBIC) w here f o r c e d
w in s a r e p o a B ib le i and progra m s t r u c t u r e ! t o
p la y th e a .
T he Game o f L i f e . " T i n e , 21 J a n 7 4 , 6 6 - 7 .
(L i f e l i n e , s a i d t o be p u b l i s h e d by R o b e r t 1
W ain w rlg ht o f W i lto n , C o n n e c t i c u t .)
 71

* m e F it t e s t
One of th e s tr a n g e r p rojects of the s ix tie s w as a game
played by the most illu s tr io u s program m ers at a w e ll-k n o w n
place of research ; th e p la c e cannot b e named h e r e , nor
the true name of th e p r o je c t, b ecau se fu n ds w ere ob tained
through sober c h a n n e ls , and th ose who approved w e re
unaware of the tr u e n atu re of the p ro je ct, a gam e w e sh a ll
call SURF1T ("SU Rvival of th e FIT test".) E very d ay after
lunch the g u y s w ould solem n ly d e liv e r th eir p rogram s and
see who w o n . It w as a s o rt of an alogy to b io lo g ica l e v o lu tio n .
The program s w ould attack each o t h e r , and the s u r v iv o r s
would m ultiply u ntil o n ly o n e was l e f t .

It w orked lik e t h i s . Core memory w as d iv id ed up

into " pens," on e for each p rogram m er, p lu s an area for
the monitor.

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JU R .F IT ( W T O I?

Each p rogram , o r " a n i m a l c o u l d b e loaded a n yw h ere

In its p e n . T he oth er p rogram s knew the s iz e of th e pen
but not w h ere the anim al w as in it . Under su p e r v is io n
of the s p ecia l m on itor, th e anim als cou ld b y tu rn s b ite
into the other p e n s , m eanin g that th e con tents of c o r e at
several co n s ec u tiv e lo ca tio n s in th e other pen w as b rou ght
b ack , and ch a n g ed to z e r o in its orig in a l p e n .

Your anim al cou ld th en "digest" that i s , a n a ly z e

the contents b itte n . T h e n th e other animal got h is tu rn .
If he w as s till a liv e that i s , i f the program cou ld still
function it cou ld sta y in play; o th erw ise the anim al who
had bitten it to d eath cou ld m ultiply its e lf into the other
pen.

T he w in n e r w a s th e g u y w h ose animal occup ied all

pens at the en d of th e r u n . If he won s e v e ra l tim es in a
row he had to r e v e a l how h is program w orked.

A s the gam e w e n t o n , more and more sop h istication

was poured into th e a n a ly tic r o u tin e s , w h ereb y the anim al
analyzed the program that w a s its victim ; so the program m er
could attack b etter n ex t tim e . T he program s got b ig g e r
and b ig g e r .

Finally th e gam e cam e to a c l o s e . A cr eatu re em erged

who could not b e b e a te n . T h e program mer had re in v e n ted
the ger m . H is w in n in g cr ea tu r e w as aU te e th , w ith no
diagnostic ro u tin es; and th e first th in g it did w as m u ltiply
itself through th e e n tir e ty of its own p e n , a s s u r in g that
no matter w h ere It m ight ju st h ave b een b itte n , it w ould
s u r v iv e .
Uixni HG- 'Get*'
When word got around thal th is n ud e w as in a p ub lic file on the
tim e -s h a rin g s y s te m , my o ffice-m ates scram b led to get p rin tou ts of h e r .
T he c l e v e r e s t , th o u g h , had a d eck p u n c h e d . As he p red icted , sh e w as
throw n off by the sy ste m s p eop le w ith in an hour or s o - - lea v in g th e olher
g u y s w ith th eir p rin to u ts, but he had the d e c k . Now he can put her
b ack in th e com puter any tim e, b ut th ey ca n 'l.

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For Ihe most p u l . big computer* have
always been rented or lo w e d , r a th e r than
te u g h t o u trig h t. T hera are v a rio us reaso ns (or
thl*. From the customer'* point of vie w. It
make* (he whole thing tax-d eductib le without
amortization problems, and means lhat It's pos
sible to change pa rt of the pa cka ge the model
of compuier o r the accessorie s-* more easily.
And big amounts of money don't have lo be
shelled out st once.
Pram the m anufa cture r's point of view (and
of course we are speaking mostly of IBM). It Is
sdvaniageous to work the le asing game for
several reasons. Cash Inflow Is ste ady. The
manufacturer is In continuous communication
with the customer, and ha s h is e a r for change*
and improvements costing more. Competitors
are st a disadvantage because th e Immense
cspltal base needed lo gel Into the se llln g-and-
leaslng game makes compelltllion Impossible.
Basically, leasing raally may be thought
of as having two parts; the sale of the computer,
and bank ing a loan on It; essentia lly the lease
payments are Installment paym ents, and the real
profits come alter the customer ha s effectively
paid the real purchase pric e and is still forking
Many firms olher than IBM pre f e r to sell
Ihelr computers outr ig ht. Minicomputers are
almost always sold rath er th a n r ente d. However,
for those who believe in renti ng o r leasi ng, ihe
so-calle d "leasing firms" have a ppea re d, effec
tively performing a banking function. They buy
the computer, you rent or le ase il from them,
and they make the money you would've saved
If you'd bought.
IBM, now requir ed lo se ll ils computera
as well as lease them, keeps making changes
In Its syste ms which cynics think s r e done pa nly
lo sc are companies sway from le asing, sincc
If you've bought the eompuler you can't catch up.
(Large computers bought from companies Ihsl
like lo sell them, such as DEC and CDC. do not
seem lo hsv e this problem .)
A p r a c t i c a l problea of iB en se is f n r ta n c a Is 'a atnce nanc e.
w an in g r e p a ir and upkeep of coaputers and t h e i r a ccessorie s.
I ^ ts o f ?uys in Boston and L.A. are having Cun asking ea^ >utere,
bul he re you are stuck in Squeedunk snd i t d o e sn 't work anywore.
Trying t e fin d people who w ill fl* these th in gs on a sta ble
You can sig n a aalntananee contract* with the manufacturer,
which I s s o r t of lik e breakdown insu rance: whatever happens
h e ' l l ( i a . Eventually. I f you own e qulp M nt (row d if f e r e n t
have to be maintained too.)
Thia i s th a b l u e s t poin t In favor of IBH. Thei r maintenance is
superb.
w h o 'l l c o n tra c t to keep a l l your hardware working. RCA and
Raytheon are In to th a t.
THE SEVEN DWARVES AND THEIR FRIENDS
The com pute r companies are often
called "Snow White and the Seven D w arves,
even though the se ven keep ch an gin g. Here
are some main ones beside IBM. I hope I
haven't left anyone oul.
Reau iescan l In Face;
Sperry Rand Univac G en eral Electric
Honeywell (sold oul lo Honeywell)
Burroughs RCA (sold out lo Univac)
Control Data Corporation (CDC) Phllco
National Cash Re gister (NCR) G en eral Foods
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) I o th e rs beyond recollection.
Xerom Dala System s (XDS; formerly
Scientific Dsta Systems (SDS))
H ewlett-Pa ckard (HP)
Data Ocneral
I nie rdala . Inc.
Vsrlan Data Machines
Lockheed
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SOFTWARE
Computer program s. o r " softw sre ." used
(O come f rie wilh the com pute r. Bul IBM turned
sround and " unbundle d." mean ing you ha d io
buy It separately , and Ih ere has been some fol
lowing of this example. H owever, for U6crs who
arc buyin g s computer wilh some canne d program
for s psrlic u lsr p u rpose, p r ic e s a rc obviously
for the whole package: It's people who use Ihe
ssmi- compuier for a lot of d if ferent th in gs lhal
have to pay for Individual p r ogra m s.
There are many smell software companies.
For the cost of a le tterhead anyone can sta r t one;
the question is w het her he ha s anyth in g special
lo se ll. Some people whomp up progra m s on
their own which tu rn out lo be qu ite use fu l.
(For Insta nce, one Benjamin Pitman offers a
magnificent program In Fortr a n lo generate te x
tu al garbage. It's so good it can be used lo
e xpand proposals by h u n d r e d s of p a ges. He
calls il Simplified Integrated Modular Prose (SIMP
and It sells for 110. His a d d re s s is Compuier
Cente r. University of G eorgia , Athens GA 30602?)
O bviously, lo cre ele b ig sy stems for in tri
cate management purposes r e q u ir e s a grea t deal
more effort. TradilionHlly these a rc do ne by
vast programmer teems w ork in g in COBOL or
the like, constantly fighting with monitor program
and chewing up millions of d o lla r s. However,
the new Quickie Languages (th r ee shown pp.
may ofTer great simplification of su ch programmini
Programs arc protected by c opyrig ht--
Ihal's Ihe only way th e re can be a software In
d ustr y at a ll-- but aincc th e r e has been no
court litigation in ihe field, nobody knows what
the law really is or wh<.t il c o v e r s. Everybody
agre es that traditional c opyrig ht precedent covers
a lol of ground-- " deriv ative w ork s" definitely
violate copyright, even stu dy guid es lo texlbooks-
-- bul no one knows how far this goes.
Same for pate nts. T he Patent Officc has
granted pr ogram pate nts, notably the one on
ihe sorting pr ogram of A pplied Data Rese arch ,
I n c .. but The Patenl Officc has a profound d is
taste for this potential e xte nsion of ite. dutie s,
an<1 it- telling cvi-rycnc that progra m s a re n 't
p alem ab lc . even though Ihcy cle a rly fell wilhin
its mandate as uniq ue, o rig in a l p roce sses .
People who only road the he adli nes think
thal ihe Supreme Court s tr u c k down llic pate nt
ability of progra m s. No such th in g.
In ihis light ihe pate nts ih sl the Unlvereily
of Utah ha s gotten on Ihc ha lftone image synth esis
programs of Wamock and Wylie and Romney (sec
p. ) are of co nsiderable in te r e st. These
palcnls use the "softw a rc-as-ha rdw are " ruse : the
program is describ ed in de tail as ta king plBcc in
a fictitious machine shown in many detailed draw
ings whose ne bulous c h a r a c te r Is not rea dily
seen by the uninitiated: e vents vaguely taking
place in "mlcroprogrammablc mic ropro cess ors"
have been neatly foiMed on the Patent Officc as
detailed technical d ia closure. It's a gr eat game.
The Idea Is lhat the claims a rc so draw n as lo
eover n o t j u s l the fictitious machine, bul any
program tliat should happen to work the same
w ay. Bul su ch a pproaches, th ough common to
provto us.pate nt p r actices, have not ye t been
litigated In this field.
rat
1 n i playboy
'**
Mora r e c e n t .a d d r e s s :
c / o C oaout
o a p u te c h S y a t e a s In c.
1819 P e a c h t r e e R d .,
A t l a n t a CA 30309.
While In prin ciple ihcrc would seem lo be
every advantage in b uyin g use d computers, there
a re certain draw backs. Service is the main one:
the manufacturer Is not ve ry helpful about fixing
discontinued machines, and you may have to know
how to do it yourself. Even with machines still
available, you may have tr ouble getting onto a
scrv ice contract from ihe manufacturer, since
it "msy have been mis treate d." (American Used
Compuit-r, in Boston, will usually guarantee
llial ils merchandise will be accepted back into
manufa cture r's contract s e rv ic c .) A final draw
back is pr ice: a popula r machine may cost as
much use d as new. since th ey'r e savin g you the
waiting pe riod.
It's kind of unfortunate: olherwise usable
machinea gel wasted. (Bul h e re 's waste for
you: certain well-known laborato rie s, owned by
a profit-m aking monopoly, smash their used com
p u te rs if nobody wants them wilhin the lab.
They claim they can't rese ll them becpuse they
would then be "competing wilh the manufacturers.
I wish ihe conservationists would gel on thal one.)
(Nolis front all over: il sccm6 lhat all the
s u rviv in g numbe rs of the Philco compuier. a nlcc
machine but ve ry much discontinued, have ei
th e r gone to ihe slate of Israel or lo Pratt Insti
tute in Brooklyn. When I spoke at Pralt they
showed me Iheir Philco ma chines, chugging hofil-
Ih lly. and said ihey had 0 think) some four more
Philcos in crslcs, dona ted by their original owners.)
ANNOUNCEMKNTS
An ecccntric aspect of ihe computer Held
is ihc Announcement, th e statement by a company
(or even individual) that he is planning to make
o r sell a certain computer o r program. Some
v e ry odd things happen wilh announcements In
ihis field. (None of (his is unique to computer
dom, but It goes to unusual extremes h e re .)
Under our syslcm il is permissible for any
pers on or firm lo announce lhal he will make or
sell any particula r th in g , and even If he 's lying
thro ugh h is leelh, it's nol ordinarily considered
fra ud unle ss money change s hands. Talk is
cheap. Thus ii Is common practice In American
in dustry for people to say lhat Ihcy will soon
be selling hundred-m il c-on-h our automobiles,
tapioca-powered rockcis hip s, anligravity bc lu .
Okay. In Ihc computer world Ihc same
th in g happens. Thi strategy depends on the
announcer's market position. The little guys
are often bluffing w istfully, hoping someone will
gel interested enough lo put up the money lo
finish the proje ct, or the like: Ihe big companies
a re often "testing Ihe w ater." looking lo sec
whether there are potential cuslomcrs for whal
they haven'i even aticmptcd lo develop. Announce
ments by big companios a lto have strategic value:
if they announce something a smaller guy has
ulrcady announced, lliey muy cut him off at the
puss, even 'hough they hi.vc no intention of
de livering. T hat's just one example. The anal
ysis of IBM's announcements is s parlor game
in (lie field. II ha s been alleged, for instance,
lhal IBM announced ils 360 compuier long befcre
it was ready lo cul off in curs io ns on ils c u s
tomers by oilier firms; Control Data, in a recent
suil . alleged thal the Model 90 numbers of the
160 were announced, and then developed, simply
to destroy Control Dalu and ils own big fssl
n,Lchines. These a rr just examples.
Uatbmation ran several good articles on
buyin g compuier stuff In its Septem
b e r. IS. 1970 issu e.
"Software Buying" by Howard
Bromberg (35-40) and "Contract
Caveals" by Robert P. Bigelow (41-
44) a re ve ry helpful warnings about
nol getting bu rned.
Another. "Project Management
Gam es," by Wemer W. Leuierl (24-
34) is an absolutely brilliant, blood
c urdli ng strategic analysis of the
ploys and dangers involved in bu y
ing and sellin g very expensive things,
such as computers and software.
ANYONE INVOLVED IN COMPUTER
MANAGEMENT SHOULD READ THIS
MACIIIAVELUAN PIECE WITH THE
GREATEST CARE. Anyone Interes
ted In the theory of ahowdqwn and
negotiation can read 11 with a dlffer-
--------- ent slant.
 ||o o J ( S ttfX )
o w fu m e C bM P W cr
A s F f M C * b
* fttfp e d T 'fe
T h o s e o f u s w h o w e r e a r o u n d w ill n e v e r
fo rg e t t h e D a y s o f M a d n e s s (196B -9). C o m p u te r
s to c k s w e r e b o o m in g , an d th e i r b u y e r s d i d n 't
know w h a t i t w a s a b o u t; b u t e v e r y w h e r e t h e r e
were fin a n c ia l p e o p le t r y i n g to b a c k n e w c o m
p u te r c o m p a n ie s , a n d e v e r y w h e r e the s m a r t
c o m pu te r p e o p le w h o 'd m is s e d o u t on G e ttin g
T h e ir s w e r e lo o k i n g f o r a d e a l.
D a ta m a tio n f o r N o v e m b e r 1969 w as a n in c h
th ic k , th e r e w e r e th a t m any a d s f o r c o m p u le r s
an d a c c e s s o r ie s .
A t th e F a il J o i n t C o m p u te r C o n f e r e n c e th a t
y e a r i n L as V e g a s , I h a d to c o v e r th e h ig h l i g h t s
of the e x h i b i t s i n a h u r r y , a n d I t Look me all
afte rn o o n , m u c h o f it p r a c tic a l ly a t a t r o t . T h e n ,
after c lo s in g ti m e , I fo u nd out t h e r e h a d b e e n
a w hole o t h e r b u i l d i n g .
I t is i m p o r ta n t to look a t how a lo t o f t h e s e
co m p an ies w e r e b a c k e d , th e b e t t e r to u n d e r s t a n d
how i r r a ti o n a li ty b lo o m e d In th e s y s t e m , a n d
made th e co llap B e o f th e s p e c u la t iv e s to c k s in
1970 q u ite I n e v i ta b le .
A n u m b e r of c o m p a n ie s w e r e s t a r t e d at
the in i ti a t iv e f i t p e o p le w ho knew w h a t t h e y w e r e
d oin g a n d h a d a c l e a r i d e a , a n e w te c h n i q u e o r
a good m a r k e ti n g s l a n t . T h e s e w e r e in t h e
m in o r ity , I f e a r .
M ore com m on w e r e c o m p a n ie s s t a r t e d at
the in i tia tiv e o f so m e b o d y w ho w a n te d to s t a r t
"a n o th e r X " - - a n o t h e r m in ic o m p u te r c o m p a n y ,
a n o th e r te r m in a l c o m p a n y , e x p e c t in g th e p r o d u c t
so mehow to b e s a t i s f a c t o r y w h e n t h r o w n t o g e th e r
by h ir e d h e l p . P e r h a p s th e s e p e o p le s a w com
p u te r c o m p a n ie s a s s o m e th in g li k e go ld m in e s ,
p u ttin g o ut a c om m on p r o d u c t w ith i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e
commodity v a l u e .
T h e d e a l , a s som e of th e s e Wall S t . h a n g e r s -
on w ou ld e x p l a i n i l , w a s most i n t r i g u i n g . T h e i r
id e a w as to c r e a t e a c o m p u te r c o m pa n y on low
cap ita l, " b r i n g i t p u b l i c " (g e t c l e a r a n c e f ro m th e
SEC to s e ll s t o c k p u b l i c l y ) , an d th e n m a k e a
k illin g as t h e s h e e p b o u g h t it a n d the p r i c e w e n t
u p . T h e n , i f y o u c o u ld ge t a " t r a c k r e c o r d "
b a s e d on a few f a s t s a l e s , th e in c r e a s i n g p r i c e
of y o u r s to c k ( th e s e a r e th e d a y s o f m a d n e s s ,
re m e m b e r) m a k e s it p o s s ib l e to b u y u p o t h e r
com p an ies a n d b e c o m e a c o n g lo m e ra te .
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Vea, it's real.
Life imitates art
on Route 46, N.J.
It w a s v e r y d iffic u lt t o ta lk lo theB e p e o p l e ,
j a r t i c u l a r l y if y o u w e r e t r y i n g to g e t s u p p o r t f o r
a le g itim a te e n t e r p r i s e b u i l t a r o u n d u n u s u a l i d e a s .
( E v e r y b o d y w a n ts to b e s e c o n d . ) A n d w h a t's
w o r s e , th e y t e n d e d t o h a v e th a t m ost r e p r e h e n
s ib le q u a lity : t h e y w o u l d n t l i s t e n . D id th e y
w a n t t o h e a r w h a t y o u r i d e a a c tu a lly w a s ? " I 'l l
get m y te c h n ic a l p e o p le to e v a lu a te i t " a n d
t h e y s e n d o v e r Jo e w h o o n c e to o k COBOL. I
fin a lly f i g u r e d o ut th a t s u c h p e o p le a r e im p o s s ib le
to ta lk to i f y o u 'r e s i n c e r e i t 's a q u a l i t y t h e y
fin d u n f a m i li a r a n d t h r e a t e n i n g . I d o n 't th i n k
t h e r e '6 a n y w a y a p e r s o n w ith a g e n u in e id e a
c a n c o m m u n ic a te w ith s u c h W h e e le r - D e a le r s ;
th e y j u s t fix y o u w ith a p i e r c i n g g l a n c e a n d s a y
" Y e a h , b u t a r e w e ta l k i n g ab o u t h a r d w a r e o r
s o f tw a r e ? " ( th e two w o r d s th e y k n o w i n t h e
fie ld ).
T h i s i s all lh e s a d d e r b e c a u s e lh e co m
p a n ie s lh a t a c h ie v e im p o r ta n t t h i n g s in t h i s fie ld ,
as f a r a s I c a n s e e , a r e t h o s e w i t h 'a u n i f y i n g
id e a , c a r r i e d o u t u n s l i n l i n g l y b y t h e m a n o r
m e n w h o b e lie v e in i t . I th in k o f O l s e n 's D igital
E q u ip m e n t C o r p o r a ti o n , D ata G e n e r a l , E v a n s an d
S u th e r l a n d C o m p u te r C o r p o r a ti o n , V e c to r G e n e r a l.
T h is i s n o t to sa y th a t a good id e a s u c c e e d s
w ith o u t g oo d m a n a g e m e n t o r go o d b r e a k s : f o r
in s t a n c e , V i a t r o n , a firm w h ic h w a s th e d a r l i n g
o f lh e c o m p u t e r h ig h - f l y i n g s t o c k s , h a d a p e r
f e c tly s o u n d i d e a , if n o l a d e e p o n e : to p r o d u c e
a v i d e o t e r m i n a l lh a t c o u ld b e s o l d f o r a s liltle
a s $100 a m o n th . But t h e y go t o v e r e x t e n d e d ,
a n d h a d m a n u f a c tu r in g t r o u b l e s , a n d th a t w a s
th a t . (You c a n now g e l a v i d e o te r m i n a l fo r
$49 a m o n lh , l h e H a z e l t i n e .) O f c o u r s e , a lol
o f id e a s a r e h a r d t o e v a l u a t e . A m a n n a m e d
O v s h i n s k y , f o r i n s t a n c e , n a m e d a w h o le n e w
b r a n c h o f e l e c t r o n ic s a f t e r h i m s e lf ( " o v o n i c s " ) ,
a n d c la im e d it w o u ld m a k e i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t s
c h e a p e r o r b e t t e r th a n a n y b o d y e l s e 's . S co ff,
s c o f f . Now O v s h in s k y h a s h a d t h e la st la u g h :
w h a t h e d i s c o v e r e d som e n o w c a l l " a m o r p h o u s
s e m i c o n d u c to r t e c h n o l o g y ," a n d h i s c i r c u i t s a r e
b e in g u s e d b y m a n u f a c tu r e r s o f c o m p u te r e q u ip
m e n t , A n o t h e r e x a m p le i s o n e F r a n k M a r c h u k ,
w h o s e " l a s e r c o m p u te r " w a s a n n o u n c e d s e v e r a l
y e a r s a g o b u t h a s n 't b e e n s e e n y e t - M any com
I p u t e r p e o p le a r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y s k e p l i c a l .
T h i s i s s t il l a fie ld w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l s can
h a v e a p r o f o u n d in f lu e n c e . B ut th e w r o n g w ay
'ITS A WHFF1.FRr to t r y it i s th r o u g h c o n v e n ti o n a l c o r p o r a t e f in
a n c i n g . G e t y o u r o w n c o m p u te r , d o it i n a
g a r r e t , a n d t h e n ta lk a b o u t w a y s o f g e tt in g il
o u t to t h e w o r l d .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T h e j o k e r i s lh a l i f y o u m is s e d o u t o n a ll
'** t h i s y o u w e r e m u c h b e t t e r o ff. A n y o n e w it h a
J o h n B r o o k s , T h e G o-G o Y e a r s . W e y b r ig h t
& T a l le y . $10.
g e n u in e id e a i s b e i n g s e t u p f o r tw o C e e c in g s :
th e f i r s t b i g o n e , w h e n t h e y te ll y o u y o u r i d e a s ,
s k i lls a n d l o n g - t e r m in d e n t u r e a r e w o r th 2J%
tr ib u t i o n s o f " b u s i n e s s k n o w h o w ," a n d lh e s e c o n d ,
w h e n y o u g o p u b li c a n d th e u n d e r w r i t e r g e t s
v a s t ra k e o f f s f o r h i s in c o m p a r a b le s e r v i c e s . Whai
is moBt l i k e l y to g e t lo s t in all t h i s i s a n y o r i g
in a l o r s t r u c t u r e d c o n tr i b u ti o n to t h e w o r ld th a t
th e c o m p a n y w a s in t e n d e d , in y o u r m i n d , to
a c h ie v e .
I n p a r t t h i s i s b e c a u s e a n y o n e w i th t e c h
n ic a l k n o w le d g e i s a p p a r e n tl y l a b e lle d S illy
T e c h n ic ia n i n th e fin a n c ia l c o m m u n ity , o r Im p o s
s ib le D r e a m e r ; i t is e n t r e n c h e d d o c t r i n e a m o n g
m any p e o p le t h e r e th a t t h e man w ith t h e o r i g i n a l
id e a c a n n o t b e a llo w e d to c o n tr o l lh e d ir e c tio n
of the r e s u l t i n g c o m p a n y . In o n e c a s e k n o w n
lo m e , a m an h a d a b e a u ti f u l in v e n ti o n (no t
e l e c tr o n ic ) th a t co u ld h a v e d e e p l y im p r o v e d
A m e ric a n i n d u s t r y . It w a s in e x p e n s i v e , s im p le
to m a n u f a c t u r e , p r o f o u n d ly e f f e c tiv e . H e m ade
h is d e a l a n d th e c om p a n y w a s s t a r t e d , u n d e r
h ia d i r e c t i o n . B u t i t w a s a t r i c k . When th e
s e c o n d i n s ta ll m e n t o f f i n a n c i n g c a m e d u e (no t
th e se c o n d r o u n d , m in d y o u ) , th e b a c k e r s
c a lle d f o r a n e w d e a l, a n d he w a s s k e w e r e d .
R e su lt: n o s a l e s , n o e f f e c t on th e w o r l d , no
n o th in g to s p e a k o f.

-w* e en e * o T *
E M
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r * U *
J J h f c m Wl SS*'
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g ^ n ^ o h t ) f t n l V i r l - * ! f f f &
IttBle^kc.st Mordor
gr. 8 < M fr fc
it wll It
I ^ V t r <f I ) / Afl
T l* G t 'f c ( j r * > | G ' , ,t
B l M * * C n u
S t C U T I s
S V IW
Qttj fctMt
A trem ely sale employment. For those who tur n
B j j 6 ^ 4 t '.
IBM,* everyone knows, is the trade
mark of th a Interna tiona l Budns** Machines
Corporation, an Immanta company cent*rod in
Armonk. N .Y ., bul Extending to over t h un dr ed
countries and amploylng vail over a qua rt e r of
a million people.
IBM dtanlnstes two In du it rla s. computers
and a lac tr ie ty pe w riter s.
To many people. IBM ta synonymous with
computers. Some ol the public. Indeed, be lieves
them to be the only coa p ute r manufact urer.
In cam era s and film. Uiere Is Kodak. In
automobiles. th e re I* General Motors. And In
the computer field the re l( IBM.
IBM se ll a some 65 to 70% of all lha com
p u te rs and prog ra m s that s r e so ld . In thla r e s
pect. the b alanc ed near-monopoly, Ihay a re like
Kodak a n d CM.
But th e re a re Important differences. Ev-
everybod y knows what a camsra 1b. or an auto
mobile. But to ma ny, If not moat, people, a
computer la what IBM say* II Is.
The Importsncs of Ihls firm, for good or
HI. cannot b e overstated: whose legend 1* so
thick, whose stock pr ices have doubled and r e
doubled, ten Limes over, to Us mu lliblllion-dollsr
mass: whose l e a n i n g Infallibility-- at least, as
se en by o u ts i d e r s - - have been the stuff of
legend, whose style has prolif erated acro ss the
world, a sty le which has In a way Itself become
synonymous with 'c omputers:* whose name aym-
b ollies for many people rem arkably, both
those who love It and those who hate It-- the
New Age.
T h e r ig id it y associated In the public mind
with "the computer* may b e related In some
deep way to th la organizat ion. As a corpor ation
they are u se d to desig ning systems that people
have to uae In Ihelr joba by flat, and thus th e re
are few e xter nal limitations on the compiles Ilona
to our liv es tha t IBM can create.
Many p tn p le mistake IBM for "]ual another
big com pan y. and he re lies the d sn ge r. IBM's
position In the world Is so ex tra or dina ry , go
caref ully poise d (aa a result of various anti
tr ust pro ce ed in gs snd precsutiona) Just outside
of total monopoly of a vitally important snd all-
penetrating field, that much of what they do has
Implications for all of u s. Ralph Nader' s co n
tention that Gene ral Motors Is too powerful to
function a s a n independent government su rely
applies ev en more to IBM. General Motora is not
in a position to pers ua de the public thsl ev ery
car has Id hav e ten wheals and a snowplow.
IBM m a i l in s a n e wsys to hiv e molded compu
te rs in l u own image, and then pers ua de d tha
world tha t th la la th e way they have to be.
But IBM la de eply sensitive, in Its w ay .
to public r ela tio ns , and has woven an ex ten sive
ayatam of political ti e s and legends (if not
mythology) which have kept 11 almost completely
aaempt from the critical attention of concerned
citizens.
T h us It i t ne ce ssa ry h e re , simply a s a
matter of ro v e rin g the field al an Introductory
level , to r ais e some questions and criticism*
that oc cu r to p w p le who are concerned about
IBM. IBM presu m ab ly will nol mind having
these m atte rs raised; their pub lic -aplrlted con
ce rn in so many a re as as su res lha t when some-
UUng so p ublic ly important as the c ha rac ter of
their own po w er la concerned, occasional
sc rutiny ahould be welcane.
ll is Important to note Brat of all thal IBM
is In many resp ect s the ve ry model of a ge ner
ous and dutiful co rporat e c it ii e n . In a m m u n
ity relatione .* In donations to colleges snd un i
ve rs iti e s. In generous rele ase of the time of Its
onploye es for charitable and civic un de rtakings .
It Is almost certainly the most pub lie-sp ir ite d
corporation in America, snd pe rh a ps on the
face of the ear th.
They have been gener ous about many
TH gooJ> AM) Mcwr
public Interest projects, from Braille tr a n s c r ip
tion lo donating photogr ap hers sn d facilit ies for F i r s t, the good newa Now for t h e bad ne wa . . .
films on child development.
They offer many com puter p r o - These prog ra m s a te not nece ssa rily
The corporation spo nsors worthwhile cul gram s (or a v arie ty of p u r p o s e s . set up the way you would want the m.
tu ral ev en ts, "Don Quixote" wilh Hex H srrls on (Bul If you take the tr ouble to adapt
o n TV was te rrific, Katharine H ep b u r n 's "Glass to the m, you 'll probably ne ver get
Menagerie* was marvelous. b e c k .)
The pro grams favor c a r d or
car d -l ik e Input and . to da la. strongly
dis courag e tim e-sharing sn d widespread
IBM's enlightenment sn d benevole nce
convenient terminal use by untr ained
people.
to w ard its employees le pe rh a ps be yond tha t of IBM pro grams are also notoriously
y w
any company an yw here . They ha ve rigorously Inefficient. (Thai way you have to use
up grade d the position of women sn d olh er minor bigge r machi nes for lo ng er.)
ity employees; the opportunities for women may
be greater there than an yw here e lae, They have A company o r governmental agency The co u rs e s Indoctrinate with the IBM
up grade d rep air of their eyelems. at any level, can get Immense amounts of *help* outlook, a n d the planted people spr ead
to white-collar sta tus, and tool kite a re disguised and Information" from IBM, which ll . Mor eover, both mechanisms help
as br iefc as es. This innovation, making a r ep a ir offers fre e c o urs e s, ev en IBM IBM spot the people they ca n work with
man inlo a "field en gin ee r," Is one o f th e cle v e r people on "released time" lo look to make a big aale- - and (it ie alleged
est pu bllc -re la llo ns snd employment policies av er
Institut ed.
over the pr ob lem s on the p rem ise s. b y some) those who st a nd In the w a y .
IBM offe rs varioua k in d s of com
They are openhanded 10 stnployeea who patibility among Its systems. It always seems to cnat extr a .
wanl to ru n for office, evidently r e g a r d l e s s of
platform. In the a lin e s the re were peace candi IBM equipment Is rugged and
dates who worked for IBM. and e viden tly got d urable , and the ir repairmen
lime off for 11. More rec en tly. Fra n Youngsieln. or 'f ie ld eng inee rs " struggle
an IBM marketing Instructo r, was a 1973 cand i with gree t diligence and alacrity
date for Mayor of New York on the ticket of the to ke ep It r u nn in g . You may not like the way il r u ns.
Fre e Libertarian Par ty, opposing all laws againal
victim lesa crimes ( e .g . prostitution and odd se x ),
as wall aa Day Care and welfare.
They also rarely fire people. Once yo u're
in, and within cer tain broad ou tli ne s, it' s e x
1. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF IBM .
out not lo fit in well, they have a tr ad ition of
cer ta in gentle pr es a u re -pra ctic e s like moving It is pe rh aps In the social realm. Including
you around tha country repeatedly at IBM ex its Ideological c h ar ac te r . lhal a lot of people
pe nse. This encour ages leaving, b ul also e x a re tur ned off by IBM.
po se s the lets-w an te d employee lo a varie ty of
opp or tuniti es he might nol o therw is e s e e . without IBM ha s tradi tionally bee n th e paternalistic
the trauma and anxiety of dismissal. corporation. (Paternalistic corporations w ere
some kin d of b ig philosophical Issue lo people
(II la said thai th e re a re IBM flrlngB, but In lhe fifties, but nobody cares anymore. Anyway,
they are rar e and formidable. Hey wood Gould's
lhe r e s t were pe rhaps Inconsequential compared
de scription of an IBM firing (Corporati on F r e a k , to IBM,) Big IBM towns not only have a Country
p p . 113-115). for which he does n ot claim au
Club (no booze) . but a Homestead for the comfort
thenticity, Is ne verthel ess blood curdling .) of important corporate g uests. The re are dresa
codes (allhough non-whito s h ir ts and below-the-
IBM's Inlernetlonel man ners (In lls 115 collar hair are now allowed). and ye s. codes
co untries) a re likewise prBise worl hy. Compared of privat e behsvior (now sub du ed ) . Thes e Irr ita te
to the perfidious behavior of some ol ou r other people with liberlarian c o nce rn s. They do nol
multinational corpor ations, they are sweetness bother employees, evidently, be cause employees
and light and hlghschool civic s. Sens itive to knew whai they were getting Into.
the feelings of people a b ro ad, ihay are Bald to
ope rate car efully within a rra ng ements made to
Generalizations about IBM people obviously
satisfy each country. They train nationals for
cannot be ve ry stro ng . Obviously the re Is going
rea l corporat e responsibility rathe r lhan bringing
to be immense variation among 2E5.000 people.
in on ly outside people. And they a re sensitive
half of whom have college de grees: bul of co urse
to issuea: for Instance, they rec entl y refuse d to
one of lhe great tr u th s of sociology Is lhal any
eel up an A ptr thei d computer in South Africa.
non-random group haB tend encies.
ONE THING IS PERFECTLY CLEAR: More tha n tha l In IhiB case . In a way IBM
people are an ethnic grou p. Im pr essiv e indeed
IBM haa no monopoly on un d e rs tan din g o r sophistication, a r e lhe ge ner al en ergy an d slnglemi ndedness
of th e people, galvanized by Ih elr cer tainty that
IBM is tr u e , good and r ig h t, and lhat the IBM
way is lhe w ay . This righte o usn es s Is of course
THEN WHY SUCH A RANGE OF FEELINGS a big tur n-off for a lol of p e o p le . Perhaps 11
TOWARD IBM? leads In tur n to the most -heard s lu r s about IBM
people, lhat they are bralnwsBhed or provincial.
Among computer people, feelings toward
IBM ran ge from wors hip lo furious hale (depen
ding only In part on whether you w ork th e r e ) .
Many, many are of course employed by
IBM. and the davotlon with which the y embrace
the corporation and lls sp ir it ie a w ond er of the
w o rl d .
I5M (iON|fOTiej tf-f, frwi/ce
But the spir itual community of IBM extends
1950s (TUBES)
f u rt h e r . (Jpper-managemeni typos, especially
Chairmen of Boards and compiroJIers, seem to 650 (Decimal) 700 Se ries
ha ve a reverence (or IBM tha l ia no t of this 701
worl d, some amalgamated vision whic h entwines 702 (decimal) v
Images of eternal stock and d iv idend growlh
with an ideellted nodon of manage ment efficiency. 70S (decimal) 704 (36 bit*)
Many others use and live with IBM's equipment,
and view IBM as anything from "the g r ea le s t \ 1
company In the world lo "a fact of life" o r even
"a n ece ss ar y ev il ." In some pla ce s whole colo
nie s of use rs mold themselves in ll s image, so EARLY 1980s \ / \.
lha l a round IBM computers the re a re many "lltile (TRANSISTORS!) V {
IBMs." full of people who Imitate the p ers onali 7070 7040 7090
ties and style of IBM people. (RCA. before its 1620 7074 7044 7094
computer operation (all to piece s. Imitated not (decimal
Juat the design of IBM's 380 com puter, bu t a minicomputer) j
whole ran ge of titles and departmental names
from out of IBM. Tho sincer eet form of flat tery .) 1400 aer ie* (decimal. j STRETCH
accounting-orienled) / (94 blta)
But outside ihls pa le -- beyond the s p ir i 1401. 1 41 0... / /
tual community of IBM-- the re are quite a few
olher computer people. Some simply igno re IBM.
being concerned with their own stuff. Some
like IBM but happen to be els ew h e re . Othe rs
dislike or hale IBM (or a va ri e ty of r ea so ns,
MID-1960S - - - - - I1 '7"- - - - - - - - - - -
INTEGRATED ^
bu si n e ss and social. And thia smoldering CIRCUITS) 360 Se ries
hatr ed Is surely far different In c h a r a c te r from
(32-blt a s well a s decimal)
an yb od y's attitude toward Kodak o r CM. 1130/1000 Se ries 20. 25. 30. 40, 44. SO, 6S. 67.
................ > 75. BS. 00. 9 1 . ..
While It is nol the intent h e re to do any
kind of an anti-IBM number, it Is ne ve rthe le ss
n ece ss ar y to attempt to round oul Ihe one-a ided T 01 v
("MEDIUM-SCALE
pic tu re lhal Is projected outside Ihe computer
INTEGRATION") 370 Se ries
w or ld. In what follows the re ia no room to try
to give a balanced pic ture. Because IBM can System 3 l4 * 1S5 16S- '
speak (or Itself, and does so with many voices, (Variable)
It Is me re Important lo Indicate h e re the kinds System 7
of criticisms which are commonly made ol IBM (ie bits)
by sophisticated people within Ihe in d u s i ry . bo
lha t IBM-worshipers will have some Idea ol what
bo th e rs people. Bul of co urse no attempt can
be made he re to Judge these matters : Ihls Is Tha same alick ma rketing could b e applied to any o th e r in d ust ry
Jusl intended ae source material foT concerned But ll wouldn't be IBM. Nowhere else could the m yst ery of lha su bje ct
c iti z en s. be met and enhanced with so many more m y st e r ie s.
 PROVINCIAL?
There would aan to be no quaMlon that
IBM people are comparatively conservative and
convantlHial. Thl* partly because ihai'e who IBM
hire* (though they reportedly urge tolerance ol
the unusual employee In a trai nin g O la , 'T h e Wild
Duek"). A hu ge number of IBH people ne ver
worked for anybody elee: obviously thia affects
the perspective. like etaylng at one university
all your life, o r In one c ity .
II a a y aleo be that becauee IBM place* u c h
a premium on dependability and obedience, new
ideas (and (be ab ilities ne eded to generate them)
naturally ru n Into a little tro u b le . Some critics
llod among IBM people e heavy concern with con*
vantiatal symbols td achievem ent, and (unfor
tunately) eati ng th a world etuck all over with
conventional labels and Middle American stereo*
S u e of the m a t amuelng material on thle
o n e * from an odd source: e w ri te r named
Haywood Could wbo, all unprepared, bocame a
consultant to IBH. e arned unconscionable amount*
of money (M0.000 in six m onths). and lived lo
write a very funny and obse rv ant book about It
(see Bibliogr aphy ).
But 11 le necessary on thsse matters to tee
bow difficult th in gs can be lor IBH p v p l e . To be
Identified t s an IBM pars on is soaeth ing like wear*
Ing a ring Id yo ur nose, a yarm ulkaor a halo:
an enirapmsnt In a social role lhat makes ths Indi
v id u a l^ position ewkward among outs ider!. IBM
p o p l e often have to take guff i t pa rlies, unless
Ihsy are IBM p a rties. Defenslvsnss* n a y account
for some of the Overdo, and some of the d a n n lsh -
BHAINWASHSD?
II I* tr ue that IBM people are essentially In
their own worl d, One theory Is thit comparl-
a en u iliatlo n within the firm (ra th er vlelble in
tbair deslgne) may tend lo stifle. Indeed, because
IBM people can expect lo be briefed and schooled
in every technical n a tte r they will need to know
for a given aselgnment. Ihe incentive to follow
technical d e v elo p m ent through oulslde magazines
and societies may be reduced. Between Think
magaslne and corp orals brie fin gs, it Is possible
for IBM p w p ls to be comparatively (or even com
pletely) unawere of innovations elsewhe re In the
field, except as these new developments are
p rw enie d to th e n wilhin the organization, in
thle light ll le easy to understand Ihe Ibmere'
sense of certainly thet Ihelr flr m invented every*
thing and le al the forefront.
Of cours e many fine rese arch efforts do go on
th sre. In eonelderebie awarenese of whate hap
pening elsew he re Particular Individuals st IBM
havs done excellent reeearch on everything I n n
conputer hidden-l in e imaging to the structu re o(
the genetic code and computer-synthesized holo-
g r u n t . APL Itself (see p p . t l . - 3 ) . ss developed
by Iverson Bt Harvard and iBter programmed by
him at IBM. Is another esample of sophisticated
individual creativity th ere. So it'a entirely
possible. But IBM certainly has no monopoly on
un derstand ing o r c rsstlv lty. and IBM-haters
sometimes talk a s If the reve rse is tr ue.
I hope to be able to report in future
edlli ie of this book lhat IBM has moved
firmly and credib ly toward making its sys
tems clear and simple lo uee. without re-
requlr ln g la borious attention to needless
complications and oppressive rltuale,
I t's still possible.
One of the things we often forget Is
that public-sp ir ited corporations can be
reached, they do listen; and IBM le nothing
If not public-spir ited-- except when it
comes lo the design of Its systems.
I hope that this book will help
people who are Inconvenienced by compuier
systems to understsn d and pinpoint whal
they think Is wrong with the sysiems In
Ihelr dala str uctu re, Interactive properties,
or other desig n featu res- - and that they
will iry to e ap r ess their discontents Intel
ligently snd constructively to those res
ponsible. Including, where appropriate,
International Business Mschlnes Corporation. 1
Armonk. NY.
II i9 IBM's alleged misbehavior in pursuit
of sales that has drswn some of the strongest
criticism within the in dustry, as well as consid
erable litigation, Their "predsiory pricing*
(a terro use d by the ju dge In the recent Telex
decision), and olher mean practices, are (whe
ther tr ue or false) folklore within the in dustry ,
These accusations are well summsrited
by "Anonymous In a recent arUcle (see Biblio
gr aphy). Basically Ihe accusations agalnal
IBM's sales pr aciices are that they play dirty:
If you, say, the computer manager in b business
firm, wanl to buy equipment from Bnother out
fit. IBM (so the story goes) will go over your
head to yo ur boss, accuse you o( incompetence,
try to get you fired if you oppose them, and
Heaven knows whal e ls e. Anonymous claims
lhal various forms of threat, Intimidation, "hard
sell sc are tactics" snd "behind-the-s cenes man
ipulation' a re actually Blandard practice in IBM
sales: he or she alleges various insiancos in
c erts in municipalities.
Such behsvlor is emphatically denied,
though not in relation lo thBt article, by Board
Chairman C ary. In a recent teller lo Newsweek
(see Bibliography). Cary emphasizes the impor
tance of IBM's 76-psge business Conducl Guide
lines. Whether these are publicly examinable
is not sta ted.
Thes e charges were also taken up con
cretely in a recent survey ol computing managers
done by UalamBlion (summarited by McLaughlin
in "Monopoly Is Nol a Came: see Bibliography).
In Datamation'* analysis oi this survey, the
menegera did not seem to agree wilh these
charges against IBM. However, il must be
noted-- snd ihis se riously calls into question
the entire survey as analyzed-- thst oul of 1100
panelists lo the questionnaire. Datamation only
considered 389 responses "usable." partly (It is
ststed) because many did nol give dais allowing
themselves to be identified, Considering the
widespread fear of I8M in Ihe field, ihls may
have strongly biased the poll in favor ol IBM
"When we went from IBM to
National C u h Re giste r. II was like
Ihe difference between nlghl and day."
Retired ha rdware executive,
talking eboul Inventory programs
(Incidentally. II is amusing to note thal
even In Ihis remaining company, in lorm* of
"performance pe r d olla r." the managers survey ed
(and surviv in g Ihe weedoul) ranked the lop
three companies as DEC, Burroughs end Control
Uata. IBM was worst oul ol 8. Obviously
service counts for e lot.)
An Interesting view on IBM's sa le s ethics
was expre ssed recently by Ryal R. Poppa,
president of Pertec C o r p .
"In Ihe past, when Ihere have been sslee
situations where 'you can't honor the
policy and win the de sl.' IBM ha s violated
the policy with the practice, he sa id ."
However, he believes thal situation Is changing
unde r IBM's new management, so that Ihe gu id e
lines will be obse rved in the lutu re. ("Poppa
Seea Several IBM Changes ." Computerworld,
21 Nov 73. 29.)
The people who lake these ma ilers ol IBM
sa les practices most seriously** IBM's competi
tors-- now have their own organization, the
Computer Industry Association. This Is an a sso
ciation of computer companies, which has as
ils intention ihe "establishment and preservation
of a sound and viable U-S. computer in d u stry ,
ba sed o n . . . free and open competition." Empha
sis the irs. Translation: ihey're out lo gel IBM.
President Dan L. McGurk, iormerly of Xerox
Oata Sysiems. has blood In his eye. Member
ship is open only to compuier companies, bul
Ihelr newsletter On Line is available to indivi
duals (see B ibliography). Anyone se riously
interested in these matters is referred to them.
3. TECHNICAL DECISIONS AND DESIGNS
A. Prologue.
Part of the mylh of lOM's corporate pe rfec
tion 1s based on ihe notion ihsl technical mailers
somehow predominate In IBM's decisions, and
thal IBM's product offerings and designa thus
emerge naturally and necessarily and inevitably
from the se considerations. Thia is rath er lar
from the Irulh.
IBM presents many d( Ihelr actions as tsc h-
nical, even as technical breakthroughs, whon
in lact they are strategic maneuvers. The an
nouncement ol a new computer, for example,
such as the 360 or 370. is usually made to
sound as if they have invented something special,
while in (act they have simply made certain
de cisions as to "which way they intend lo go"
and how they plan to market things in ihe next

Now, the re are many m anulacturers who Availability of products is in general a Elleclively the IBM customer lends to be
think Ihls Is very wrong o( IBM: who beliove metier ol exquisite dc gra c. It's nol so much frequently trapped In a cage of restrictions,
they should have ihe rig ht to sell accessories thai you csn or can'l gel a particular thing, whether this cage is intentionally created by
and p a n s - - especially core and disk memorieB-- bul thal Ihe pricing and available contracts al IBM or not One is reminded of Ihe mollo of

W dPM noL lo plug onto IBM's computers, ll ha s been

generally possible lor the se other manufacturers
lo work IheBe Interconnections oul awhile after
a given time ^xerl 6lrong pressure to pul you
whero they have chosen wilhin their currently
featured product line . Moreover, extremely
strong hints are Biways available: the salesmsn
T .ll. white's anthill in The Once and Future King:

THAT WHICH IS NOT FOROlDDLN IS COMPULSORY.

me V*MUAC MtCHAU'CS
IBM conirole the Industry principally by
controlling Its custo mers. Through varioua
mechanisms, ii seems lo enforce ihe principle
that "Once an IBM customer, always an IBM
customer .* With an e atr ao rdln a ry degre e of
control, surely poseeeeed In no olher field by
any other organize Hon In Ihe free world, 11
dictates whal Ils customers may buy. and whal
they may do with what they get. More than
this: the elections of loyalty levied upon IBMs
cueumers are sim ila r. In kin d and degre e, U
whai u damande of Ils own employees. IBM
makes the c u s u m e r 's employees more and more
like Ils own employees, committing ih e o as
Individuals, and eOectively committing the coo-
pany lhat b u y s frno It. to IBM se rv ice In
perpetuity.
Hare are some of the ways thle systo n of
control s e m e to work . He are not saying here
thal this Is n ece ssarily how IBM pla ns It:
rather, the se are the vir tu al mechanics, virtual
10 lha old sense: this is how it might a s well
be working. In Ihe anthropological sense this
Is i 'functional* a n aly sis, showing the tie-ins
rathe r than Ihs actual detailed thought processes
lhal occu r. And even If Iheee ere really the
mechanics, perh aps IBM doeen't mean them to be.
11 a lg h t Just somehow be a continuous accident.
A. Interconnection and compatibilities.
IBH acts s s If It does not wanl competitors
to be able lo connect ihelr acceeaorles id Its
ccmputers. Ii's s s th ou gh CM could design the
roede so as lo p revent Ihe peesage of olher
vebleles than lia o w n .
Thia la done e sv eral w ay s. First. IBM
has soBsOmss use d con tractual techniques to
prevent such intarconnecllone u l u a y ata sa,
either forbidding e th e r th in gs to be attached
(or al least clapping on extra se rv ice charges
if they a r e ) . or declari ng lhat ll would not
be responsible for overall performance of such
t se tu p, effectively withdrawing the ha rdware
I liar anise lhat le su ch a strong selling point.
Secondly. IBM doee not tall all lhat neede
lo bfe known In o r d e r to make Iheee intercon
nection*-- ihe deUUa of the hard w are interfaces.
-Finally. IBM can simply d e cree , perbape
claiming technical necessity, thst Interconnection
la impossible. For Insta nce. IBH sa id for a
time thal their latest b ig progra m . "VS.* or
Virtual SysjBB, wou ldn't work (translation:
would not b e allowed) If competitive memories
were used, on the c om pute r.
Ihe computer comes out on Ihe mark et, bul
it' s gelling more difficult.
Thus tha Telex Decision of September 17.
1S73. in which II was decreed by ihe judge that
IBM would have to aupply complete interlace
information promptly when Introducing a new
computer, was s source of great Jubilation in
Ihe computer field. However, lhal pa ri of the
Judgment has since been cancelled.
Much the same problem exists in ihs solt-
ware area. IBM Is less than in terested In
hslplng ils competitors write pr ograma lhal hook
up lo IBM programs, to the details of program
hookup are not alwsys made c le ar. Here. too.
many smaller companies Insist thsy should be
made to do It'.
B . Control and guidance of what the customer
can get.
To e remarkable degre e, if you are an
fBM cusiomsr, you practically have to buy whst
they tell you. This IBM manages by an in tr i
cate system of fluctuating degre es of salea and
suppor t and contractual dealing. The IBM cus
tomer alwsys ha s several optlone: but the se are
like forced c ard s. IBM is alwsys Introducing
and discontinuing products, and changing prices
snd contractual e rrangoienl* and aofiwere op
tions in an elaborate choreography, which applies
calculated pressure s on the custo m er. IBM has
s finely-tuned system of customer inc entives by
which il controls product phssln g. to uae the
pollle term, or planned obsolescence, as some
people call It.
(Ryal R. Poppa, presi dent of Pertec Corp..
pred ic ts lhal IBM cuitomere will now be re
quir ed to switch over to new pr oducts every
five or six years, rath er than every seven,
which Poppa contende haa been the figure.
("Poppa Sees Several IBM Change*," Computer-
w orld, 21 Nov 73. 28.)
Programs, especially, are available wilh
different degre es of approval fr<m IBM. The
technique of "support* Is the concrete manifes
tation of approva l. A supported program le
one which IBM promise* to f li when bugs turn
up. With an unaupported program, you're on
your own, Cod has forgotten yo u. Becauee so
much of IBM's virtue lies in the strength and
fervor of its aupport, the uee ol unsupported
programs, or unsupported features of supported
programs, is a difflcull and r is ky mailsr . like
driving without a map and a epare tire , or even
going Into the Himalayas without gloves. Effec
tively ihe withdrawal of support le the death
knell of any big program, such a s TSS/360.
even though c u e im e r e may wanl lo go on using
will tell you whal model of Ihelr computers is
likaly lo be a dead end. o r . on the other hand,
whet model Is likely lo offer various options
and progre ssiv e developments in the near future.
Some th ings sre hall-available, eilhor ss
"RPQs" (an IBM term for special orders--
Hequeet Price Quotation), or available lo
sophisticated customers al IBM's discretion.
With all the degrees of availability. II Is
easy for IBM to open or close by degrees
various avenues in which customsrB are inte r
ested .
Also, different siz es of conputer wilt or
won't allow given programs or de sirable program
features. Many IBM cuatomers have io get bigger
computers lhan ihsy would otherwise want be-
csu se a given program-- for instance, a COBOL
compiler with certain capabilities-- is not offered
by tBM for the amaller machine. Indeed, an
elaborate sizing scheme exis ts for matching the
machine to the customsr -- o r. s cynic might say,
assu ri ng lhai you can 't get the program features
you ought lo be able to get unlesB you gel b
la rg er compuier than you wanted.
What It boils down to Is that you. ihe
customer, have few genuine options, especially
if your firm Is alread y committed to doing c e r
tain things with e compuier. And when IBM
brin gs out a new computer, the prlcee and
other Influencea are exaciingly calculated lo
make mandatory the Jump they have in mind to
the new model.
(This planning oi customer transitions
does nol always work. When the 370 was intr o
duced. for Instance. IBM had In mind lhal com
panies with a certain size of 360 would trade up
to a bigge r 370. In some cases u se rs traded
down to a amaller 370. which was able to do the
same work for lees money, to the acule bother
of IBM.)
C. Having to do things )usl Ihelr way,
IBM sysiems and programs are set up lo
do things In perticu la r w ay s. To a remarkable
de gre e, it Is difficult io use them In ways not
planned or app ro ved by IBM. and difflcull to
tie syste ms end programs together. Programs
and features which ihe casual obse rv er would
suppose ought io be compatible, lend not to be.
For some reason compatibility always lends to
cost e x tra . II Is s s though Ihe compatibility of
equipment end programs w ere planned by IBM
as much as Ihelr product line .
The degree to which these restrictions are
manipulated or intentional Is. ol course, a mailer
of debate.
I). Captive bureaucracies running in place?
Perhaps the most unfortunate Ihlng about
IBM (from an outs ider's point o( view) is ihsl
effectively their systems can only be use d by
bureaucracies whom ihey have tr ained. From
koypunch operator up lo installation manager,
all are elleclively enslaved to cu rious complex
ities thal keep ch an gin g. The ever-chsnglng
str uc tu re of OS. and Ils quaint access methods.
Is Just one example. II might even seem lo ihe
oulslde observer lhal IBM's gems, Intentional
or not. is to keep things difficult and intricately
fluid io retain utter control. In other words,
ll Is a s though they fostered s continual turnover
ol unne cessary complications to keep a cspllve
bureaucracy running In pla ce. People who they
have indoctrinated lend nol io buy opponents'
computers. People who are Immersed in Ihe
peculiarities of IBM sysisms. and busy keeping
up with mandatory changes, do not get uppity.
They are too bu sy , and the Inveatment of ihelr
time and effort is too high for them io went to
Anti-IBM cynics say lhat a lot ol Ihe
work Involved in working with IBM computers
Is se lf 'generate d. arising from the unnecessary
complexities ol OS/360. JCL. TCAM and so on.
Bul of course lhal cannot bo evaluated here .
PROSPECTS
Theae rem arks ahould clarify ihe bleakness
of the prospect for mBn's luture among computers
If IBM's system of control really does work this
way, and if it is going to go on doing so . Be
cause it means Ihe future that some of us hope
for-- the simple and cbbubI availability io indi
vidua ls of cleBr and simple computer systems
with extraneous complications edited sw ay-- may
be forecloaed II they can help It.
Lei's all hope. th en. Ihsl these things
turn out not lo be really tr u e .
" . . . IBM In Its Infinite wisdom
has decreed lhal Ihle is Ihe way
we must go."
Cynical compuier
Installation manager,
quoted In Comulen*orld,
i t Aug 73. p. 4.

An I nter esting example ol an IBM non-
hro ak th rou gh v u lhe dram atic announcement In
1984 of tho 380 c o m p u te r, | r tr a y e d aa a machine
which would at last c a n bine the function# of
both "buBlness" cam p a t a r s and "scientiflc" com
pu te rs . But oth er compan ie s. such aa B urro u gh s
(with tha 5500) had b e en doing thla for some
Mm. T h e qu a in t se p aratio n o( power* between
scientific co mpute rs (w ith a ll-b in ary itn r a g e of
number#) and bu alnea a ccmputBm (decimal
tcra g e) w a t ba ae d on ly on tr adi tion and ma r
keting co ns ideratio n*, and waa otherw is e unde
s ir a b le . in am algamating the "two ty p e * . " IBM
was on ly re sc in d in g th e ir own p rev ious u n -
n e e s a r y d is tinct ion. The drama of the a n
nouncement d e riv e d In la r g e meas ure from the
str e s s ihey ha d p rev io u s ly laid on the divis io n,
(For tune ran an In te re st in g piece on the decision
str u g g le s pr ec w lin g th a Introduction of th e 360
Ct D pu ter , and the Inter nal arg uments a s to w he
the r th e re should be one line of Mxnputers o r two.
See th e flve-b ll ll on -do ll a r gamble piece . Biblio
g raph y.)
Thl* tie* in c lo sely with another I n te r e a
tin g aspect of th e IBM im age, th e pub lic notion
tha t IBM la a gr ea t in n ov a to r, bringing oul
novel technologies all ihe time. It i s well known
In th e field tha t th e y a re not: IBM usu ally does not
b rin g o ut a new ty p e of p r o d u c t until aoma olh er
ax n p an y haa pio neer ed i t . (Again remembe r
the e ar li e r point, lh a t the pr oduct offering Is a
atrateglc m a n e u v e r.) But of cou rse such facta
do not appea r in lhe promotional lit erature , no r
a r e they v olu nteere d b y the sa le s m an .
The e x pre salo n for thla In the field ia
th st IBM make* th in g s res pect ab le .* That la ,
c ustom ers gel thal r e a s s u r e d leallng, when IBM
a d d s other peo p le 's in novation* to ihelr pro du ct
Ilna. and decide I l' s o k a y to go ahead and ren t
o r bu y auch a p r o d u c t. (Thia aleo sometimes
kick* bus lneas ba ck to the original m anu fa ct ure r. )
A few e xa m ple s of things that were a lre ad y
on the ma rket when IBM bro ug ht them o u t, often
making them sound comple tely new: irsn alstorU ed
co mpu le rs (first of fered b y Fh ilc o). virtua l mem
o ry ( B u r ro u g h s ) , mic ro program ming (Introduced
com mere [ally by Bu nk er-R am o) .
T h is Is not to sa y thst IBM ie Incapab le of
Innovation: merely lha l Ihey are ne ver In a
h u r ry ab ou t i t . T h e Introduction ol IBM p r o
ducts 1a o r ch e str ate d like a military campaign,
and what IBM b r i n g s oul i s alw ay s s carefully-
planned. p r o fi t-or ie nted ste p Intended not lo
dislocate it* p roduct li n e . This Is not to say
that they don'l h a v e ne w stuff in the back room,
a potential arsenal of s u r p r i s e s of many types,
But ll Is probable tha t most ol them will ne ve r
be seen. T h is Is b e c a u se of IBM's "Impact1'
problem.
Unique In IBM's position is the problem of
filling new prod ucts in to the market alo ngsid e
Its old o n e s. Its p rob lem Is much w or se, sa y,
than thal of Procter 6 Gamble. T he problem is
not me rely ita sit e an d Lhe d ive rs it y of Its
products, bu t the (set Lhat they may inte rfe re
wilh each other ( impact" each ot her, th e y say)
In v e ry co npllc aied w a y s , A pr og ram like
their Datalexl, for ex am p le, which allow s c e r
tain kinds of text i n p u t and rev is ion from te r-
mlnaia, may affect Its type w ri ter Una, Th es e
are no small matters: the da nger Is thal some
new combination of p r o d u cts will gave the c u s
tomers money IBM would otherw is e b e g e nin g,
innovstlons must e x p an d the amount IBM la
taking In. o r IBM lose s b y making them.
T h ese complications of th e p rod uc t line
in a way prov id e a counte rbalanc e to IBM's f e a r
some power. The c o rp or at ion haa an immense
Inertia based on lla exis ti ng pro duct line and
cuB tm a r baae. and o n w ay s of th inkin g which
have been caref ully p ro mulgated and explai ned
th roughout ita huge r a n k s , that cannot be
revlaed qu ickly or flip pa ntly.
Nevertheleaa it la remark ab le how at
every t u r n noUbly when people think IBM
will be sat back -- th e y manage Lo make policy
decision* or strategi c moves which f u rt h e r con
solidate their po sit ion. Often these seem to
involve r es tr ic tin g lhe way the ir co np u te rs will
be used (see boa. "IBM's C o n t ro l.' )
(The most Ironic su c h countermove b y IBM
occu rre d a few y e a r s ago with th e ao-called
u nb un dli n g" de claion. IBM at last agre ed (on
nanp lal nt (ram other so ftware firms) lo stop
giving lia pro grams away to people ren ti ng th e
hard w ar e. Glee w as w id e sp re ad In th e ln dua lr y.
which expected IBM to lo w e r co n p u te r p r ic e s
in pr oportion to whai 11 would now c h a r g e for
the so ftw are . Mot at a l l . IBM lowered Ita m -
putar p r ic e s by a m in uscu le amount and slapped
heavy new price a on th e softw ar e- - often
c harges of tho usand s of d o lla r s p e r month.)
Finally, Ih er e Is the popular doctrine of
IBM's inf allib ility . T h is , mo. is a ways from
the t r u th . T he most conspicu ous example waa
something called TSS /3 60 .
TSS/300 w as s tim e-sh arin g s y s ta n - -
that ia . the control prog ra m to go v e rn one
model of the 350 as a tim e-sh arin g computer.
Acc ordin g to Datamation ( IBM Phase s Out Work
on Showcase TSS E f fo r t. ' Sept. 1, 1971, 56-9).
ove r 400 people wo rked o n It at once for a total
of some 2000 m a n -y e a r s of effort. And It was
s c ra pp ed , a writeoff of some 100 million do lla ra
In lost development c os ts. Tha system never
worked well e n ough . Reputedly u se rs had to
wait much too long for the compu te r's r e s p o n se s,
and the system could not really compete with
those offered e ls ew h e re .
The fail ure and abandonment of th is p r o
gram i s thus r esp o n sib le for IBM's p r e s e n t non
competitive position In tim e-sharin g; custo mers
are now a ssu re d b y IBM that other th in g s are
more Im po rtan t. IBM -h at ers thank th eir s ta r s
that thla h a p p e n e d . C y n ics think it conce ivable
tha t h lg h-po w er tim e-sha ri ng w as dropp ed by
IBM i n o r d e r to shoo Its customer base toward
areas It controlled more completely.
Two oth e r co ns picuous IBM cata stro phes
have been specific compute rs: the 360 model 90
in the lste six ties , and a machine call ed the
STRETCH Bomewhat e a r lie r . Both of th e se
machines worke d and w ere deliv ere d to c u s-
Itaners. (Indeed, the STRETCH Is said b y some
to have be en on e of the be st machines e v e r , )
But they were d is c ontinue d by IBM ae no t su f
ficiently p r o fita b le . T here in la said to have
been tho " fa il ure." (Ho wev er. It has be an al
leged In c ou rt c a se s th a t these w ars knockout"
machines de signed to clobb er the competition
at a pla nn ed loss .)
B. Negative views of IBM systems.
In the te chnical rea lm . IBM Is widely u n
loved because many people think some o r all of
their computers an d prog ra m s a re eith e r p o or,
o r far from what they should be , T h e rea so ns
S a n e ol th e pe op le feeling th is way a re
IBM c u sto m e rs , and for a time they had a n o r
ganized lobby, called SHARE (which also facil
itated sh a ri n g of p r o g ra m s) . Recently, ho wever,
SHARE has become IBM-domlna led, a sor t of
company union, a c c o rd in g to my source s.
T h e de sign of the 380, while wide ly a c
cepted as a fact o f li fe . Is s h a rp l y criticized
by m any. (See "W ha t's wrong with th e 3807",
P- 11-)
IBM's p r o g ra m s , while they are avail able
for a bro ad va ri e ty of p u r p o s e s , a r e often no to r
iously cumbersome, a wkw ard and Inefficient,
and sometimes dovetai l v e r y b a dly. However,
tha le s s efficient a prog ra m la . the more money
they make Irom it . A program lhal has lo be
ru n for an ho ur g e n e r a te s twice as much rev enu e
than if Ii did il s w ork in th ir ty minutes: a p r o
gram tha t has to b e r u n o n a computer w ith, sa y .
a million sp a ce s of c o re memory gen erate s ten
times the rev e n u e it would in two hun dred thou
sand ,
The complex tr ai ning and r e stri c ti on s
that go with IBM p r o g ra m s seem to have
in te res ting fu nct ion s. (See box, "IBM's C ontr ol." )
C. T heo rie s of IBM de sig n .
The que stion l e . how could a company
like IBM cre ate an y th in g like the 380 (with it s
severe defic iencies) and l ls o pera tin g system or
control pro gram OS (w ith Its sp raw li n g compli
cati ons. not p r e s e n t In competitors' sy stems) ?
T hree sn sw e rs a r e w idely pr oposed: On Purpose
(the consp ir ac y t h e o r y ) , By Accident (the
b lu n d e r t h m r y ) , and T h a t 's How T h e y 're Sat
Up (the Management Science th e o ry ). Thea e
view s are by no mean s mutually exclusive,
T h e Management Scie nc e th e ory of IBM
de sign is the only one of ihese we ne ed take u p .
The e xtens iv e use of gr o u p d is cus sion and
committee de cisio ns may lend lo c re ate a w kw ard
de sign compromises with a c er ta in intr in sic
a imle ssn ess, r a th e r than inc is iv e ly distinct and
simple str u c tu re s. (See Gould's marvelous
c hap te r. The M e e ti n g .' 58-80.)
T h ei r use of imm ense teams m do big
pr og ramm in g jo b s, r a t h e r than highly motivated
and esp ec ially talented g r o u p s, is widely viewed
ae cou n te rp ro du cti v e. For Insta nc e. Barn et A.
Wolf/, i n a letter to Datamation (Se pt. 1, 1971.
p . 13) sa ys a p a rt icula r pro gram
"re ma ina in e f f ic ie n t, pr obab ly be ca u se of
IBM's un fo rtunate ha bit of usin g tr ai nee s
f re sh out of school to w rite th e ir
system s code.*
QUKJnt HISW.1
o f
IBM app ea re d In 1911 aa th e con-
validation ol a numbe r of small companies
making light e qu ipment, un d e r th e name
C-T-H Company ( Compu te r-T abulating -
R e cord). T h i s waa p r o p h e ti c , co n sid
e r in g how ap ti y i t d e scrib e d the com
p a n y 's fu tu re b u sin e s s , and e spec ially
prop hetic c o n sid erin g that to d ay's
Btored-program co mp uter was undreamed
of at lhat time.
Accordin g to Wililsm Rodgers'
definitive company blogTBphy T h i n k ,
the company's c r e a to r w as a sh r ew d
ope ra to r named Ch a rle s R. Flint,
dash ing e n tre p r e n e u r and former gun
r u n n e r to Ihe Soulh Americ an r ep u b li cs,
who In his sh r e w d n e ss b ro u g h t In to
r u n the company an in c re d ib ly talented,
f ir e- b re ath in g an d s e lf -r ig h te o u s in di
vidua l named Thomes J . Watson, even
though Walson st tha t time w as un der
p r is o n se ntence for his sa les practicBB
at another w el l-k no w n c o m pa ny. The
senten ce waa n e v e r se rv e d , a n d Watson
went on to p r esid e for many ye a r s
ov e r a corpor at ion to which he gave
his un ique stamp.
Watson a ris e s from lhe pa ges of
T h in k ae a sa nctim onious ty r a n t ,
ha rd as na ils yet r e v e re n tly prin ciple d
i n his words; the p il lar of f ervid ,
aggre ss iv e cor po rate pie ty.
IBM was tota lly Watson'a
cre at io n. T h e cm npany became what
he admired in o th e rs , a mechanism
totally obedient to his will and imple
menting his forcef ul and ln sp lrl n gly
rationalized co nv ictions wilh a l a c r i t y ,
As the Ch urch is sa id to be the b r id e
of Chrla t. IBM m ig ht b e ch ar ac te riz ed
aa the B r id e of Watson, molded to th e
sty le s of de m an dlng ness. p r e s s u r e ,
eff iciency and pietism which BO c h a r
acteri zed that ma n. B u t the Ideas
flowed from Watson a lo ne, exce pt for
a few confidantes who r ec eiv e d his
nod. T h e company is va st ly big ge r
now, and sl ig h tl y mo re co lorfu l, in a
muled so rt of way: b u l it i s atill Lhe
stiff and deadly e a r n e s t battalion of
his dream.
Because of Watson 's ba ckg round
bb sa les man, he ma de Sales the apeji
of the corp orat io n . T h a salesm en had
the most p r e s t ig e w it h in the company
and could make the most money; below
tha t was adm in is tra ti on , below th a l.
technical staff.
WaLaon elimina ted the meat -slici ng
m achi nes, and pu sh e d th e pr o du ct line
ba se d on p u n c h ed c a r d s developed by
IBM's (Ir sl Chief e n g in e e r . Herman
H olle rith. A c c o r d l n g t o R o d g e r s . l t
was impetus from lhe D e p r e s sio n , and
lha new bookkeep ing r e q u ir e m e n t s of
Roosevelt's r e m e d ie s , th a t s k yrock e te d
the firm un iq ue ly d u r in g th e d e p th s of
ge neral economic c a ta str o p h e , til)
Watson came lo d r a w the hi gh e st a a la ry
of a n y man i n th e n a tio n . In 1934 h is
income was 1364.432 (Will Rog ers, nol
the au th o r of T h i n k , w as se co nd wilh
S324.314). Watson ha d ne at ly a rr a n g e d
to ge l 5% of IBM's net p rofit.
While IBM pa rticipate d In the
c re ati on of cer ta in e a r ly c txnp utera. It
i s In te re st in g thal Walson dism issed
E ck e r t a nd Mauchly whan they came
a ro u n d after World War II tr in g to get
ba ck in g for their ENIAC de sig n . In
c er ta in waya the Aral tr u e elec tronic
c om pu te r. Eckert and Mauchly went
lo Remington Rand, and tha rea ultin g
Univac waa the f lr st canm erc lal
c o m p u te r .
However, IBM bounced ba ck
v a r y w e l l. If th e re was on# ih in g they
k ne w how to do It waa aell, and when
th e y brou gh t oul their compulers It
w as pr ac ti c al ly cle a r sailing . (T he
Univac I waa Ihe f ir st of many compu
t e r s to be delaye d and boggle d in tha
completion at It# software, and th is
c on sid era b le se tback helped IBM ge t
the le ad v a ry quickly; ihey have
n e v e r lost It since.)
In the early sixties th e IBM 7090
and 7094 w ere virtu a ll y unch allenged
aa Lhe le ad in g scientific computers of
th e c o u n tr y , But IBM in th e late al x-
Ues almost rel inq uis he d the fi elds of
v e r y big computers and lim e- sh ari ng
to ot her companies, and th eir compu
t e r s are not rega rd e d a s In n ov at ive -
N ev ert h el ess , IBM's Systems 360 and
370. de sp ite va rious crit ic ism s, ha v e
be en v e ry suc ce ss fu l; th ou sa nds of
them are In ope ratio n a roun d the g lo be ,
far more than all Ih elr r iv a l s ' big
c om pule rs all put to gether. This d e s
pite the fact that some of these syst e m s
hav e failed, inc luding the big Modal 91
(an economic (all ure) and the TSS /360
tim e-sh a ri n g p ro gra m , a te chnical
cat ast ro ph e.
They hav e from time to time
be en accused of unfair tacd ca. a n d
v a rio u s a ntitruat and other actiona
( see "Legal Milestones" boa) have
r e q u ir e d IBM to change Its a r r a n g e
ments In va rloua w a y s . One d e c r e e
r e q u ir e d them lo aell lhe c a n p u te re
that before they had only rente d;
ano th er deci si on , lo. " u n b u n d le . " or
se ll co mpute rs separat ely from th eir
prog ra m s ( p revious ly "g iven" away
w it h the co mpu te rs th e y ran o n ) , Is
widely believed to hav e pr ev e n te d
govern m ent acLon on the same
m a tte r. Showing char ac te ris tic
fin es se . IBM th ere up on lowered the
computer p ric e s almost I m pe rcep tibly,
th e n sl apped heavy p r ic e - ta g s on
th e prog ra m s thal ha d pr ev io u sly
b e e n free.
Recent movea b y tho go v e rn m e n t
ha ve sug ge sted an esp ec ially se rio u s
a n d f ar -r e ac h in g a n ti - tr u st su it ag ain st
IBM, po ssib ly one that might b r e a k the
compan y up . with it s se p arate d iv is io n s
g o in g variou s waya. How ever, in
t o da y's climate of co ay rela ti o n s be
tween bu sine ss and g ov e rn m e nt. It is
ha rd to imagine that such matters
would not be settled lo IBM's li kin g.
T h is le n d s a cu rio u s ti n t to a r e m a r k
one IBM pe rson haa made to the a u th or,
to wit. that maybe IBM want a to be
b r o k e n up. That might be on e way of
r e d u c in g the unw le ldlness an d I n te r
dep en d ency of It# p ro du ct li ne; in
a ddition to redu c in g Its vast, u n d e r
u til ized pe rs onnel b a se. (Another
angle: Acdng Attorney Gene ral Bo rk
has e x p re ssed the vie w that IBM Is
big only becs use its prod ucts and
management are wo nderf ul, so the
a n titr u st e ss e ma y simply evap orate
d u r in g the rump day s of th e Nixon
in c um be ncy .)

T h ere may aleo be some thing in th e way th a t

A pe rs ist an t ru mor Is th a t IBM fires
all Ita salesmen In a g e o gra p hic
a rea if a key or p r e s t i g e sale ia
'l o a i . as when M . I . T . ' s Project
MAC switched over to Genera l Electric
e m p u t a r s in the s ix t ie s , o r when
Western Ele ctric E ng in e erin g Re se arch
Ce nte r pass ed ov e r IBM co mpute rs
to get s big PDP-10.
Much aa some people w ould like
to believe these s t o r i e s , t h e r e seems
lo be no d ocumen ta tion. You would
think one auch victim would write
an article about It U ll w ere t r u e .__ j
pr ojects are Initiated and laid out from Ihe top
down, ra th e r than a c q u ir in g dir ec tio n from
knowledgeable people at the technical le ve l,
tha t cre ate s a ten denc y tow ard perf un ct orl n ess
and clunk y str u c tu re .
T h u s the re may v e r y well be no iniantional
po lic y of u n ne ce ssary complication (see Box.
"IBM's C o n tro l" ) . B u t the way i n which goals
are eel and technical decisi on s delegated may
gen erate this u n n e c e ssa r y complication.
lHWfS'K*Y
It la u nfor tu na te tha l Rodgera'
remark ab le book doea not follow the
de tails of IBM's c om pute r de sign s sn d
politics In lha c o n p u t e r ag e, i . e . . An In te re st in g aspect or IBM pu blicity Is lla s t r e s s on sta tu s.
since 1955. Lat er w o r k , pe rh a p s Publici ty photograph# often show s s u b o r d in a te se ek in g a d v ic e
helped by some Penta go n P a p e rs , will from a su p e ri o r. IBM ada appeal lo lh e c orp orat ion p r e s i d e n t
ha ve to relate th e d ecisi on proce ss es in all of u a-- eith e r Going It Alone ( ta k in g a lo n g walk o v e r a n
that o c c u r re d in thla un ique nadonal Bxe cut ive Decision) o r so be rly d ir e c tin g a le s s e r em ployee.
institu tion to lhe ayBtema i t has In one e x tr a o r d in ar y c ase , we saw w ors hip fu l c on vict # a l th e
pr od uced and the stamp It haa p u t feel of a T ea ch e r Implaualbly aituaied In th e c o rn e r o f a p r is o n
on th e w orl d. _________________________ yard .
 IBH a n n o u n c e d a n u m b e r o f w o r t h y o b j e c t i v e s w h e n t h e 360
l i n e w as a n n o u n c e d i n 1 9 6 4 . IBM s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e t h a n k e d f o r
a t l e a s t t h e i r l i p s e r v i c e to th e s e n o b le g o a ls .
1. 'O n e m a c h i n e f o r a l l p u r p o s e s , b u s i n e s s a n d s c i e n t i f i c . '
(Thus t h e n a m e " 3 6 0 , f o r t h e " f u l l c i r c l e o f a p p l i c a t i o n s . )
By " b u s i n e s s " t h i s m a i n l y m e a n t d e c i m a l . a t f o u r b i t s a d i g i t .
A c t u a ll y t h i s m e a n t g r a f t i n g 4 - b i t d e c im a l h a rd w a re to an o th e r*
w is e n o r m a l b i n a r y c o m p u te r , a nd m a k in g b o t h t y p e s o f u s e r s s h a r e
t h e sa m e f a c i l i t y .
2. ' I n f o r m a t i o n s t o r a g e and tra n sm is s io n w i l l b e sta n *
d a rd iz e d .' T he 360 w as s e t u p t o h a n d le in fo rm a tio n 4 b i t s a t
a t i a e , 8 b i t s a t a tim e , 16, 32, a n d 64 b i t s a t a tim e .
p r e c e d i n g s t a n d a r d h a d b e e n 6 , 18 a n d 36 b i t s a t a tim e .)
I n t h e i r 3 6 0 l i n e , IBH a l s o r e p l a c e d t h e i n d u s t r y s s t a n
d a r d A S C II c o d e w i t h a s t r a n g e a l p h a b e t i c a l c o d e c a l l e d EBCDIC
( " E x te n d e d B i n a r y Coded D ec im a l I n f o r m a t i o n C o d e " ) , o s t e n s i b l y
b u i l t u p f r o m t h e 4 - b i t d e c i m a l c o d e (B C D ) , b u t b e l i e v e d by*
c y n i c s t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d c h i e f l y t o m ake t h e 360 i n c o m p a t i b l e
w ith o t h e r s y s te m s and t e r m in a l s .
THe BKrQOesTioMS
B e tw e e n t h e t r a d e p r e s s a n d d o z e n s of a c q u a in ta n c e s
In th e H e ld , a lm o s t e v e r y t h i n g I h e a r a b o u t IBM a n d Its
p r o d u c ts le n e g a t i v e ( s a y f iv e o r te n to o n e ) - - e x c e p t from
pe o p le w h o w o r k o r h a v e r e la tiv e s t h e r e .
P e r h a p s I t 's J u a t s o u r g r a p e s . O r th e a u th o r i ty -
b a tin g c h a r a c t e r o f r e s e a r c h t y p e s . O r se le c tiv e r e a d i n g .
O r p e r h a p a t h e r e r e a l l y le som e th in g s i n i s t e r .
T h a m a jo r q u e s t i o n s a r e t h e s e .
1 . How c l e a n la t h e i r s a le s m a n sh ip ?
2. A r e t h e i r s y s t e m s u n n e c e s s a r i l y d ifficu lt or
c u m b erso m e o n p urpose?
3 . How d e e p I s t h e i r sy s te m o f e n tr a p m e n t and
f a r c e d c o m m itm en t of t h e c u sto m e r? How
n e c e s s a r y a r e t h e d e - s t a n d a r d lz a t io n a and
th e c o n s t a n t c h a n g e s ?
4 . Do th e y h a v e a f in a l l i b e r a ti n g v is ion? Do th e y
r e a l l y , a f t e r a l l . in te n d to b r in g a b o u t a d a y
w h e n lif e i s e a s i e r for p e o p le? When th e
d i f f i c u l t i e s o f p r e s e n t - d a y c o m p u te r s y s te m s ,
e e p e c l a l l y t h e i r s , w ith e r aw a y? I th i n k th a t
h i s t o r y ' s Ju d g m e n t on IBM in o u r time
m a y n a r r o w d o w n to th a t sim p le q u e s tio n .
(In t h le l i g h t i t I s not h a r d to u n d e r s t a n d
IBM's s t a n d o n s o f t w a r e c o p y r i g h t s v s . p a te n t s .
IBM Is a g a l n e t p r o g r a m s b e in g p a te n t a b le , w h ic h
w ould c o v e r a b s t r a c t e d p r o p e r t i e s , b u t Brgue s
In f a v o r o f c o p y r i g h t , w h o s e p r o te c tio n Is
p r o b a b ly m o r e lim ite d to th e p a r t i c u l a r s of a
g iv e n p r o g r a m , lf t h e y h a v e th e t r w a y . i t w ould
b e a s s u r e d l h a t IBM c o u ld u e e a n y in g e n io u s
n ew p r o g r a m m i n g t r i c k s w lth o u l c o m p e n sa tio n ,
w h s r e a e a ll u n n e c e s s a r y c o m p lic atio n s of b u lk y ,
c u m b e r so m e s o f t w a r e w o u ld b e c o v e r e d In
e n tir e ty b y c o p y r i g h t .)
F i n a l l y , i t h a e n o t b e e n d e m o n s tr a t e d th a t
IBM ha a a n y g e n e r a l a b l l l l y to m a k e s y ste m s
c o n c e p tu a l ly s im p le a n d e a s y to u s e . (Two
go od e x a m p l e s o f h a r d s y s te m s a r e ih e Mag
T ap e S e le c t r ic a n d D a t a t e x t - - e a s y f o r p r o g ra m -
m e re , b u t h a r d l y f o r s e c r s l a r i e e . ) T h e r e eee m s
to b e n o e m p h a s i s o n e le g a n c e o r c o n c e p tu a l
s im p lic ity a t IBM. T h o s e w h o a d o p t s u c h a
p h ilo s o p h y ( s u c h s s K e n n e th I v e r s o n ) do so
o n th e i r o w n .
A s m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r , thle h a e som e th in g
to d d w ith th e f a c t t h a t i n d iv i d u a ls g e n e r a ll y
u s e IB M 's s y s t e m s b e c a u s e th e y h a v e to , b e in g
a m p lo y e ee o r c l i e n t s o f t h e O n u s lh a t r e n l IBM
e q u ip m e n t, s o t h e r e le n o Im p etu s to d e s ig n
p r o g r a m s o r s y s t e m s to r u n on sim p le or c l e a r -
m in d e d p r i n c i p l e s , o r d r e s e o u l in tr ic a t e s y s te m s
so th e y c a n b e u s e d e a a i l y .
4 . THE IMAGE.
It I s h a r d to a n a l y z e im a g e s , c o rp o r a t e o r
p e r s o n a l . T h e y a r e o f t e n r e c e iv e d In s u c h d if f e r
e n t w a y s b y d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s . B ut th e r e may be
a c o m m o n a lity to t h e IBM Im age a s g e n e r a ll y s e e n .
T h e Im ag e o f IBM I n v o l v e s so me k i n d of co ld m a gic ,
a b r o o d in g s e n s e o f s t e r i l e e f f ic ie n c y . B u t o th e r
t h in g s a r e p e r c o l a t i n g I n th e r e . If w e s li d e th a t
c o n n o ta tio n o f e f f ic ie n c y a s i d e , ih e IBM Im age
se e m s to h a v e tw o o t h e r p r i n c i p a l c cm pone nts :
a u th o r i t a r i a n i s m a n d c o m p l a c e n c y . It I s this m ix
t u r e th a t l o n g h a l r s w ill n a t u r a l l y f in d r e v o l t i n g .
T h is sa m e c o m b in a tio n , h o w e v e r , m a y b e e x ac tly
w h al It le t h a l a p p e a l s to b u s in e s s - m a n a g e ra e n t
ty p e s .
IP YOU REALLY WANT I T . ..
you c ap g e t c h arac ter-b y -c h ara cte r
re s p o n d in g sy ste m s on D M c o m p u te rs.
T h e n e w S t o c k E x c h a n g e sy s te m u s e s a
" T e le c o m m u n ic a ti o n s A c c e s s M ethod"
p e r m i t t i n g n o n - IB M te rm in a l s to r s s p o n d
c h a x a c t e r - b y - c h a r a c t e r . J u s t a s sy ste m s
fo r n o n -co m p u ter-p e o p le s h o u ld .
T r y i n g to u s e t h i s i n p u t- o u tp u t
p r o g r s m o n y o u r lo c a l IBM a m p u t e r 1s
a n o t h e r p r o b l e m , t h o u g h . A s id e f r c n
p r o g r a m r s n t a l c o s t s , ih e r e Is t h e p r o b
le m o f I t s c o m p a t ib ilit y w ith th e whole
l i n e o f IBM a o f t w a r e . A d a p t a ti o n s and
r e p r o g r a m m i n g w o u ld p r o b a b ly be
n e c e s s a r y u p a n d d o w n th a l i n e . I "T h in k o f t h e c o m p u te r a s e n e r g y " s e r i e s .
3. 360s w i l l a l l lo o k a l i k e to th e p ro g ra m ; th u s p ro g ra m s
c a n b e m ove d f r e e l y f r o m m a c h i n e t o m a c h i n e . '
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s c o m p a t i b i l i t y h a s b e e n u n d e r m i n e d by
num e rous f a c t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e v a r i e t y o f o p e r a t i n g s y s te m s ,
i n c l u d i n g h a l f a d o 2e n m a j o r t y p e s , a n d t h e l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s o r s ,
i n t r i c a t e l y g r a d e d a c c o r d i n g to c o m p u te r s i z e . D o th t h e s e f a c
t o r s t e n d t o m a k e c h a n g e s n e c e s s a r y t o move p r o g r a m s b e t w e e n com
p u te rs . W h ile one e f f e c t o f t h i s " s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n " h a s i n d e e d
b e e n to f a c i l i t a t e t h e m o v in g o f p r o g ra m s fro m s m a l l c o m p u te rs
t o b i g o n e s , a m o r e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t h a s p e r h a p s b e e n make i t
h a r d t o move f r o m a b i g c o m p u t e r t o a s m a l l e r o n e . N o te th e
u s e f u l n e s s o f t h i s a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x t o IBM s n a r k c t i n R .
(T h e
T h e s c c r e t o f i t a l l , o f c o u r s c , l i e s i n ID M 's k e e n u n d e r
s t a n d i n g o f how t o s e l l b i g c o m p u t e r s . The c o m p t r o l l e r , o r
som ebody l i k e h im , g e n e r a l l y m akes th e f i n a l d e c i s i o n ; a n d i f
h e i s t o l d t h a t th e o n e c o m p u te r w i l l ru n " a l l k i n d s " o f p r o
g ram s, th a t n a t u r a l l y sounds lik e a s a v in g . S h a d e s o f t h e F-
111. ( B u s i n e s s m e n ' s t r u s t a n d r e s p e c t f o r IBM i s d i s c u s s e d
e lse w h e re in t h i s a r t i c l e . )
THE FUTURE
Whal w ill IBM d o ne xt?
S p e c u la tio n I s a lm ost f u tile , b u t n e c e s s a r y
a n y h o w . T h e p r o s p e c t s a r e f a s c in a tin g if nol
te r r i f y i n g .
No o n e c a n e v e r p r e d i c t w h a l IBM will do; b u t
t r y i n g to p r e d i c t IBM's a c tl o n e - - IB M -w atc hing is
som e th in g lik e K r e m li n - w a tc h i n g - - Is e v e r y b o d y 's , Even if ll is t r u e , a s A nonym ous s a y s ( se e B ib lio g r a p h y )
h o b b y In th e f ie l d . A nd Its c o n s e q u e n c e s affect t h a l IBM In tim id a te s p e o p le a n d k e e p s Its e n em ies
e v e r y b o d y . With 60 m a n y th in g s p o s s ib l e , and from g e ttin g Jo b s a t IB M -o rien te d e s ta b l is h m e n ts ,
d e te r m in e d o n ly in th e v a g u e s t w a y by te c h n ic a l t h a t 's n o t th e e n d o f th e w o r l d .
c o n s id e r a tio n s , th e q u e s tio n of w h a t IBM c h o o ses I C r o s c h , G o u ld , n o d g e r s a n d M c G urk a r e a liv e a n d w o rk i n g ,
to do n e x t Is p r e t t y s c a r y . B e c a u se w h a te v e r j E x tr a m u ra l h a r a s s m e n t lik e th a t em p lo y e d b y CM a g a in s t
th e y do w e 'll b e s lu c k w ith . T h e y c an d e a ig n o u r N a d e r, for e x am p le . h a s not been r e p o r te d .
llv e e for th e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e .
We know ihBt ln th e f u lu r e IBM will a n n o u n c e
ne w m a c h in e s e n d s y s t e m s , p r i c e c h a n g e s (both up
a n d dow n) In f a s c in a tin g p a t t e r n s , r e a r r a n g e m e n ts
of w hat th e y will " s u p p o r t , n a n d c h a n g e s In the END OF THEDINOSAURS?
c o n tr a c t s th e y of fe r ( s e e b o x . " IB M 's C ontrol" ) .
O cc asional h l g h - p u b l l c i t y s p e e c h e s b y IBM h ig h T o a v e r y g r e a l e x t e n t , IBM'e c o m p u ie r
ofllc er6 w ill c o n tin u e to b e w a tc h e d w ith g r e a t c a r e . m a r k e t Is b a s e d on big c o m p u te rs r u n In ba tc h
B ut m a in ly we d o n t k n o w . m ode , u n d e r a v e r y o b t r u s i v e o p e r a tin g s y s te m .
I BM's s li c k m a n u fa c t u ri n g c a p a b ilit ie s mean Many p e o p le a r e b e g in n in g to n o tic e , ih o u g h ,
t h a t p r a c tic a ll y a n y m a ch in e th e y w an ted to m a k e . th a l m a ny t h i n g s a r e m o re s e n s ib ly d o n e o n sm a ll
a n d p u t on a s in g l e c h i p , th e y c o u ld , and in a c o m p u te rs th a n on b ig o n e s , e v e n in c o m p a n ie s
v e r y s h o r t tim e. ( T h e g r a p e v i n e h a e it lh a t th e t h a t h a v e b ig c o m p u t e r s . T h a i w ay th e y c a n be
C om p onents D iv is i o n , w h ic h m a kee the c om pute r done r i g h t a w a y r a t h e r th a n h a v in g to w a it in l in e .
p a r t s , ha6 b r a g g e d w ith in th e c om pany th a t It Is th i s th e mammal tha t will e at th e d i n o s a u r e g g s ?
d o e e n 't r e a l l y n e e d th e o th e r d i v is io n s a n y m ore
- - it e ould Ju s t p u l w hole c o m p u te rs on te e n y On th e o lh e r h a n d , a v e r y u n f o r t u n a te tr e n d
c h ip s 11 il w an ted t o . ) i s b e g in n in g to a p p e a r , a n im plic it feud w ithin
l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h ic h may b e n e f it IBM 's big
In th le time of th e 370, t h i n g s a re for th e c o m p u te r a p p r o a c h . T h o s e who ad v o ca te m in i
moment s ta b le . T h e 370 c o m p u te r lin e is sti ll th e ir c o m p u te rs a r e b e in g o p p o s e d by m a n a g e r s of th e
main m a rk e tin g t h r u s t . H aving s o ld a lot of 370 b ig c o m p u tin g in s t a ll a ti o n s , who s e e th e mini6
c o m p u te rs ( b a s i c a lly s p e d - u p 3 6 0 s ) , th e i r Idea is a s th r e a t e n i n g th e i r ow n p o w e r a n d b u d g e t e . T h is
a t th e m om enl to e e ll c o n v e r s io n jo b s to a d a p l th e m a y for a lo n g tim e h old t h e m in is b a c k , p e r h a p s
370 to r u n Ihe ne w " V i rt u a l S y s tem " c o n lro l p r o w ilh Ihe h e lp a n d a d v ic e of co m p u ie r s a le s m e n who
g r a m (VS o r O S/V S o r v a r io u s o t h e r n a m e s ) . T h is feel lik e w is e th r e a t e n e d . B u t th e r e will b e no
sy ste m (w h ich i s . I n c id e n ta lly , w id e ly r e s p e c t e d ) ho ld in g b a c k th e m in is a n d th e ir m y r ia d o f f s p r in g ,
m a kes c o re m e m o ry e ffec tiv e ly m u c h l a r g e r lo th e m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s (see p . ^ ) . A nd Ihe i n r o a d s
p r o g r a m s th a t r u n o n i t . T h is eff ecU vely e n c o u r sh o u ld b e g in soo n .
a g e s p r o g r a m m e r s to u s e to n s of c o r e , b y m e an s
o f v ir tu a l m e m ory; eeB s n lie lly g e ttin g p e o p le In ( O t h e r s a r e g r o w i n g to know a n d lo ve tr u e
th e h a b it of p r o g r a m m i n g ae if c o r e w ere in f in it e . h ig h - c a p B c ity t i m e - s h a r in g a s a w ay of lif e , like
T h i s e x te n s i o n of a p p a r e n t m e m o ry siz e d is t r a c t s lha t o f fe re d f o r DEC. GE a n d H oneywell m a c h i n e s .
fro m a n y I n ef ficie n cies of b oth lo c ally w ritte n p r o T h i s , to o, m s y b e g in lo h a v e d e r o g a to r y e ffec ts on
g r a m s a n d IBM p r o g r a m s , th u s t e n d in g to I n c r e a s e IBM 's m a r k s t s . )
use and ren ta l c h a r g e s .
F i n a ll y , it m u st b e n o le d th a t a lm ost all big
When thBt m a r k e tin g im p e tu s r u n s out w e 'll c o m p a n ie s h a v e c o m p u te r s , u s u a lly IBM c o m p u te r s ,
s ee th e n e x t th in g . a n d so an e r a of m a rk e tin g may wel l h a v e e n d e d .
It m ay be p o s s ib l e for IBM io go on se llin g b i g g e r
a n d b i g g e r c o m p u te rs lo Ihe c u s to m e rs w ho a lr e a d y
T h s o t h e r new IBM I n itia tiv e Is w ith s m a lle r
h a v e th e m , b u t o b v io u s l y t h i s g ro w th c a n no
m a c h i n e s , th e S y s tem 3 a n d S y s tem 7, b e in g p u s h e d
lo n g e r b e e x p o n e n ti a l.
for r e la tiv e ly sm a ll b u s l n e e s e s . T h s t Is w h e r e th e y
s e e a n o th e r new m a r k e t . How e a s y and u s e fu l th e ir
p r o g r a m s a r e In t h i s a r e a will b e a n I m porta nt
q u e stio n .
With th e S y s tem 7 . a 1 6 - b lt m inicom puter
l o r $ 17,0 00, IBM h a s a t la s t g e n u in e l y e n t e r e d th e
m in ico m p u ter m a r k e t . (.Bala ncin g Its s p e e d a n d
c oat a g a i n s t c o m p a r a b l e m a c h i n e s , we c a n f ig u r e
t h e IBM m a r k u p ae b e in g a b o u t 50%, w hic h la
t y p ic a l.)
In a d d itio n . It Is r u m o r e d t h a t IBM m ighl
p u l o u t a tin y b u s i n e s s m in i , to s e l l out of OPD.
(D atam a tio n . D ec 7 2 . 13 9 .) B ut r e a lly , who k n o w s .
In a d d itio n to th is h u g e -m e m o r y s t r a t e g y for
I ts b ig m a c h i n e s , a n d t h s s t a r t i n g fora y Into s p e
c ia liz e d min i s y s t e m s , th e r e i s th e office s t r a t e g y
and "w ord p r o ce ssin g ."
IBM h a s c o n c e p tu a l ly c o n s o lid a te d Ils
v a rio u s m a g i c - t y p e w r l t e r a n d t e x l s e r v i c e s u n d e r
th e na m e of " w o r d p r o c e s s i n g , " w h ic h m e an s a n y
h a n d lin g of te x t th a t g o e s th r o u g h th e ir m a c h i n e s .
T h is s u p e r f ic ia l ly u n i t e s th e i r OPD e ff o rts ( ty p e
w r i t e r s a n d d ic ta tio n m a c h in e s) w ith t h in g s g o in g
on In DPD, s u c h a s D a ia te x i. a n d a lla y s i n te r -
d lv la lo n a l r i v a l r i e s for a w h i le . A lso , b y s t r e s s
ing th e u n ity of th e s u b j e c t m a tte r , ll l e a v e s th e
d o o r o p e n for la t e r a n d m o r e g la m o r o u s In itia tiv e s ,
s u c h a s h y p e r t e x t s y s te m s ( se e " C a rm o d y 's S y s te m ."
flip s i d e ) .
In o th e r w o r d s , th e foot Is i n Ihs d o o r . M r. H erb G ro e c h . now e d ito r ia l d i r e c t o r of C o m p u te r w o r l d , I s p e r h a p s
B u sin e ssm a n h a s th e id e a th a t a uto m a tic ty p in g IBMs w o rs t e n e m y . O n c e h e w o r k e d for old m an W atson, a n d w a s th e
a n d th in g s lik e t h a t a r e IBM 's s p e c ia l p r o v in c e . o n ly IBM e m plo yee a llo w e d to ha v e a b e a r d . N ow , am ong o t h e r t h i n g s , h e
g i v e s s p e e c h e s a n d te stim o n y w h e r e v e r p o s s ib l e a b o u t th e M enac e of IBM,
a t c o n f e r e n c e s , at g o v e r n m e n ta l h e a r i n g s , a n d In l e t t e r s to e d i t o r s .
Yet IBM 's m a in c o m p u te r s a l e s s tr a te g y to d a y i s to s l r e s s th e a d v a n
ta g e s of big c o m p u te r s w ilh lots of c o r e m em ory ( a n d p e r s u a d e you you
Few fir m s a n y w h e r e h a v e t h e co n fid e n ce d o n 't w a n t h ig h ly I n te r a c ti v e s y s te m s o r I n d e p e n d e n t m in i c o m p u t e r s ) .
to a d v e r t i s e g e n e r ic a lly a p r o d u c t whic h
la m a de b y o t h e r s a s w e l l, a s in IBM'e And th e f u n d a m e n ta l r u l e e la t in g th e a d v a n ta g e s of b i g c o m p u te rs
Is c a ll s d G r o s c h 's L aw , f o rm u lated y e a r s ago b y n o n e o t h e r . Se e p .
 A LITTLE GEM FROM THE IBM SOMGBOOK
(Who saya IBM doesn't nc o u rtg Individualism?
To lha lune ol "Pa ck Up Your Trouble*
In Your Old Kli Bag.*)
TO THOMAS J . WATSON. P resid ent. IBM"
Pack up your tr ouble *-- Mr. Walaon'e harel
And amlle, amlle. smile.
He le the geniue In o u r IBM
H e'i lha man worth while.
He's In sp ir in g *11 the time.
And very ve ra atl le -- ohi
Ha U our strong and abla Pre sidenil
H it amlla'e worth while.
*Graal organis er and a fri end eo true.*
Say all we boy*.
Ever he Ihlnka of Ihlnge to aay and do
To Increea* our Joy*.
Ha la building e v e r y day
In hla outa undln g a ty la -- ao
Pack up your trouble *. Mr. Wataon'* bare
And Sulla*- Smile-- Smile.
(A* a nostalgic public aervies
Advanced Computer Technlq uee. I nc., of
Boaton. gave away LP* of IBM songa at the
'68 SJCC. They might juet hava eoae l a d . ..)
NEW CHIPS...
IBM cen pul pr ett y much anything on a aingle
chip , to make a functioning machine the size of a
po a u g e stamp: but ao can a lot of other companies.
The question really become* whether what
goes on thal chip I* * worthw hile machine that doea
what people went.
. . . BUT THE SAME OLD BLOCK?
II I* by no meane cle a r thal IBM haa any
general ability u make computer aystama easy to
Thle Ii i psychological problem .
A* e corporation they e r e use d to deelgnlng
eyaieme thal people have to uee by Dal. and muet
be trained to uaa. contri buting to the captivity
and Inertia of tha euatomer b a ae . Thus the notion
of making thlnge deeply and conceptually eiralght-
forward. without epeclal Jargon or trainin g, may
not be e concept the a m p a n p le ready l o r .
SOMB DIVISIONS OP IBM you may h a a r about
OPD Office Product* Division. T ypew rite rs, copier a.
DPD Data Proceeding Division. Computera and acceaaorle*.
PSD Polar*] System* Dlvtalon, Big government contracts:
NASA etuB. and who know* whal.
ASDD Advanced Syatame Development Dlvlalon. Vary secret .
Components Dlvlalon.
Make* pa rt* for tha o th e r g u y a , Including Integrated c lrc u lte .
SRA Selene* Reaearch A aaoclatee, Chicago. Publishes textbooks
and learnin g kit*.
Waiaoii Lab
T . J . Wataon Rese arch L aborato ry , Westchester County,
north of New York C lly . Theoretical and lookahead re a e a rc h .
"THERE IS A WORLD ELSEWHERE."
-- Corloltnua
There Is no way to esca pe IBM enUrely. IBM
madialea our contact* with government and medi
cin e. wilh lib rarl e*. bookkeeping eyaieme, and
bank balancaa. Bul thaaa InUueione are etlll lim
ited. and mo*l of ua dont have to live th ere.
Thera are many computer people who refuse
to have anything to do with IBM sy*tem*. Other*,
nol ao emphatic, will tell you pointedly that they
p r tf e r to elay a* far away from IBM computers
a* po*eible. If you aak w hy, they may tell you
they don't care to be both ered with reeir lcilv e.
unwieldy and unne caaaary conpllcatlon* (Ihe JCL
language le ueually m entioned). T hia 1* one
reaaon that quite a few people atlck with mlnlcom-
puta ra. or with flrma using la rg e computare of
other brand*.
It i* poMlble to work pro ductively In lha
c onpute r Held and completely avoid having to
work with IBM-atyle aystama. Many people do.
a William Rodgare, T h in k , Stein a nd Day, 1990.
LG 5H
T he lamoua Consent Decree of Ja nuary 19S6. (In a conte nt d ecree,
an accueed pa tty admit* no gulll bul a gre es id behave In
c erta in way* the re e/ter.) In rea ponsa to a federal antl-tr uai
suit . IBM agreed to:
aell as well aa leese Its compute rs, and repa ir thoae
owned by others:
permit attachmante lo ita le eeed computera;
nol requir e certa in package deal*:
llcente va rious patents;
not buy up used mechlnea:
and ge l oul of Ihe bualn asa ol supply ing computer
serv ices. I . e . . programming and hourly renta ls.
Unbundling decision, Isle sixtie s. While ihls was nol a government
aellon bul a an Internal policy decisi on by the company, It some
how hBd a publlc-relalions appeara nce of official compulsion.
Beset by pressu re s (ram makers of look-alike machines, u se rs of
competitive equipment, and ihe th rea t ol a n tl-lr usl action, IBM
decided lo change its policy and sell programs without computers
and computers without progra m s. Delight amongst the indust ry
tu rned to c hagrin as ihis became rec ognized as a pr ic e hike.
T he Telex Decielon. September '73: Tele* Cor p. of Tulsa waa awarded
S3S2.SOO.OOO In trip le damage* (since reduced) lor loaaea attributed
10 IBM's "predatory" pricing and oth e r marketing practices.
Much more important. IBM was requir e d to dlaclose Ihe
detailed electronlca requir ed to hook thlnge to their computers a nd
acceaeorlea within e iity daya of announcing a n y . Thia w as a great
reli ef lor Ihe whole Industr y. E ssentially it meant IBM could no
longer dictate whal you attach lo th e ir machlnee. Unfortunately.
11 le not clear whether thia will ata nd.
But what w e're waiting to he at about i* w hether ihe Mxon Justice
Department la . or ia nol. going to pr ea a the big a n tl-tr uat suit
which haa been long brew in g. at the peralatant request of other
flrma in the in dua try.
"THINK OP THE COMPUTER AS ENERGY."
saya a recent aeries of IBM ads.
But In term s of monopoly, p r ic e , end
the w orl d's convenience. Ih ere would
seem only one wey to complete the
analogy, via.:
"THINK OF THE COMPUTER AS ENERGY.
"Think of IBM as King Fu isal."
OF T H t
0 N i l l t a a R o d g e r s , "IBH on T r i a l , "
IRU U H J R t U A
For a long tim e, d urin g the
alxtlee, IBM'a h ig h pric e* provided
an environment tha t m ade i t easy for
other campaniee to come Into the field
and eel) c tn p u te re and p e riphe rals.
Theee high pric e* w ere referred to ea
"the IBM umbrella.*
However, th ia era haa e nded .
IBM now cut* prlc e e In whatever are as
It'e th rea te ned. A b r ie f flourlahlng ol
c on panlee making a dd-on diak and
core memorlea for IBM con p u ter* haa
becooe precario us: nol only will IBM
now cut p rice s, bul they have ehown
lhaaeelvee still dis posed to inve nt new
reeir lc ilv e e rran g e n en t* (the recent
"virtual memory" announcement (or
Ihe 370 claimed tha t the program
will only work on IBM dle k and c o r e ) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Harvey D. Shapiro, "l.B.M . and al) the dw arfa,"
New York Times Magazine. July 29. 1073,
10-36.
An objective, (actual a rti cle , sympa
thetic lo IBM-- although it drew at leaal
one ir ala letter from an Ibmer who d id nt
think It sympathetic enough.
"IBM: Time to THINK Small?" Neweweek. Octo
ber 1. 1971. 60-64.
Prank T . C ary, letter to the e ditor. Neweweek.
Oct. IS 73. p . 4. A enap pla h reply lo
the above by Ihe IBM Board Chelrman,
who evldenUy did n't like the article ve ry
much.
Robert Samuelaon. "IBM'a Melhoda.* New York
Times Sunde y financial section, June 3,
1973, p . 1.
- T h le article give* a unique
glimpse of some ol the Interesting thlnge
lhat came to light In the Control Data suit
against IBM-- citing tria l documenta never
publicly releaaed.
Subtitled A Biography ol Ihe Waiaone
end IBM.
Concentrate* on Ihe day* before
computera. Fasc inating profile of Waieon.
a busin ess tiger: but ihe view of ihe cor
poration In an evolving nation Is general
Americana that tr ansce nds fiction.
Would you believe Rodgers aaya
Wataon waa the kingmaker wo put General
Ike in th e White Houee?
Unfortunately, the book hae rele tlvely
le es on Ihe computer e ra . *o the Inalde
story o( many of the ir msne ntoua de cis
ions since then remains to be told.
Heywood Gould, Corporation P r e a k . Tower (paper
back.)
Marvelous; ha rd to get; Gould Ihlnke
IBM quietly bought up all the copies.
The muting* ol a so phis tic ate d. cleve r
and obaervant cynic who began knowing
nothing about IBM. Gould's w ide-eyed ob se r
vation ol Ita corporate sty le and atmoaphere
la a jolt Id ihoee ol ue who've gotten ueed
to 11. And he thought It w as juet another big
company I
Anonymoue, "Anti-Trust; A New Persp ec tive."
Deiamatlon, Oct 73, 163-196.
Richard A. McLaughlin, "Monopoly la Not a Game,"
Datamation. Sept. 1973. 73-77.
Questionnaire eurve y Intended to
te st truth ol common accueatlon* against IBM.
(Discussed in te at above.)
W.David G ardner, "The G overnm ents Four Yeara
a nd Four Months In Purault of IBM." Data
mation. June 1973, 114-11S.
Almost any iaaue of Comguterworld o r Datamation,
the two main in dualry newa publications,
c a r rie s arilclee mentioning c anpla ln ts about
IBM from va rious q u a rte rs on varloua la iu e * .
DatamaUon'e le ttera a re also aotnetlmee Juicy
on the topic.
Any lasue ol On Line. * new* sh eet ol the Computer
Industry Association, te n buck* a year,
(CIA-- no relation to the Intelligence agency
- 182SS Venture B lv d .. Encino. CA 01316.)
T .A . Wlee. " l.B .M .'s SS.000.000.000 Gamble."
Fortu ne. Ocl 1966.
Danlal J . S lotn le k, 'U nconventional S y s t a s .'
Proc. SJCC 1967. 477-401.
I n t e r t s t l n g , aaeng oth e r reaso ns,
for tha heaviness of th e earcaaa d ir e c te d
a t IBH and i t a la rge r c ^ ^ u t e r s .
H arper' s .
May 1974, 7 9 - 8 4 .
C o n t i n u e s w h ere T h in k l e f t o f f ;
c i a a i n o s s o a e o f t h e d i r t t h a t c a a e out
i n th e T o lc x c a s e , a n d o t h e r t h i n g s .
T he author regret* n ol bein g able to Hat more
article s and books favorable lo IBM, but Ihea* do nol
eeem to l u m up to m uch. How ev er. he re a re a few .
A Computer Perspective, by th e office of Charles
and Ray Eamee, H arvard U. Preaa. S13.
Angelina Pantagea, "IBM A broa d," Datamation.
December 1972, $4-57.
For an example of the kin d of a dula don of IBM
baaed on faith, see Henry C. Wall!ch.
"T ru st -B ustin g lha U . S . A . , ' Newsweek
1 Ocl 73, p . 90.
The IBM Songbook, any y e a r -- they ha vent been
le iu ed alnce the fifties-- le definitely a
collectible.

H t B k 'j
* u T lr
wc
1 W ? J ) ? e o |> k
T h e c o m p u te r companies a re of ten r e f e r r e d
to In Uie f ie l d aa "Snow White and th e Se v e n
D w a r f s " - - a p h r a s e tha t s ta y s the same e v e n as
th e l e a s e r o n e s (l ik e RCA and G enera l E le ctr ic )
gt o u t o f th e b u s in e s s one by one . T h e p h r a s e
s u g g e s t s th a t th e y r e all a lik e . T o a n exte n t;
b u t t h e r e Is o ne company suffi ciently d if f e r e n t,
a n d I m p o r ta n t en ou gh both In it s h is to ry a n d Ita
c o n t i n u i n g e m in e n c e , to r e q u i r e e x po sitio n h e re ,
T h i s I s D ig it a l E quipment C o rp orati on , u su a ll y
p r o n o u n c e d " D e c k t h e people who f ir st b r o u g h t
ou t th e m in i c o m p u t e r and c ontin ue to ma k e One
etufT for p e o p le who know w h at th e y are d o in g .
O t h e r c o m p u te r compani es hav e mim icked
IBM. T h e y h a v e bull! b ig co m p ute rs a n d I tie d
to se ll th e m to b ig corp oratio n s (or t h e i r b u s in e s s
d a ta p r o c e s s i n g , o r big "s ci en tific " m a ch ines an d
t r i e d to se ll the m lo s c ie n tis ts .
DEC w anl about il dif f er en tl y , a lw ay s d e
s i g n i n g f o r th e people who kn ew w ha t th e y w e r e
d o i n g , a n d a lw ay s going lo grea t le n g th s lo te ll
y o u e x a c t l y w h a i th e i r eq uipment did.
F i r s t th e y made c ir c u it s for pe op le w ho
w a n t e d lo tie dig it al eq uipment to ge th e r. T h e n ,
s i n c e th e y ha d the c ir c u it s any w ay , ih e y manu
f a c t u r e d a c o m p u te r (the PD P -1 ). T h en more
c o m p u t e r s . I n c r e a s in g the lin e slo w ly , b u t a lw ay s
t e l l i n g p o te n ti a l u s e r s as muc h ss t h e y co uld
p o s s i b l y w a n t lo know.
T h e sam e for it s m a n uals. Pe ople w ho
w ro t e for Informa tion from Digital would oflen
g e l . no t a su m m ar y ahee l r e f e r r i n g you t o a loc al
s a l e s o f f i c e , b u l complete manual ( s a y , for
th e P D P - 8 ) , In c lu d i n g c h a p te rs on p r o g ra m m in g ,
ho w lo b u i l d inle rfa ce a lo I t , and th e en ac t
t i m i n g a n d d is t r i b u t i o n o f Ih e main I n te r n a l p u l s e s .
T h e eff ec t o f Ihls w as tha t soph is tic a te d u a e r s - -
e s p e c i a l l y in u n iv e rs itie s a nd r e s e a r c h e s t a b
l i s h m e n t s s t a r t e d b uil d in g th e ir o w n . T h e i r
o w n in l e r f a c e a , I h e ir ow n modifications to DEC
c o m p u t e r s , t h e i r own or ig in a l sy st e m s a ro u n d
DEC c o m p u t e r s .
p E B W e tttS W it M i
Some k i n d s o f p e r i p h e r a l d e v i c e s , o r com
p u te r a c c e s s o r i e s , a r e a lw a y s n e c e s s a r y . O n ly
th r o u g h p e r i p h e r a l s c a n y o u l o o k a t o r h e a r
r e s u l ts o f w h a t t h e co m p u te r d o e s , s t o r e qu an
t i t i e s o f in fo rftia t i o n , p r i n t s t u f f o u t and
w h atn o t.
T ry in g t o p r i n t l i s t s of a v a ila b le s t u f f
hare i s h o p e l e s s . T here a re thousands o f
p e rip h e r a ls fro m h u n d red s o f m a n u fa c tu re rs .
If you b u y a m i n i , f i g u r e t h a t y o u r p e r i p h e r a l s
w i l l c o s t $ 1 5 0 0 ( T e l e t y p e ) on u . Bu t t a a i n t e n -
ance ( s e e p . S C ) i s t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e n . If
you buy p e r i p h e r a l s f r o a t h e n a n u f a c t u r e r o f
t h e c o a p u t e r , a t l e a s t y o u c a n b e s u r e so m e o ne
w i l l be M i l l i n g t o m a i n t a i n t h e w h o l e t h i n g .
(In d ep en d en t p e r i p h e r a l M a n u factu rers w i l l
o f t e n r e p a i r t h e i r own e q u i p m e n t , b u t n o body
w ants t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n t e r f a c e . )
I f y o u w a n t a l i s t s e e " T a b l e o f M in i *
p e r i p h e r a l S u p p l i e r s , " C o w p u te r D e c i s i o n s .
Dec 7 2 , 3 3 - S ; m o r e t h o r o u g h p o o p i s o f f e r e d
by D a t a p r o R e s e a r c h C o r p . , 1 C o r p o r a t e C e n t e r ,
R o ute 3 8 , M o o r e s t o w n NJ 0 8 0 S 7 .
As t o t h e s e r i o u s m a t t e r o f d i s k s , a n e x
c e ll e n t re v ie w a r t i c l e is "D isc S to ra g e f o r
M in ic o m p u te r A p p l i c a t i o n s , " C om p u ter D e sig n
June 1 9 7 3 , 5 5 - 6 6 . T h i s rev ie w s b o th p r i n c i p l e s
o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d i s k d r i v e s , and w h a t
v a rio u s o a n u f a c t u r e r * o f f e r .
A l s o h e l p f u l o n d i s k s and t a p e s : " f l a k i n g
a Go o f H i n i s t o r a g e , " b y L i n d a U e r ta e r . Com
p u t e r D e c i s i o n s . Feb 7 4 , 3 2 -3 8 . Best re c e n t
T o m e m
Surely nobody can r e s i s t th e p e r i p h e r a l s o f f e r e d
by Gene ral T u r t l e , I n c . , 545 Tec hnology Squ are, Cam
b r i d g e . Ma ssa chu se tts 021 )9 .
Tha T u r t l e 1* a s o r t o f c a s s e r o l e on wheals t h a t
ta k e s a p e n c il down the n i il d la . A tta che d to yo ur
cca^n itar, I t can be p r o g r a n a d t o r u b l e around draw
in g p i c t u r e s , o r j u s t do w h eallea on Lha p a r q u e tr y .
S800.
Then th e Music Bos I s 5600. I t s i n g s i n fo u r
v o i c e s , enough f o r a l o t o f V i v a l d i , does f i v e o c ta v e s
and look s to th e c o ^ u t e r l i k e a T e l e ty p e . They w i l l
p la y you e a g l e s on the phone (6 17/661 -3 773 ).
For e i t h e r o f th e ss you need a C o n t r o l l e r (S1300),
Digital E quipm ent C orporati o n, in r e s p o n s e
to th e " B ne rg y C r is i s " ol 1973, d id n 't h i m out
th e ir C h r is t m a s t r e e . InBlead they ho ok ed it u p
to a w a t e r w h e e l they hap p en e d lo h a v e . T y p ic a l.
T h is po li c y has made (or alow b u t ste ad y
g row th. In e ff ec t. Digital bu il i a nationa l c u s
tomer b a se am ong th e most soph is tic a te d c li e n ts ,
T he k id s who aa u n d e rg r a d u a te s and h a n g e r s -o n
b uil t In te r f a c e s and k lu d g e y a r r a n g e m e n ls . now
aa pr o je c t h e a d s b uil d b i g fa n c y sy s te m s a ro u n d
DEC e q u ip m e n t. T he pla ce s that know c o m p u te rs
u su a lly h a v e a v a rie ty of DEC equipment a ro u n d ,
u su a ll y d r a s t ic a lly modified.
B e ca u se of th e grea t s u c c e s s of Its small
c o m p u le rs , e sp e c ia lly lh e PD P -0 , ev en ma ny com
p u t e r pe op le th in k th e y on ly make sm all com pu
t e r s . in (acl t h e i r b ig c o m p u ie r, th e PD P-10, Is
one of th e most su c c e ssf u l tim e - sh a rin g c o m p u le ra .
An exam ple o f i ts g e n e r a l estee m in lh e field: It
is th e h ost c o m p u te r o f ARPAHET, th e national
c ompu te r n e tw o rk among sc ie ntif ic in st al lat ion s
funded b y t h e D ep artmen t o f Defens e; ba si ca ll y
t h i s me ans ARPANET is a n e tw o rk of PDP -lOs.
DEC'S c om p ule rs ha ve alw ay s be en de sig n ed
by p r o g r a m m e r s , f o r p r o g r a m m e r s . T h is made
for c o n sid er a b le s u s p e n s e w hen th e PDP-11 di d
not a p p e a r , e ven th ough th e h ig h e r n u m b e r s d i d ,
and the- g r a p e v in e had it t h a t Ihe 11 w ou ld be
a s ix t e e n -b i t m a ch in e, ll p ro ved to be well
w aili ng for ( se e p . 2 2 ) , and has s in c e becom e
t h e s ta n d a r d so p h ist ic a te d 16- b lt mach in e In th e
ind u stry .
An a r e a DEC h a s e m p hasize d from th e f ir st P D P -2 , 0 o r 13 .)
h a s be en co m p u te r d is p l a y ( d is c u sse d at le n g th
on th e fl ip s i d e ) . T h u s il i s no s u r p r i s e thal
ih e lr in te r a c tiv e anim ated c om puie r d i s p l a y , th e
GT40 (see p . M i ) i s an o u ts tan d in g d e sig n and ULTim W ?
su c c e s s . (And the U n iv e rsity of U ta h, c u r r e n t ly J K L 'j 1 ***2 k r *
lhe m other c h u r c h of co m p u te r d i s p l a y , r u n s ll s
g r a p h i c sys te m s from PD P -l O s.)
In t h i s p lu c k y , hom esp un c om pan y, w h er e
e v e n p r e s i d e n t O ls e n i s k no w n by h i s f ir st na m e I 'm n ot gett in g a n y f a v o r s fro m DEC. I'm
( K e n ) , It Is u n d e r s t a n d a b le lhal m a rk e ti n g p iz az z j u s l s a y in g sb ou l them w hat pe ople o ug ht to
ta k es a ba ck se at. T h i s a p p a r e n tl y w as th e view
of a g r o u p o f r e b e l s , led by vic e p r e si d e n t Ed
d e C a s tr a , w h o b r o k e off In th e lale s ix t ie s to H o w e v e r. I do ha ve g r ate f u l rec oll e cli o ns
s la r l a new co m p u te r c om pan y a ro u n d a 16-bll of th e w arm th and c o u rte sy w it h w h ic h peo ple
com p uie r d e s ig n called Ihe Nova r u m o r e d lo from Digital E quipm ent Co rp orati o n h a v e ta k e n
ha v e b e en a r eje cted d e s i g n for th e PDP-11. T h e p a in s lo e x p la i n th in g s lo m e , h o u r a f lc r h o u r ,
c o m pa ny th e y s ia r te d , Daia G en e ra l, h a s not be en c on fe re nce a fte r c on fe re nce .
afraid lo u s e lh e h a r d s e l l , an d b e tw ee n th e i r
h a r d se ll a n d sou nd ma ch in e line t h e y 'v e se ri o u sly In th e e a r ly six t ie s ih e y ha d o n e ma n in
c h all eng e d l h e p a r e n t co m pan y . on e small office to s e r v i c e an d se ll all of New
J e r s e y a n d New York C l ly . But lha t one g u y .
But Digital m a rc h e s o n . tltc O r - p u t e r Kur.'s D av e D en n isto n , sp e nt c o n s id e r a b le time r e s p o n
c om puie r c o m p a n y . If IBM is c o m pu te rd c m 's d i n g to my que sti o n s and r e q u e sts o v e r a p e rio d
Kodak, w h ose o v e r p r ic e d b u t q u it e re li a b le go od s of a cou p le o ( y e a r s , and i n th e n ic e s t p o ssib l e
h a v e v a rio u s d r a w b a c k s . DEC is N ik o n, w il h u w a y , ev en th o ug h th e re w a s n o way I co uld bu y
m ix - a n d -m a tc h a sso rt m en t of wlmi th e ho is h ots a n y th in g . You d o n 't fo rget tr ea tm e n t lik e th at.-
w an t. T h a t 's p lu r alis m for y ou .
\ * * TIKE, 14 Jan 74, 50. *
a r c u se d (or trusa s to r a g e o f symbolic ( d i g i t a l )
<T r i f f l e . T h a t 1s th e o v e r a l l s i z e o f th e \
memory, which i s u t t e r l y indepen de nt o f s to r a g e .
'C f th e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o r g e n e r a l power
o l th e coo pu te r i t s e l f . ^
movable media") e r e Of a l l s o r t s .
's . i r i I l i o n - b i t memories a r c a v a i l a b l e , and you
? co uld p u t one on a machine a s small as EFFECTIVELY STANDARDIZED BY IBM
3 /4 - in c h magnetic ta p e .
Pre-1965: 6 t r a c k s d a t a , 1 tr a c k p a rit y .
Po st-1 965: 8 trac ks d a t a , 1 tr a c k p a rit y .
2741 d is k
St ac k o f remova ble p l a t t e r s s i z e of a
la y e r c ak e.
3330 d is k
d is k c artridge
P l a s t i c c a s e , s i z e o f c o o lie h a t , en
c l o s in g d i s k ,
floppy diak
F l e x i b l e , c a r d - t h i n d is k e n c lo se d in
gquare 8" en v el o pe.
th is m o d lT d tsk d riv e . P r i n t s som e iOO l i n e s
a n in u te ( fa s te r i f P l a s t i c s t r i p s p u l l e d o u t o f wedge-
The b r o u n - c o a t e d d i s k th e l i n e s a r e n a r r o w ) . shaped tu be s arr an g e d In a r o t a t i n g
P r ic e around S I S , 000. c y lin d o r . S t r i p i s p u lle d o u t o f th i a
i t s e l f i s h i d d e n i n th t
p l a s t ic case, never c a r o u s e l , whipped a roun d a drum t o make
D isk d r i v e f o r th e l l . temporary drum memory, r e tu r n e d t o c as e-
t h e l e s s , th e y s o m e t in e i
M o t t s u c h d e v i c e 8 go g e t e o ra tc h e d o r break. (tf e p f a n r r t
a t 30 s p i n a a s e c o n d , EFPECTIVELY STANDARDIZED BY OTHERS
-rt
o r 1800 rp m . The h e a d s A d i s k c o s t s $7S a n d
th a t re a d and u rC te h o ld s up to 2 ,4 0 0 ,0 0 0 LINCtape
3/4 - in c h ta p e on a 4- in c h r e e l ( f i t s in
n a tio n ( 1 .2 m i l l i o n p o c k e t) , s p e c i a l l y c o a te d a g a i n s t f r i c
to be p o s i t i o n e d on PD P-1 1 u o r d s , u h i c h t i o n , deve lope d a t L in c o ln Labs f o r LINC
th e d i f f e r e n t t r a c k s . a r e IB b i t s e a c h ) . cu n p u te r ( se e p . 41 ).
(Some d i s k s h a v e a h e a d
f o r e v e ry tr a c k , u h ie h S w s l z s and r e e l b u t d i f f e r e n t l y f o r
matted f o r DEC stachinea ( v a r i e s with
n d e l ) . Very r e l i a b l e . A p e rs o n a l fav
I f you have d is k d r iv e s
($SS00 e a c h ) y o u n e e d a
c o n t r o l l e r (iS& O O ). S ig h
Tm L o r i t e o f many p ro g ra c n e rs .
JH CARTRIDGE
The Sc o tc h -tap e peo ple aay th e c a a s a tt e
ia u n r e l i a b l e , and o f f e r aa an a l t e r n a
te flP H W L 5 A card re a d er. ... >.~u
p u l s e s to th e c o n p u te i t i v e a b e l t - d r i v e n q u a r t e r - i n c h baby,
/f* r b a s e d on t h e h o l e s co s tin g maybe $1000 w i th o u t I n t e r f a c e .
xU v h p u n c h e d i n th e c a r d s . CRAM (Card Random Access Memory) r a r e
Big p ie c e s o f p l a s t i c (ab out f o u r Inchea
by two f e e t ) p u l l e d by n o tc h e s o ut o f a
s w c a r t r i d g e and whipped around a drua .
N atio n al Caah R e g i s t e r .
BRAILLE HARDLY STANDARDIZED AT ALL
' C a s s e t t e s P h i l i p s - t y p e a u d io -t y p e c a a a e tte .
no jo ke h e r e . People a re s t i l l making
B r a i l l e c o p ie s o f th in g s by hand. But th e way Used b y v a r io u a m a nu fa cture rs i n
to do i t i s by compute r: th e nach ine can punch v a rio u s ways, S ykes, S y c o r, DEC, Data
General and o t h e r s have s e p a r a t e , and us
o u t new c o p le a o f w h a t e v e r's s to r e d i n I t ,
re p e a te d ly . u a l l y in c o m p a ti b le , ayaterns.
A B r a ille - p u n c h in g a d a p te r k i t i s a v a i l
a b le f o r t h e p l a i n 33 T e l e ty p e , I b e lie v e
f ra n Honeywell,
A s i m i l a r a d a p te r k i t t o r I ' s Syatam 3
i s a v a i l a b l e f m IBM You never know what y o u ' l l se e n e a t . In 1969
one firm announced a h ig h - d e n s ity rea d-o nly
( I t l e o f i n t e r e s t t h a t an e a r l y u s e of m e ry d e v ic e " which anyone co uld s e e was a
Hooers' TRAC Language was w it h B r a i l l e con ver p la in 45 RPM ph on ogr aph b ut w ith d i g i t a l e l
sion.) e c t r o n i c s . And i t made s e n s s - But i t d o e s n 't
se ea to ha ve cau gh t on.

la an Impoalng term which meana almnt l anything
Basically. "almulmtion" meana kny activity thal
rep reaenla or ne em b lee tM H lh lnf, Computer
d n u lilto n la u i l n | Um c u p u t t r lo mimic aome-
ihing r w l i o r a o m th ln f that might be, tor any
ptirpoee:' to underetend an ongoing p n c t i i batlar
o r lo m how aou eth lng Digtil come oul In lha
H a n again, thou gh , tha Science mylh atapa
In lo myittiy Ihl* proceaa . aa though lha m a n
uaa of tha s o p u l a r conferred validity or some
kind of truth.
(On TV show* tha Spece Voyager* aland
in front of lha "computer" and eah in Arm. unnal-
u n l l y loud wricea whal will ba lha n s u ll * of *o-
aod-ao. Tha computer* oracular reply la Infal-
11bla. On TV.)
Lai t h a n ba no mystery about thia. Any
uaa of a data str u c tu re on a what-lf baala la
Simulation. You can *iaulata in dalall o r cnidaly;
f o u r <m.dart/i e n embody m y theories, *en*ible
o r n upld ; and yo ur result* may or b p nol cor*
A 'e o o p u la r prediction" 1* tha outcome of
a iinitiation that eomaone, evidently. ia willing
to atand behind. (Be* "computer election predlc-
dona." p . 4 \ )
Thai* polnta have lo be atreaaed becauae
If tlu r e la <me c o ap u te r acdvlly which la prelan-
tioualy p re u n le d and str essed , 11 la simulation.
Especially to naive cllenta. There la nothing
wrong with simulation but the re la nothing supe r-
Anollier term which mean* more or laaa
tha s e n la modeUlng,
In the looae aenae, aimuladon or model
ling consiata of calculatlona about any dee-
crlbable phoenomena for Inatance, optical
equation*. In optical modelling (and thle la how
they deaign today*a gr eat le naea), a data *lruc-
ture la creeled which represent* lha c un'elure .
mounting, etc. of the se parat e giaaaaa In a lena.
Then "simulating" the path* of Individual ray*
of light through that len a, ihe computer program
teeta lhat lena deaign for how wall tha raye
*ne together, and ao on. Then the deelgn Ii
changed and triad a g a in .
Another type of e lau lati cn . an Important
o u l quite distinct on e -- ia lhal which represents
the c m p l e i Interplay of myriad units, finding
out tha upahota and coneequence* of Intricate
premise*. In traffic almulallona, b r Inatance.
ll la eaey enough to represe nt ihouaanda of care
In a dala str u c tu re , and have them "react"
like d r i v e n - - creating ve ry convincing traffic
Jama, again represented somehow within the
data structure,
Basically simulation require* two things:
a representation, o r data structu re , that somehow
represents the things yo u're simulating In lha
aspect* that concern you; and then a program
t o * something to Iheee data, that la In some
way Ilka the process yo u 'r e concerned sbout
acting n t the (hinge yo u 'r e modelling, And each
evenl of significance enacted by the program
muat aomehow leave ila Irace In the dala structu re.
The line between elmulatkm and other pro
gramming Is not always c le ar. Thus llw calcu
lation of the future orbits of the planets could be
called "almulatiois."
The moat Intricate cases, though, don't
particularly resemble eny olher kinds of programs.
The Intricate enactments of phyalcal movements,
especially awarma and myrlada with mixed and
n lll d ln g populations, are especially Interesting.
On a recent 6elentUc American article, simula
tion helped to unde rstand possible streamer*
of stare between galaalae aa resulting from nor
mal n n ald eratim * of Inertia and gravitation
(Alar and Ju ri Toomre. "Violent Tldee between
O alaiies." g d . Am. Dec 73, 38-48.))
Models of c m p le x and changing rates are
mother Interesting type. Enacting compiea
things, whoee amounts are constantly -ht.gjng
in ta rn s of percentage multipliers of each other,
m in d easy in prin ci ple, but their omaequencea
can be quite s u r p risin g . (gee T h e Club of
ton*.* p. ( f .)
To Imagine the kin ds of mixed-caee myriad
models now poaafble, we could on M a y 's big
n m p u te n model entire eocletiea. with e separate
rao ird describing each Idivftiuai oul of millions
and specifying his probabilities of M b m and
diffltrwm preference* acc ording lo various theortee
lhan fellow through whole sack*ties' behertor
In ta m e of educetfem, income, marriage, m
F>v*wy. death, and anything else. Talk about
tin Kddiera and te a ls In ihe bathtub.
Any a n p u t e r language can be used for
xa* kind of almulatlon. Por simulations Invol-
ring relatively tew entitles, but lots of rates
or formulas, good old BASIC o r FORTRAN la
fine. (MAQI's *9ynlhevteion" ayaton, which
wild be said to "almulete* csmple i figures In
s three-dimensional sp ace, la done In Fortran;
P-W X -) For slmulstions involving s lot
**P*nte objects. spe cial eeaee and discrete
event*. TRAC Language (aae p . | J ) I , jr e e t.
if itumeiwa malheaaflca] formulas are Involved
end you wanl to change them around nmald er-
ably In an e x p erin aita l sort of way. APL ia
well suited (eee p p . ).
There are a number of special aimuladon"
languages, notably 91MSCRIPT and GP8S. Thaae
hare additional feature* useful, (or Instance In
mu tating w an ts ove r lime, auch as "EVENT"
cmmands which aynchronlaa o r draw division-
llnae In tima (lha simulated t l o s ) . Simulation
tanguages generally allow a g n a t v a n , , -
data types and ^ t e n d o n s on them.
The llst-proceaalng fanatics, of courae.
Insist that ihelr own U n g u ag w (such aa LISP
and SMOBOL) a n beet. And then th ere 's PLATO
(w e p T x i f ). whoM TUTOR language la solan-
did far boO, (arnulaa and dtacraJTw ork-- but
allOTra you only 1500 v a ria b le s, total (80 blia
The thing Is, any eel of assumptions, no
matter how intricate, can be enacted by a compu
te r modal. Anything you can express exactly
can be carre d out. and you can see Ita conse-
quances in Ihe computer'e rea dout a printout,
a acreen display, or some oth er view Into the
resulting data structu re.
Obvioualy these enactments (or sometimes
"predictions") a n wholly fallible, de riving any
validity they may have from the soundness of
the initial data or model.
However, they have another Important
function, one which Is going to be very Impor
tant In education and. I hope, general public
understanding, as c om pute n gel spread about
more widely and become more usable.
Tha availability of simulation models can
make things easier lo understand. Well-sel-up
almulatlon programs, available eaally through
terminals, can be used aa Staged Explanatory
Structure* and Theoretical Exploration Tools.
The use r can build hie own w ars, his own so
cieties , his own economic conditions, and eee
what follows from the waye he se ts ihem up.
Importantly, different theories can be applied lo
lha same aetupa. to make more vivid Ihe conse
quences of one or the other point of view.
(Indeed, similar facllltlea ought lo be avail
able for Congreaa. to allow them to pour a new
tax through Ihe population and see who suffers,
who g a in s ...)
I should point oul h e n thal tor this p u r
pose insightful Simulation-- you don't alweye
need a computer. I have In mind Ihe so-called
"simulation games.'1 which If wsll designed give
extraordinary Insights to ihe players. Allen
Calhamer's brilliant game of Diplomacy, for In
stance (Gamea Research. Boston; available from
B nntano's. NYC) teaches more about Iniernstional
politics than you could suppose possible. I am
alao Intrigued by a game called "Slmaoc," worked
out by a sociologist lo demonstrate the develop
ment of social struc tures from a state of random
ereation. but I haven't played It. (Clark C.
Abl. of Abt Assoclatea. Boston, haa also done
a lol of Interesting design h e n . )
A last point, a very "prectlcal" application.
Simulation makes 11 possible to enact things with
out trying them out in concrete reality. For In
stance. In Ihe lens-deslgn systems mentioned
e arlier. Ihe lenses don'l have to be actually built
to find out their detailed characteristics . Nor
la 11 necessary to build electronic ciroullry. now.
to And out whether 11 will w ork at least that'a
whal the aaleemen ssy . You can slmulsle any
clroull from a terminal, and "measure" what It
does at any time or In any pa rt wilh slmulaied
meters. Slmllsrly, when sny computer Is de s
igned now, ll's simulated before It'a built, and
programs are run on the simulated computer,
as enacted wilhin a real computer, lo see If ll
behavea as Intended. (Actually the re are some
hot-wire types who Insist on building things
first, but one aasumes thst the more sensible
computer designers do th is .)
Wilh sulomoblles It's ha rd er; but 0M, for
Instance, simulates the handling characteristic*
of Ils c a n be ( o n they're ever built so thst
designer* can redistribute weight, change steer
ing characteristics and so on, till Ihe handling
characieritstics come out the wey Ihs Consumer*
seem te like.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Simulation magaslne la the official Journal of
Simulation Counclla, in c .. the curiously-
named aiclety of the Simulator*. it coats
$18 a year from Simulation Counclla, In c..
Box 2228. Le Jolla CA 82037.
For all 1 know you get annual mem
bership tree with thal. I've always wanted
id Join but It waa always the one thing loo
many; but their conference programa a n
sensational. Where else can you hear
paper* on traffic, biology, military hardware,
weather prediction and electronic design
without changing yo ur seat?
y x y x y x y x y x y ^-y ^ y ^ y
"Simulation" means almost anything lhal In
any way representa or reaerables something.
Whkh Is nrt to say ll's a use less o r improper
term. Just s slippery one.
Examples, H e n are waya we could "slmu-
late" a h o n e race:
Show dot* moving aro und an oval track
on a nm pls la ly random baala. and d e cla n Ihe
A n l lo complete the circuit The Winner,
Asaign odds to Individual horaee. and
Uien uaa a randomlssr lo choose the winner,
taking Into account those odda. <Thla ts how the
PLATO 'h o r se ra ce ' game worka: see p . ^ t f . )
Give am dltkmal odds to the different h o n e s ,
based on poaalbla "weather conditions. Then
flip a w in (or the computer equivalent, weighted
randomisation) to teat the "weather conditiona,"
end assign ihe horses performance accordingly.
Program an enactment of a h o n e w e . In
which the winner ia selected on the ba sis of
the Interaction of ihe horoeeopes of horse and
rider.
Create a data str uctu re representing the
three-dimensional hinging of horse 's bones, and
the interlaced timing of tha the h o n e 's gall,
(Thle haa been done at U. of Pennsylvania on a
DEC 338.) Then have theae stick figure* run
around a track (or the data structu re equivalent).
Ualng a synthetic-photography system
such as UAOI'a Synthavlslon (see p .to j^ ) , create
the JD data str uctu re for the e n t l n eurface of a
runnin g horae over time; lhan make aeveral copies
of thle horse run around s track, and make sim
ulated photographs of ll.
And so on.
Bo dwi't be anowed by the term "simulation."
It meens much, Unis or nothing, depending.
O J W T 'O N S
ia an extension of Simulation in a fairly obvious
direction.
If simulation means Ihe Enactment of some
event by compuier. Operations Re se arch meane
doing theae enactments to tr y out dlfTsrenl strat
egies. and lest the most effective ones.
Operations reaearch really be gan during
World War n with such problems ae submarine
hunting. Given so-and-so many p la nes, whal
pattern should they fly in lo make Ihelr catching
aubmarlnes moat likely? Building from certain
types of known probab il ity, (bul In are as where
"true mathematical answ ers w ere not easily
found), operation* rese arche rs could sometimes
And Ihe bsst ("optimal") str ate gies for many
dUTsrenl kinds of activity.
Basically what they do la play the situation
oul hundred* or thousands of llmee, enacting II
by compuier, and using dice-th row in g techniques
to determine the outcomes of all Ihe unpredictable
p arts. Thsn, after all entities have done Ihelr
thing, the program can report on whal strategies
turned out to be most effective.
Example, In 1873 the Saturday Review of
something-or-o the r printed a pie ce on the solu
tion. by OR techniques, of the game of Moiopoly.
Effectively the game had been pla yed thousand* of
llmee, the dice throw n perh eps millions, and
Ihe different "playera" had employed various
different strategies sgalnsl each oth e r In a va rying
mix: Always Buy, Buy Lighl G reen. Utilities and
Boardwalk, elc.
A complete solution waa found, the strategy
which tends (over many pla ys) te work beat. I
forget whal II waa.
Using another technique, Ihe game of foot
ball waa analysed by Robert E. Machoi of North
western and Virgil Carte r, a football peraonege.
Their Idea waa to teet various maxims of the
game, to find out which common rules sbout
bensflclal plays w e n tr ue. Whit they did wae
replay Afly-elx big-league football games on a
pla y-by-play baala. rate the outcemee. and aee
which clrcumatsnces pr oved most advantageous on
the a v e n g e . I've mislaid the re p r in t (Operations
Re se arch, s recent y e a r ) , and bein g totally Ig
norant of football can remember none of the And-
Inga. Anyhow, lhat's where lo look. /i+ J
The earlier explanation of Operations
Resesrch wasn't quite right. Its sny systematic
study of what works best. Computers csn help.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Irvin R. HentMl. "How to Win at Monopoly."
Salurdajr Review of Science, Apr 73, 44-8.
V irgil C arter and Robert E. Kaehol, "Operation*
Raaeareh on F o o tb a ll. Operations Beaeacch.
nareh 1971, S41-544.
\$m
6R A T
U n t i l now, t h e o b s c u r i t y o f c o a p u t e r s
ftas Kept th e p u b l i c f r o a u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h a t a n y t h i n g l i k e p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s were
i n v o lv e d in t h e i r u s e . Hut now a l o t o f
t h i n g s a r c g oin g t o b r e a k . T or i n s t a n c e
ti H 'T H C t TH f F * I ?
J . E dgar H o o v e r 's r e c e n t d e a t h
r a i s e d a v e ry s e r i o u s p r o b l e * . What
a b o u t a l l th o s e f i l e s he had b e e n k e e p
in g ? R e s p o n s ib l e c r i t i c s o f t h e FBI,
su c h a s F r e d J . Cook, have c l a i m e d t h a t
H o o v e r 's p o l i c y b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t e d o f
c h a s i n g lo n e p unks ( l i k e O i l l i n g e r ,
Bonnie and C l y d e ) , h a r a s s i n g p o l i t i c a l
d i s s e n t e r s , and k e e p in g v a s t u n n e c e s s a r y
r e c o r d s on I n n o c e n t c i t i z e n s * - t h u s v i r
t u a l l y c r e a t i n g th e v a s t n e tw o rk o f o r
g a n iz e d c r T S T l n A m e ric a, w h ic h s t a y s
th # p o l i c e b l o t t e r s . T hus t h e qu e s-
The q u e s t i o n h a s b e e n a n s w e r e d . In
J u l y 1973 Nixon a p p o i n t e d C l a r e n c e K e l le y ,
p o l i c e c h i e f o f K ansas C i t y . A f t e r th e
p r e v i o u s g o i n g s - o n - - f o r i n s t a n c e , N ix o n 's
s e e a i n g t o o f f e r th e p o s t t o J u d g e Byrne
w h i l e he was p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e E l l s b e r a
t r i a l - - t h i s lo o k e d to t h e p r e s s l i k e a
s t a i d and u n c o n t r o v e r s l a l r e s o l u t i o n .
K e l le y c e r t a i n l y i s aw a re o f t e c h
n o lo g y . I t s e e a s to be he t h a t p u t d i s
p l a y s c r e e n s i n Kansa s C i t y p o l i c e c a r s ,
c r e a t e d th e ALERT s y s t e a ( A u t o a a t e d Law
E n fo rc em e n t Resp onse T ea a) and C0PPS
( C o a p u te r iz e d P o l i c e P l a n n i n g S y s t e a ) ,
w hic h f o r y o u r a a u s e a e n t t i e s i n t o MULES
( M is s o u r i U n i f o n Law E n f o r c e a e n t S y s t e a ) .
(S e e M e lv in F. B o c k e l a a n , " O n - L in e O * .
p u t e r s K eepin g T hin gs S t r a i g h t , " which
d e s c r i b e s t h e Kansas C i t y c o a p u t e r s e t u p .
C o a a u n i c a t i o n s . J u n e 73, 1 2 - 2 0 . ) in a
o r e t h r e a t e n i n g v e i n , s u p p o s e d l y th e
Kansa s C i t y d e p a r tm e n t k e p t c o a p u t e r
f i l e s on " a i l i t a n t s , a e n t a l s end a c t i
v ists." (S c h w a r tz a r t i c l e , p . 1 9 .)
ffh at K e l le y d o e s i s t h u s o f I n t e r e s t
t o us a l l . The b i g q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r ,
f o r e l l h i s c o n c e rn w ith p o l i c e a u t o a a t l o n ,
he I s a l s o c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h e f r e e d o a s
t h i s c o u n tr y use d to be a b o u t .
Ne c e s s i t y has been th e excuse for
EVERY IHFRINGEMENT OF HUMAN FREEDOM.
IT IS THE ARGUHEHT OF TYRANTS!
IT IS THE CREED OF SLAVES,
Edmund Burke
M um t*
of Cp^fUTey
A l o t o f p e o p le t h i n k c o a p u t e r s a r e
i n s o a e way c r u e l and d e s t r u c t i v e . T h is
c o a e s i n p a r t f r o a t h e ia a g e o f t h e com
p u t e r a s " r i g i d " ( s e e "The Myth o f th e
C o a p u te r," p . ^ ) , and p a r t l y b e ca u se
t h e a i l l t a r y u se s o a a n y o f t h e a .
B ut i t ' s n o t th e n a t u r e o f a c o a
p u t e r , any a o r e th a n t n e n a t u r e o f a
t y p e w r i t e r i s to ty p e p o e a s o r d e a th
w a rra n ts.
The p o i n t i s t h a t th e a i l l t a r y p e o
p l e a r e gu ng ho on te c h n o l o g y , an d ke en
on c h a n g e , and C o n g re ss buys i t f o r t h e a .
Ho way i s t h e r e r o o a to c o v e r t h i s
su b je c t d e ce n tly . But w e ' l l m e n tio n a
few t h i n g s .
The P e n ta g o n , f i r s t o f a l l , w i t h i t s
p a y r o l l o f a i l l i o n s , w i t h i t s stu p e n d o u s
I n v e n t o r i e s o f b l a n k e t s and boa b s and
t o i l e t p a p e r , was th e p r i a e a o v e r b e h in d
th e d e v e l o p a e n t o f th e Cobol b u s i n e s s
c o a p u t l n g la n g u a g e . So a v a s t amou nt i s
s p e n t j u s t on c o a p u t e r s t o r u n th e a i l i -
ta ry e s t a b l i s h a e n t f r o a a b u sin e ss p o in t
o f v ie w . r
Of c o u r s e t h a t s n o t th e i n t e r e s t i n g
stu ff.
The r e a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g s t u f f in co a-
p u t e r s a l l came o u t o f th e m i l i t a r y .
The D e p a rtm e n t o f D efen s e ha s s b ran c h
c a l l e d ARPA, o r Advanced R e se a r c h and
D e v e lo p a e n t Agen cy, whic h f i n a n c e s a l l
k in d s o f t e c h n i c a l d e v e lo p m e n ts w ith
v a g u e ly a l l i t a r y p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
I t I s th u s a suprem e i r o n y t h a t ARPA
p a i d f o r t h e d e v e lo p a e n t o f : CONPUTER
DISPLAY ( t h e S k e tc h p a d s t u d i e s a t L in c o ln
L abs; s e e p . , ! ) * t ; TIME-SHARING ( e . g .
th e CTSS s y s te m , s e e p . S T ) : HALFTONE
IMAGE SYNTHESIS ( t h e Uta h a l g o r i t h m s : b u t
s e e a l l o f p p . i * , -St. - 3 1 ) ; and l o t s
a o r e . S oae f o l k s a i g h t sa y t h a t p r o v e s
i t 's a ll e v il. I sa y l e t s lo o k a t c a s e s .
W hile t h e y ha ve m i l i t a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
t h a t s s i a p l y b e c a u se th e y ha ve a p p l i
c a t i o n s i n e v e r y f i e l d , and t h e a i l i t a r y
a r e j u s t w here t h e aoney i s .
J u s t t o e n u a e r a t e a few a o r e a i l i
ta ry th in g s --
Coaaand and c o n t r o l - - th e p r o b l e a
o f k e e p in g t r a c k o t w h o 's done what to
whoa, and w h a t 's l e f t on b o th s i d e s ,
Ii i s a sole m n i r o n y t h a t th e g r e a t
46SL C oaaand and C o n t r o l S y s t e a " - - e
gr a n d r o o a w i t h aany p r o j e c t o r s d r i v e n
by c o a p u t e r , o n l y s o a e t h i n g l i k e th o s e
in " D r . S t r a n g e l o v e * a nd " F a i l - S a f e " - -
a ay be a p r o t o t y p e f o r o f f i c e s and c o n
fe re n c e rooas o f th e f u tu r e .
"A v io n ic s " - - a l l th e e le c tr o n ic
g a d g e ts i n a i r p l a n e s , I n c l u d i n g th o s e
fo r n a v ig a tio n . (A r e c e n t m agaz in e
p i e c e d e s c r i b e d how w o n d e r f u l i t f e l t
t o f l y t h e F - 1 1 1 - - whic h h a s a c o a p u t e r
a a n a g in g t h e F e e l o f t h e C o n t r o l s f o r
y o u .)
" T a c t i c a l s y s t e m s " - - c o a p u t e r s to
aan a g e b a t t l e f i e l d p r o b le m s , a i a guns
and a i s s i l e s , s c ra m b le y o u r v o i c e among
v a r i o u s a i r f r e q u e n c i e s o r w h a t e v e r th e y
do.
" I n t e l l i g e n c e " - - c o a p u t e r s a r e u se d
t o c o l l a t e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n in g i n f r o a
v a r i o u s s o u r c e s . T h is i s no s im p le p r o b
le m -- how to f i n d o u t w hat i s s o f r o a a
ta n g l e o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n f o r a a t i o n ;
th i n k a b o u t i t . D o n 't t h i n k a b o u t how
we g e t t h a t i n f o r a a t i o n .
" S u r v e i l l a n c e - - i t c a n ' t a l l be
a u t o a a t i c , b u t v a r i o u s te c h n i q u e s o f
p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n ( s e e p . M I ^ . ) a r e no
doubt b e in g a p p lie d to th e la a e n se quan
t i t i e s o f s a t e l l i t e p i c t u r e s t h a t c o ae
back. (D id you knew o u r B ig B i r d s a t e l
l i t e e i t h e r c h i r p s b a c k i t s p i c t u r e s by
r a d i o , o r p a r a c h u t e s t h e a a s D r o p p in g s? )
Of c o u r s e , t h e j o k e r i s t h a t *11
t h i s o b s e s s i o n w i t h g a d g e t s does n o t
s e e a t o ha v e h e lp e d us a i l i t a r i l y a t a l l .
The arm y s e e a s d e m o r a l i z e d , end th e na vjr
l o s i n g g ro u n d t o a c o u n t r y t h a t h a r d l y J
e ven h a s c o a p u t e r s .
QUIS CUSTOIBT, HUH?
Beaton a v l f u e rec ip ie n t* have been
e y s to a U e a lly ahert-etan9*d fo r a t l i u t
14 yeara, according to C^gutecw eild (lo
k eyetea* anaiyat recently d isc e rn e d
th a t the w elfare program *a not c alcu l
atin g c o e t-o f-liv in q io o e a e e a on a n -
pjuM baeia, aa i t should have been, but
a* a e i ^ l a Increase baaed each year o \
an obeolate o r ig in a l fig ure.
However, i t ' * too la te to aek (or
refunds, a id anyway n e t aany e e lf a r a r e -
e lplen te take C g m m t U .

>1 ftfVlWLY
iW r W J f lK b S T W t f
Nol all kids who play with a a ^ u t s r s arm
quite aa lew -abldlnf as the B.B.B.l.B-T.O.H .B.
And (he lemptatVmis arm very s tr u if
One such youngster s a l <n S hlghachnal
Held-trip (0 a suburban Philadelphia p o lia
U tb m . and saw s d a o o strtfJo ii of Ihe police
rmoota ln b m e tw i ayalam.
The police who wsre defaooatralng It.
not being omputm r f n a h s . didnt rssllrs how
simple U s s a Id observe lha dlal-ln numbers,
passwords Old protocol
Whai this lad got to n e , he merrily went
lo his computer term inal In Ihe hsssmsnl and
proceeded m H e r Into Phlltelphla'a list <rf
most-wanted criminals ih . gamma of all his
A few days laler s man came to his bouse
Crum the FBI. Ha waa e v ld s tly not a rmgular
operative bul a technics) type. He aaked vary
nicely If (he boy had a term inal. Then tha FBI
man aaked very nicely if be had p u t In theee
names. The boy ad m ined, grinning, thal he
had. (B verraie in (he sohool knew 11 had to
be h e .)
The FBI man aaked him v e ry, very niosly
not to do It ag ain .
"Of course 11 dldn'l do any harm," says
the culprit. "I had Uiem down tor crim ss Ilka
'Intellectual m urd er.' (Thai oould happen to lhem
for UuiT"
Doea (hat make you feel bederT
PHILADHLPH1ANB AND CROOKS PLEASE NCTTB:
Thla happened Ova o r a l l years ago, snd
without s doibt Ihs system la by now totally secure
and Impenetrable. L ei's bops.
A ty se i n -P o iK lT
T hs question of 'privacy* in the abelract
lan'I really an laaue. Who csree if Ood eees
under your clothes? The problem Is whsl hsp-
pens to you on the b ssls of people's access to
your records.
Margo Si. James is s csss in point-
Ms. 91. James 1s s celebrated west coast
prostitute, onee well known tor her sctivlties
with Pau) K rssensr ss "The Realist N u n ;' she
Is now Chalrmadam or an organisation called
COYOTE, campaigning tor Ihe decriminalization
of prostitution.
9he originally had no Intention of becom
ing s proelllute. Rether. she learned thal
there wss s false record of hsr arrvsl for pros
titution; and despite her eSorls lo d e a r her
name, ihe record followed her w herever she
tried (o get a Job- Finally she eald tha hell
with It and did become a prostitute.
(Membership Is IS s y e sr. COYOTE,
Bos 28351, San Francisco CA H 128J
iw i . M b K cu e
tr N $ 4 (t 0 VC*
The phone ay atom la bruised and bleeding
from Ihe depredations of people who have found
out how lo cheal the plmjne company electronical
ly. Such people ere called Phone Freaka (or
Phresz); a rtld ea on Lhem have appeared in auch
places aa R am parti, The Rea lii I and Oul. For
no d e a r rmaam, Ihe electronic devices Ihey uae
hav been given various colorful namee:
black box: device which, attached to a
local telephone, pennlla il to receive
an incoming call without billing tlw
calling party; ll "looka like" the
phone la a till ringing, aa far aa the
billing sechaniam la concerned.
blue box: device that generates th e magical
"Inside" tones thal open up the phone
network and atop the billing mechan
ism. Poaeaalon of a blue box can
pul you In p riso n .
Aa with ao many th in g s , the
phone syeteis was nol designed under
Ihe aaaumptlon that (here would be
thouaande of e lec tro d e wiae-guys
capable of fooling around with It.
Thus Ihe phone system is tragically
vulnerable to such m essing around.
The only th in g they can do is get
ferocious law s paased and really try
to catch people, both o f which sre
apparently happening. Supposedly
it Is Illegal lo possess a tone gener
ator, or to inform anyone aa lo what
Ihe magical frequencies are even
though a elide whistle i s such s
tone gen erator, and any engineering
lib ra ry Is said to have Ihe Informa
tion.
red box; device thal sim u la te the Signals
mads try Calling coins.
The fact lhal tha names of these devices
are given he re la not to be construed ss in any
ssisfl approving of lhem, and anybody who
n m see around with them la a too1, playing with
napalm.
Even If p p le w ere entitled to steal back
excess profits from Ihe phone company Ihe
so-called "people's discou nt"-- (hs trouble la
lhat Ihey mess things up lo r e veryone. He have
s beautiful snd delicate phone system, m i lhal
stands reedy lo do wonderful things for you.
Including b rin g computer service to your home;
even If, for Ihe saks of argum ent, 11 U ru n by
dirty r a ta , meselng around with It la lik e p r i
soning Ihe r u r volr for everybody.
And (As rosiest'* r*d glar*.
Th* ixmbt b u n tin g in a ir, There l a another m issile. I t is
\bvr*i b w i i c s
The te rm " d a t e bank" d o e s n ' t ha v e
Gout p roof through th* night
That avr fla g waa m cilt th a rs.
called Sp rint. I t is shaped lik s the
point of a pencil. I t i s i l m t a l l
any p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i c a l M a ilin g . It
l u s t r e f e r s t o any l a r g e s t o r e o f i n f o r
"Oh, aan, t b t t that tear-tpangU d bam*r y t t uavi
0'tr tha lar\d of tha frtt and the ht*m of tht brmitf
propellant. Whan the greet counters
realize that the bad guy has gotten
m a ti o n , e s p e c i a l l y so m e th in g a t t a c h e d t o through, up goea Sprint: S p rin t I s elo
quently called the "terminal defense
a c o a p u te r .
F o r I n s t a n c e , a t Dartmouth C o l l e g e ,
H IC l - o - i i system. I t cxily has s couple o f elnutss.
Brighter than a thousand suns!
where t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s hav e be en
w or ki ng h a n d -I n -h a n d w ith t h e i r b i g tim e
s h a r i n g p r o j e c t , an awesome amount o f d a t a
I s a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e o n - l i n e in t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s . The l a s t c e n s u s , f o r I n s t a n c e ,
* T Sorry, scarsdale. Can'c win ' a a l l .
I f you rind th is descrip tio n mind-
boggling, t h a t's because I t Is . Anybody
In d e t a i l e d and u n d ig e s te d f o r a . Suppose to imagines th a t th is p ro jec t, on which
y o u ' r e a t Dartmouth and you g e t i n t o an b illion s of your d o lla r s havs already
a rg um ent o v e r w h e t h e r , s a y , d i v o r c e d women been spen t, can work. Is S w ishful
e a r n a s much o n t h e a v e r a g e as women th e thinker Indeed.
s u e a g e who ha v* n e v er be en m a r r ie d .
To s o l v e : you J u s t go t o t h e n e a r e s t t e r m i n a l , Even 11 m issiles stsysd lik e they
b a t I n a q u i c k p r o g r a a In BASIC, an d th e were in the good old days o f 196J, big
sy ste m a c t u a l l y r e - s n l y i e s t h e c e n s u s d a ta hslp less Clunkers they had to fu el up
t o a n sw e r y ou r q u e s t i o n . I f o n l y Congress ju st before the shoot, ths likelihood of
had t h i s ! the 5-mlle Ai detonation they count On
The u s e f u l n e s s sh o uld be e v i d e n t . hoping th a t Spartan and Sprint could be
replaced with ultrapower, fry-ln-the-sky
Because o f t h e way c e n s u s d a t a i s ha nd
l e d , now. I t I s n o t p o s s i b l e t o a s k f o r th e with sky-piercing stabs under c ^ ^ u te r
r e c o r d s o f a s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l . But t h i s c o itr o l but th a t 1s said to have been
k in d o f c a p a b i l i t y le a d s t o some r e a l d a n g e r s . abandoned.)
T here i s a l o t o f In fo rm atio n sto re d But even glv sn, snd only fo r the
ab o ut most I n d i v i d u a l s i n t h i s c o u n t r y . sake of argument, the f e a s ib il ity of
C r e d i t i n f o r m a t i o n , a r r e s t r e c o r d s , m e d ic al Spartan-Sprint for f ish -ln -s-b a rre l
and p s y c h i a t r i c f i l e s , d r i v e r s ' l i c e n s e s , shots, look what's hsppenlng now.
m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e r e c o r d s , and s o o n .
Now, i t i s n o t h a r d t o f i n d o u t a b o u t
an i n d i v i d u a l , a few phone c a l l s f r o a an HIKV (Kultiple Independently Ter-
o f fic ia l- s o u n d in g perso n can a s c e r t a in h is geted Re-entry Vehicle) basics 1ly n a n s
c r e d i t r a t i n g , f o r in s t a n c e . But t h a t i s K ultiple warheads. One rocket ean carry
v e r y d i f f e r e n t from p u t t i n g a l l t h e s e r e s l l these l i t t l e guys, se e , th a t fan out
c o r d s t o g e t h e r I n one p l a c e . when i t gets near the ta rg e t, and each
The p o t e n t i a l f o r a l s c h i e f l i e s i n le t Lon. ptdb, or F ractional O rbital H e-
d a n g e r t o i n d i v i d u a l s . Pe r so n s up t o no bardeent aystea, j u s t eesns th a t they
good c o u ld c a r e f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e someone send the th ing In to an o r b it around the
th r o u g h th e compu te r and th e n b u r g l a r i z e world, and Che warheads ccee in f ^ e tha
o r k id n a p . Someone u n s c ru p u l o u s c o u ld (^jposlte e ld s. An side. Meaning th at
look f o r r i c h widows w i t h 3 0 - y e a r - o l d u n 11 those radars pointed s t Russls would
m a r r i e d d a u g h t e r s . O rg a n iz e d c rim e c o u ld
s e a r c h f o r p a t s i e s and s t r o n g - a r m v i c t i m s .
ABM is s o r t of e deed ducki tha one
In t h e f a c e o f t h i s s o r t o f p o s s i lace-SAVlng in sta lla tio n I s In North Da
b i l i t y , com p ute r p e o p le ha v e be en w o rr y kota, and th e re won't be ny o th e rs . But
i n g f o r y e a r s ; n o te w o rt hy i s th e s t u d y one wonders how such things could ever
by Alan R e s t l n t h a t o r i g i n a l l y so unded be funded. But 'then again I rm M ber
t h e a l a r m , and h i s t o o - r e a s s u r i n g f o l l o w -
up s t u d y o f some d a t a - g a t h e r i n g o r g a n c a ll a lib e r a l, p o n tific ate on tjiia sub
i z a t i o n s ( se e b i b l i o g r a p h y ) . But t h e je c t. "They describe I t s s a 'th in
s c a r y d a ta b a n k s , t h e one s t h a t e v i d e n t l y sh ie ld ,'(h e sold) why c s n 't we ju s t
ke ep t r a c k o f p o l i t i c a l d i s s e n t e r s , spend a few b l i l i m re and g e t cc^>lete
a r e n ' t t a l k i n g a b o u t what th e y do (See protection?" Otherwise canny people, i f
Sc h w a r tz p i e c e ) . fooled by th e technologists, w ill believe
anything.
B a s i c a l l y , t h e two g r e a t e s t da n g er s I ts naM has kept clunking, possibly
from d a t a ba n ks a r e o r g a n iz e d CTime and
t h e E x e c u tiv e b r an c h o f t h e F e d e r a l Gov to lu ll the pub lic, possibly to g u ll tha of top-down planning like the VIetruss
e r n m e n t - - assu ming t h e r e i s s t i l l a d i s Congress- Anyhow, would you h*11eve *
s y s t , to ta lly con trolled by e ^ ju t e r a . es s war. I Imagine th a t th s S p rin t csm
tin c tio n . dssigned to hoot down onesing m iisiles? about SOMthing lik e th is I
1/ you would, read on. "GarfIs Id. our peopls in Operations
I t 's c alled Nlke-X, Safeguard Research have concluded that
snd goodnema kn what. ( I t 's svsn bssn Spartan won't w ork.'
called a "thin s h ie ld " -- masculine, huh?
Perhaps Congress would pay more i f they
c elled I t the Trojan 4X.1 But generally
we r e f e r to I t as the ABM (A nti-B allIstic
M iss ile ). I t ' s the a n ti-m issile m issile on I t end find so u th in g addi
people have talked about, and in i t l l s tion al th a t w ill u l e I t work.'
any In teractin g leorsls. possible c a
p ariso ns, etc.* fo r which th ere Is no Nov goes O arfield to h is cubicle
space here,
imagine i f
the Watergate tr a c to r . They're the manufacturing are
had had cm trc
n a tlo til data i n people who make the Princess* phono.
Enough said. Of the hundredi of B illio ns o f d o lla rs
they sre taking In on th is p ro je c t, ch
o f i t has to go back o u t to On1vac, the orders go down, and only news of
which Mkes the computers) lo Bell Labs, p a rti a l success goes up, rath e r than the
which guides the p r o je c t, whose
I t may seem odd, b u t N ixon h as s a i d Whippany, N .J. f a c i l i t y Is to ta lly given
h e i s c o n c e rn e d s b o u t c o a p u t e r s and th e over to I t i to th e rocket-builders and a=
The so ph istica te d argusent ie th at
p r i v a c y p r o b le m . C yn ics a a y j o k e a b o u t the ABM e f f o r t le t s our nation "Veep I ts
w hat h i s c o n c e r n a c t u a l l y i s ; b u t a more
c r e d i b l e s t a n d was t a k e n by v i c o - p r e a i - The system I s s turkey.
thing vaguely lik e th is I s sver really
d e n t Fo rd a t t h e 1974 N a t i o n a l Com puter needed-- and p o ssible. But th is overlooks
C o n f e r e n c e , Ford e x p r e s s e d p e r s o n a l note th a t in te llin g you th le 1 am
drawing only On information th a t Is pub- the o v e rsll s tr a te g ic problem. A ll th is
c o n c e rn o v e r p r i v a c y , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n s i d foolishness leads away f r the sta b ility
e r i n g a p r o p o se d sy ste m c a l l e d FEDNET, l le ly av ailab le , and drawing conclusions
w hic h w ou ld s u p p o s e d ly c e n t r a l i z e g o v e rn f ro s i t t t a way one usually draws conelu-
keeps everybody a liv e .
ment r e c o r d s o f a b r o a d v a r i e t y .
Hera i s bow the great abm I s sup (An in te re stin g p o in t to noeei s
Not me nti o ne d by Ford was t h e m a t t e r b iolo gist and population g e n e tic is t n s * l
posed to w rk . S ternglass claims i t d o e sn 't m a ttsri that
o f NC1C, t h e N a t i o n a l Crime I n f o r m a tio n
C e n t e r . T h is w i l l be a s y s te m , r u n by
th e FBI, t o g iv e p o l i c e anywhere I n t h e radiation poisoning th a t ju s t th e f s llo u t
ton looking for p o ssible refle ctio n s froe the ABM defense I t s e l f a few dozen
c o u n try .a c c e s s to c e n tr a liz e d records. th a t e ig h t be in terco ntinental m ls sllss.
THE QUESTION IS WHAT GETS STORED. A r
r e s t r e c o r d s ? Anonymous t i p s ? ( I t w ould Ths radar imagee are forever con around the p la n et. But nobody lis te n s to
be p o s s i b l e t o fra me i n d i v i d u a l s r a t h e r s ta n tly analysed c ^ i u t s r s . using ste rng lass.j
n i c e l y i f a l o t o f lo o se s t u f f c o u ld be every tr ic k o f P attern Recognition (see
slip p ed in to th e f i l e . ) In cid e n ta lly , an ill u s tr io u s c ^ u t a i
person, Rov, Dsn McCracken (author of
Many p e o p le seem t o be c o n ce rn e d good program ing te s ts on most of ths
w i t h p r e s e r v i n g some " r i g h t t o p r i v a c y , ' 1 Aha! S<^mthing i s c*ing. najor languagea) goea around le ctu rin g
which i s c e r t a i n l y a v e ry n i c e i d e a , b u t on the f u t i l i t y of tits ABM ayatem.
i t i s n ' t in th e C o n s t itu ti o n ; g e ttin g Kss, yes. I'm q u ite sure now, says
su c h a " r i g h t " f o r m a li z e d and a g re e d upon the coaputer. We have f ifte e n minutes. Tha main res son c<*^>uter people
i s g o i n g t o be n o s m a l l m a t t e r . should take an I n te r e s t in th i s i s sisa ls
C rest doors swing open, and a long only we know how funny ths thing r e a lly ii
But t h a t i s n ' t w hat b o t h e r s me. p h a llic shape a r is e s . I t haa lagged an
C o n s i d e r i n g r e c e n t e v e n t s , and th e c h a r gular f in s . Inh sritsd trim th* avaller
a c t e r o f c e r t a i n e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s whoK a n ti- a ir c r a f t Hike [we say Nlkey) rockets to work p e rfe c tly th e f le e t '
d e v o t i o n t o , and c o n c e p t i o n o f , de moc racy th a t preceded i t . This m issile I s called
i s l a t e l y i n d o u b t , t h in g s ' a r e s c a r c e l y the Spartan.
as a b s t r a c t a s a l l t h a t . C o n s i d e r i n g how
h e l p f u l o u r government h a s be en t o b r u t a l I t takes o f f.
r e g ia e s ab ro ad -- n o ta b ly th e C h ile o v e r
t h r o w , which so a e s a y was r u n fro m h e r e
(and w hic h used s p o r t s a r e n a s f o r d e t e n The cx^jutar s y s c * Is trecking the
t i o n j u s t as J o h n M i t c h e l l d i d - - ) we c a n encasing m issile- Hsrs I t (S S S I t 'S
no lo n g e r know w h at u s e an y i n f o r m a t i o n dodging no. th e Spartan i s turn ing ,
may f i n d i n t h i s g ov e rn m e nt. Tom orro w 's going f a s t e r and f a s te r th e y 're cosing
D ata Bank may be n e x t w e e k 's En em ies L i s t ,
n e x t m o nth s P r o t e c t i v e C u s t o d i a l A d v is
o r y - - and n e x t y e a r ' s T e r m i n a ti o n L i s t . encasing m issile speedi maybe IS .000
( I d o n ' t know i f you saw R o b e r t M a r x i a n 's m llss an hour. Spartan speedr maybe
e y e s o n t h e W a te rg a te h e a r i n g s , b u t t h e y 10,000, who k m n . In these few minutes
c h i l l e d my b l o o d . ) the Spartan haa gone 400 miles.
KOw's your te n n is 1
Heather M. David, "Cowputera, Privacy, sod Secu Can xou h i t a tenn is b a ll f ir e d out
rity . C<wputer Decisions. Hay 74, 66-48. o f s cannon?
Also P. Vsstln, Prlvsc r and Freedom. 1947.
Alan F. Wei d o and Klchael A. Baker.
Databank. In a fre e Society: Computers. Bs-
j g i - Sg E l nd f r l v a c r . Quadrangle, The Spartan goes o ff. Kay! I t too
"Landmark Study of Co^ uter-P rivsc y Problems
D eplete d ." CAH, Dec 72, 1096-7. I f I t goes o f f w ithin fiv e m iles of
Co^ilacent review of Vastta 4 Baker. th s a ttack ing m is s ile , ths hops I s th s t
Berman Scbwartt, rsvisw of Weatln t Baker book ths attacking m is s ile 's th e ro n u c le ar
warhead w ill g e t heated on one side snd
ITTTle Book BsvleW, S July 73, 19-20.
Rotes th st tbe opclalaa of Weat In m is fire . So [t lands in Tiaes Square,
sad Baker la baaed on th e ir Ignoring ju s t breaks a few buildings and apreada
various "web-feared Information centers" radioactive con task! nation -
slready ms 1s t slued by t |, , javsrnment.
Stanton Ifhselsr ( ed .) , ta ta co rd : Fi les snd
Doaelfre In A-srlcSn t t f s . S ^ i i T l
Ssgs Fouadstloo (WTC), S10. What i f Spartan missed.
Ia* Records: F i r s t th a P a n e r s ; then?"
Datamation. Dec 73, 105-110. oops, sorry , Montreal.
"Bow Fair Are Thoaa Fair Crs dlt Culdes?"
Datamation lUy 73, 120-12*. never fea r! Have you forgotten
Phil Kitsch, " C o u lt e r Sy.ta and the laaue of Sergeant York? Have you forg otten the
Privacy: How Par Away la 198*7" 0 a t a t l o e . J tt X . f r - t t. A la n ?
 One theory about the mechanics of this is
Much pressing research In molecular bio

Tie that a sort of zipper allde, called the ribosome,

chugs down the tape, attaching the called-for~~
amino acids and peeling off the ever-longer result.
logy, Ihen, is concerned with searching for
whatever it is lhat switches different things on
and off at different times in the careers of the
The focus of attention In genetics and ever-splitting cells of o u r bodies. Not to men
organic chemistry has for a decade now been tion those of all other living creatures, including
turnips.
the rem arkable systems and structures of the
molecules of life, DNA and RNA.
COMPUTERISH CONJECTURES
DNA Is the basic molecule of life, a long
and tiny strand of encoded Information. Actually The guys who specialize in this are usually
il Is a digital memory, a stored representation chemists, and presumably know what they're
of codes necessary to sustain, reproduce, and doing, so Ihe following remarks are not intended
even duplicate the creature around it. as butting into chem istry. However, new p e r
spectives often give fresh insight; and the matters
It is literally and exactly a digital memory. we've covered so far might seem to hsve a c e r
Its symbols are nol binary but q u ate rn ary , as tain relevance.
each position contains one of four code molecules;
however, as it takes three molecules in a row to DNA and RNA, as already remarked, may
make up one individual codon, or functioning without distortion be thought of as a tape. Indeed,
symbol, Ihe actual number of possible symbols on this tspe is a data structure* and indeed It is
is 6 4 " the number of possible combinations of a dala structure which seems lo be involved with
four different symbols In a row of th re e. (I don't the execution of a program -- the program that
know the adjective for slxtyfourishness, and it's occurs as the organism 's cells differentiate.
just as w ell.)
Now, here are some of the funny things There Is evidently some sort of program
T he basic mechanism of the system was lhat are known about this. One is that there is follower which Is capable of branching to dif
worked out by Francis Crick and J a n e s Watson, a particular codon of three bases that is a stop ferent selections of (or subprogram s) In the
who understsndably got the Nobel Prize for it. code. Just like a period in ordinary punctuation. overall program, depending on various factors
The problem was this: how could living ceils This signals the end of a template. Another is In the cell's environment** or perhaps its age.
transmit their overall plans to the cells they that the templates on Ihe tape are in no partic
split Into? and how could these plane be ular o rd e r, but distributed higgledy-piggledy. Now, It is one thing to look for the p a r
carried out by a mechanical process? (Geneticists engaged in mapping the genes of a ticular chemical mechanisms that handle this.
particular species of creature find that the gene That's fine. On the other hand, we can also
The mechanism Is astonishingly elegant. for eye color may turn out to be right next to consider (from ihe top down) whst sort of a
Basically there Is one long molecule, the DNA the gene for length of tail but where those program follower It must be to behsve like thle.
molecule, which Is really a long tape recording are really. and what the particular molecules do (This is like the difference between tracing oul
of all the information required to perpetuate that determine it, are still mysterious sorts of particular circuitry and trying to figure out
the organism and reproduce il. This is a question.) the structure of a program from how 11 behaves.)
long helix (or corkscrew), as Linus Pauling
had guessed years before. The chemical pro Here Is some more weird stuff about this. At any ra te, the following interesting con
cesses permit the helix to be duplicated, to jectures arise:
become two stitched-together corkscrew s, and Large sections of the ONA strand are "dark."
then for them to come ap a rt, unwinding to go il turns out, just meaningless stretches of random
their separate ways to daughter cella. combinations of bases lhat don't mean anything-- 1. The mechanism of somatic reproduction is
or ever get used. This ties in, of course, with a subroutining progrsm follower- - not unlike
the notion thal genetic change is random and the second program follower of the subroutining
blind: the general supposition is lhat genetic display (see p. That Is. it steps very
mutallon takes place a base or two at a time, slowly through a master program somewhere,
and Ihen something else activates a chance com and with each new step directs the blocking or
bination in a dry slretch that turns out to be unblocking of particular stretches of the tape.
useful, and thia is somehow perfected through
successive 1-base changes during the process As the program is ln each cell, presumably
of successive mutation and evolution. it is being separately followed in each cell.
(This is sometimes called distributed computing.)
Amazing U6 e ia made of these mechanisms
2. In each cell, the master program is d ire c
by some v iru ses. Now, v iruses are often thought
of as the most basic form of life, but actually ting certain tests, whose results may or may not
they are usually dependent on aome other form command program branching successive steps
and hence more streamlined than elemental. Well, to new states of the overall program . It may
some viruses (bul not all) have the capacity for be teating for particular chemical secretions in
As a tape recording, the molecule directs inserting themselves ln the genetic material: its environment; it could even be testing a c o u n te r.
the creation of chemicals and other cells by an breezing up lo Ihe DNA or RNA. unhooking it in
intricate series of processes, nol well understood. a certain place and lying down there, then being 3. (This is the steep o n e.) If this were so,
Basically, though, the Information on the basic duplicated as part of the template, then unhooking we might suppose that this program too was stored
DNA tape is transferred to a new t a p e , an active themselves and toddling away both parent virus on the DNA, in one or more program areas; and
copy c a l l e d " m essen g e r RNA," w hich b e - and copy. I can't for the life of me think of an it would therefore be necessary lo postulate some
conea an a c t u a l p la y b a c k d e v i c e f o r Che analogy to this, but I keep visualizing it as hap addressing mechanism by which the program fol
c r e a t i o n o f oav m o le c u le s a c c o r d i n g to pening somehow in a Bugs Bunny cartoon. lower can find the templates to open and close.
th e p l a n s c o r e d on che o r i g i n a l . (And perhaps farther sections of the p ro g rsm .)
CONTROL MECHANtSMS
Some things are known about this process 4. Indeed, it makes sense to suppose that
and some a re n 't, and 1 may have this wrong, Now, all cell 6 are not alike. From the first such a program has the form of a dispatch table
but basically the DNA-- and its converted copy, beginning cell of the organism (the zygote), various - - a list of addresses in the tape, perhaps asso
the RNA contain plans for making all the splits create more and more specialized, differ ciated with specifications of ihe tests which are
basic protein molecules of the body, and anything entiated cells. A liver cell is extremely different to cause the branching.
else that can be made with amino a d d s . (Those from a brain cell, bul they both date back by
molecules of the body which are not proteins or successive splitting from that first zygole. Yet
built of amino acids are later made In chemical they have different structures and manufacture
processes brought about by these k in d s .) different chemicals.

Now well may you ask how this long tape One simplification may be possible: the |p r
recording makes chemical molecules. The answ er, "structure" of a cell may really be its chemical m e .~ r.-t-o
eo far as Is known, is extremely puzzling. composition, since cell walls and other struc
tures are thought to be special knittinga of
As already mentioned, the basic code certain tricky molecules. Oksy, so that may
molecules (or nitrogenous bases) are arranged reduce the question slightly. How then does
In groups of three. When the RNA 1s turned the cell change from being an Original (undif
on. these Qriples latch onto the molecules of ferentiated. zygotic) cell to the Specialized
amino acid that happen to be floating by in the cells thal manufacture particular other complex
soupy interior of ihe cell. (There are twenty-- chemicals?
seven amino acids, and sixty-four possible
combinations of three bases; this is fine, because One hypothesis was that these other cells These wild speculations are offered ln the
several different codons of three bases can glom have different plans ln them, different tapes. spirit of Interdisciplinary good fellowship and
onto the same passing amino acid.) But this theory was discarded when John Gurdon good clean fun. Whether ( 1 ) and (2) have any
at Oxford produced a fresh frog zygote from the actual content, or are merely paraphrases of
Now, the tape recording is divided Into Intestinal cell of a frog (which accordingly, ln what is already known or diaproven, I don't
separate sections or templstes; and each template due lime, became a frog de facto) . This proved, know; somebody may find the rest suggestive.
does its own thing. When a template is filled, most think, that the whole tape is in eveTy cell.
the strin g of amino acids in that section separate, Two more observations, though. These
and the long chain thal results is a particular Thus there must be something-or-other are not particularly deep, and may indeed be
molecule of significance in some aspect of the that blocks the different templates at different obvious, but they suggest an approach.
critte r's life processes often a grand long times (You there, now you're a full-fledged epi
thing that folds up in a certain w a y , exposing thelial cell, never mind what you did before) S. There is definitely a Program Restart: to w it,
only certain active surfaces lo the ongoing and selects among all the subprograms on the tape. whatever It Is that turns an old differentiated
chemistry of the cell. intesline cell into a fresh zygote.

8. Cancer is a runaway aubroutlne.

The a b o v e re m a r k s seem to b e o b a o l e t e . The g e n e t i c m ech a n ism r e a l l y te e n s to be a H a t p r o c e s s o r (ee e
u s in g a s s o c i a t i v e , r a th e r chan n u m e ric a l a d d r e s s in g . T he g e n e I s now t h o u g h c co b e d i v i d e d i n c c f o u r a e g m e n c s , '
p-- lrV- , c a ll e d P ro m o ter, I n i t i a t o r , gene p ro p e r, and T e rm in a to r. Aa I u n d e r s t a n d BIBLIOGRAPHY (Pr .'K Itfr)
_ _ j? l i t, th e p r o m o te r a n d t e r m i n a t o r z o n ea c o n t a i n c o d e a w h ic h m ean, s im p ly ,
i * I S t a r t and S to p . The I n i t i a t o r z o n e , h o w e v e r, l e a c o d ed s e g m e n t w h ic h e f - Har Goblnd Khorana, Millard Gibbs lecture, Kay 1974,
f * f e c t l v e l y fia b e la th e g e n e . T h le I n i t i a t o r a re a c o n ta i n s a c h e m ic a l code u u l- Progress ln the Total Synthesis of the Tyro
J i ' r f * * , 8 0 * ' A8 s u g g e e t e d l n t h e a b o v e a r t i c l e , w e m a y c o n s i d e r b o t h l c s l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e i c e m e c h - sine tfMAGen* and Ita Control EleunU.*
. . , 11- ? n a c t s , c o n s i d e r e d fro m a c o m p u te r o a n * s p o i n t o f v ie w a n d i t s c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e , o r w h a t i s
iy P*PP* io g . T h e g e n e s a r e t u r n e d o f f b y g r a b b i n g m o l e c u l e s , o r r e p r e s s o r s , w h i c h g l o m o n t o t h e i n i t i a t o r ( *1
th . 6 e n s w h i c h t h e y h a v e b e e n s p e c i f l c a l l v c o d e d c o r e p r e e e . R e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a m u a t now f i n d
of . ! ! ! , . c o d l n 8 o f o l e c u l e e w h i c h b l o c k a n d u n b l o c k s p e c i f i c g e n e e , a n d how c h e s e f i c t o t h e o v e r a l l g r a p h
t h a m m ll0 ! ? 1 "u n o l o 8 7 . d e v e lo p m e n t, an d a o o n . I f t h e r e l e a n y t h i n g to make a n o l d a t h e i e t u n e a s y , i t i s
th e e x tr a o r d in a r y b e a u ty o f c h ls c lo c k w o rk .
 From all thia, one lest speculation creeps
fo rw a rd .
Ivan S u t h e r l a n d , i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s t r u c
ture of s u b r o u t i n i n g d i s p l a y p r o c e s s o r s , hag
noted that aa y o u g e t m o r e a n d m o r e s o p h i s t i
cated in the d e s i g n o f a d i s p l a y p r o g r a m fol
lower, you com e f u ll c i r c l e a n d m a k e i t a f u ll-
fledged c o m p u t e r , w it h b r a n c h , t e s t , a n d a r i t h
metic o p e r a ti o n s .
If the s o m a tic m e c h a n i s m s h o u ld t u r n o u t
10 have a p r o g r a m f o l l o w e r a s d e s c r i b e d , i t i s
not much of a s t e p to s u p p o s e t h a t it m ig h t h a v e
Ihe traits of a n a c t u a l c o m p u t e r , i . e . , t h e a b i li ty
to follow p r o g r a m s , b r a n c h , a n d p e r f o r m m a n ip
ulations on d a ta b e a r i n g o n t h o s e o p e r a t i o n s .
In o th e r w o r d s , t h e d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r m ay
actually h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d l o n g b e f o r e v o n
Neumann, a n d w e m a y h a v e b i l l i o n s o f th em
on ou r p e r s o n s a l r e a d y .
II m ay s o u n d f a r - f e t c h e d , b u t t h e m e c h a n
isms elu c id a te d a t t h i a l e v e l a r e s o f a r - f e t c h e d
already that t h i s h a r d l y s e e m s r i d i c u l o u s .
THE COMPUTER F R O N T IE R
R e g a r d le s s o f w h a t 's a c t u a l l y ln t h e c e l l ,
11 ia c le a r lh a t b e i n g a b l e t o a d a p t m o le c u l a r
chem istry, e s p e c i a l l y DNA a n d R N A , to c o m p u t e r
storage i s a b e c k o n i n g c o m p u t e r f r o n t i e r .
T h is w o u ld m a k e p o s s i b l e c o m p u t e r m em
ories w hich a r e f a r l a r g e r a n d c h e a p e r t h a n
any we now h a v e .
B a sic a lly w e c a n s e p a r a t e th i s i n to tw o
aspects:
T h e DNA R e a d o u t . T h is p a rt of th e s y s
tem would c r e a t e l o n g m o l e c u l e s h o l d i n g d ig ita l
information.
T h e DNA R e a d i n . T h iB w o u l d c o n v e r t i t
beck to e le c t r ic a l f o rm a g a i n .
Weird p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o l l o w . O n e i s t h a t
(if chemical m e m o r y i s g e n e r i c , r a t h e r th a n
idiosyncratic to a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s n e u r a l p a th w a y s )
knowledge c o u ld b e s e t u p s o m e h o w in " l e a r n e d "
DNA form , w h a t e v e r t h a t m i g h t t u r n o u t t o b e ,
and in jected o r i m p l a n t e d r a t h e r t h a n t a u g h t .
Weird.
Aa o u r a b i l i t y to c r e a t e c l o n e s i m p r o v e s ,
we could clo n e n e w c r e a t u r e s , o r g e n e t i c " im
pro v em en ts"-- w h i c h , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r a c e h o r s e
and the P e k i n e s e , m e a n e " t h o s e s o r t s o f n o n -
viable m o d ific a tio n s s u p p o r t e d i n h u m a n s o c i e t y . "
And of c o u r s e t h a t g h a s t l y s t u f f a b o u t b u i l d i n g
human a , o r s e m i - h u m a n s ; h a v i n g t r a i t s t h a t
somebody o r so m e o r g a n i z a t i o n , u l p , t h i n k s ia
deB irable...
But the r e a l z i n g e r i a t h i s o n e . I t m ig h t
juet be a sm all a c c i d e n t a l p r i n t o u t m e a n t to
test the f a c i li ty , o r m a y b e j u s t a p r o g r a m b u g
- - b u t th e s y s t e m c o u l d o u t p u t a v i r u s
that would d e s t r o y m a n k i n d .
HIBLIOGRAPHY
James D . W a ts o n , M o l e c u l a r B io lo g y o f t h e G e n e .
B e a u tifu lly w r i t t e n ; m e a n t f o r h i g h s c h o o l
s cience t e a c h e r s . B u t p o t e n t i a l l y f o r m i
d a b le ; l f s o , s t a r t ' w i t h h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l
T h e D o u b le H e l i x , w h i c h i s a g a s .
Mark P ta s h n e a n d W a lt e r G i l b e r t , " G e n e tic
Repressors." Scientific American, June
1970, 36-44.
S E. L u r ia , L ife: T h e U n f i n i s h e d E x p e r i m e n t .
S c r i b n e r 's .
Lewis Thomas, T he L i v e s of a C e l l . Viking, S7.
Eloquent w r i t i n g to popularize, among
other things, the N e w Ge netic view that
your m o d e r n a n i m a l cells, and mine, ac
tually c o n t a i n v a r i o u s fungi and other
stray d i n g - a - l i n g s that slid into one of
our ancestors and found useful work, j oi n
ing the b a si c g e n e t i c program.
It u s e d to b e f a s h i o n a b l e to s a y ,
"T he b r a i n Is a c o m p u t e r . "
But now p e o p le s a y , "T h e b r a in
is a h o l o g r a m . "
F a sh io n s c h a n g e .
T tft
A lm o s t n o t h i n g i9 k n o w n a b o u t t h e b r a i n .
O h , th e r e a r e lo ts o f p ic tu r e - b o o k s sh o w in g
WH^r NeXT?
c r o s s - s e c tio n s o f b r a i n s . . . M aybe you th o u g h t
il w a s j u s t a b i g c a u l i f l o w e r , b u t i t ' s f u ll of
s t r i n g s a n d s t r a p s a n d lu m p s an d h a r d l y a n y
th i n g i s k n o w n a b o u t a n y o f i l .
C l in i c a l e v i d e n c e , o f c o u r s e , t e l l s u s
th a t i f t h i s o r t h a t p a r t i s c u t o u t , ih e p a t i e n t
c a n 't t a l k , o r w a l k , o r s m e l l , o r w h a t e v e r .
But th a t d o e s n 't co m e c lo s e to te ll in g u s how th e
t h i n g w o r k s w h e n il d o e s w o r k . T h e h i s t o l o g i s t s ,
th e p e r c e p t u a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s , t h e a n a t o m i s t s ,
a r e a ll w o r k i n g a t i t w i th n o c o n v e r g e n c e .
B e a u tifu l e x a m p le : ih e s p l i t - b r a i n s t u f f , w h ic h
I ju st b e tte r not e v e n b rin g u p h e r e (se e new
M aya P i n e s b o o k , H a r c o u r t B r a c e ) .
B y b r o w s i n g t h i s b oo k y o u m ay h a v e m o re
s e n s e o f w h at c o m p u te rs a re d o in g , c a n d o ,
We u s e d to d i 6 s e c t b r a i n s w h e n I w o r k e d
d o w n i n D r . L i l l y 's d o l p h i n l a b . D o lp h in b r a i n s s h o u l d do .
a r e a b o u t 1 . 2 t i m e s t h e s i z e o f o u r s , a n d L illy
q u ite r e a s o n a b l y p o i n t e d o u t th a t t h i s m ig h t m e a n W hat w il l y o u do now ?
d o l p h i n s w e r e s m a r t e r th a n u s .
B y r e a d i n g t h i s b o ok in s o m e d e t a i l , e s
p e c i a l l y t h a t d i f f ic u lt m a c h i n e - l a n g u a g e s t u f f (se e
A n d , o f c o u r s e , th e b ig g e r w h a le s e v e n
" R o c k B o tto m a n d " B u c k y s W r i s t w a t c h ," p p .
sm a rte r. We h a d a k i l l e r - w h a l e b r a i n i n t h e
3 2 - 3 ) . o r t h e p ie c e s o n s p e c i f i c c o m p u t e r
d e e p f r e e z e t h a t w a s a b o u t 2$ fe e t a c r o s s . A n d
w h a le s co m e m u c h b i g g e r t h a n th a t; t h e K i l l e r 's la n g u a g e s ( p p . > y u r e a l l y s h o u l d b e
m e n ta ll y p r e p a r e d to g e t in to p r o g r a m m i n g , if
m a y b e a q u a r t e r t h e le n g t h o f t h e B lu e .
you d ig it.
(I s h o u l d p o i n t o u t h e r e th a t L i l l y 's p u b
M a y b e y o u s h o u ld c o n s i d e r b u y i n g y o u r
lic ity on th e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f d o l p h i n s w a s a little
o w n m in i c o m p u t e r , f o r a c o u p l e o f t h o u s a n d . O r
to o g o o d ; it so m e h o w d i d n 't g e t m e n tio n e d th a t
d o l p h i n s a r e j u s t v e r y s m a ll w h a l e s . t h e o n ly ( i f y o u ' r e a p a r e n t ) , c h i p p i n g in w i t h s e v e r a l
o n e s y o u c a n f e a s i b l y k e e p in a l a b . S o th i n k fa m ilie s to ge t o n e . O r a t e r m i n a l , a n d b u y in g
( o r c a d g i n g a s c a d g e c a n ) tim e o n a l i m e - s h a r i n g
o f w h a le s a s t h e p o s s i b l e s u p e r - s m a r l i e s , n o t
ju s t d o l p h i n s . ) s y s t e m . M a y b e y o u s h o u ld s t a r t a c o m p u te r c l u b ,
w h i c h m a k e s i t e a s i e r lo g e t c a s t - o f f e q u ip m e n t;
W h a t's th a t y o u s a y ? T h a t " b r a i n s i z e i f y o u r e k i d s , w r it e th e R . E . S . l . S . T . O . R . S . ( p .
i s n 't w h a t c o u n t s " ? T h a t 's a n i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t . *7>. I f y o u h a v e a c h a n c e , m a y b e y o u s h o u ld
t a k e c o m p u t e r c o u r s e s , b u t r e m e m b e r th e s l a n t
t h e s e a r e li k e l y to h a v e . O r p e r h a p s y o u p r e f e r
P e o p l e w i th s m a ll h e a d s a r e b y a n d l a r g e j u s t to s i t a n d w a i t , a n d b e p r e p a r e d to s p e a k u p
j u s t as s m a r t a s p e o p le w i th b i g h e a d s . T h a t 's
s h a r p l y i f t h e c o n p u t e r p e o p l e a r r i v e r e a d y to
one a rg u m e n t.
p u s h y o u a r o u n d . R em e m b e r:
H o w e v e r , p e o p l e h a v e m uc h b i g g e r b r a i n s
CO M PU TER POWER T O T H E PEOPLE!
t h a n a lm o s t a n y o t h e r a n im a l s . T h a t i n d i c a t e s
DOWN WITH CYBERCRUD!
s o m e th i n g to o .
C o m p u t e r s c o u ld d o a ll k i n d s o f t h i n g s fo r
1 b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o n ly o t h e r a n i m a ls w it h i n d i v i d u a l s , if o n l y t h e p r o g r a m s w e r e a v a i l a b l e .
v e r y b ig b r a i n s a re e le p h a n ts a n d w h a le s , (A n F o r i n s t a n c e : h e l p y o u c a lc u la t e y o u r ta x i n t e r
a n a to m ic a l e x p l a n a t i o n : th e w e ig h t i s s u p p o r t e d a c t i v e l y til l it c o m e s o u l b e s t ; h e l p t h e h a r r i e d
o n ih e m an b y b a l a n c i n g i t , o n t h e e l e p h a n t b y c r e d i t - c a r d h o l d e r w ith b i l l - p a y i n g b y a llo w in g
a h e a v y a n d c o m p a r a t iv e ly in f le x ib l e n e c k o f f s e t h im to t r y o u t d i f f e r e n t p a y m e n ts t o d if f e r e n t
b y a g r a p p l i n g t o o l, a n d i n th e w h a le b y p u t t i n g c r e d i t o r s till h e s e t t l e s o n t h e m o n t h 's b e s t m ix ,
it i n t h e f r o n t o f a t o r p e d o . B u t m o s t o t h e r t h e n t y p i n g t h e c h e c k s ; WRITING ANGRY LETTERS
a n a to m ie s c o u l d n 't m a n a g e a b ig b r a i n , s o t h e y BACK to t h o s e c o m p a n ie s th a t w r i t e y o u n a s t y
c a n t e v o lv e o n e . ^ l e t t e r s b y c o m p u te r ; h e l p i n g w i th l e t t e r - w r i t i n g
i n g e n e r a l . Y o u 'll h a v e to w r i te t h e p r o g r a m s .
A n y h o w , s o th e sc ie n tific q u e stio n is
w h e th e r b ig - b r a in e d s p e c ie s a r e s m a rt. W ell,
dogs a re s m a rte r th a n r a t s . . .
But a b o u t t h e s e o t h e r g u y s i n o u r le a g u e H ow d o y o u t h i n k c o m p u t e r s c a n h e l p
a n d b e y o n d . How d o w e k n o w s o i e n t if i c a l ly th e w o r ld ?
th a t " t h e s i z e o f t h e b r a i n i s n 'l w h a t c o u n t s " ? W hat a r e y o u w a i t i n g fo r?
B e c a u s e o b v i o u s l y t h e y 'r e n o t a s s m a r t a s w e
a r e , p e o p le s a y . T h e r e f o r e it i s n 't b r a i n s i z e
th a t c o u n t s . T h e d e p t h o f th i 9 lo g ic s h o u l d b e
e v id e n t. (I v e e v e n h e a r d p e o p le s a y , " O f c o u r s e
t h e y 'r e n o t a s s m a r t . T h e y d o n 't h a v e g u n s . " )
P a y c l o s e a t te n ti o n t o a n e l e p h a n t so m e tim e .
W o r k in g e l e p h a n t s in I n d i a r e s p o n d t o so m e
500 d i f f e r e n t o r a l c o m m a n d s .
C a n y o u th i n k of a 501st th i n g to a s k an
e l e p h a n t to d o ? (1 r a t h e r s u p p o s e i t cou ld - o b l i g e . )
A n y w a y , t h e d o z e n w h a le s I 'v e k n o w n p e r
s o n a l ly w e r e s m a r t a s h e l l .
It u s e d t o b e b e l i e v e d lh a l m e m o r y w a s
e x c lu s iv e ly a m a tte r of s y n a p tic c o n n e c tio n s
th e g r a d u a l c l o s i n g o f l i l t l e s w i t c h e s b e t w e e n
n e r v e c e lls w ith p r a c tic e .
It i s n o w k n o w n t h a t te m p o r a r y o r
s h o r t - t e r m m e m o ry is s y n a p t i c , b u t s o m e t h in g
e l s e t a k e s p l a c e a f te r t h a t . I t 's b e l ie v e d t h a t
a f te r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d , a n d il h a s s o m e th in g
to do w i th r e s t a n d s l e e p , m e m o r ie s a r e t r a n s
f e r r e d to so m e o t h e r f o r m , p r e s u m a b l y c h e m i c a l .
B ut how ?
My f r i e n d A n d r e w J . S i n g e r h a s a b e a u
tifu l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t w r a p s it u p . H is g u e s s
is t h a t m e m o r ie s a r e m o v e d f ro m s y n a p t i c
s to r a g e to DNA ( ! ) s t o r a g e d u r i n g d r e a m i n g ,
o r m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y REM s l e e p . I l i k e t h a t o n e .
IKE COPPER M A N W A L K E D OUT OF T H E R O C K Y CAVERN
 JM N w r ,
E v e ry b o d y b l a m e s t h e c o m p u t e r .
P e o p l e a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o b la m e t h e
c o m p u t e r . T he e m p lo y e e s o f a f i r m , by
t e l l i n g o u t s i d e .p e o p l e t h a t i t ' s t h e
c o m p u t e r 's f a u l t , a r e e n c o u r a g i n g p u b l i c
ap a th y th ro u g h p r i v a t e d e c e i t . T he p r e
te n s e i s t h a t t h i s th in g , th e c o m p u te r,
i s r i g i d a n d in h u m an ( s e e " T h e Myth o f
t h e C o m p u te r ," p . ? ) and m akes a l l
k in d s o f s t u p i d m is ta k e s .
C o m p u te rs T a r e l y make m i s t a k e s . If
t h e c o m p u tin g h a r d w a r e m akes a h a r d w a r e
e r r o r i n a b i l l i o n o p e r a t i o n s , i t may
be n o tic e d and a re p a irm a n c a l l e d . (O f
c o u r s e , once i n a b i l l i o n o p e r a tio n s i s
o n ce i n a t h o u s a n d s e c o n d s , o r p e r h a p s
e v e ry te n m in u te s . That ought to be
m e n tio n e d .) A nyhow, i n n o c e n t g a d g e t r y
i s n o t w h a t f o r c e s you t o make s t u p i d
m u l t i p l e c h o i c e s on b u r e a u c r a t i c f o r m s ;
m ere e q u i p m e n t i s n ' t w h a t l o s e s y o u r
s u b s c r ip tio n re c o rd s ;
IT'S
THE
SYSTEM.
By s y s t e m we m ean t h e w h o le s e t u p : t h e
c o m p u te r, th e a c c e s s o r i e s t h a t h a v e b ee n
chosen f o r i t , i t s p lan o f o p e r a tio n o r
p r o g r a m , an d t h e way t i l e s a r e k e p t a n d
co m p lain ts h a n d le d .
D o n 't b la m e t h e c o m p u t e r .
Blame t h e s y s t e m ; b la m e t h e p r o g r a m
m er; b la m e t h e p r o c e d u r e s ; b e s t o f a l l ,
b lam e t h e co m p a n y . L e t them know y o u
w i l l ta k e y o u r b u s in e s s to w h e re v e r th e y
h a v e human b e i n g s . Same f o r g o v e r n m e n t a l
a g e n c ie s : w r ite your congressm an. And
so o n .
4
we should all p ra ctice and have ready a t the
tip of o u r tongues:
WHY THE HELL NOT? YOU'RE THE ONES WITH
THE COMPUTERS, NOT ME!
Let's froth up a little citizen indignation h e r e .
A O T jr k J O i^
In p rin c ip le we no longer need account
num bers.
Now lhat tex t pro c essin g facilities a r e
available in moat (if not all) major com puter
langua ges, the o nly excuse for not u s in g these
features ia the p ro g ram m er's notion of h is own
convenience not lhat of the outside custom er
o r victim.
Exam ple. Someone I know got b r a n d new
^ ^ n ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a n d c re d it
c a rd s . He m ade no note of th e ir n u m b e rs. Then
he lost them b o th . Duly he re p o rted (he lo s s e s .
Neither serv ic e could look him u p . they s a i d ,
without the n u m b e r s . Not having u s ed th e m , he
had no bills to ch e c k . Even though he w as the
only perso n at th at a d d re s s with an y th in g like
that nam e. And w hy not, pra y tell? E ith e r b e
cause they w e re fib b in g , o r because th ey had
not seen fit to c r e a te a sim ple s tra ig h tfo rw a rd
program for the p u rp o s e . (See Basic R ejo in d er,
n e a rb y .)
I have h e a rd of sim ilar cases in volving
major life in s u ra n c e com panies. Don't lose the
n u m b e rs . L e t's all dance lo it:
When a n y th in g is issu ed to you,
Write the n u m b er down.
" (b H fo T C V "
T H hT ]> oH T
, ,
Few of u s can help feeling outrage at
the book c lu b s , o r s u b s c rip tio n offices, or
b illin g d epartm ents, that do n t re p ly to o u r
le t t e r s . O r re p ly in a p p r o p ria te ly , with a form
p rin to u t that doesn't match the problem .
F irs t le t's u n d ersta n d how this happens.
T h e se outfits a re b a s e d on u s in g the com
p u te r to handle all co rres p o n d e n c e and tra n s
ac tio n s . The "office" may not have any people
in it at all that i s , people w hose job it is
to u n d e r s ta n d and deal s en s ib ly with the p ro b
lem s of custom ers. In stea d , th e r e may ju s t be
key p u n c h op erato rs staffing a Balch S ystem , set
up by someone who h as long s in c e moved on.
T h e poinl of a b atc h system (see p . f S )
is to aave money and bo th er b y handling e v e ry
th in g in a controlled flow. T h is does not mean
in p rin c ip le that things have to b e rig id and
r e s tr i c t i v e , bul it usually m eans it in pra c tic e .
(See "T he Punch C ard M enta lity," p . )
T he system is set up w ith only a fixed num ber
of e v e n t ty p e s , and so only th o se eve nts are
re co g n ize d ae o c c u rrin g . Most im portant, your
problem is assum ed to be one that will be
s tra ig h te n e d out in the c o u rs e of the s y stem 's
flow . While th e re may be p ro v isio n for excep
tio n s -- one c l e r k , p e r h a p s - - y o u r problem has
not seem ed to him w orthy of m aking an excep
tion for.
Here is my solution. It h as worked
s e v e ra l tim es, p artic u larly on book clu b s that
ig n o re d typed letters and kept b illin g me
in c o r r e c tl y .
Get a roll of white sh elf p a p e r, two or
th re e feet wide and twenty o r m ore feet long.
Write a le tte r on Ihe s h e lf p a p e r in magic
m a r k e r. Make it b ig , p e rh a p s s ix inches to a
w o rd . Legibility is n e c e s s a r y , b u t d o n 'l make
it too easy to re ad .
Explain the problem c l e a r l y .
Now lake y o u r p u n ch c a r d - - you d id gel
o n e . d id n t y o u , a bill o r som ething?-- and
m utilate it carefully. T e a r it in q u a r t e r s , or
cut it into lac e, o r som ething. But make s u re
the s e r ia l nu m b er is still l e g ib le . Staple it
lo v in g ly to y o u r nice b ig letter,.
Now fold y o u r le tte r , a n d find an envelope
b ig en ough for it to fil in , an d s en d i t . r e g i s
tered o r certified m ail, to ANY HUMAN BEING,
ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT, o r w h a te v e r, and
the com pany's a d d r e s s .
T h is really works q uite w ell.
I am assum ing h e r e , now , that y o u r p ro b
lem h as m erit, and you have b e e n denied the
attention re q u ire d to settle il. If w e want ju stic e
we m ust o u rs e lv e s b e j u s t.
T h e re is one f u r th e r s t e p , b u t , ag a in , to
be u s ed only in p roportion to th e offense. This
step is to be used only if a m eritorious commun
ica tio n , like thal alread y d e s c r i b e d , has not
been p ro p e rly re sponded to in a decent in terv a l.
We assum e that th is u n ju s t firm h as sent
you a re p ly envelope o r c a rd on which they
must pay p ostage. Now ca re fu lly d ra ftin g a
follow -up le tte r , explain once ag a in , in civil
la n g u a g e , the orig in al problem , y o u r efforts
at a tte n tio n , and so o n . Now p u t it in a package
with a ten o r tw elve-pound r o c k , affix the
re p ly envelope to the o u tsid e, and send it off.
T he problem , you s e e , h a s b ee n to get
out of the batch stream and b e tre ated a s an
e x c e p tio n . F lagrantly d e s tro y in g the punch ca rd
s e r v e s to remove you from the flow in that fash
ion. (H owever, ju s t tea rin g it a little bit p ro b
ably w on't: a c a rd that is in tact b u t to m can
sim ply b e put in a ce rtain slot of the ca rd -p u n c h
and d u p lic a te d . Destroy it good a n d p le n ty .)
ln all these ca ses rem em ber: the problem
is not th a t you a re "b ein g tre a te d a s a n u m b er,"
w h a te v e r that m eans, b u t that y o u r case does
not c o r re c tly fall in the c a teg o rie s that have
bee n s e t up for i t . By forcing attention to your
ca se a s an e x c ep tio n , you a re m aking them
re alize that m ore categories a re n e e d e d , o r more
people to handle exc eptions. If m ore people do
th is w hen they have a ju s t com plaint, s ervic e
will im prove ra p id ly .
T h e people who s en d it out like to call it
personalized a d v e rtis in g and the lik e . But most
of u s call it J u n k M ail. And its v a g a rie s are
NOT THE POOR COMPpTER'S FAULT. What gets
people angry d e r iv e s from the system buill
around Ihe poor c om puter.
You may w o n d e r why y o u get m ore and
more seed ca talogs, o r g ift-h o u s e ca talogs, as
time goes o n , even though you n e v e r o rd e r any
th in g from them. O r why a d ec ea sed member
of the household goes on g e ttin g mail y e a r
in and y e a r o u t, re g a r d l e s s of y o u r an g ry post
c a rd s .
How does it kee p coming?
T hro u g h the m agic of som ething called Ihe
Mailing L is t.
And especially the p e c u lia r way lhat
mailing lists a re b o u g h t and s o l d .
Now, a m ailing list is a s e r ie s of names
and ad d re s s e s of p o s s ib le cu s to m e rs , s to red on
com puter tape o r d i s k .
You can buy the u se of a m ailing l i s t .
But you cannot b u y the m ailing list itself.
Suppose you h av e a b r o c h u r e ad v e rtisin g
pum pkin-seed re l is h , w hich you s u g g e s t has
re juvenating p o w e rs . You w ant this b ro c h u re
to go out to ric h college g r a d u a t e s .
You go to a m a ilin g -list h o u s e .
"I cannot sell you th is m ailing lis t out
r i g h t ," say s the jolly p r o p r ie t o r , "for it is my
b u s in e s s to sell its u s e again a n d ag a in , so
I do not want anybody else to h a v e a copy of
i t ." So you leave 2500 p u m p k in -s e e d re lish
b ro c h u re s with the m ailing l i s t com pany, and
p ay them a lot of m oney. And they sw e a r on
a stack of b ibles th a t th ey h av e m ailed the b ro
c h u re s to th e ir spec ial list of r i c h college g ra d
uates.
Well, l e t's say you g et 2S0 sale s from
that m ailing. (10% is fan tastic ally g o o d .) But
out of curio sity you go to a n o th e r m ailing-list
house and have an o th e r m ailing s e n t o u t this
one to people who h av e low incom es an d little
e d u c atio n .
T h is time you g et 15% o r d e r s .
Now g u es s w hat y o u a r e a c q u irin g .
A m ailing lis t of y o u r v e r y ow n. Of peo
ple who ea t p u m p k in -s e e d re l is h .
Mailing lis ts a r e , you e e e , g en e ra lly r e n
ted b lin d , w ith no c h a n ce to s e e the a d d ressee s
o r check as to w h e th e r t h e y 'v e a lr e a d y been
mailed to.
And thal e x p la in s all th e duplicatio n s.
If a n a d v e r t i s e r is go in g a f te r a ce rtain
type of cu sto m er, an d goes to s e v e ra l m ailing-
list houses a s k in g fo r m ailings to that partic u lar
ty p e of custom er, ch a n c e s a r e som e people will
be on s e v e ra l of the l i s t s . A nd s in c e th e r e 's
no way to in terc o m p are the l i s t s . th e s e poor
gu y s get s e v e ra l co p ie s of the m ailing.
(A nother way th is can h a p p e n is if some
che apska te h as h is own m ailin g lis t an d d oesn't
check it for re p ea ts of the sam e nam e. Bul
w ritin g the com puter p ro g ram to che ck for
re p ea ts of the sam e nam e is not e a s y there
m ight j u s t be a R o b ert J o n e s a n d a Rob Jones
at the sam e a d d r e s s an d t h e s e th in g s a r e not
usually checked m an u a lly . T h e y 'r e b i g . )
A nother p o s s ib ility e x is ts fo r elim inating
duplications w hen y o u r e n t m a ilin g lia ts . You
can b rin g in a m agnetic tap e w ith y o u r mailing
lis l on i t , and they can s e n d o u t th e m ailing
only to the m em bers of t h e i r ' l is t who a r e nol
alread y on y o u r l i s t. T h a t w a y y o u still ca n 't
steal th e i r lis t, s in ce th e ta p e ie o n th e ir
p re m ise s. T he tro u b le i s , th e y can s tea l y o u r
lis t, by m aking a co p y of th e t a p e . Oh d e a r.
 O n e p o s s ib ility , nice and e x p e n s iv e , is to
r e n t a n u m b e r of mailing lists from a s ingle U s k
m a i l i n g - l i s t h o u s e , with them g u aran tee in g that
t h e y ll c o m p a re all the lists you choose and
n o t s e n d to a n y perso n more th an o nce.

B ut a s you may be su sp e c tin g , th is costs

m o n e y . A ll th is s c re e n in g and inierc o m p arin g B ranch 01U
r e q u i r e s co m p u te r tim e, and s o , even though Th eodor H Kelson
y o u a r e g e t t i n g a more and m ore perfect m ailing, 056 W 20Th S t
y o u a r e p a y i n g reore and more and m ore money Heir York, Ny 100 11
f o r i t . So y o u can see why reasonable b u s in e s s
m e n a r e w illin g to send out ad s even w hen they
k n o w som e re c ip ie n ts will get s e v e ra l d u plicate s.
G reat new s fo r th

A n o th e r in te re s tin g point. T h e re a re Houldn* t y l u li*e your . o n a y to .or* f or you fal l ti.

m a ilin g l i s t s fo r all k in d s of different possible e ,e n hen lo u 'r e asleep ?
c u s t o m e r s . T h e p o ssib ilities a r e e n d le s s.
n ily c a n s a v e . . . r i g h t n t t h e i r own
M in o r i t y - g r o u p do cto rs. People In te res ted in Kow t h ^ l T e l s o n ^
b o t h s ta m p collecting and flowers (y o u 'd have bank.
to g e t a com pany with both l is ts , and have them ** P a s s b o o k S a i n q s P l a n v h i c h
go t h r o u g h them for the d u p lic a te s . . . you get a u a r t e r l y o r even
th e id ea ).

N ote t h a t m ailing lis ts a r e p ric e d according

to t h e i r d e s i r a b i li t y . Weeded m ailing l i s t s , fea
t u r i n g o n ly Live O nes, people w ho've o rd e re d
b i g i n r e c e n t tim es, a r e more e x p e n s iv e . Lists
o f d o c t o r s , w ho b u y a lo t, .are m ore e x p e n s iv e
t h a n l i s t s o f social w o r k e rs . And so o n .

T h e n t h e r e s the m a tte r.o f the pitch .

T h e a d 's p h ra s in g may be b u ilt around

t h e m a ilin g p l a n . Some c ir c u la rs come rig h t out
a n d t e ll th e re c ip ie n t h e 's going to g et s e v e ra l
c o p i e s b e c a u s e h e 's such a wonderful p e r s o n .

THEN t h e r e s r e those ad v e rtisem en ts that

a r e a c t u a l l y p ri n t e d by the co m p u te r, o r at least
c e r t a i n l i n e s a r e filled in with the re c ip ie n t's
n a m e a n d p o s s ib ly some snazzy p h ra s e s to make
him t h i n k i t 's a p ersonal le tte r. Who re s p o n d s
to s u c h t h i n g s 1 d o n 't know. My favorite was
t h e o n e - - I w is h I could find it to in clu d e h e re
- - t h a t w e n t som ething like

Y o u 'll re a l l y look sw e ll, M r. Nelson D ear R eader s .

w a lk i n g dow n Main Street of New York
i n y o u r s h a r p -lo o k in g new s l s c k s . . .

1 d o n 't kn o w w h e th e r I enjoyed the s p ac es o r

t h e M ain S tr e e t m ore.
lion and make you a highly-rnled prospe c t for evcrytni
B ut y o u se e how th is w o rk s. T h e re 's fr o m maga-riiia-s. t o m u t u a l f u n d s . ------------------ . ----------------- -----
t h i s b a t c h - p r o c e s s i n g p ro g ra m , s e e , a n d the Y o u 'v e u n d o u b t e d l y " h e a r d e v c r y t h i n e " bY n o * i n * way
n a m e s a n d a d d r e s s e s a r e on one long ta p e , and or p r a s e s and p r e m i s s . I won't t ry to lop a y of t h e .
th e t a p e g o e s th ro u g h , a n d the p ro g ram takes
you subscribe to Y o u won't E et rich <,uicK.
o n e r e c o r d (a name a n d a d d r e s s ) , a n d d ec ides
w h e t h e r to c a ll th e a d d r e s s e e " M r .," "M s." or y ou w o n 't bowl over friends and b u s > "
w h a t e v e r , a n d th en p lu g s his nam e into the c l e v e r r e n '" *1" '
p r i n t o u t l i n e s th a t giv e it T hat P erso n a l Touch;
a n d t h e n t h e m ailing envelope o r s tic k e r is
p r i n t e d ; a n d t h e tape moves on to the next
re co rd .
* BOULM R . COLORADO B0302 *
We m ay look fo rw ard to in c re a s in g en
c r o a c h m e n t s on o u r time and tr u s t by the d ire ct
m ail i n d u s t r y : esp e cially in b e tte r and b e tte r nr .1r. son:
q u a c k l e t t e r s th a t look as though th e y 'v e really
b e e n p e r s o n a l l y ty p e d to you by a re a l hum an
b e in g . (It i s a p p a re n tly legal fo r le tte rs to be nary le t U r? * * !? J a ll h t o th e .P in t. T h is is not an o rd i-
s i g n e d b y a fic titio u s p e r s o n w ithin a co m p a n y .) h j L n s f ve you n o n e y o f f f r -g? a " a g a z i n e .
In t h e f u t u r e we may expe ct s u ch le tte rs to be hps w o n 't a p p e a l t o a a r k Er i c e r ' / ' l i f i t pe r -
U l P u g h i,.r Fs i ^ / e t h i t i t
s e n t o n fin e p a p e r , ty p ed in dividua lly on good
t y p e w r i t e r s , a n d convincingly p h ra s e d to make B e c a u s e it
u s t h i n k a r e a l p e rs o n a l pitch is b e in g ten d e re d . ' o i v e s vou

T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r, a final solution.

YOU CAN GET OFF ALL MAILING LISTS

t h a t i a , the o nes " p artic ip a tin g " in the
A s s o c ia tio n b y w ritin g to

D irect Mail A d v e rtisin g A ssociation

P u b lic R elations Departm ent You call u p the b a n k an d a s k y o u r b alance
230 P a rk A venue an d they s a y , "I'm afraid I c a n 't g et that i n f o r
New Y ork, NY 10017 m ation. You s e e , i t 's on a c o m p u te r .

T h e y will s e n d a b l a n k . If you fill it in (See B asic R ejo in d er, n e a r b y . )

* t h e y 'l l p ro c e s s it and delete y o u r nam e from

m a ilin g li s ts of all p artic ip a tin g com panies.

P resum ably this w on't help with

X - r a t e d o r stam p-collecting l i s t s , b u l it
o u g h t to k ee p you from g e tting sem iannual
g ift c a ta lo g s from p laces like T he House of
G o-G o C re a tiv e , In c . and those million
s o lic ita tio n s from C onsum er R ep o rts and
t h a t F ile Box com pa ny.
Well, the re aso n i t 's th is w ay is that
t h e y 'r e h a n d lin g th in g s in B atch (s e e p . * | 5 )
and they a r e n 't s to rin g y o u r ac co u n t on d i s k ,
o r i f they a r e th ey d on't h av e a term in a l they
can q u e r y il w ith.
But to aay th at th ey c a n 't g e t th e in fo r
mation b e c au se i t 's on a co m puter is a typ ical
u se of the co m puter as an e x c u s e (s e e C y b e r
c r u d , p . $ ); a n d sec ond, if th e p e r s o n b e
lieves th is to be an ex pla nation, i t 's a s ig n of
the intim idation an d obfuscation th a t h a v e bee n
sown am ong the c le rk s who d o n 't u n d e r s ta n d
com puters.

Write them a l e tte r . C h an g e b a n k s . L et's

get the b a n k s to p u t on m ore an d m ore citize n
s e r v ic e s . Rah!
(A -
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E v e r y w h e r e y o u g o c o m p u t e r s l u r k . Yet
th e y w e a r s o m a n y fa c e s i t 's im p o s s i b le t o f i g u r e
w h a l 's g o in g o n .
G u i d e l in e s a r e h a r d to la y d o w n h e r e , b u t
if y o u look f o r e x a m p l e s of t h i n g s y o u 'v e a lr e a d y
r u n in to in t h i s b o o k , it may h e lp so m e .
T e r m in a l s y o u c a n p r e s u m a b ly r e c o g n i z e .
M ic r o p r o c e s s o r s a r e h a r d e r , b e c a u s e y o u
d o n 't s e e t h e m . G ood r u l e - o f - t h u m b : a n y d e v ic e
w h ic h a c ts w i th c o m p le x ity o r a p p a r e n t d i s c r e t i o n
p r e s u m a b l y i n c o r p o r a t e s a te r m i n a l , m in i c o m p u t e r
o r m ic ro p ro c e sso r.
T w o o t h e r t h i n g s to w a tc h for: t r a n s a c t i o n
s y s te m s an d d a t a b a s e s y s te m s .
A t r a n s a c t i o n s y s t e m i s a n y s y s te m th a t
ta k e s n o te o f , a n d p e r h a p s r e q u i r e s v e r i f i c a t i o n
o f, t r a n s a c t i o n s . E xa m p le : th e n e w p o i n t - o f - s a l e
s y s te m s ( P O S ) . T h is i s w h a t 's a b o u t t o r e p l a c e
th e c a s h r e g i s t e r .
In th e s u p e r m a r k e t o f th e f u t u r e , e v e r y
p a c k a g e w ill h a v e a b a r c o de o n a s t i c k e r , o r
p r i n t e d o n th e w r a p p e r . I n s te a d o f th e c h e c k o u t
c l e r k lo o k in g a t t h e la b e l a n d p u n c h i n g t h e a -
m ou n t o f th e s a l e Inlo th e c a s h r e g i s t e r - - a n
e r r o r - p r o n e a n d c h e a t - p r o n e t e c h n iq u e w h ic h
r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a i n i n g - - y o u r N ew Im
p r o v e d C h e c k o u t C l e r k w ill w a v e a w a n d o v e r
th e b a r c o d e . T h e b a r co d e w ill b e s e n s e d by
th e w a n d , a n d t r a n s m i tt e d to a c o n tro l c o m p u t e r ,
w h ic h w ill r i n g il u p b y a m o u nt a n d c a te g o r y
(fo r ta x p u r p o s e s ) , a n d e v e n k e e p t r a c k of
i n v e n t o r y , n o t i n g e a c h o b je c t a s it is r e m o v e d
from s to c k .
H e re i s w h a t y o u r b a r c o d e w ill l o o k l i k e .
(A c i r c u l a r c o d e , w h ic h w a s a l r e a d y t u r n i n g u p
on som e TV d i n n e r s , h a a b e e n e li m in a te d b y th e
b a r c o d e . T h i s i s u n f o r tu n a te , s i n c e t h e s c a n
n e r n e c e s s a r y lo r e a d th e b a r c o d e is e l e c t r o n
ic a lly m o re c o m p l ic a te d , b u t i h e r e w e a r e . )
( I n c i d e n t a l l y , w h ile t h is d o e s a r r e s t th e
c la s s i c c a s h i e r '9 c h e a t - - r i n g i n g u p e x c e s s i v e
p u r c h a s e s on t h e c u s t o m e r s , Ih e n h a v i n g a c o n
f e d e r a te w a lk t h r o u g h e q u iv a le n t a m o u n ts t h e
c o n s u m e r is s t i l l e n t i r e l y p r o n e to c h e a t i n g b y
th e s t o r e in t h e c o m p u te r p r o g r a m . R e m e m b e r ,
i t s 1974. So y o u s t ill m a y h a v e to c h e c k y o u r
ta p e s . fo lk s .)
D ata b a s e s y s t e m s a r e a n y s y s te m s w h i c h
k e e p l r a c k o f a w h o le lot o f s t u f f , ofte n w i th
c o m p le x p o i n t e r te c h n iq u e s ( se e "D ata S t r u c t u r e s , "
p . Z& ) A c u t e e x a m p le i s th e m e s s a g e s e r v i c e
now o ff e r e d b y S t u c k e y 's s n a c k / s o u v e n i r s t a n d s
a ll o v e r th e c o u n t r y . Y ou may l e a v e m e s s a g e s
fo r y o u r f r i e n d s o r lo v e d o n e s o n t h e r o a d ; th e y
c a n s to p a t a n y S t u c k e y 's a n d a s k f o r t h e i r
m e s s a g e s , J u s l a s if il w a s a te le p h o n e a n s w e r i n g
s e rv ic e . ( Y o u 'r e l i s l e d b y y o u r p h o n e n u m b e r
Is t h i s to a v o id p r a n k s ? A n d w h a t a b o u t p e o p le
w ilh n o p h o n e s ? ) I t ' s f r e e a n d a n e a t id e a .
( O b v io u s ly , t h e m e s s a g e s a r e s to r e d o n t h e d i s k
o f a b i g c e n t r a l c o m p u ie r , a n d q u e r i e d f ro m
te r m in a ls a t t h e i n d iv id u a l s t a n d s . )
N o w , m ost o f t h e b i g s y s te m s y o u r u n in to
l e n d lo b e a c o m b in a tio n o f tr a n s a c t i o n a n d
d a ta -b a s e s y s te m . F o r in s ta n c e , s u p p o s e y o u
m ake an a ir lin e r e s e r v a tio n . T h e a ir lin e h a s a
l a r g e d a la b a s e to k e e p tr a c k of: t h e i n v e n t o r y
o f a ll t h o se a r m c h a i r s i t 's f ly i n g a r o u n d th e
c o u n t r y , a n d t h e l i s t o f w h o so f a r h a v e a n n o u n c e d
p l a n s to s it in t h e m , a n d in so m e c a s e s w h a i
th e y in t e n d lo e a t . When y o u b u y your* t i c k e t ,
h at tr a n s a c t i o n t h e n g e ts y o u p u t in th e l i s t i n g .
Sam e f o r c a r r e n t a l s a n d s o o n .
T h e p o t e n t ia l d a n g e r s o f t r a n s a c t i o n s y s te m s
a r e f a i r l y o b v io u s from t h e s u p e r m a r k e t e x a m p le ,
b u t t h e y fa n o u t in g r e a t e r c o m p le x ity as th e
s y s t e m s g e t m o r e c o m p le x . C r e d it c a r d s , f o r
in s t a n c e , w e r e o n ly m a d e p o s s i b l e b y c o m p u te r s
a n d c o m p u te r iz e d c r e d i t v e r i f i c a t i o n ; b u t it is
o n l y n o w , fifte e n o r s o y e a r s in to lh e c r e d i t - c a r d
e r a , th a t la w s p r o te c t th e c a r d h o l d e r a g a in s i
u n li m i te d lia b il it y i f h e l o s e s i t .
Y et w e p l u n g e a h e a d , a n d it is o b v io u s w h y .
T ra n s a c tio n sy s te m s m a n a g e d i n , a n d b y , com
p u t e r s allo w m o r e f le x ib le a n d ( i n p r i n c i p l e )
re lia b le o p e ra tio n s. F o r in s ta n c e , in th e s e c u
r i t i e s b u s i n e s s , th o u s a n d s o f s to c k c e r t if i c a te s
a r e lo st a n d m is la id , a n d th e tra n s a c tio n p a p e r
m u s t b e t y p e d , s h u f f le d , p u t i n e n v e l o p e s , s e n t ,
o p e n e d , s h u f f le d a g a i n , c o m p a r e d . . . a l l b y h a n d .
L ittle w o n d e r t h e y 'r e w o r k i n g on a n A u to m ated
S to c k E x c h a n g e S y s te m . B u t i f i t 's t a k e n fifte e n
y e a r s to g e t th e im p lic it b u g s o u t o f c r e d i t c a r d s
, . . n o t lo m e n tio n th e f r e q u e n t a lle g a t io n s th a t
m u c h Wall S tr e e t " i n e f f i c i e n c y " ia a c tu a ll y th e
d is g u is e d m a ra u d in g o f O rg a n iz e d C r i m e ...
u h -o h . (If th e y c a n b u y t h e b e s t l a w y e r s , th e y
c a n p ro b a b ly b u y lh e b e s t p r o g r a m m e r s .)
T h e n t h e r e i s t h e C h e c k l e s s S o c ie ty . T h i s
i s a c a t c h p h r a s e f o r a n o f t- a d v o c a te d s y s t e m lh a l
a l lo w s y o u to t r a n s f e r m o n e y i n s t a n t l y b y c o m p u
t e r ; s u p p o s e d ly so m e s u c h t h i n g i s w o r k i n g a l
r e a d y i n F r a n c e . A g a in , t h e y b e t t e r g e t il p r e t t y
s a f e b e f o r e a s a n e m a n w il l g o u p i n i t .
T h e s a fe ty o f s u c h s y s te m s is o f c o u rs e
a m a t t e r o f im m e n s e g e n e r a l c o n c e r n . IBM
p o r t e n t i o u s l y ( s i c ) a n n o u n c e d i ls i n te n t to s p e n d
m illio n s o f d o l l a r s o n " c o m p u t e r s e c u r i t y " a few
y e a r s a g o . H o w e v e r , a few m illio n d o l l a r s is
n o t g o in g to p lu g l h e s e c u r i t y h o le s in t h e IBM
360, a n d e v i d e n t ly t h e 370 is j u s t a b o u t e s v u l
n e ra b le .
(In i h is l i g h t , e v e n t h e g r e a t e s t IB M - h a te r s
w ill h a v e to a d m it lh a t t h e r e m a y b e a p r o p e r
m o tiv e b e h in d IBM 's c u r r e n t r e f u s a l to le t o th e r s
U6e i t s new o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m l a n g u a g e : th a t w a y
t h e y m a y b e a b l e lo p r e v e n t s p e c i a l h o le s i n th e
s y s te m from b e c o m in g k n o w n to p r o g r a m m e r s . )
It is in te re s tin g th a t o n e p ro fe s s io n seem s
to b e s te p p in g f o rw a rd to t r y to im p ro v e th is
s it u a t io n : t h e a u d i t i n g p r o f e s s i o n , d e v o te d lo
v e r if ic a t io n o f f i n a n c ia l s i t u a t i o n s o f c o m p a n i e s ,
s e e m s t o b e b r a n c h i n g i n t o t h e v e r if ic a ti o n o f
c o m p u te r p r o g r a m s a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f com
p l e x s y s t e m s . T h i s w ill b e g r e a t , i f i t w o r k s .
C y n i c s , h o w e v e r , m ay n o t e t h a t a u d i t o r s h a v e
p e r m itt e d s o m e r e m a r k a b l e p r a c t i c e s i n lhe
" c r e a t i v e " a c c o u n ti n g o f r e c e n t y e a r s . (O b v io u s
ly t h e w ay to c h e c k o u t t h e s a f e ty o f b i g s y s te m s
is to o f f e r b o u n ty to th o s e w h o c a n b r e a k its
se c u rity . B ut w h o is w i ll in g to s u b j e c t a s y s te m
to a t e s t lik e th a t? )
H e r e a b o u ts a r e a few o t h e r c o m p u te r is h
t h i n g s y o u may r u n i n to w h ic h m o r e o r le s s
d e f y c a te g o r i z a ti o n .
T H E COMPUTER GRAVEYARD
In t h e m id - s i x t i e s t h e r e w a s a j u n k y a r d
i n K in g s to n , N .Y . th a t w a s li k e a n a u to m o b ile
g r a v e y a r d - - e x c e p t p ile d h i g h w ith d e a d com
p u te rs.
T h e y w e r e fro m v a r i o u s m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
T h e g u y s w o u ld s m a s h th e m w it h s le d g e h a m m e r s ,
o r o t h e r a w fu l t h i n g s , to m a k e s u r e t h e y c o u ld
n e v e r w o r k a g a i n . T h e n y o u c o u l d b u y th e
c i r c u i t c a r d s . I s a w 1401s f iv e h i g h , U n iv a c
F il e C o m p u te r s , ta p e d r i v e s . . . it w a s a n e l e c
t r o n i c n u t 's p a r a d i s e . You c o u l d d e c o r a t e y o u r
d e n w ith h u g e o ld c o n lr o l p a n e l s , m a g d i s k s
a n d w h a tn o t. It s e e m s to b e g o n e n o w . T h e y
fo rb ad e p ic tu re s.
x /o V
s h o u ld o f c o u r s e b e c a lle d M A T C H U P DATING,
s in c e t h e r e i s n o t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p u te r is h
a b o u t e i t h e r t h e p r o c e s s o r i t s i n t e n d e d re s u lt.
But t h e r e w e g o a g a in : w o r d - m a g i c , t h e im pli
c it a u t h o r i t y o f i n v o k i n g t h e w o r d C o m p u t e r .
(S e e " C y b e r c r u d , " p . g . )
In Lhe e a r l y s i x t i e s , a p e r k y y o u n g fella
at th e H a r v a r d B - S c h o o l , I b e l i e v e , o n e J e f f Tarr,
c a m e u p w ith t h e n o tio n o f a c o m p u t e r i z e d dating
s e r v i c e . T h e r e s u l t w a s O p e r a t i o n M a t c h , an
im m e n se f in a n c ia l s u c c e s s , w h i c h s o r t o f came
a n d w e n t . No fo llo w u p s t u d i e s w e r e e v e r done
o r s u c c e s s s ta tis tic s g a th e r e d , u n f o r tu n a te ly ,
b u t th e y c e r t a i n l y h a d I h e i r f u n .
T h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f " c o m p u t e r d a tin g
is p e r f e c tl y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . A p p l i c a n t s s e n d in
d e s c rip tio n s o f th e m se lv e s a n d t h e p r o s p e c tiv e
d a te s th e y w o u ld li k e to m e e t . T h e c o m p u te r
p r o g r a m s im p ly d o e 9 a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h e s o r t s of
t h i n g y o u w o u ld d o if y o u d i d t h i s b y h a n d :
It a tt e m p ts to f in d th e " b e s t " m a t c h b e t w e e e n
w h a t e v e r y b o d y w a n ts a n d w h a t s o n h a n d .
O b v io u s ly t h i s c o u l d b e a m a t t e r f o r
s e r i o u s o p e r a t io n s r e s e a r c h : a t t e m p t i n g t o d i s
c o v e r t h e b e s t m a t c h u p t e c h n i q u e s a m o n g th in g s
t h a t n e v e r r e a l l y fii t o g e t h e r , d e t a i l f o r d e ta il ;
t r y i n g to fin d o u t , b y f o llo w u p q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ,
w h a t t r a i t - m a t c h i n g s s e e m e d t o p r o d u c e t h e be st
r e s u lt, e tc . But a u ch s e r io u s m a tc h u p -fu n c tio n
r e s e a r c h r e m a i n s , s o f a r a s I k n o w , t o b e even
p e g im .
O b v io u s l y t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s .
D e m o g r a p h ie a lly it i s a lm o s t n e v e r t r u e t h a l
" f o r e v e r y m an t h e r e 's a w o m a n 11- - i n e v e r y
a g e - b r a c k e t t h e r e 's a lm o s t a l w a y s a n i m b a l a n c e
o f th e o p p o s i te s e x in l h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e lig ib le
a g e - b r a c k e t , e i t h e r to o m a n y o r t o o f e w . B ut
m o re t h a n t h a t , t h e r e i s l it t l e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t
t h e t r a i t s w om en w a n t a r e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n
t e d a m o n g th e a v a i la b le m a l e s , o r v i c e v e r s a .
F o r in t r o d u c ti o n s e r v i c e s i t s o b v i o u s l y w o r s e :
t h e r e i s n o b a la n c e lik e ly b e t w e e n w h a t c o m e s
in o n e d o o r a n d w h a t c o m e s i n t h e o t h e r . The
s e r v i c e c a n o n ly d o i ts b e s t w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e
p o o l of p e o p l e - - a n d m a k e b e l i e v e i t ' s s o m e h o w
m a d e id e a l b y th e u s e o f t h e c o m p u t e r . I t s
li k e a n e m p lo y m e n t o ffice: a p p l i c a n t s d o n t
m a tc h o p e n i n g s .
N u m ero u s o th e r d a tin g s e r v i c e s h a v e a p
p e a r e d , so m e o f w h ic h d o n 't e v e n p r e t e n d to
u s e th e c o m p u t e r ( a n d o t h e r s w h i c h c l a i m to
b e a r e g is tr y fo r n o n s ta n d a rd s e x u a l a p p e tite s ) ,
b u t n o n e t h a t 's g o tte n th e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e o r i g
in a l P r o j e c t M a tc h .
B u t t h e r e s n o q u e s t io n w h o g o t t h e b e s t
d a t e s o u t o f th a t o n e . J e f f T a r r .
DO YOU GOT RHYTHM?
A d e v ic e c a lle d t h e B I O - C O M P U T E R ( tr a d e
m a r k ) p u r p o r t e d l y h e l p s y o u p r e d i c t y o u r "bo d y
b e a t s ," te llin g y o u w h a t d a y s a r e t h e r i g h t sort
o f tim e to d o p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s i n t e r m s 1 o f y o u r
o w n b i o lo g ic a l e n e r g i e s . T h e o b j e c t c o s t s $15
p o s t p a i d fro m BIO -C O M PU T E R , D e p t . C L B /D M
( w h y n o t ? ) , 964 T h i r d A v e . , N Y N Y 1 0 0 2 2 .
T h e q u e s t io n w ith a ll s u c h s p e c i a l p u r p o s e
d e v ic e s "fish in g c o m p u te r s ," h o r s e - r a c i n g
c o m p u l e r s , e t c . , i s a lw a y s w h e t h e r t h e t h e o r y
a n d f o r m u la s w h i c h a r e b u i l t i n t o t h e m a r e c o r
r e c t . T h e r e is n o r e a d y w a y to t e l l .
 A STR O F LAS H . e tc.
T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s c o m p u t e r i s e d a s tr o lo g y
se rv ice s. G iv e n y o u r d a te o f b i r t h , a n d hour
If k n o w n , th e y 'll ty p e o u l y o u r s i g n s , e x p l a n '
a tio n s , e tc. P r e s u m a b l y t h e r e Is a i * t n e t w o r k
w h ic h th e s y ste m s e le c ts a m o n g a c c o rd in g to
" r e i n f o rc i n g te n d e n c ie s ," e t c . , am ong th e e n titie s
t h o u g h t to b e i n f l u e n t i a l .
C o n c e i v a b ly t h i s c o u ld do n in e -l e n th s o f Thia is an ou tra g e o u s m isnom er. T he
w h a t a ta le n te d h um a n a s tr o lo g e r d o e s , and w ith com puter is o n ly c a r r y i n g ou t, most s p e e d ily ,
t h e aaro e v a l i d i t y , w h a t e v e r lh a t m a y b e . In what h ard e n e d politocoes have alw ays done:
a n y case i l's p r o b a b ly a lot c h ea p er. FACTIONAL ANALYSIS, now po ssible with new
found pre c isio n on the b a sis of c e rta in election
re tu rn s.
T h is is b a s e d on the cy n ic a l, and fairly
re lia b le , view lhat people vote a c c o rding to
what faction of th e g r e a te r popu lace Ih ey belong
to-- m id d le -c la ss w hite l ib e r a ls , b lu e -c o lla r
COMPUT- non -union m e m b e rs, and so o n . T h e factions
change slow ly o v e r tim e, and people move
among th e m , b u t th e fact o f factionalism re m a in s
unchanged.
EROTICA Well. By the close of a major election
cam paign, most faction s can be p re tty w ell p r e
dicted, e sp ecially aa lo p re s id e n tia l ch oice, o r
w hat p ro p ortion of that faction will go for a
75 given c a nd id ate.
But some factions' reactlon a a r e not c e r
tain u p to th e d a y of the ballot.
So. "C om puter p re d ic tio n s" of elections
b asically b re a k th e cou n try in to its factional
I s i t to o soon t o r a
divisio n s, stale by stale and d istric t by d i s t r ic t,
c o n p u te r p ornography c o n te s t ? and then tabu late who can be p redicted to vole
fo r whom on a factional b a s is .
( I s I t too la te ? )
T h e n w h a t's th e su sp en se?
See p .
T h e s u s p e n s e comes from the u n c e rta in
factions g r o u p s whose final re a c tion s a r e n 't
known as th e e lectio n sta r ts .
C e r t a i n e l e c t i o n d i s t r i c t s a r e k n o w n to
b e c h o c k f u ll o f t h e t y p e s o f p e o p l e w h o s e r e a c
tion i s n ' t k n o w n .
People think computers are rigid T h e fin al " c o m p u t e r p r e d ic tio n " s im p ly
and invariant. This (as stated else
c o n s i s t s o f c h e c k i n g o u t ho w t h o s e d i s t r i c t s
where in this book) is due to the systems
v o te d , c o n c lu d i n g how those fac tio n s a r e g o in g
which people have imposed, and then
in th e p r e s e n t e le c tio n , a nd e x te n d i n g th is p r o
blamed, on the computer.
p o rtio n t h r o u g h th e r e s t of th e c o u n t r y .
The fact is that computers are now
being set up to give new flexibility to It'B o f te n p a i n f u l l y a c c u r a t e - - b u t . t h a n k
manufacturing processes. Computers, g o d . no t a l w a y s . W hen it i s n t d o n t b la m e
directly connected to milling machines, " th e c o m p u t e r - " T h a n k h u m a n c a n t a n k e r o s i t y .
grind raetal into any conceivable shape
much faster than a human craftsman. To
change the result, change the program--
THt W (WeCKpureooriei^
in a fraction of a second. Fabric des
ign has been done on computer screens;
the obvious next step is to have the
computer control the loom or knitting
machine and immediately produce what-
ever*s been designed.
may o r may not be a re a l com p uter frie n d s
Custom clothing: soon we may look
forward to tailoring services that store have told m e it is n t b u t its c e rta in ly a good
your ilieasurements and can custom-tailor Idea.
a suit for you to any new fashion, in
minutes. (But will the price beat Hong When you p u ll y o u r late -m odel V olkswagen
Kong?) Customized printed matter is into a d e a le r 's s e r v ic e a re a , the g u y s c a n ju a t
already here (see "Me-Books," p-7). roll out a c able and p lu g it inlo the corresponT
Wherever people want individual varia d in g socket in y o u r v e h ic le , Al the o lh e r en d
tions of a basic manufacturing process, o f the cable la some so rt of d e v ic e w h ich t e s t 9
computers can do it.
a se rie s of sp ecial c ir c u it s th ro u gh o ut th e c a r
for Good Co n dition . T h e se c i r c u it s ind icate
that th in g s a r e w o rk in g p r o p e r ly lig h ts , p lu g s ,
p oints, b r a k e s and so on.
-v v -
T h is i s the same tech n iqu e uaed by NASA
up to the final moment of COMMIT LAUNCH-- a
system of c irc u its m onitors lh e c on ditions o f
T he T elephone Com pany (at least in w h atev er can be m onitored, to malte s u r e a ll'a
I l l i n o i s a n d I n d i a n a ) o f f e r s a s p e a k e r on functioning w e ll. I t's more e x p e n s iv e to w i r e it
" T h e S h a d o w y W orl d o f E l e c t r o n i c S n o o p i n g " up lhat w a y , bu l it m akes ch e c k in g out the
to in te res ted g r o u p s . rock et o r th e c a r lh a t m uch e a sie r.
Modern m en ag e, s h e 2 9 , I n t e r e s t e d
i n r e c u r s i v e r e l a t i o n s and r e v e r s e
Po lish c u ltu r e . Ph on e a m u s t .
SIC TRANSIT
C o n t a c t b o* RS -2 32 {& s e e p . J>MW),
Some of the zap pie r new Urban T r a n s i t
System s g iv e you a ticket w ith a magnetic s t r ip e
on the b a c k . E ach time you r i d e you must p u s h
the c a rd into an E n tra n c e M achine, w hich p r e
BETCHA DIDN'T KNOW ... su mably does som ething to th e s lr i p e , till finally
the ticket r u n s out and you h a v e to pa y more
t h a t th e IRS h a s n 't b e e n a ble to do In s ta n t money.
m a tc h in g o f W-2 forme to ta x r e t u r n s . T h a t'll
b e fix e d in fisc a l '7 4 , an d In te re st and d iv id e n d Secrecy of th e r e c o rd in g code is an im p o r
p s y m e n ls i n '7 5 . (TIME, 31 Dec 73, 1 7 .) tant aspect of the th in g . In de e d, w agg ish g o ss ip
claims lhat some su c h sy stem s sta rt w ith a b la n k
magnetic strip e an d ju s t add stuff to i t, m eaning
the c a rd can be w a sh e d clean with a m agnet by
larcen ou s com m uters. Bul this seem s u n lik e ly .
/
YOUR AUTOMOBILE COMPUTER
DIdja k n ow , h u h , w e 're g o in g to h a v e /
c o m pu te rs in o u r c a r s ?
th in g s
We r e f e r h e r e to tw o
a n li - s k id c o n tr o lle r s , w hich a r e r e a lly
ju s t spe c ia l c i r c u it s - - y ou k n o w ,
"analog c o m p u te rs " -- to co m pen sate
among s k id d in g w heels. T u r n s oul
th a t th is is ap pa re n tly m ore s e n s i
tiv e an d re lia b le lhan e v e n y o u r good
d r i v e r s who enjoy c o n tro llin g s k id s,
A lready ad v e rtise d for som e im p o rts.
g r a n d b u a e le c tro n ic s ( s e e p . f ) . Sin ce
lh e e le c tric a l p a rt of th e autom obile
is g e llin g ao blamed c o m p lic a te d .
th e D etroit Iro nm o n gers h a v e de c ide d
to sw itc h to a g ra n d bu6 s tr u c t u r e
in ste a d of having all th ose s w itc h e s
and th in g s sep a ra te a n y m o r e , Should
m ake lh e whole Ih in g f a r e a s i e r to
s e r v ic e a n d c u sto m iz e .
Presu m ably th ia will all be
u n d e r th e control of a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r .
(See p - -) Ttlia m eans th a l the
c a r can have th in g s lik e a C old-
Weather S ta rtu p S e q u e n c e a p ro g ra m
th a l s t a r t s th e c a r . t u r n s o n th e
h e a le r , m onitors lhe e n g in e and
c ab in te m p e r a tu r e , and b le a ts lh e
h o r n , tw ic e , politely w he n i l 's all
r e a d y - - all al a lim e p r e s e t b y the
d a s h b o a r d clock.
P re su m a b ly D etroit is n ot yel
p la n n in g lo go th is f a r , But b e c a u se
o f th e a u to i n d u s t r y 's anom alously
h ug e influ en ce in A m e ric a , som e h a v e
e x p r e s s e d the fe a r lh a l t h i s move
- - tow ard the i n t e g r a t e d - c i r c u i t ,
d ig ita lly -c o n tro lle d g r a n d b u s
w ould effectively p u t D e tro it i n con
tr o l of t h e e n tir e e le c tr o n ic s i n d u s tr y .
T h e e v e r - c l e v e r J a p a n e s e a r e c om p ute riz in g
f a s t e r , b e lte r a n d more d e e p ly th a n we a r e ,
T h e y now have a p r o to ty p e ta x i o p e ra tin g
u n d e r c o m p u te r co n trol- T h e y r e c a llin g i t , al
le a st for e x p o r t, C o m p u te r-c o n tro lle d V eh icle
S y ste m (C V S ),
B asically i l 's lik e an E le v a te d R ailw ay
y o u c lim b up a n d wail b u l w hen y o u g et in ,
y ou p u n c h a b u tto n for y o u r d e s tin a tio n . A ccor
d i n g lo H id eyu k i H ayaahi o f th e M in istry o f In
d u s t r y a n d In tern atio n al T r a d e , th e sy ste m will
be ope ra tion a l i n Tokyo w ith in th e d e c a d e , and
is th e " c le a n e s t, sa fe st, q u ic k e s t t r a n s p o r t s y s
tem e v e r d e v is e d by m a n ." T h in k f a s t , D etroit,
(A n ic e point: o n e o f th e mosl im portant
f e a tu re s of s u c h a system i s th at th e v e h ic le s
d o n 't r e a d to ea c h o t h e r , as do v e h ic le s i n th e
e x is tin g H u m an -co n trolled V ehicle System (HVS).
A w hole lin e o f th e c a r s can be a c c e le r a te d o r
slow ed sim u ltan eo usly , a c r u c ia l a s p e c t o f th e i r
flex ib ility a n d sa fe ty . N othing can p o 6 sib ry
go lo n g .)
(Leo C la n c y , "N ow -- C o m p u te r-C o n tro lle d ,
D r lv e r le s s C a r s , " N ational E n q u ir e r 9 M ar 74,
2 4 - 5 .)
THOSE THINGS ON THE RAILROAD CARS
As we lean on the fence a - c h a w in ' an '
a -w a lc h in ' th e tra in s go b y , w e n o te s tr a n g e
in s ig n ia on th e i r s id e s , in h ig h ly re fle c tiv e
Scotch-L ite all begrim ed by tr a v e l.
B a sic a lly i l 's a stack of h o riz o n ta l s tr i p e s
In r e d , b lue a n d other c o l o r s . T h i s ia ACI,
f o r Automatic C a r Id e n tific a tio n . It may y e t
s tr a ig h te n o u t the r a ilro a d s .
In th is n e olithic i n d u s t r y , it ia no t k now n
at any g iv e n tim e w h e re a ra ilro a d c o m p a n y 's
c a r s a r e . and some p e c u lia r e tiq u e tte g o v e rn s
th e i r u n r e q u e s le d use b y o t h e r f ir m s in th e
in d u s tr y . Yet th e o b viou s s o lu tio n m ay com e
about: a r u n n i n g in v e n to ry o f w h e r e a ll t h e c a r s
a r e , w h e re e a c h one is g o in g , w h a ls in It,
and who th a t b e lo n gs to , B ul, of c o u r s e , th a t's
s till i n th e w o r k s . R e v o lu tio n a ry id e a s t a k e lime.
me s s s M inicom putera h a n d le v a rio u s
c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s i n o u r m ighty
new A e r o p l a n e s a n d S h i p s o f

T h e n a tio n a l ph o ne co m p an y (u s u a lly T h i s h a s b e e n a ro u n d fo r d e c a d e s , and

c a lle d a ff e c tio n a te ly , "Ma B e ll" ) h a s d r a s t i c a l l y
c h a n g e d ita s w i tc h in g m ethods in t h e l a s t few
y e a r s . T h e y a r e r e p la c in g th e o ld e le c tr o m e c h
a n ic a l s w it c h e s , o r " c r o s s b a r s , " w ith a n e w
de v ic e c a lle d th e E S S , o r E le c tro n ic S w itc h in g
S y s te m . If t h e r e 's o n e in y o u r a r e a y o u may
h e a r ab o u t it I n t h e i r jo lly n e w s s h e e t t h a t y o u
jet w ith the b i l l .
In th e o ld c r o s s b a r d a y s , a p h o n e c o n
n e c tio n w as a p h o n e con n e c tio n a n d th a t w as
t h a t . Now. w ith th e ESS, all s o r t s of n e w com
b in a tio n s a r e p o s s ib le : th e ESS h a s s t o r e d p r o
g r a m s th a t d e t e r m i n e ils o p e r a tio n . If yo u
d ia lle d a n o n - w o r k in g n u m b e r , i t ju m ps to a
p ro g r a m to ta k e c a r e of lh a l. It d oes all s o r t s
of t h i n g s b y s p e c i a l p r o g r a m , a n d new p r o g r a m s
c a n b e c r e a te d f o r s p e c ia l p u r p o s e s . Now th e
p h o n e c o m p a n y i s t r y i n g to find th e s e r v i c e s
lhat p eo p le w ill p a y f o r . H a v in g c a l ls r e r o u t e d
te m p o r a r ily lo o t h e r n u m b e r s ? L in k in g u p
s e v e r a l p e o p le i n a co n fe re n c e c a ll? S to r in g
y o u r m o st-c a lle d n u m b e r s , so you c a n r e a c h
th em w ith a s i n g l e o r double d ig it?
h a s n o th in g to d o w ith c o m p u te r s , b u t i s n 't it
n ic e ?
You w rite w ith a pen a tta c h e d b y r o d s
to a tr a n s m i tt e r ; so m e w h e re e l s e , a p e n a tta c h e d
b y r o d s l o a r e c e i v e r d u p li c a t e s w h a t you h a v e
w ritte n .
What i s b e in g tr a n s m itte d c o n s is ts o f the
m e a s u r e d sid e w a y s motion ( " c h a n g e ln x n) , th e
m e a s u r e d u p - a n d - d o w n motion ( " c h a n g e in y " ) ,
an d th e c o ndition of the p e n ( " u p " o r " d o w n " ) .
What w ould th e s e d a y s be c a lle d " th r e e a n a lo g
c h a n n e l s , m u ltip le x e d on a 9 in g le lin e . "
T h e s e o n ly c o st a cou p le o f h u n d r e d d o ll a r s .
Why h a s n o b o d y b e e n u s in g them f o r c o m p u te r
in p u t?

T h e s e p a r t i c u l a r s e r v ic e s a r e now b e in g
offe re d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y ,

T h e w a y i t w o r k s is th is : th e r e a r e a
n u m b e r of p r o g r a m s s to r e d in a c o r e m em ory;
th e o n ly " o u tp u t d e v ic e " of the sy ste m c o n s is t s
of ils field o f r e e d s w itc h e s , a r r a n g e d to c lo s e
c ir c u it s o f t h e te le p h o n e n e tw o rk .

It was a t r u ly s t e l l a r g r o u p th a t r e p o r te d to
S u g a r C r e e k . T e x a s will h a v e 3000 ho m es J u d g e S iric a on 15 Ja n 1974 th a t th e 1 8-m ln u le
w ith a m in ic o m p u te r-b a s e d a la rm s y s te m . E v id e n tly W atergate ta p e b u z z h a d at l e a s t five s t a r t s a n d a to p s .
v a r io u s au tom atic s e n s o r s a ro u n d e a c h h o u s e sn if f
f o r f ir e s an d b u r g l a r s , ss well a s p r o v id i n g p a n ic T h e s i x p a n e lists in c lu d e d ;
b u tto n s fo r m edical e m e r g e n c ie s .
R ic h a rd B o l t , a f o u n d e r of
T h e sy stem u s e s d ual N o v a s (o n e a b a c k u p ) , B o lt, B e r a n e k a n d N e w m a n, In c .
a n d p r i n t s o ut the n ew s to fire a n d p o lic e d i s p a t c h e r s F r a n k lin C o o p e r , h e a d of
on a good o ld 33ASR T e le ty p e . ( D igita l D e s ig n , H a s k in s L a b o ra to rie s , )
May 73, 16.) Thom as S lo c k h a m , a u d io r e s y n t h e s i z e r
ex tra o rd in a ry ( s e e p . ^ M )

T he n e w s , h o w e v e r , g e n e r a ll y r e f e r r e d to
them a s " te c h n i c i a n s ."

D e p e n d in g on the n u m b e r s th a t h a v e b e e n
d ia lle d , an d w h a tn o t, th e ESS ju m p s to a s p e c if ic
p r o g r a m , a n d th a t te lls it to c o n n e c t an in c o m in g
call to p a r t i c u l a r o th e r c i r c u i t s , o r to r i n g o th e r
lin e s, o r w h a te v e r.
I t 's r e a ll y n e a t.
T h e r e a r e o n ly a co u ple of th in g s t o w o r r y
a b o u t.
out OF THOSt h W
" O v e rp a y y o u r p h o n e b i l l b y o n e c e n t.
It d r i v e s t h e c o m p u te r c r a z y . "
N o p e . T h e amount of p a y m e n t g e ts
p u n c h e d i n and g oes t h r o u g h t h e g e a r s
q u ite n o r m a lly .
a sw ell vid eo game n ow in b a r s , p r o b a b l y
c o n tr o ls th e f o u r - p l a y e r p i n g p o n g o n t h e s c r e e n
w ith a m in ic o m p u te r o r m i c r o p r o c e s s o r .

O ne is th a t it m akes w ir e t a p p i n g , n o t a E s p e c ia lly e x c i tin g is th e s o c ia l p o s s i

com plex b o th e r in v o lv in g c lip p e d w ir e s a n d m en
h u n c h e d o v e r in c ra m p e d s p a c e s , b u t a s im p le
pro g ram .
A n o th e r i s lh a t some peo p le t h in k th a t
b l u e - b o x e r s (s e e n e a r b y ) may be a b le to p r o g r a m
it, from th e c om fort of ih e ir own hom e6. M e a n
in g lhat n o t j u s t c o u r t- a u th o r iz e d w i r e ta p s , b u t
Joe Schmoe w i r e t a p s , w ould be p o s s ib l e . L e t's
h op e n o t.
b ility o f ho riz o n ta l s c r e e n s fo r o t h e r f u n i n t e r
p e r s o n a l stu ff. A s w ell a s c o lla b o r a ti v e w o r k .
(But b o y , l e t 's hope th e r a d ia t io n s h i e l d i n g is
If y ou w a n t to p u t t o g e th e r y o u r o w n c o m p u i e r - o n - a - c h i p , g o o d .)
o r an y o t h e r c o m p le x in te g r a te d c i r c u i t , a c om p lete sim u la tio n -
v e r if i c a t io n - l a y o u t- a n d - f a b r ic a ti o n s e r v i c e i s a v a ila b le from O
M otorola, S e m ic o n d u c to r P ro d u c ts Div. . P . O . Box 20924, P h o e n ix ,
A riz o n a . P r e s u m a b ly ii c osts a m in t, b u t a f t e r th a t y o u c a n r o ll
oul y o u r c i r c u i t s lik e c o o k ie s . o
Y o ur c i r c u i t is o v e rla id on th e i r b e e h iv e - c h ip o f lo gical T h e C o m p u te r D iet b y V in c e n t A n to n e iti (E v a n s P u b . )
s u b c i r c u i t s , c a lle d a P o ly c e ll. You u s e t h e i r MAGIC la n g u a g e e ho w B th e a u th o r s i lt in g o n t h e d e s k p l a t e of a 360 c o n s o le .
(M otorola A u to m atically G e n e ra te d I n t e g r a te d C i r c u i t s ) , w h ic h
th e n fe e d s a r e s u l t i n g c i r c u i t d ata s t r u c t u r e t o a p r o g r a m ca lle d The In sid e c o n s is ts p r in c ip a l ly of c h a n s h e re c o m
SIMUL8 (y u k y u k ) lo t r y ou t th e c ir c u it w ith o u t b u il d in g it. m ends fo r w e ig h t l o s e . " T h e p o w e r o f a m o d e rn d ig it a l
T h a t w ay y ou c a n s u p p o s e d ly be s u r e b e f o r e th e y m ake t h e fin a l c o m p u te r" I n te rp o la te d t h e t a b l e s . A s li d e r u l e m ig h t h ave
m asks. have been sim p le r .

1 a lw a y s f i g u r e d th a t th e d a y of
H o bb y ism w ou ld a r r i v e w h e n t h e fo lk s
o ff e r e d a b u i l d - i t - y o u r s e l f c o m p u te r .
k now w h a l th e y cam e o u l w ith in s te a d
A g e n e r a l in te r f a c e f o r h o o k in g th i n g s
T h e th in g i s , he p r e s e n t s a p a p e r o n t h e t h e r m o
d y n a m ic s of w e ig h t lo s s w h i c h may b e im p o r ta n t; i n t h i s he
s ts te s th e d iffe re n c e e q u a t io n s w h ic h a r e th e h e a r t o f h i s
d ie t. A nd th e s e may in d e e d b e p e r f e c tl y v a l id . So w h y n o t
c all it w hat it i a , T h e T h e r m o d y n a m ic D iet?
C o m pu ter
al Healhklt
B ut you ^ --------------------------------------- v -
Iasi y e a r ?
to t h e PD P-8.

K irk B r a in e r d , of L . A . , i s u s i n g c o m p u
te r s f o r a r e g i s t r y of p e o p le w ith s o m e t h in g to
teach . He h o p e s th a t if p e o p le a r e m u tu a lly a -
v a ila b le to each o th e r at a d e e p e n o u g h le v e l ,
p eop le can be g in to act o u t o f a l t r u i s m i n g e n e r a l .
 0 ce . .1 .C i . * * U e i
About those ftinny aumbers

*Vf-^o(xs on ycup checks.

I y fashing*^"' there lived a U t - _ e

na.ed Trick! Dick Hi*n-

*
, .a 1 U ttU ',0 "
H o i, TEioSJ ic l aa 3 You w ill note th a t a ll b a n k c h e c k s now
boy s and g i c l s h a v e f u n n y -lo o k in g n u m b e r s alo n g th e ir bottom s.
He had a d v e n t u r e s t h a t o t h e r - T h e y go lik e th is:

W ould y ou b e l ie v e th a t th e g r e a te s t a v a il
a b le c o m p u ie r s e r v i c e ia f o r th e k id d ie s ?
F o r f o u r b u c k s a n d a h a l f , a n ou tfit called
M e -B oo k s w ill s e n d , to a c h i ld y o u d e s ig n a te ,
a s t o r y o f w h ic h h e is th e h e r o , i n w h ic h h is
f r i e n d s a n d s i b li n g s a p p e a r , a n d w ho se ac tion
i n v o lv e s h is a d d r e s s a n d b i r t h d a y .
j u s t d re a a o f *
T h e n u m b e rs a r e o d d b u t re c o g n iz a b le .
L is is th e s t o r , c ( o*e o i h is a d v e r.tn .e ,. T h e la s t f o u r th in g ie s a r e p u n c tu a tio n m a r k s ,
w h ic h p re s u m a b ly c a n m ean a n y t h in g th e p r o
g ra m m e r w a n ts them to . (In o th e r w o r d s ,
f r a n k l y , 1 d o n 'l know I h e ir n a m e s o r s ta n d a r d
fu n c tio n s.)

K ida a d o r e i t . C h i ld r e n w ho d o n t lik e T h e n a m e o f th e s e n u m b e r s i s MIGA,

r e a d i n g t r e a s u r e th e v o lu m e s ; c h i ld r e n w ho do As the giraffe caae closer and closer. w h ic h s ta n d s fo r M agnetic In k C h a r a c te r H ecor-
lik e r e a d i n g lo v e them Ju s t a s m u c h . d i n g . T h e y a r e p r in te d in m a g n e tic in k nol
Tricky DicK started to wonder how in the m a g netic s o 's you cou ld r e c o r d on i t, lik e mag
1 c a n p e r s o n a ll y r e p o r t , a t le a s t o n th e n e tic t a p e , b u t chock full o f i r o n an d vitam in s
b a s is o f t h e o n e 1 o r d e r e d (My F r i e n d ly G ira ffe ) world he was going to look hia in the eye. s o th a t a s its blob s w hiz p a s l a sp e c ia l re a d
lh at t h e s t o r y i s b e a u tif u lly th o u g h t o u t, w a rm , h e a d , Ihey c a u se a sp e c ific s e q u e n c e o f p u ls e s
lo v in g , a n d c l e v e r ly p lo t te d . In o th e r w o r d s , i n th e p a r a lle l c irc u its o f the r e a d h e a d thal can
f a r from b e in g a f a s t - b u c k s c h e m e , th is th in g b e dec o d e d a s Ihe s p e c ific n u m b e r o r m a r k .
h a s b e e n d o ne r i g h t . I t 's a s p le n d id c h i l d r e n 's T rick y D i= K * . " " yJ =3 le S U
sto ry . (1 w o n 't r e v e a l t h e p l o t , b u t the G ira ffe 's F^aeciall* Pennsylvania fcvt- T h e MICE sy ste m w a s d e s i g n e d in th e
b i r t h d a y , n am e a n d ho m e a d d r e s s a r e r e la te d Hashington. Bspecxax ,
la te fiftie s, w ith th e te c h n o lo g y c o n v e n ie n t al
to t h o s e of th e p r o t a g o n i s t . ) th a l lim e, a n d would c e r ta in ly n o t be d e s ig n e d
th a t way no w . N e v e r th e le s s , th e s e w e ird -lo o k in g
M o r e o v e r , it h a s t h r e e - c o l o r i l lu s t r a t io n s , sy m b o ls h a v e i n s p ir e d v a r io u s
is o n e x t r a - h e a v y p a p e r a n d i s b o u n d i n h a r d
riI= t. because he .a s a .e c y a ,e U -.tl. -
H ID JC UJ.DJS TV PE -FflCE S,
(In c a s e y o u 'r e i n t e r e s t e d , a n y o f th e
th r e e p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e s e x p o u n d e d e a r l ie r
i n t h e b o o k w o u ld b e s u i ta b l e f o r c r e a ti n g a w h ic h a p p a r e n tly look lo th e p u b l ic lik e th e
M e-Book: d e p e n d in g on t h e la n g u a g e c h o s e n , . . . 7Pl* a la te s t ho lc h a w h iz b a n g z ip p ity u p - to - d a t e f u tu r
th e h o le s left fo r th e c h i l d 's o w n n am e w o uld b e is tic stu ff, e v e n though t o lh e k n o w le d g e a b le
a lp h a b e ti c v a r i a b l e s , se g m e n t g a p s o r n u l l a r r a y s p e r s o n th ey b r in g b a c k th e la le fiftie s. (In
a n y h o w , y o u co u ld d o i t . ) fact th e r e a r e no le tte r s in th e M1CR c h a r a c t e r -
se t.)
A s tu te r e a d e r s o f l h e M e-B o ok w ill note B ,c * *n a s h i n g t o n .
th a t w h ile i l 's n o t r e a d i ly o b v i o u s , o n ly t h e lin e s W hat, I hen (you may a s k ) w ould sym bols
on w h i c h p e r s o n a l iz e d in f o r m a tio n a p p e a r h a v e d e s ig n e d fo r c o m p u te rs look lik e if Ihey had
. h u , , l w l l
b e e n p r i n t e d i n th e c o m p u t e r 's l i n e p r i n t e r . T he b e e n d e s ig n e d more r e c e n tly ?
o t h e r s h a v e a ll b e e n p r e - p r i n t e d o n a p r e s s .
I n d e e d , th e p e r s o n a l iz a t io n s a p p e a r o n o n ly one Ani witK = We w e r e Ju sl g e tt in g to t h a t . In fe c i,
s id e o f e a c h p a g e , th e w h o l e b oo k b e in g one th e r e a r e tw o 6ueh a lp h a b e t s , c a lle d OCR (for
lo n g w e b o f p a p e r t h a t 's r u n th r o u g h Ihe lin e
p rin te r ju st once b efore b e in g cut and bound.
But i t s so c le v e r l y w r i tt e n a n d laid o u l th a t the
r:r-; - O p tical C h a r a c te r R e c o g n itio n ). T h e y ha v e
be e n s ta n d a r d iz e d so e v e r y b o d y can d e s ig n
eq uipm e n t a n d / o r p r o g r a m s to w ork w ith them.
s to r y m o v e s o n b e a u tif u lly e v e n on th e p a g e s T h e y a r e c a lle d the A an d B op tic a l Tonis, o r ,
lh a t d o n 't m en tio n th e c h i l d 's n a m e . fo r c o m p le te n e ss , OCR(A ) an d O C R (B ).
TC;C1 *- l. a h . ,
A s an e x p e r im e n t, t h e a u th o r tr i e d se n d in g th a t 4 1 I; ro t o - T hey t 2 v e r y d i s a p p o in tin g .
for a copy of F r i e n d ly G ira ffe a s told ab o ut
a lit tl e b o y n a m e d T r i c k y D ic k N ix o n , r e s id in g There would be aany other exciting adventures OCR (A ) is a little s e x i e r . At le a s t it
a t 1600 P e n n s y lv a n ia A v e n u e in W a sh in g to n , D .C . lo ok s lik e so m e th in g . (E v id e n tly i t 's s lig h tly
T h e r e s u l t w a s e x tr e m e ly g r a t i f y i n g , a n d well foe Tricky Dick and his friends. e a s ie r to d e a l w ilh a n d d e s ig n f o r . ) B u l th e
w o r th th e $ 4 .5 0 . H e re w ith som e e x c e r p l s . o th e r o n e . O C R (B ), j u s l lo ok s lik e th e a lph abet
n e x t d o o r . H ere they a r e .
And aaybe, just aaybe, if you're a very good

boy, soaeday we'll tell you about tbose, too.

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BO O K SH IPPED TO 6 B 0 H S - U P ____ ^~suir'I ~ toro*


One or the w o r l d 's moA e xclu sive elube
la aiao on e of lie meet d is m al. II le The Club
a l n o n , , founded b y I U l lm b usinessm an Aurello
Peccei. h sv ln g (ss o f 1972) some seven ty mem
be r* from tw enty -fiv e c o u n tries.
T h eir c oncern th e y cell T he Predicament
of Ma nkind. o r the "p ro b lem a tiq u e ." It Is the
problem of gro w th , p o llu tio n , population, and
Whsi's Happening In g e n e r a l.
On fund s frora Volk sw agen. they have
s p o n a rM l studies w h ic h th in k in g men can only
re g a rd a s the m a t dis m al In p o rts n t of a nyth in g
we've se en in y e a n . O r e v e r .
BMlcalty the p red ic tio n is lhal mankind
h as p e rh a p s forty o r fifty ye ar* left.
Not because of w a r . o r bomba , o r dir ty
bot Im . o r Divine r e tr ib u tio n , b u t (or simple
e c o m n l c reaso n s. H o w ev er, th e stu dies are
often called "co mputer s tu d i e s . " beca use compu-
I t n a n Ihe view in g mechanism- by which we
have come to eee th e ae coming ev en ts .
MALTHUS AGAIN
In the ninete enth c e n tu r y , e pessimistic
eeononlst named T homas Malthus p redic te d thet
th e re would always b e s ta r v in g pe o ple . because
people In crease d geo m e t r i c a l l y exp andin g st
compound In te re st, with a U se d rale of Increase
cre ati n g an e v er-M e ep e r g ro w th -- while a g ric u l
tu ral p roducti on, w hic h muat feed u s all, e xpands
arllhmetlc ally. not a s a r a le b u t a few acrea or
improvement* al a tim e.
T h is meant. U alih u s th ought, thal there
would always b e the e ta r v ln g po o r. For verlous
reasons ihls did not h sp p e n In Europe. Bul the
reg retta b le so u n d n e ss o f th e g eneral prin ciple
pe rsists: when rate a o f food prod uction can'l
M a rly keep up with r a le s of po pulation growth,
people a re going lo e ta r v e .
Thia Is ba sically th e p redic tion.
DYNAMIC MODELLING
Basically whal haa h a ppened Is th ia . One
Jay F o r r ester , of MIT. h as for some ye a r s been
studying 'd y n am ic m od els" o f th in g s , a new
breed of elmulation w h ic h could nt have be en
done without co m p u te rs. And now dynamic
models of the w o rld 's e n tir e economic sysiem
can be cre ele d an d tr ie d oul.
Basically dynamic models a n mathematical
complexes w here th in g s ch an g e al rate s lhal
change Ihemaelves o v e r lim e. Fo r instance, the
more you e a t, the falt er you get. and the fetter
you get. the h u n g r ie r you are go ing lo be . Now,
Juat beca use th is Is sim ple lo ssy In w ords , and
a u n d e aa iho ugh mathematicians would have had
aolved ihe whole c lass o f problem s c entu rie s ago.
th a t's not how II la . T h e Intricacy of auch
models, even for Juat a few v a ria b le a. made It
Impossible to foresee w h at h appens In such com
plexes e i t c l by te ch n iq u es of compuier enactment.
F o rrester, who ha s stu d ied su ch syste ms since
the fifties, haa become a le r t to th e ir problems
and su r p rla e s. The culm in ation of hla work has
been a model of Ihe e n tir e w o rld 's economic
growth, a g ric u ltu re , p o p u la tio n . Ind ustrialization
and pollution; th is Is d e scrib e d In his book
World Dynamics (W rlg ht- A llen. 1971).
The i n s i d i o u s p o r t e n t s o f F o r r e s
t e r s w ork d i d n o t go u n n o t i c e d . The
d a n g e r s o f p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s i n g a t com
p o u n d i n t e r e s t o n a p l a n e t o f u n c h a n g in g
s i z e , and f u r t h e r d e r i v a t i v e s o f th e s e
c h a n g e s , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i n g s s i g h t be
g e t t i n g w o rs e t h a n a n y b o d y t h o u g h t . An
a l e r t I t a l i a n b u sin e ssm a n b ro u g h t to g e th
e r a group o f s c h o l a r s f r o a a l l o v er th e
w o rld to s tu d y t h e s e p r o b l e a s , and c a l l e d
t h e g r o u p The C l u b o f Rome. T h e i r f i r s t
w ork i s o u t new, a n d i t i s v e r y s c a r y
and a l l to o r e a l . The b o o k i s c a l l e d The
H a l t s t o G ro w th . ------
B a s i c a l l y w h a t t h e y ha v e done i s a
v ery e la b o r a t e c o a p u te r s im u la t io n ,
a o d e l l i n g t h e e n t i r e economy o f t h e p l a n e t
i n t h e y e a r s t o come a s a s t r u c t u r e o f
ra te s . They h a v e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t
p o p u la tio n , f o o d -g r o w in g c a p a c i t y , in d u s
t r i a l g r o w t h , p o l l u t i o n , anil a l o t o f
o th e r th in g s . The a o d e l i s p r e c i s e and
e la b o ra te .
U n fo rtu n a te ly th e fin d in g s a re p r e
c i s e and s i m p l e .
They t r i e d a l l k i n d s o f a l t e r n a t i v e
f u t u r e s u s i n g t h e a o d e l - - w h a t w ould
ha p p en i f t h e b i r t h r a t e s w ere d i f f e r e n t 7
W ta t I f t h e r e w e r e no p o l l u t i o n ? What
i f r e s o u r c e s were i n f i n i t e ?
The r e s u l t s o f t h e s i a u l a t i o n s aTe
a lw a y s t h e s a a e .
A cc o rd in g to a l l t h e s i a u l a t i o n s ,
th e h u a a n r a c e w i l l b e w ip e d o u t - - a o s t l y
o r c o m p l e t e l y - - b y t h e y e a r 2100.
L e t ' s go b r i e f l y t h r o u g h t h e a o d e l .
N o te t h a t I t c a n t b e e x a c t , a n d we c a n ' t
know w h a t y e a r s t h i n g s a r e g o i n g t o h a p
p e n . The c u r v e s t h e a s e l v e s - - t h e s h a p e
o f th in g s to c o a e - - t e l l th e s t o r y a l l
to o c l e a r l y . ( F o r t h o s e who w o u ld l i k e
a l i t t l e a o re d raa a w ith th e i r nu ab ers,
f in d in g th e s e a a t t e r s to o a b s t r a c t , I
s t r o n g ly r ec o aa en d th e v e ry b e a u t i f u l
In d ian f l l a " D i s t a n t T h u n d er," a s o r t o f
Mr. S a i t h S t a r v e s t o D e a t h . Or j u s t
s t i c k a ro u n d a w h i l e . )
HUH?
The a o d e l a s s u a e s t h a t b i r t h r a t e s
sta y r e la tiv e ly c o n s ta n t in p a r ti c u la r
p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , a n d t h a t new la n d
and a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s i n c r e a s e f o o d
tIo n in r e l a i i v ly w ell-u n d e rsto o d
Of c o u rs e , p o p u la tio n c o n tin u e s to
go u p , on t h e f a m i l i a r b u t d e a d l y c u r v e .
Civilization, and th e b u lk of m ankind,
have about forty y e a n to l i v e . accord in g to
certa in stu dies (see p . 6 f i ) . The stu dies
a re de pre esingly go od, a lth ough unfin ish e d .
T h ere a re four p ossib le th in gs lo do.
1. Ignore It.
2. Deny ll.
3. Seek Individual salv atio n somehow.
Hide In a remote c o rn e r. Lay in sto re s.
4. The glorio us Oaraeout. Eat. drin k
a nd be m e rr y , for tomorrow we d ie . Or
apocalyptic occultism, o r w hatever.
5. Work ste r lin g now . in whatever
dir ections might, just m lg hl. polm o r con
tr ib u te to a way oul.______________________
V It is now up to us lo make Ihe predic tions
r^ ,
Now f o r t h e b a d n e w s . The r u n n i n g
r a t i o o f f o o d t o p e o p l e , Food p e r C a p i t a ,
ta k e s n sudde n n o s e - d i v e . And t h e n so
does p o p u la tio n .
I lo the floor.
frightening, sin ce the n um be rs plu gged Inio Ihe
se parate rune are merely hyp o th e ses , to show
Ihe shape of Ihe conseque nce s. II Is the overall
sel of r u n s lhat is so g h a s tly , because they el-
PAY CLOSE ATTENTION
Now. it le important to clarify what is
h sppe nln g h e re and what Is nol. Whal Is not
happening: an o r ac u lar pron ouncement by "Ihc
com pute r." showin g some transce ndenta l p r e d ic
tion by a superhum an Intelligence. What is hap
pening: people are tr y in g out se p arate possible
assumptions lo see whsl th e ir consequences are ,
enacted by the compuier a cc o rd in g to the economic
rulea they sel up . Reeull: always Ihe same.
Any set of ru le s , played out in the un stable
explo ding-population world beyond the se venti es,
a p p ea rs to have similarly d ir e resu lts.
WHAT HOPE IS THERE?
The orig in al model is on ly an app roxim a
tion. and Ihe basic r e s u l ts , as published in The
Limits to Growth (see bo x) refle ct thoBc approx
imations. One of the th in gs that can be done is
lo fill In and expand Ihe model more, to see
whether any hopes can be found in the details
and fine c ra ck s which don'l a p p e a r from the
groas re su lts. A nd. of c o u r s e , lo slu dy and
r e - s tu d y ihe basic fin din gs. (Por Instance, a
small e r r o r waa recentl y found: a decimal poini
was misplaced in the "pollution' calc ula tion.
le ading lo an overstatement of Ihe pollution In
some of Ihe r u n s . (But pollutio n, rem em ber, is
only p a rt of Ihe problem .)
So th e re you a re . T h is is a stu dy of Ihe
greatest Importance. We m ay, Ju sl m ay. be ge l
ling wind of th in gs In lime lo change Ihe outcome.
(If on ly we knew how. Bul a g a in , this sludy
Is where se rious dis cussio n must b e g in .)
IBM IS BULLISH ON THE FUTURE
Lewis M. Branscomb. who has the awe
some lille of Chief Scientist of IBM, ha s been
giv in g numerous talk s rec entl y tha l aeem to be
dir ec te d against pessimism r e su ltin g from the
Club of Rome etu dle s.
"'On the s h o u ld e r s of ths Informstlen
p roce ssin g community r e s t s Ihe r esponsi
bility for convin cing th e p ublic thal we
have the to ols. If 11 ha s th e wUl. u> ad-
drea a (he complex aysts m a management
problem s of Ihe f u t u r e .' Branscomb sa id .
"'More than any o lh e r profession
o u r community can r esto re Ihe pu b lic 's
confidence that from Ihe limited resource s
of Ihe world can be fash ioned a life of
well-managed a bundance for a l l .' he
conclu ded."
(Keynote a p e e c h , ACM 73. quoted
In C om puierw orld. 5 Sep 73. p . 4 .)
Now b e gin s the win te r of th e w o rld .
We a re poisoning e v ery th in g .
With so llllle time left, we a re of course
e xpandin g and accelerating e v e r y form of pollution
sn d destruction.
We a re killing Ihe last of o u r beautiful
br o th e r * , th e whalea. Jusl to p ro v id e marginal
amortization of the whale-ahlp e tha t a re going
to be sc ra p p ed anyway.
Item: euppcse dly the S a h a rs Desert was
m m - m a d e , II Is grow ing fast.
Sel down upon this beautiful p la n e t, a
ga rd e n spol of the u n iv e rs e , we a re tu rn in g it
Into a po isoned p ig s t y .
You and 1 may ata rve lo d e a th , de a r r e a d e r .
In some y e s r fairly soon n o w , sro u n d the l u m of
the c e n tu r y . th e re will no lo nger be ne arly e-
nough food for the teeming b illio n s .
T h ai, any way, is whal the p r edic tions Bay.
T h e predic tlona are com pelling, nol becauae a
computer made them - - anybody can make a com
p u te r p redic t any th in g -- but be ca use th e prem
ise s from which Ihe predic tions grow were
ve ry well thou ght out.
come out wro ng.
Not by killin g the b e a r e r of bad tid inga.
o r by prele ndin g they were not c lea rly sta te d
but by se eing whal possib le alte rn a tiv e s remain
in the few moments of real choice wc may yet
h a v e - - sc ant ye ara at besi.
To ha ggle now aboul ideology Is like a r
g u in g about who is d r iv in g while we a r c headed
to w a rd a b r ic k wall with Ihe gas pe dal jammed
The public Ihln ks, "science will sa ve u s ."
a view al which many scientists sn ic k e r bitterly .
Pe rhaps we will be sh r u n k lo an Inch'a heig ht,
o r fed on ro ck s, or given gill s and s u p e r- k ld n e y s
lo liv e in the ever-m ore -p oisoned s e a . O r p e r-
hapB we will do whal scien ce sa ys o th e rs have
done: die out.
This sc ienc e-w lll-sa ve-us ostr ic h-p oslllo n
is nic ely exemplified by Albert Rosenfeld. Science
Editor of Satu rday Revlew/World.
Since ''science" has given us Ihe Boeing
747 and Ihe n e utrino, ne ithe r of which could
on c e, he I hlnks. have be en imagined possib le,
obviously (to him) science can do a nyth in g else
we Ihink is impossible! He fully imagines lhal
sc ience will come up wilh so meth in g lo lake
c a r e of geometrically in c re asin g num be rs of
people. In pcrpetuily?
"Take a lesson from the n e u tri n o ." he
s a y s . "We can solve o u r p r o b le m s. ("Look
lo th e Neutrino. Thou Doomsayer," Sa tu rday
Review/ World . Feb 23 1974, 47.)
OTHER FUN
The Grcel American Bomb Machine (citation nol
The growing d iffis io n of weapons and
g r u d g e s , and the great vuln era bility of almost
e v e r y th in g , a s s u ie lhal te rroris m and political
e xto rtio n will will in cre ase dram atically for
Ihe foreseeable futu re. On the o th e r h a nd,
whole economic blocs and in d u strie s have
late ly mastered and demonstrated by example
how to hold Ihc c ountry al bay in o r d e r to
ge l tf eil wishes: a s e verybody c an sec w hat's
h a ppening, and learn from it, the nu m b e r of
w ronc hin g ul'pleasa nlr.c sses cre ate d by te rr o r ists
and in d u stri e s und interest blocs will irerc jisi .
All these were CHbcntiully fore see n by
T homas C. Schelling in his masterly i960 work.
T h e S tra te gy of Conflict. Sc hellin g formalizes
a th e ory of intimidation as p a ri of h is s lu d y of
communicating a d v e r s a r ie s . (His is a s t r u c tu r al
r a th e r lhan a psychological s lu d y . examinin g
Ihe p ro p ertie s of situations w h eth er o r nol Ihoy
a r e psychologically p e rc eive d. R e grett ably ,
pe rc epti on of sit uations is im provin g all iho
Cousteau sa ys Ihe oceana a re dyin g
a lot f aster th a n he antic ipated
- - and giv es mankind fifty y e a r s
after life ends Ihere.
Bul even if e veryth in g e lse w ere all r ig h t,
th e Bre ede r Reactors a re su r e to gel u s . 1 re f e r
lo those w onder machines lhal Ihe e lec tric com
p a nies are callin g Clean Energy for the Future.
Whal ia nol explained with su ch slo g a n s is that
b r e e d e r r ea cio rs nol only cre ate e n e r g y , they
c re a te atomic w aate. bree d in g new fias lonable
m alarial-* inclu din g plutonium. Plutonium ia
well named for the ged of hell. Chemically a
pois on and radloacllvely a h o r ro r , il does nol
go away; w h erev e r we pul il. it will get back
The mere radiation from ihe atomic crap
is h a rd ly the problem . The radio activ e poisons
a re g e ttin g Into the oceana. They are gettin g
Into Ihe clean waiers of the la nd. (A December
1973 newa re p o r t, for Insls nc e. reve ale d lhal
a 1968 lesk of redloactlve chemicals was inlo
th e w a te r aupply of Bloomfield, Colorado.) Now.
atomic e n th usia sts call ii a Disposal Problem,
like th e questio n of where to bury the g a rba ge.
But It's a ve ry different problem . W herever we
pul It. It will come back. The see? No. that'll
be poisoned a lte r the con tainers go. Deep wells?
T h e mountains? But Ihere is no place thal can
not be guara nteed against earth q u ak e and re*
c y clin g . It will come back. T hough dozens of
ge nerations mlghl surviv e ll, ii will be wailing.
But th e b r e e d e r rea cto rs multiply ihls
outp ut. P e r h a p s we could surviv e Ihe ihe waste
for a few h u n d r e d y e a r a . till ii comes back out.
But the o th e r p a rt of ll is the fissionable material
which can be made into ba ckyard bombs.
T h a i 's the kic k er. Wilh more and more
fis sionable c ru d be in g d isgorge d, Ita availability
(or te r r o r is ts who want lo build ihelr own In
c re a se s. Ralph Lapp pointed out last ye ar lhat
the s t u d w a s sh ip p e d In unguarded tr u ck s , and
one o r two good hijackin gs would enable any
b r ig h t kid to build h is own dirty A-bomb. By
the y e a r 2000 it is not inconceivable ihei bootleg
atomic weapons will be a s widesp read as ha nd
guns in D etroit -- and as much used.
But now . with th e b r e e d e r .reactors-- ir.
lots of c o u n tri e s - - pourin g the stuff out, the era
of atomic ple nty Is h e re . The smaller countries
who wanl them a re gellin g Ihelr atomic weapons
- - though h old in g back assembly of the p a rts ,
for v srlo u s rea so n s. It la generally believed
among b om b-w atc hers, for Inatance. thal India
and Isra el have th e ir s anytime they warn.
Add this to the grea t avalanche of mlasilee.
tall and h o m y In Ihelr slloa, ready to go on two.
laier th r e e or four, s id e s. (The U .S . official
a rsenal now sta nds at Ihe explosive equivalent
of S billion tone of TN T . a ton of TNT for every
human b e in g . And th a t's Ju sl the explosive p a rt,
nol ihe fallout: a fraction of these bombs could
destroy all life on e arth by Us seething re s i d u e .)
And now. be ca use of the SALT la lk s. we may
expeci a new and d rastic Increase of this Readiness
Postu re . Koo boy. Whal Is there li sny.
So th e re It ia. folka. merry times ahead.
Humanity may end with a bang (thermonuclear
e x ch a n g es, o r jusl de sultory firings urlll w e're
all po isoned o r s te r ile ), o r a whimper (univ ersa l
slb r v a iio n ) . o r . I would antic ip ate, some spaailc
combination of Ihe two. and all within Ihe (pos
sible) lifetime of Ihe a verage re a d e r . This is,
al sny r a le , what I think most likely.
Except of c ourse we won't see It happen
thal w ay. We'll watch Ihe starvations on TV
(aa we did B lafra . B a ngla desh, now West Africa,
wliai n e x t . . . In d ia? ), and isk aboul ihe poor
fo re ig n e rs who can'l take c a r e of ihemaelves.
And as Ihe problem s Increase and move toward
ouv h e a r tla n d , it'll be blamed on envlronm entallats
and on Ihe news media , till bang.
O r maybe not. Ju s t maybe.
But w e'v e all got lo g r l occcss lo the Club
of Home m odels , and look for holes or str a te gies.
If compulcr modelling sy ste m s doing this kind of
work are made widely enough available, perhapa
some precocio us g r adc -sc hoole r o r owlish hobbyist
will find some way out lh a t Ihe oth ers hsve n't
hil o n . ..
We've gol to ihink h a r d about e verything.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Frederic k Pohl and C.M. K ornblulh . The Space
M e rc hants. Ballanline. p a p er.
Thomas C. Sc he llin g. The Strategy of Conflict.
h a n d y ) . Paperback.
A book call ed Cold Dawn (elu tio n not handy:
orig in ally published in Ihe New Yorke r)
p r e s e n ts a most d is c ouragin g view of
Ihls c o u n try 's actions ir Ihe SALT is lk s.
One Access Cata lo g, not io be named h e re , gives
a rec ip e for an atomic bomb. Very funny,
ha h a . "The U-235 we are u s in g , (although
Plutonium will work ju s l as well) is a
ra dio activ e su bsta nc c and d e serv es some
c a r t i h a ndling. It is NOT radioactive
enough lo kill with limited e x p o su re , bul
don'l sle ep with II o r any ih in g ." And so on.
T h an k a a lo t. fellas.
Ralph l.app had a piece in Ihc New York Tim es
Magazine Iasi y e a r , pointing oul thal
plu lonlum le ship pe d In ungua rde d tr u c k s
and l l 's only a matter of lim* before
pu r.ks gel Ihcir h a n d s on i l . ..
A piccc in a recent E sq u ir e . "Did T h ere Ever
Come a Point in Time When There Were
Fo r ty - T h r ee Different T heorie s about
Watergate? Yes. lo (he Best of Our
Re collection." is a v e ry helpful general
s o u r c e , especially for those who su sp e et a
connection beiw een "Watergate" and Ihe
a ssass in atio n s of Ihe K ennedys, Malcolm
X, M artin Lulh er Kin g. e tc . But tor a
rea l c hill Bee "Mae B r u s s e ll's Consp ira cy
N ew sle tter In Ihe March (?) 1974
Rea l i s t , as well ae ''Who Is Organiz ed
Crim e and Why Are T hey Saying Such
Awful T h in g s Aboul I t . same is su e .
Glen A. Love and Rhoda M. Love. Ecological
C r is i s : Readings for S u r v iv a l. H arcourt.
$4 ( p a p e r ) . A quic k way lo catc h u p on
some b a d stuff. F our b u e k s well sp e n t.
William L eiss. T h e Domination of N atu re .
B r a tille r . S7.
For a d a z z lin g , romantic and optim istic view of
the f u tu r e , see Dimensions of Change by
Don Fa bun (Glencoe P r e s s , 15 in p s p e r ) .
T he P u lurlsl m agazin e goes oul to m embers of
Ihe World F u tu re Socie ty . An Association
for T h e Study of A lte rnative F u t u re s .
Post Office Box 30369. Beth esda B ra n ch .
W ashington. DC 20014. The magazine
use d to b e prett y sa p p y and opUmlatlc.
bui se em s lo be a c q u ir in g so phis tication.
A o n a l d K o t u l a k , The L i f e b o a t b t h i c . *
C h i c a g o T r i b u n e M a g a z i n e , 28 A p r 7 4 ,
 P erh ap s th e C l u b o f Rone s t u d y s h o u l d b e c a l l e d - -

TH E H O IF E * H t t C A T W 9 G -

*Z k r e .
IT *Ht) W F
P, My f e e l i n g f r a n k ly ia t h i s .
T h a t y o u know I - t h in k i n , Donn ella H. Me adow*. Dennis L. M e ado w s. J d r -
t o n i g h t a s I m b making up ny notes g e n Ra n tie rs an d William W. B e h r en s III,
f o r t h i s l i t t l e t a l k , you know, T h e Limits lo Growili: A Report for THE FOLKS DON'T NEED THESE LTL SHMOOS! - -
w hat t h e h e l l , i t * ! l - CLUU OF ROME'S Project on th e Pr e d ic a - THEY ALREADY GOT ONE TH' BIGGEST
d r a m a t i c , b u t i t n t o t a l l y tr u e SHMOO OK A L L - TIT EAHTH, ITSELF!
t h a t w h at happen# in th i s o ffice mcfil of M a n k in d . U niv e rs e Bo oks, p a p e r ,
J2 .7 S . JE ST LIKE THESE LI'L SIIMOOS. IT 'S
i n t h e n e t f o u r y e a r a w i l l proba READY T'CIVE EV'RYBODY EV'RYTHINO
b l y d e t e r m i n e w h eth er th e r e i t a
c h a n c e , a n d i t ' s n e v e r been don, THEY NEED?! EF ONLY FOLKS STOPPED
t h . t y o u c o u l d ha v e sow . s o r t o f an A-FIGHTIN', AN' A-GRABBIN' - THEY'D
u n e aa y p e a c e f o r th e n e x t 25 y e ars. REE-LIZE THET THIS SHMOO-- T H ' EARTH--
GOT PLENTY O' EVERYTHING--
E. Uti h u h . " T h in g s a r e going io gel w o rs e and w ors e FO' EV'RYBODY.'!"
a n d n e v e r ge t any b e tte r a g a i n .
<m*<sn t o E h r lic h n a n n . Apr 73.)
- - Li'l A b ner
attr ib ute d lo
T h a n k y o u , H r. P re sid en t. K urt V onneg ut , J r . (Al C a pp, T h e Life and T im e s of T h e S h m o o ,
Pocket Bo ok s. 1949, p p . 121-122.)
Hffkj free^s fywjt (W|r
---- I MiW't)

H ' i i 1W fl'f *Jc Q ^krbk

O T 2 .

T echnolo gy i s i n e x p re s s io n f m a n's dream s. I f man did
Ht I n d u lg e M s f if r ta S l ^ T . Tils th o u g h ts a lo n e Mould I n h i b i t the
develo pm ent o f te ch n o lo g y I t s e l f . A n cien t v i s i o n a r i e s spoke of
d i s t a n t ti m es and p l a c e s , where men f le w a ro und and a b o u t, and
some c ould s e e each o t h e r a t g r e a t d i s t a n c e . The te c h n o l o g ic a l
r e a l i t i e s of to da y a re a lre a d y o b s o l e t e and th e f u t u r e of
te c h n o lo g y i s bound o nly by th e l i m i t s o f o u r dreams. Modern
communic atio ns media and in p a r t i c u l a r e l e c t r o n i c media a re
ou tg ro w th s and e x te n s i o n s of th ose s e n s e s which have become
dom in ant in o u r s o c i a l de veloim ent.
F o r e v e r y d r e a m . m a ny d e ta i ls a n d i n t r i
c a c i e s h a v e to b e w h ittle d a n d i n t e r l o c k e d . T h e i r
jo in t r am ifica tio n s muat b e d e e p ly u n d e r s t o o d b y
I h e p e r s o n w ho i s t r y i n g to c r e a t e w h a l e v e r - l t ' i s .
E a c h c o nfa bulation of p o s s ib i liti e s t u r n s o u t to
h a v e th e most I n trica te a n d e x a c tly d e t a i l e d r e s u l t s .
( T h is i s w h y I am so ir r i t a t e d by t h o s e w h o t h in k
" e le c t ro n i c media " a re all a l i k e .)
A nd e a c h p o ssib le com b in a tio n y o u ch o o se
h a s d if f e r e n t p r e c is e s t r u c t u r e s im p lic it in it,
a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d u n its w h ic h (low from th e a e
r a m i fi e d d e ta i ls . Im plicit in R a dio l u r k th e
T im e S lot a n d th e P r o g r a m . But m a n y o f th e s e

bhm z Hoo W a c h B p r e s a , "Hy{.e r - . ~ e a i i ti<. " p o s s ib i liti e s rem a in u n n o tic e d o r u n s e e n , f o r a

v a r i e t y o f soc ia l o r eco nomic r e a s o n s .

HTf 'Mrf|*f[tl*s
Why d o e s il m atter?

II m a tte rs b e ca u ee w e liv e In m e d i a , a s
A ll rig ilte rese rv e d . f is h liv e in w a t e r . (Many p e o p le a r e p r i s o n e r s
o f th e m e d ia , many a r e m a n lp u la to r a , a n d m a ny
w a n l to u a e them to c om m unic ate a r t i s t i c v i s i o n s . )

T h i s i s th e ( lip a id e o t C o m p u te r L i b , B u t to d a y i al thia m om ent, w e c a n a n d m ja t

d e s i g n Ihe m e d ia , d e a ig n th e m o le c u le s of o u r
n e w w a t e r , a n d I b e lie v e Ihe d e ta i ls of t h ia d e s i g n
(P e e l f r e e io b e g in h e r e . T h e o t h e r s id e m a tte r v e r y d e e p ly . T h e y w ill b e w ith u s for a
Is j u s t If y o u w a n l to know more a b o u t c o m p u t e r s , v e r y lo n g tim e, p e r h s p s a s long a s m a n h a s left;
w h ic h a r e c h a n g e a b l e d e v i c e s for t w id d li n g s y m p e r h a p s i f th e y a r e a s good aa th e y c a n b e . man
b o ls . O th e r w is e s k i p i t . ) L*dis and lenttemen. (he age ol m ay e v e n b u y more l i m e ' - o r th e o p e n - e n d e d
f u t u r e most s u p p o s e r e m a in s . (Se e " E n d g a m e ,
(B u t If y o u c h a n g e y o u r min d It m ig ht liahing is al >ul to befin. Palpitating
P . t * .)
b e fu n lo b r o w s e . ) proenialka , r a ttn -ia ib k M . will
ir daire, makinj mani-
f a l (he many mysteries of winding S o in th e a e p a g e s I hope to o r i e n t y o u so m e
wisdom. Bul if m ore lo ichuoaniB w h a t to v a r io u s of th e p r o p o s e d d r e a m s . T h i a ia
In a s e n a e . th e o t h e r a id e h a s b e e n a an increaiungly brutal and dtiagJCg- m e a n t a ls o to r e c o r d th e e ff o rts of a few B r e w s t e r
co m e-o n fo r t h i s a i d e . B ut i t ' s a n h o n e s t com e- able world, we mual step up o u
on: 1 f i g u r e t h e m o re y o u k n o w , th e r e a d i e r M c C lo u d s, e a c h t i n k e r in g to w a rd som e new flight
efforts. And we must hurry Hurry.
y o u 'l l b e f o r w h a t I'm a a y i n g h e r e . Not n e c e s - Slap right up. of fanc y in h is own s e n s o a r iu m .
s a r l ly to a g r e e o r b e na o l d . n but to t h in k a b o u l
Theodor' M. Jela o n , B ut b e a r in min d th a t h a r d - e d g e d f an ta sy
il In Ih e n o n - e im p le te r m s lh a t a r e g o in g lo be
" 3 a m u n - T r o n ic e . " i 6 Ihe c o r n e r o f tom orrow . T h e g r e a t A m e ric an
necessary.
Sugrth n o rc ' z l l e w d r e a m of te n be com e s th e g r e a t A m e ric a n n o v e lty .
A lw v .i B u l l e t i n . A fte r w h ic h i t ' s a c hoic e of s t y l e , s iz e s n d f in
T h e m a te r ia l h e r e h a s b e e n c h o s e n la r g e ly "When you're >. iS-35.
fo r Ita e x h i l a r a t i n g a n d i n s p i r a tio n a l c h a r a c l e r . a n c in g p la n .
dealing wilh media youre in show businc-ii, you
No m a tte r w h a l y o u r b a c k g r o u n d o r te c h n i c a l know, whether you like il or nol.*
k n o w le d g e , y o u 'l l b e a b le to u n d e r s t a n d som e of 'Show bminnt,* he said. "Aknolutcly. Weve gotta T h e most e x c it in g t h in g s h e r e a r c those
th ia , a n d n o t b e a b le to u n d e r s t a n d aome o f th e be in iliow bmim-iv We've gotta pul together a Icjm t h a l in v o lv e c om pute rs: n o ta b ly , b e c a u s e c o m p u
llial will I'rl us ihere." t e r s will e m b ra c e d in e v e r y p r e a e n ta tio n a l me dium
r e s t . T h a t 's p a r t l y fro m th e h a s ty p r e p a r a t i o n I nude a mental nole lo m<* Ihe ihow bmim n me
of I h is b o o k , a n d p a r t l y fro m Ihe v a r i e t y o f In a n d th o u g h tf u l me dium v e r y s o o n .
taphor aqain, anil runtmuoJ. IHMs rt jl cridlivc lil-
t e r e s t s I'm t r y i n g to c o m p r i s e h e r e . I w a n t to t*ii( niJ.jl.ly Ii. Vin uliicr w m ..
p r e s e n t v a r i o u s d r e a m s a n d I h e lr r e s u l t i n g d r e a m T h a t 's w h y th is a id e ia w e d d e d lo Ihe o th e r:
ic-jcood Gould, C o r r e la t io n i f you w a n l to u n d e r s t a n d c o m p u t e r s . y o u c a n take
m a c h i n e s , a ll le g itim a te .
Freak ( T o u e r l, 2!. t h e f ir s t s te p by t u r n i n g th e book o v e r . 1 f ig u r e
t h a t th e more you know a bout c o m p u te r s e s p e c ia l
If Ih e c o m p u ie r Is a p r o je c tiv e s y s t e m , o r
ly a b o u t m inicom puters a n d Ihe w ay o n - l i n e s y s
R o r s c h a c h I n k b l o t . ae a lle g e d on Ihe o t h e r s i d e ,
th e r e a l p r o j e c t i v e s y s t e m s - - Ihe o n e s w ith p r o te m s c an r e s p o n d to o u r s li g h te s t a c t s - - th e b e tte r
y o u r im a gin a tion can flow be tw ee n Ihe t e c h n i c a li
je c t o r s in t h e m - - a r e all Ihe more s o . T h e th in g s
t i e s , c a n a lide th e p a r t s to g e t h e r , c a n d i s c e r n Ihe
p e o p le t r y to d o w ith m o v ie s , TV a n d th e more
g la m o r o u s u s e s o f th e c o m p u te r , w h e r e b y it m a kes s h a p e s o f what you w ould ha v e th e s e t h i n g s do .
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AUTHOR'S COUNTERCULTURE CREDENTIALS

W rite r , sh o w m a n . g e n e r a l i s t . G em ini, moon in L ib r a . Gem ini r i s i n g .

O ne ime s e v e n th - g r a d e d r o p o u t . I have rela tiv e ly liille i n te r e s t in im p r o v in g ihe e d u c a tio n a l sy s te m w ilh in th e e x is tin g f ra m e w o r k .
A u th o r o f w hat may h a v e b e e n w o r l d 's f ir st rock m u s ic a l, " A n y t h in g a E v e r y th i n g ." S w s r ih m o r e C o l le g e . N ovem ber 1957 (w ith R i c h a r d L. C a p l a n )
P h o t o g ra p h e r for a y e a r a t D r . L ill y 's do lp h in lab (C ommunication R e s e a r c h I n s titu t e . Mia mi. F l o r i d a ) . A tte n d ee of th e G re a t W oodstock F e s t i v a l
( like many o t h e r s ) , s n d it c h a n g e d my life (as o t h e r s h a v e r e p o r t e d ) . What we a r e all l o o k in g f o r is nol w h e r e we t h o u g h t it w a a .
Lif el ong me dia nut M a gaz in e c o lle c to r ; h u n g a ro u n d TV stu d i o s a s a c h ild . Com puls iv e e x p l a i n e r . GimmicJsi by d is p o s i tio n , c o m p u te rr n a n b y s c c i d e s t l n y

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A l o t o f c o p i e s o f t h i s bo ok h a v e n o t b e e n p u t t o g e t h e r c o r r e c t l y .
We hope t h a t ' s a l l o v e r now, b u t i f t h i a book b e l o n g s t o y o u
p l e a s e check i t . In c o r re c t ly - m a d e books w i l l b e exchanged,
w i t h i n tw o w e e k s o f p u r c h a s e ( a d d r e s s o n p . 2 ) . O th e rw ise

T o THC T H I t j ) r e iN V M iW il.
ALL YOU NEED DO I S CHECK THE NUMBERS ON THE 'COMPUTER L I B ' SIDE.
117s. They r u n s t r a i g h t t h r o u g h f r o m c o v e r t o c o v e r , e v e n th o u g h
th e c o n t e n t s f l i p c a p r i c i o u s l y . I f t h e l e t t e r s "DM" a p p e a r
a n y w h e re a m o n g s t t h e s e plain n u m b e rs , you g o t a l o n o n .

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t i n g and a l r e a d y th e b i g c l o c k o n th e v a i l t e l l s
us th a t a n o th e r ye ar ha s gone by .
T h is s u p p le m e n t i s m a in ly th i n g s t h a t h a d t o
b e m e n t i o n e d , b u t i t k i n d o f a s s u m e s y o u 'v e r e a d
th e book i t s e l f o r a r e g e n e r a l l y f a m i l i a r w ith
c o m p u t e r s . BOOKSTORE BROWSERS: a v o i d t h e s e f o u r
pages- NEW OWNER OF THE BOOK: C he ck t h a t t h e
pages a re r ig h t, T ijif.
SORRY THE TYPE ST IL L I S N 'T BIGGER, b u t t h a t
w i l l r e q u i r e t h o u s a n d s o f b u c k s i n new n e g a t i v e s
m e a n i n g a l o t more h a v e t o b e s o l d a s i s -
f a * u c w * p o h $ e f i n m u m
The r e d o u b t a b l e PCC i s now s i i i s s u e s a n d s i x
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BYTE M a g a z i n e , $ 1 0 / y e a r i f y o u h u r r y , $12 l a t e r ,
f ro m G r e e n P u b l i s h i n g C o . , P e t e r b o r o u g h , NH.
E d i t o r i a l : C a r l H e l m e r s , Bo* 3 7 8 , B e lm o n t
MA 0 2 1 7 8 . H ard w are-o rien ted .
C r e a t i v e C o m p u tin g : The M a g az in e of R e c r e a t i o n a l
and E d u c a tio n a l C o m p u tin g . Ided m ecrics,
P .O . Box 78 9- M, M o r r i s t o w n , NJ > 7 9 6 0 . W e ir d
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27511. H a rd w are-o rien ted .
Co m pu te r N o t e s ( f o r A l t a i r u s e r s ; f ro m H IT S ).
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In tel. H al S i n g e r , C a b r i l l o H ig h S c t o o l ,
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and also
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S t a t i o n , Mosc ow , I d a h o 8 3 8 4 3 .
E l e c t r o n o t e s i a t h e m a g a z in e f o r m usic s y n t h e s i z e r
fre ak s. B e r n i e H u t c h i n s , 60 S h e r a t o n D r i v e ,
I t h a c a NY 1 4 8 5 0 .
and s o m e t h i n g e l s e e n t i r e l y ,
P r i v a c y J o u r n a l , a m o n t h l y n e w s l e t t e r on p r o b l e m s
o f p r i v a c y , many o r m o s t o f w h ic h I n v o l v e
c o m p u te rs. P . O . Box 8 8 4 4 , W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .
20003; $15 a y e a r .
( N o t e : I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t a b i l l on c o m p u te r
p r i v a c y i n t h i a y e a r ' s H o use o f R e p r e s e n
t a t i v e s J u a t h a p p e n e d t o b e HR 1 9 S 4 .)
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c o u n t e r c u l t u r e I m a g e , t o l d me w i t h a n g r y a n d
sh a k in g v o ic e t h a t h e d o e s n ' t b e l i e v e i n copy
r i g h t and t h a t a n y th in g t h a t g e t s n e a r h i s
c o m p u te r b e l o n g s t o h i m . W e ll , d o n 't le av e
your m an u scrip ts ne ar a u ch a p e rs o n . (Why i s
I t a lw a y s t h e g u y s w i t h c u s h y a n d s e c u r e j o b s
who t e l l yo u t w e e d l e d e d e e , i d e a s s h o u l d b e
f r e e , an d p a t e n t s a n d c o p y r i g h t s a r e s e l f i s h ? )
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s t r o n g e s t f o rm s o f p r o t e c t i o n a v a i l a b l e l a
c o p y rig h t. F a r f r o s o b s o l e t e , th e c o p y rig h t
makes p u b l i s h i n g , a n d t h e b e t t e r c o m p u te r
s o ftw are, p o s s i b l e . ( I t i s n o t g e n erally
known t h a t c o p y r i g h t v i o l a t i o n i s a f e l o n y .)
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pay f o r i e n o t a b r a v e g u e r r i l l a a f f i r m a t i o n ,
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y o u r w o rk . W e l l , y o u h a v e a c h a m p i o n .
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a g e n u i n e C c m p u te r P i o n e e r F rom T he F o r t i e s ,
b u t, a lo n g w ith Herb G ro s c h , p io n e e r e d t h e
Co m puter C o u n t e r c u l t u r e . G ro sch fla u n t e d a
b e a r d i n f r o n t o f o l d man W a t s o n , W ooers
H tr o v e t o make c e m p u t e r s e a s y t o u s e b a c k
when t h a t w as u n h e a r d o f .
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t h a t sm a ll in d e p e n d e n t u n d e r g r o u n d -t y p e p r o
g ram m ers c a n p r o t e c t t h e i r d e v e l o j r o e n t s - He
a n d sa n e a s s o c i a t e s a r e e x p l o r i n g t h e p o s s i
b le fo rm atio n o f a g ro u p f o r t h e l e g a l p r o
t e c t i o n o f s m a l l s o f t w a r e p r o d u c e r s and o w n e r s -
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y o u 'v e w r i t t e n b e l o n g s t o y o u a c o m p u te r
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s u b s t i t u t i n g , o f c o u r s e , y o u r own name. And
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d e r e d an a c c e p t a b l e s u b s t i t u t e f o r c - l n - a - c i r c l e .
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c r y s t a l l i z i n g e v en t.
Not th a t t h e r e w a s n 't a c o u n te r c u l tu r e be
fo re. T h ere were th e g a m e s - p la y e r s a t e v ery u n i
v e r s i t y , t h e p r a n k p r o g ra m m e rs ( s e e p . 4 8 - 9 ) , a n d ,
w h e r e v e r co m p u ters a r e t h e c e n t e r o f t h i n g s , a
Shared e x p erien c e o f a i s c h ^ i e f an d b rea k th ro u g h .
T h e r e w a s Co m pu te r p e o p l e f o r P e a c e , a c l i q u e y
and u n a p p ro a c h a b le g ro u p w ith b o o t h s a t t h e con
f e r e n c e s ( a t l e a s t , t h e i r b a c k s w e re a lw ays
t u r n e d when you w an ted t o a s k q u e s t i o n s ) . T h e r e
w as t h e h o h b y f r i n g e .
B u t now i t ' s go ne d i f f e r e n t . In ste ad o f
p r e t e n t i o u s company na mes m e a n t t o a p p e a l t o o b
tu s e b u s in e s s m e n , l i k e P e rfo rm a n c e M easurem ent
S y s t o n s C o n s u l t a n t s G ro u p and B o t t o m - L i n e - T r o n i c s ,
t h e new c o m p a n i e s ha v e r o c k - g r o u p n a m e s l i k e
G e n e r a l T u r t l e , I n c . , T h e S p h e r e a n d L o v in g G r a c e
C y b e r n e t i c s . I n t h i s new c o m p u t e r c o u n t e r c u l t u r e ,
t h e m a i n c o m p u te r c a n p a n i e s a r e n o t IBM a n d
H o n e y w e ll a n d U n i v a c , b u t DEC a n d H ITS a n d Gen
e r a l T u r t l e ; t h e s t a n d a r d c o m p u te r i s n o t t h e 370,
b u t t h e 11 ( o r p o s s i b l y t h e A l t a i r o r t h e 8 ) .
The s t a n d a r d l a n g u a g e i s n o t F o r t r a n o r A l g o l o r
P L / I , b u t BASIC. In ste ad o f t h e b ig c o lo r W
t h a t m i d d l e A m e ri c a w a n t s , t h e u n d e r g r o u n d co n p u -
t e r n i k d r e a m s o f h i s own g r a p h i c s e t u p f o r e v e r
r u n n i n g The Game o f L i f e i n c o l o r ( s e e p p . 4 8 - 9
a n d p i e p . DM26). (of c o u rse t h a t ' l l a la o re
q u i r e t h e c o l o r TV; s e e " B i t M a p s , p . Z .)
In su c h a w o rld , co m p u te rs a r e n o t a t o o l
b u t a way o f l i f e . T hu c o m p u t e r i s t o y , p e t ,
c h e c k e r b o a r d , m u s i c bo x a n d TV. C o m p u te r s a r e
f o r m a k in g m u s i c , c o m p u t e r s a r e f o r g e t t i n g p e o p l e
t o g e t h e r v i a c o o m u n ity memor y, c o m p u t e r s a r e f o r
l e t t e r - w r i t i n g , c o m p u t e r s a r e f o r a r t a n d m o v ie
m a k in g a n d t h e a n i m a t e d d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e heme.
C o m p u te r s a r e f o r g a m e s ; a v a s t number o f
i n t e r a c t i v e g a m e - p r o g ra m s a r e p u b l i s h e d and
sw apped a round. A lm o s t a l l a r e i n t h e BASIC
la n g u a g e . (Bob A l b r e c h t ' s WHAT TO DO AFTER YOU
HIT RETURN i s s a i d t o b e d e f i n i t i v e - - $ 7 . 5 0 f ro m
P e o p l e ' s C om puter Com pany, 1 91 9 M e n a l t o A v e . ,
M e n lo P a r k CA 9 4 0 2 S . S e e a l s o t h e i r m a g az in e
PCC, a s w e l l a s S i m u l a t i o n a n d G am in g N ewa.)
PLATO g a m e s , a som ew hat d i f f e r e n t s u b s p e c i e s , a r e
d i s c u s s e d o n p . DM27.
T he u n d e r g r o u n d c o m p u te r m a g a z i n e s ha v e b e
come a b l i z z a r d ( s e e b o x ) . A l b r e c h t ' s s p r i g h t l y
a n d s u c c e s s f u l PCC, o r i g i n a l l y o r i e n t e d to w a rd
h i g h a n d g r a d e s c h o o l s , h a s now b r a n c h e d I n t o
h o b b y i s t s a s w e l l . On t h e h a r d w a r e s i d e t h e r e i s
T he C o m p u te r H o b b y i s t , a n d now a s l i c k new ho bb y
m a g a z in e . B y te / w i t h a f i r s t p r i n t i n g o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 .
On t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s i d e t h e r e i s a s w e l l new
m a g az in e c a l l e d C r e a t i v e C o m p u tin g .
T h e n t h e r e i s t h e C o n in u n it y Memory m o v a a e n t.
T h e b a s i c i d e a o f Com munity Memory i s t o h a v e a
co m p u te r re s o u r c e o f in fo rm a tio n and i d e a s , con-
m anly a v a i l a b l e . I n i t s mo re g l o r i f i e d a n d mys
t i c a l f o r m , t h e i d e a se e m s t o b e t o h a v e a p l a c e ,
i n s i d e t h e c o n p u t e r , w h ere in f o r m a t i o n c an be
s h a r e d b y The P e o p l e , f r e e o f I n s t i t u t i o n a l o b
s t r u c t i o n o r th e p r o f i t m o tiv e.
T h is v is io n i s p e rh a p s u n c le a r t o o th e rs
b e s id e s the a u th o r, b u t i t a t t r a c t s a v a rie ty o f
p e o p l e i n t e r e s t e d i n some f o rm o f g r a s s r o o t s
r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f our o o c ie ty . Some o f t h e s e a r e
d i s i l l u s i o n e d s i x t i e s r a d i c a l s w ho l o o k t o 'c o m
m u n ity o r g a n iz a t io n " a s a b u i l d i n g b lo c k f o r a
new s o c i e t y ; o t h e r s a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n mo re n u t s -
a n d - b o l t s a p p l i c a t i o n s , s u c h a s t r y i n g t o make
b a r t e r a v i a b l e e c o n o m i c f o rm a g a i n , i n a n u r b a n
s o c i e t y w i t h many n o n s t a n d a r d l e f t o v e r s , s k i l l s
and w ants- ( P r e s u m a b ly t h i s w o u l d w o rk b y h a v i n g
t h e co m p u te r f i n d p a i r s o f p e o p le w i t h m a tc hing
w a n ts a nd t r a d a b l e s ; o r even s e a r c h o u t p o t e n t i a l
tr a d e s around m u lti-p e rs o n r i n g s . )
T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e s y s t e m s w as R e s o u r c e O n e,
i n S a n F r a n c i s c o ; I saw a n o t h e r C oo nn un ity Memory
i n V a n c o u v e r , w h ic h e e a n e d to b e i n p r a c t i c e a
s o r t o f a n im a ted c l a s s l f i e d - a d s y s t o n . A u se r
s i t t i n g a t t h a t e r m i n a l c a n p u t i n a d s o f h i s own,
and c a n s e a r c h th ro u g h th e e n t i r e f i l e f o r key
w ords o f i n t e r e s t . As t h e r e i s n o c e n s o r s h i p ,
scone r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g s g e t I n t h e r e , f o r
w h i c h I w i s h we had r o a n .
(A n e w s l e t t e r o f s u c h p r o j e c t s , C o m n un it y
C o n n u n l c a t i o n B , i s b e i n g s t a r t e d b y L ee F e l s e n -
s t e i n . L o v in g G ra c e C y b e r n e t i c s , 1 8 0 7 D e l a w a r e S t . ,
B e r k e l e y CA 9 4 7 0 3 .)
E v e n f o r t h o bo c o n i n g a new i n t o t h e f i e l d
t h e r a d i o hams a n d a m a t e u r t e l e s c o p e m a k e r s w h o 'v e
l a i d t h e i r M a ste r C ha rge c a r d s o n t h e l i n e f o r t h e
A l t a i r c o m p u t e r s r e p r e s e n t a new s o c i a l l i f e .
A m a t e u r c o m p u t e r c l u b s h a v e d r a w n s t a r t l i n g num
b e r s : f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e L os A n g e l e s a n d San F r a n
c i s c o g r o u p s a r e c u r r e n t l y p u l l i n g 1 0 0 members to
t h e i r w ee kly m e e tin g s . ( In San F r a n c i s c o , con
t a c t Fred M o o r e , 5 58 S a n t a C r u z A v e n u e , Menlo
P a r k CA 9 4 0 2 5 . )
T h i s b o o k ai*3 i t s s u r p r i s e s u c c e s s p r o b a b l y
r a t e m e n t i o n o f some s o r t i n t h e w o r l d o f u n d e r
g r o u n d c o m p u te rd o m , ' 7 4 - 7 5 ; a l t h o u g h my u n d e r
g r o u n d s t a t u s may be i n j e o p a r d y . I had in te n d e d
t o b y p a s s t h e co n p u ter e s ta b l is h m e n t, and c e r
t a i n l y n o t e x p e c t e d t o becom e a s s i m i l a t e d t h e r e i n ;
so t h e d o z e n s o f u n i v e r s i t y c l a s s a d o p t i o n s h a v e
come a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e s h o c k , a s h a v e t h e a c c e p
t a n c e a n d l e g i t i m a t i o n I ha d l o n g s i n c e g i v e n up
on. My h e a r t f e l t t h a n k a f o r t h i s r e s p o n s e , and
I l l t r y t o l i v e up t o i t . (How i s d i s c u s s e d o n
p . Z , l a s t c o lu m n . )
B u t f o l k s , t h i s a l l i s t h e m e re s t b eg in n in g .
A s i t s a y s on d i a m e t r i c a l l y t h e o t h e r s i d e , p . 3,
COMPUTERS BELONG TO ALL HANJOND-

w IBM to ta lly reversed the policy e f Ita u ^ n c a i
* tha preea th a t th le event te a not, 1 think, pro-
B i&
t e l l , tte a n ti- tr u s t t r i a l of IW is un-
darmy. In an awkmrd s ta r t, opposing lead
etto rreys aecuaed each othar e l professional
aisconduct. placing both te n 's careers under s
cloid as th* fight began.
Tte way i t cmes through in th* trade preta
th* coverteant a m * to be p ulling punches and
Biasing the point e l what Ita own w l t n a a s *ay.
A large-scal* boteh aay be in progress. (Tte
cmpajter liduatry Association, or IBH-haters
club, e tfa rs transcripts ef the IW t r i a l , aa
m i l aa dally sia asrlss. Tte group's headquar-
tera ere ibw a t 1911 N. Port Heyer Drive, teeel)
what is tte point of I t a ll? Th* Ju a tim
M pertm nt Is seeking to break up IBM. (Aceor-
d lte to one theory. I t note* point* a fte r the
ITT-Kartford bualneee.I
Ttere le a lo t of e i^ e re tltlo n about IW
when t te Juatlce Departeent announced i t w uld
p io a c u te . But why? Heah wiener, editor ef
C oautar Declelona. think a im w ill be broken
up: "The Jgatice Department wanta I t . and IW
wants I t , and the stockholder* w ill Bake m re
money. They've a lra d y drawn tha dotted U nee.'
A key queatlon ia what difference I t would
make. (Remember what happened e lte r they broke
up standard oil? Hot auch.) A phony breakup
would a ltely a k e the d ifferen t dlvlalon* into
d ifferen t cv^anies. la v in g the product line
a p llt tould in l a a way foster c ^ e t l t l e n
asong the daughter corporations. But idiat way?
overwhela litig ato rs by the quantity of doc-
umnte supplied, aany ol whleh are atered on
c o ^u te ra in f u ll-ta a t term. To give you en
I d a of the hiamgou* magnitudes Involved, a e
flguree Juet caae up in recent lltlgatlo ai with
sandara Aaeocieus. sanderc Is suing IW. and
recently aeked IBM how aany documents IW had
th a t were 'p ertinent' to tte c at*. Tte reply:
"Active f lle a , approrinately 906,054,000 pegeai
inactive llle s , approalmately 421.6S0.000 pages.
altarmath ol a suit byC o ntro l Data, in which
m s e ttlt e . m s th* destruction of the g r a t ll
deass which had been conatructed to the vaat t il
e l IW '* recerd*i the Indaa la gone end unavell-
To a lo t ef people thle Juat aema co have
tine; and that ia net a a t t a r of bigneaa. but
the atyla of IBH'e control, Coteutere eteuld
vete livea. and ehould help lighten our loeds
and a lig h te n our ainde, clarifyiD g the ctveplea-
Itle e of everything- Unfortunately. iW 'e aethe
c re atite rigid and oppraaalve and polntleaely
c ea p lu systm s, fobbing thea off ae "eelantlflc
the tectelquea d ise ased on pp. S2-S6 .
People should te free to uee c a p i t a l aa
they ouoht to te uaed. each in hla pereenal atyl
of optlona and clarifying sereen graphica, rathe
than each fm'eon and o ffice worker teing locked
Into hie "tternly e llo tte d eandplle," ea
ciMlnqe put i t . And that ia the preblm .
f e a i T im o G W t W
Haney Foy, t t i Sun never Sete on IW . Met re-
H ill L u Kedgere' Think ia eut In paperback, wit)
Datametlon devoted large a c tio n * ef ita Pebruai
WeiifrL'e . t te lik e . The flatteu a e operator could eiaply
HAJOft PRWIS. " C ^ u te r a e re ee c t ^ l i c a
only a eo^eny aa large aa IBH can put together
the technical teaaa n tc e e a ry te make t h a work
THE COROLLARY. " C ^ u te r e are *e c^teUca
th at thare'a just ao way to aka I t pe**lhle fc
c ^ ^ e tito ra to heek up th e ir equlpaent to eura.
The truthi e lm e t anybody ean aake eenalble am
putere th at w i t and t ie together (v isib ly . On
IW a n do I t wrosg and aake i t stick .
IR lW
u a fu l terda for d iacuaaii^ tte IW
problem, (thanke te Cceputar D eelalo a aagazl
in which n a ef them m re f l r a t publiehad
019 73 . 1975 Tteoder H. Kelten.)
ite le g y
the etudy e f IW.
ap h y
the wiadm o f IBH, ite e w t e . one wla
te IM.
U ^ercep tlb le
officia lly noticed by IM .
m ltea tle
puBlUigly lte la h .
ltebrogllo
IM eeftware.
ito o lo g ia
cl<my or InapproprUte t e n . asp. <a
which a iaip eil* l u e l f , auch a* *ran
accaa* te r cyclical aee**a, 'd ire c t
Access d avice'fer in d ire ctly acceeali
device, and 'v irtu a l systm * for r a J
*V*tm Involving v irtu a l huge amory.
h a u d e c la l
____ lng a put a eurae en the FDP-10.
rw ro w
neared forthcoming code fer th* Putt
Sytm IExtended A lnarlly oodte, DecI
a l l y tegaalsed. m t r a r y Klwtoe)
lta p h lly * ^
woraip ef OH.
ite e ll*
a m * Ite a raad u , or wLth
Uwpoly
Iteaga.
U n i t ) f ^ * ,r *
the a f e ty aid toqatterm a* of IM .
I d p e n a agelnat IM , i f any.
l^ e c la m
the breakleq te of IM by the Justice
>Zl
On page S3 of th ia took I aay> *1 hope te te
able to rep art in future editlana of thle book
th a t IW to* aoved firmly and credibly m a r t
aaking it* syetm a c lea r and elaple te use, with
out raqulrlng laborlou* attentio n te n e e d le a ^ a -
p llcatlona and oppressive r ltu a la .'
Thl* haa ln fac t occurred, and I ao rep ort.
In an earth-ehaking anteuncmaat la January,
dlvlalon for the le s t ten yeara. Tat te Jaded la
parly recognised.
Aatoundlng aa I t aay te frm tte c^^any that
gave the world JCL and the m /ST, In January IW
atepperi in to the world ef eay eo v u ters, bringing(
out tha 6yatm/32, a a i n l e ^ u t e r fer buslnaaa.
You een only rent I t ea as Interactive term inal,
with a progcaa ereatad by IBH which cannot be mdj
fled (called an Industry Application Package or
1AP). But tte e e l i t t l e png'*** praept users
atsp-by-*tep throwfh what they are auppoaad to be
doing, and apprently are very clear and helpful
This about-face i s In aeny wsys gratlfyLi^
fer them of ua who have teen advocating easy,
acreen-tesed *ystm s for y ters and years. At Ion
la a t I t give* i n * "lagltiaacy" to B inicovuters *
for bualneee, and I t helpe co^anies th at already
provide such serv ices, such aa Baalc/Four.
I t w ill ba in te restin g to a e if IW knows
tew te Bake thing* elaple, conaldaring the ezper-
lenee they have lavished <n the opposite policy.
Anyway, with th is aove 1 teuld a y th at IBH haa
purged it a e l l of a t l a s t 30% of ita discernible
e v il, i f th ia begins a real change.
A de lic ate p n b lm w ill r e a trlc t the Im ae t
of the }3 l t a e l f , hotever. That is th at IBH wantB
I t * only as a gateway t s I ts big cosaiterei
prssm ably. I f uaers were allowed to progrm I t ,
they'd find tey* out of having to ua* the biggie.
H H A T U lU I
Aa I t happan*. t e know what IBK'e biggest
neat aove w ill t e . I t 1* scaetM nj to te called
tha Future sy stea (PS). PS w ill be a c t^ l e ta
line e l ctaputars and c^aunicatlons techjilquas
for th te , but th a t's a ll we knowj security 1*
very tig h t. Supposedly TS ealata and la running'
but what la it? All we know la that l u sched
uled Introduction haa teen pushed hack f rm 1979
ta aaaetlae e fta r 1980.
Anytey, I have acted a lo t e f a n y people
what they thought FS m s going to te . and te re
A ^ ^ l e t e l y aedular lin e ef c ^^ u tars and
term lnala with a unlbua-type architec
ture. (RUHDRi th ia would ellainate
A mlcrprogramed lin e of equlfvent. whose
A to ta lly PL/1 systaa.
A lin e of e q ulp un t with evsr-changing
aicreprogrmaed "fan-dancs* intarfaeea,
auch th a t no a b a t i n g mnufacturar
can ever find eut what they are. (A
charge by Kerb Creech and nmereu*
A om pleta and l^ re g nable t e u l ayatm for
a ll e y ate llc Information, which cen
only t e keyed in te through IBC terainale
proceeted on IBH te ^ u te r e , tranm itte d
through I8H s a te llite s , and r a d eut
through IBH term inale. (FACTi IBH tea
applied fer a s a te llite .)
T otally CTaepetible with ealating 370 hardware
T utally lnc^te*tible with e alstite 370 hard-
mkea a le t of mney on edapters aid
A lin e of pocket-slcad and p u ta b le aqulpMnt
b u ilt around Magnetic Bubble Technology.
uaa in te rac tiv e sefewera. (Thle would
euddenly e l i a l a t e hundreda of thouaanda
C V B e*C *py7r
Cm ^ li-l-
wae a "cmputer hardw rltite analyals" booth. You
wrote your nma on a card (Hollerith, natch) aid
thia a a put through a e lo t. A ty p w rlte r (mrke d
" IW ) p r ln tte e u t the *analy*l.
I waan't th e re , but i t waa alaoat c ertainly
a braaan fake. Preamably the typew rlur waa an
ordinary Hag card S electric, Heaory Typewriter or
chooM what he wanted the printout te say by ths
insertion o l a card (on the termer) or the bwlat
ol a d ia l (an the la tte r ) .
In cid entally , while IW le probably the prin
clpal ^ ^ lo y a r ef Dutchess County, we should net
^ aatuae d ire c t coq>llclty.
i n
I (Interesting anecdote I the guy* a t xerea PARC
"T *K o F f i t f C F 'T H e f U W
A rm arkable l**ue o l Bualna** Weak (June
30. 1975) c arried e 36-te9C a c ti o n a i l e d an
"executive b rie fin g ," whatever th at i*. on the
Office of the Future, whatever th at 1*.
The a rti c le waa actu ally tte thing* aplicad
together! fu tu ria tlc * gab around th* t i t l e , aid
* repa rt on the ee-ealled word procesalng ln-
duatry.* te rd procaeelng, a ( Il ly IW term,
teana handling te a t by trleky office equljaent
( a e Type U g h te r," p. 14).
i n controla the word proeeaaing aarkat.
with such aaehine* t* the Hag Card S electrie and
the abmlnabla (in ay opinion) KT/ST. Aa ra-
te rted by Bualneee Weak. IM a te alc strategy
i s ts ta ll bualnesmen th at they have te have a
centralized typing pool of specially trained
typleta to uae theae things, sc tte office has
to te reorganised. The eee re u rlee hate the new
organisation because I t aake* t h a into keypunch
Operator* tha pean/eaecutlve dlctetm y ia a
trad itio n a l aspect of IM producu. It m i d
a m but t te whole thing is put ovsr ss Modern.
Now Xeroa haa a e e up with a c ^ ^ e tltlv e
aaehine. tte 800 (aee Diablo, p. Y). aid Bualneee
"te* Intone* th a t only tteee two fir m have the
a w y and c a p lu l <s succete is coveting te
c r a t * tte Office o l t t e Futur*. t e l l , th is is
Tbe big Bistake IBM's coepetllore alm ys
am u aake ia to l e t IW define tte preblm ,
and than go ln te try to c ^ e t a on the te ttl* -
ground, and In tha term*, th a t IW has laid out.
But i t la net eenalbl* te play lellew eh* leader
on s il v e r y leg* through a boobytrappte n a i f .
Hew xarea haa stepped once the slippery lte-
t e t th* rig h t th ing w uld te te um**k th* ab
surd itie s e f the IBM gm e with new in itiativ es
which thay cantet possibly m ulata.
Th* o ffice e f the future, in th* opinion
o t the a u tta r, w ill hav* te th lte te de with the
U ly e c ^ le a iti e a o f autm aU c typing- i t w ill
hav* screens, and keytoard*. and peealhly a
p rinter for outgoing le t tere, but p a alb ly not.
All your business Inlom atlon w ill ba te lla b le
te tha screen in sta n tly . An all-mbraelng data
a structure w ill to ld ovary farm ef la fon e tla n
a m arle al and te atu al in a cat*'-sradle ot
linkage*! and you, th* u a r , whatever your Job
t i t l e , m y gulekly rove your ecreen through tte
entire Infesmtleft-cpace you are e n title d te
Indeed "programs- w ill Mver te*m o iiciIlv la-
vokad a t a l i i thay w ill slaply taka effect a*
you j e t near. In tha display te*ea, b a th in g
whlcb naeda i^date. A dleplay-drivan Inform-
/fX \ W T H C S r o r
' m '/ i / V
Mien Xerox Cerperatlon entered t te c vputar
Dutlneie a few yeere ego, i t am uncod that I t a a
g e l* to ch allag e IW h*ad-to-lad for dmioatKai
e f the <*ele broad field of information, whatever
**** 1,1 lecoa Bade eeplere. but aaa t t e haod-
writing on the driai eventually tha h a id lii^ of
w ritten Baterlale w ild croae over in te the u -
tlng raalaj fow are cure In what way. (For three
luture direetlona that have been propoaad, aee
Engelbert, pp. &M46-7, PU tn, pp. U126-7, and
Xanadu1*, pp. BK56-7.)
Ttw la a t July laeue of C ^ u terw o rld In ' 7S.
tCTMver, tolled of Kerox'e ahai^naent ef the cm-
puter lle ld . Specifically, lo r e i w ill atop Baking
----^Jter* thmaelve*. though they e t l l i w in Bake
Y). The news n i preaanted In tha fraaework ef ^
grand tragedy, tha P m t t e a n collapae ef overea-
tanded otbltlon*. Evidently leros B anag^ nt
puehed toe hard ln tte Incmpatible direction
building alsoly for the eventual challarqe of la t.
ve. ahowlng p rofit* gulekly. The llrm f e ll be
tween the te a t and tha deck. Joining DCA aid Gen
eral E lectric and the othar big c m ^ n lee th at
found they couldn't Bake i t e e llin j c a r t e r * .
But l e r a 1* not a* far out of t te field aa
a a a eight think.
In a aecret muntain hideaway t e l l , im UK
c ra t Xeroa a t l l l haa parhape tha aharpest
tench ef c ^ ^ u te r raaeala in the world. And thay
ara planting way tap ahead, ta the t im amputate
are practically free. If I arm give* th m tte lr
head, aid deean't eut hack, the csrpcracias will
have l i t t l e trouble In trli*phantly returning to
the field five or ten yeara I rm m , o n c tlfab ly
kneeking IW off it* feet In the now aarheta ef
th a t day with a karate-like rwvep.
Thle Place of Powwr le eallad le ro i Palo Alto
Raaarch Cm ter, or lerea PARC, and l u < t e i |M n
o f California Mellw ^ n a i a l e ^ the unwary.
1 epeke there e few year* ago and found It
buey volleyball gate outalda when I arrived, aid
whan I aaked for the poreen I a e goliq to eee.
the reeeptlonporeen aald te pull up a baanbag aid
wait t i l l he had flnlehed playlr^ v o lle y te ll.
lurniehed only with a m untain o l theae hoanbag
aacke. Ae people cate in, they would pull beantega
o ff the m untain and a it down on th m .
So ta r te good 1 California Mellow. So 1 wont
Into ay rap, and everybody aat llatOTlng. 1 had nc
Idea if 1 wet getting through, since what I try tc
te ll people begin* where technology atepe-- m ral
precept*, ae i t ware, te r organiring idee* and rye-
t t e in the world e l the future (eee th le wlsle OH
aide)-- I 'a uaed to people looking confuaed, or
m rrled , or angry, or even walking e u t. There wa*
none of th a t. Wa* 1 getting through? or were they
everybody following thi*?*
There were m ile* end I think eaaeena aald,
"We're with you. Ted."
And they were. I t waa the oatly pleea I'v e
ever spoken where the audience wa* on the U M
wavelength, going straight on Into syetma Deaign
Thie le obviously tha place te te ll you about
Alan Kay and the Dynabook.
Tte hotteet project a t keraa FAftc la Alan
Kay'a Dynabeok, formerly the Kiddy ctsputer. Ae
lo ta e l pteple w ill te ll you, i t ' e going te ce*t
five huidred dellere, be m a ll enovgh to carry
erouid on a * heul^r atrap, have a b u ilt-in aciitrt,
run on h a tta rle e, aid have a l l tha t e k e a kid
wanta to read Irm tte acraen stored on a eaeeette.
Aid the doe: T te y 'll kiock y^iu out. on a
color TV screen, th e y 'll shew you a wildly chaining
pageant e l toy soldier*, phetographa, te a u tilu l
patterna, a ll generated by the eo^w ter In reel
tia e (eee 'B it Maps." p. ? ). And I t you're into
eosputere, theyl l aim you how a ll thl* 1* run by
the beautiful 9ULLTAU languaga ( it waa previouel>
eallad tte Kiddy C ^ iu ta r. rm m ber). which any
b right child can learn and which ha* ama awfully
Thare have baan a le t o l cena in tha c o ^uter
So hsw cme xeroa le leaving tte cm pitar
lleld?
Answeri they're net te ae tly leavingi they're
taking a break u ntil they can a e ll th le beauty
for live huidred dollar*.
Hhat'* tte delay?
The Dynateek. or Kiddy Cteputar. 1* actually
You're auppoeed to Laugh. A PDP-10 le a big
c ^ iu t e r . tte te a t. (See pege 41.) A PDP-10 sy*-
t e s e t a hundreds of thouaanda o l d e lla n .
But the l**t laugh w ill te K a ra '* . The way
coafuter price* are dam, through Inte-
g rata l c irc u its ever m re powerful end cheap, that
POP-10 can te sold lor SS00 in . . . (cheek your
Choice) __178 _1979 _1980 __1981 __19B2.
' aaked te buy a PDP-10. but aanagmant hr id led,
aeeing a* haw la rm wae ln t te eo v u ter bualteea
and Bade o a p atltiv e aaehine*. So the te lla a ,
v th in g daunted, b u ilt tb a lr m , Thay BOdastly
(Hotai tte above predictions are baaed, e l
court*, on tha a s s ^ t i o n ef Haros aanagmant
knowing what i t ' a dolitg. A sat^tlon a of thl* Cypa
in t)a o a p u tar field a ll t te often turn eut a te
Tte TM^languege le ibw rumlng tlae-eterte,
lo r general n a t m f t , on C ^ v u tillty (aa bbth
tionad <Y> p. 21) , and in a fancier version offered
by Interactive Sclw tae Corp., 66 Brooks Drive.
Braintree, Ha**.. 617/84B-200. teoera has 11-
eenmd tte la tte r firm to run both hi a baalc
ceseor and Advanced DavelopMita" (ra tte r a e n t l
in f ile (yatm a aid c ^ u t a r control. AptareotlT
he haa ----- spectacular data-baae atuff in there,
but you woe't te able to find A it a t e t I t directly
jp^ -1.1 packagea ara tte apealalty e f Interactive
Science*, aid with 1AC thay mn oflar packagea
with both tte data baa* stuff and o tte r uouaual
eapabilltle*. Far ljiataiee, thle tia e -atiar ing
TMC can lta e lf c a ll vp ether ^ v * t a r a and sign
Into thm , respond ing te maaagea aa I f I t m n a
Tte te v u tlll c y varalm tern* ta rub far ateat
112 aa te u r, tte Intaractlve Selemea v u e lea t a
^mwbat a n - but tte la tte r flea la iatareatad
In 111e9 wtele package*, net uaer-dlddllng.
teeer* haa recm tly received r e g le tr a t ln for
'i n t n w / # w s
ie L iS 6 m i (& c 'P E iw
1* a - t 1*1" you hear everywt e r *. Tte r*te
but la tte tey Chat tte standard ananor te quea-
By 1i|aiiaam " Peopia feel thl* with * em tals
b ittan a aa b a m a m aany ef DK* fane laved It
te r te t telag lik e IM- I t 's like te m Jackie
Doapite Ita ****r insipid a rlu U ii).
OK ha* n a l U i t a d l u ( g f l tlo i a t tha a o ta i
o l tha M ill i ^ n m ----^ pop-11
lead coteuter of choice Z n | a p h le tle a tm .
(Tte F w -ii ta alao a ttra c tin g considerable Lo-
aoveral yeara te ro r e . Juet ae thay c o rre c tly
Inatance. r l r i t t a t l m l City Mak ef lock
la a a t l n g a nBteork or U/45a.)
ta r to tu q In i l i t , geiulnely, I r a tha tloy
to tha grand. Durin) tha la a t ala rnntha, DK
haa brought gut tha m a lla a t ol tha Una, the
LSI-11, a ll on board tha a it* o l a th a n of
typteriter paper- lor SIX HIKDKED ATO r i m
IXSJARS. That Inclteea tha lu ll c o t t a r u l
4K of volatile feet r y . aa a l l aa b u ilt-in
daboggar.
I t not quit* tha lu ll e tery . Thle LSI-11 la
without p o a r aupply aid without unibua. In
deed, I t h w that tha LSI-11 happme to ha
newieed laat ( a ll , which coats J 0 with juver
supply aid Onltee. ib fro n t panal. Tha en-
pearana o l a rtely to tha grand MIT5 aixounco-
. n t of January (aaa p. ) . Capecially whan It
a tte a a id . ('Buying clube* a n being (mrnal
with tha Ida* ol poollte resources for eha
quantity p r i m aa "Cheap C a r t e r s ,* p. V.)
(Sophisticate* In ta r a ta d In putting tha
LSI-11 in other equijmant have baan quick to
In which you Bay Insert tha B th at glvee yea
floating point la vary cheap optloo), Por tteee
of u who diydriH about unumal luactla&a, auch
aa H at ( m a u l s ) or graphice or tha llk, thia
'T*nli] la vary auggeatlvei with accoas t= tha
alcroprogim instruction*. a d lf te rm t KH could
te pot in for f u t l ^ l w . t a t l c n e l teatever i t
m n te d -- aad your p r o ^ r a m i d uaa for
your nalarloue purpeea tha binary o s a t e a or-
dlnarlly n a i m d lor flo ating point.)
IMille ha aay oot ba abla te deal with that,
Danlal 1.. Lawi* at DC la Bolling Headews. i l l . )
At tha high and of tha lin a , a bl R>P-11--
tha mdel ?*-- haa boas anvailed, m a ilin g a
lu ll 31-bLt a ichlnt, In tha huidred-tteoaand-
dollar claee, with cacb* am ery and tia a -a te r ite
(hit what ol tha van blggar PDP-11 aodal 65.
aaan In the Harltere plant under yet aiethar
operating syatte? w ill le Been that a l l tha
tiae? Ah. pity that nothing can ha said about
Hultlple oparating l y i t w aro. indeed. tha
tana e l tha PDP-11 lin a. Hot only ara there
Dec'a own. like RSTS, RT-11. DOS and RSa, idileh
aufler f rm a lack of f l l a e ate atiblllcy and
but m thora haa arlaan a lac grander oparating
UNIX-- tha naae'e auggeatlveneea o l harm
guard* la deceptive la raa lly tha eon ol H I-
TICS Iaaa p. 45). But i t waa flniehed In Mich
lese time. Like Hultlcs. i t ' a a teauty. Lika
Kultlca, i t waa programed in a hlgter language:
tha language i t '* programed In, tn o v a r, la
called a itely *C*. Tte language waa c ra te d
by Brian Kernlghan. author o l a wldoly-praleed
cotract programing exaieplee frta othar p o d ia 's
aed in *C" by Xen T ta ^se n and Dennis Ritchie,
unla ia a d n . Aaida f rm a ll tha usual
of s p littin g . Each prograa csn thnw off coplaa
ef i t a l f . which mn Independently and t l ^ *
ogian language eallad S1WLA. and alae appaara
In Alan Kay's m a lw ale languaga a t Xeroa PASO
regrettably, there ia no n r a to dleeuaa thaaa
hara, (For Simula, aaa Ole-Johan Oahl and C.A.R.
Dahl, Dl)kaLra Anl Hoara. structured Programing.
Acad^ic Praia.) Thaaa iM turaa affectively
change the character ol programing e o ^la te ly .
For Inatance, te aivulate a niebtr of objacta
I n te r a c t! ^ the p e g ra a can (pin o il a s p y el
lta e lf lor every object, and t u h usyy (ilaleking
the raal-aorld object). can then reapocd to Ita
cvitlnually-changing e n v i n w n t aa required,
in other word*. (Me typo of language aoaaa that
aioiU ted than they ever did before.
SDWU m eta $30,000, and, aa i t happna,
tiona). Uolortunataly th ia raiaea certain grave
gueetlone. eisea tha eal^hone cmpany (of tdileh
M il u be le a branch) la not ruppoaad to ba Ln
the c r^ u ta r programing bualnaaaj and theae who
are in tbe butloeaa ara dlmayad by tM idea ol
Rather throw Ite corporate weight en
tire ly behind the POP-11, BBC hae carved out
a t t a i n areaa In tfiieh i t la trying te aarkat
ita U -b lt aid IS-blt oachlnee. tha PDP-6 and
Pnf-15. The POP-8 ia being puahad lor bualaeee
a^lico tio o a, with D B'e c oB b-llke lai^uagai
alao a vary nice veralen o l the 8 haa appeared,
floppy dlake. keyicepe. and wot-printer optioni
thia le the 'C laaalc.* a t M2.040.
Tba 18-blt TOP-1S lin e le a t l l l balng oar-
aarkatl aa a *BadlwaUad* aaehine. with IWCR
I K ' a data-taaa eyetm ). with virtu a l huge < -
ory, and with hot dleplaye.
CWPCT1TIVB KXWJktims
On f i n , In tara ll. haa put the PUP-8 os
a chip for erne #3. IHoover, aa I t uaually
tu n a out. by tfa tiao you gat a ll the porta to
gether i t ooeta >3000 a lta r a l l , tu t In quan
tity i t 'a anetboz aeory, and tha individual p ic a
will drop b o b o m g b .t
Isto rell haa alao lntlaa te d that they are
working a a chip to e la ila te tha PDP-11. II
ao, thle w ill of cowoe b r l ^ t h m ----- - ^ a-
g a in n the petaat th a t u a a to have kmrked out
the DljlaU C^^otar Control* lookallke, tha
Tnrlta ol 8uo (at lM at Ita direc t Barkatisg).
anl aagodarod a lewoait ogalnat Cal data, lo t
11 loefeallke, a n t l a r f on p. r.)
rnU kH crti& Y * . l& r
M TM my t a , you e4 | ^ Ia oaral Juat
lor it* fo il porchaaa prlco> aioee the la llia g
islcaa e l o ^ u t a r a aaan I t w ill probably have m
aarket value io a few yoare. I M 'a great
et^B la large part f rm ta lig tha a d r w ^w tor
o v u r big aaoogh te n o t . )
M l , good old U g l u l tq u ifM st A r^ r a tl a n
tea flaally gotta*. Into tba loaelag bualnaaa:
ta l Leamlag, La m l l a ln n t lo i with c . i . u ia tig .
Tart < lil leaaa CMC e q a lp e a t B ladlvldaBle oI
good credit tacm 9 ta a n a |M n . C u r a t
rate m a T-yaar lwao la 3 .) paromt a ^ t h .
^ e lM r
A wicka lly faay daaarl^tioa e l MC'e hme
facory, fairly M v a u , oan t e (M ri is a m t r
b a lle triatle to e t a l l d Travola La
THE
But HITS took I t aerloualy, and o lte ra d
with tha A ltaic e m a l l te c esaplete llo a of
i n f l a l f , dlak*. p r lo ta re , Interface* , aed,
m e t Iaportant, a e rrlc e f a c lllt le e .
Tbe ( I n bad lm ovated before, notably whao
chay brought out tho l l r e t teBd-beld c elcu laco r
antlcipB e^ cbat dmaad, tbay foraaaw th le ooe.
They alao cteea uo errli^ ly cbe r lfb c a r -
kat to b q lo 00: e lec tron ic bobbylete aod k l t -
bulldere. The klt-aakac enjoy* tbe challenge
or b ulldlof e m cblaa (roa only a d la ir m and
a boa ef p a ita ; aod co be far fro a a ropalraan
to Ida m te rre ra for bla, for (>a ^e the r a p a lr -
Tba price drop waa oot ae d r a m tlc aa 1c
a lth t aem to the te o aral public: oor le tha
cputer quite ea cheap a* i t l a m a t f lre c
fiance. Contrary to a public lap reaaion. c re a -
ta j by ISI a a l a Middled preaa over the yeare.
chat cmputara ara toga aod coat a llllo o a ef
dollara, very food coaputere have been a v a ila
ble lately lor e couple ol tbouaaod, oot cmin-
dn g accaeaoilee.
hit tha accaaaorlee preaeot a p reb lm .
On th et ecere, tbe apparent rock-b ottm p rice
of tha A ltalr m y have bees alaleadlng, aapa-
clally to U c-b u lld e re. A coapuiar I te e ll la
a lla ^ dlahrag without eaaory, te ra ina l* aod
program*-- a ll of which pad the ceec of tha
packaae. By the tia e youve added 61 Barry.
a Caroloal aad BASIC aoftware to your k it-
bullc A lta lr, a tbouaaod d ellare hae (1mm
(11400 if you buy I t already aeeeabled). Then
1< you want t te dlak (aad who d o e e e 't), th a t'e
at laaat f ifte e n hundred m re.
Kow k lt-bu lld era Juat e ta rc ln t my not
aaa tha point of a ll cheae Irlp p erlea ; Cbey
pu ttr, ae cm le^ to real Ire the laBeeelty of
I t a ll aay te a gradual aw kenlni. with aany
happy aoldarlo) eaperlaocea 00 the way, Othara
aay ba b>ou(hc up abort aa thay aeoae what
Ihey're |e t t l n | Into.
Thia la p artly e problm ef NITS' cry In*
to reach two eonauaer (roupa a t ooce: the k i t -
builder, who Bay have thought a c ^ ^ u te r waa a
who looka at the b o ttm lin e lo r the coat of
Indeed, KITS' low prlcea aroot that low,
When i t come to p rlea . they are about SOI atead
of tha conventional c e ^ e tltlo n . For Inatanca.
th e lr $5000 aetup (with Caraloa) end dlak)
olght ba taken aa roughly equivalent te the DEC
Claeelc a t around $10,000 (aee p. Y).
But what you uaually pay for in th ia H e ld
I* earvlce end fringe b m e flle . Tbe fundamn-
ta l eaet, I t eame to ae, le wtather you caa
< a hack co tbe co^any with your problm a.
cuetm er*' c ^ u t e r cteublaa.) KITS' p rin c ip a l
contribution le rae lly In the tteught they have
given co th nlr m rkac. and the depth with which
they ara aervlng i t . They no doubt e n tlc lpetad
uadariall tb m (tea p. Y). But they aaa tha
advantage In tb la : thay even give out th e ir
Bailing H at te coapetltere who e a ll A lta lr
for a quick buck; they appear co be thoroughly
c om itted to full-apeccrm coavutar earvlea.
In eight aontha, HITS haa gene frm
twancy-flva to a hundred mployeaa and aeld
OVOI m il THOUSAND COHPVmS, whlcb la am a-
thlng like t a or three percent ef the cmpucere
In Aaerlca. Today, the electronic nut*; to-
(ob Albrecht, caliph of countarculcura c m -
puterdm. highly endoreea A ltalr Extended BASIC.
Say* 11'a te r r if ic .
The nals aarvlce cotter for A lta lr . haa
been cbe Albuquerque factory, but tha f l r e t o l
th elr regional aervlce eentara ha* now opened
in Nathvllle.
An A ltalr aaamblar la running on che FLAT0
H i l a (aee pp. B 06-7).
4 in - f
HITS prleoa ara qu ite roamnahle. I f you buy a
k it lor anything le tha A ltalr lin e , I t 'a gen
e ra lly about JS* laaa than the eeem fel^ and
luJ ly-cbaeked^ut veralon.
The te elc e u ^ u ta r k it cneta $ 4 (C631
*eetf>lal), but ignore that 1 i t '* lik e e car
without an m gioe. a a u or wteal. A d e l e t e
package (tbalr Beale 1* e a t) . w ith tha o ^ u -
ta r , ar of n a o ry . terminal aid 8K BASIC lan
guage le 11)91. A m r e hlgh-puwered i y e t
v ltb 131 e f fact a m r y aed double eidrov dlak
la IMJ4, c o l l a t e with t t e l r to tn d e d M a le.
Thare are aany aaparate I t a e , pLana and op
tional i t la peaaltola, o t eouree, to buy a
package eywtm f r m chm lo r aa aueh aa you
want te epand.
" A t U i n .f f c n t . v c w u e r
e tu ra lly i t had te te in Lea Angelee.
The f l r a t e r^ w te r etere,* i t T r * .
1* a t 116S6 Pico (at Sarrin gto a), w*et
b.A.. ^ a lle vaat of tha San Diego
rraeeayi 21 V 4? e -lie s. Neure are 2 to
8 Milr111iy t s Friday, 10 n 6 on S a t
urday and Sunday. I t '* c alled the Ar-
o s c k e line ef A ltaire.
Airtre* J . Slogor (Me aay* ha 1* now *eoneul-
ta n t te a m a ll f i n e f actrolagara*), anmuneae
s w ' m u m x **
Be haa emly p n la a for t te BkSlC -orlasM bualnaaa
ayatm e offered by BAslc-FOOB Corp.. to ba found
la m}or c ltle a . Bet only done t te c m e n c t e p o ii
oot whet f w g e t La ^ a r k l l t e d a ta ll, but t t e aan-
ual le w x ltt* la t e l l i h . A ^ Aadrvw h lA m lf
m a ld a 't a a A tte eyetm .
(The Baale-FOor * t^ - - a <> f r m 11 cm
data terparatlOB. M n A t i I t m l f m U a a
f a r in g b a l na t - q ^ a n * c a l M n u n , Mileh
1* highly p n la e d by Jo te b. iv1m , n a t t e r yowag
tfery n b la t t e BUIC la . -V -.
thoy o flar e e y n m with U , a BUIC la ta rp r a ta r
Ha l l m e n l . dlepU y aad m a m tte fo r w ^ r i u m
aag baa cI ovbtI , lcm d t t e l ^ a l p r = ^ * i -
p r ^ l m n t t t i te em rk of B l t a n t e u a a a , __ h
r a p u l b l i ta I ta o u b m h for t t e l r _______
ta a e t * v o W < ,
K a brigh t g u y la a m York.
do good w a audio m k . rtey a re '
alao aa e n t e M TUC r ^ a i r e ta tlo n .
J tla e W B le a . 3 la / J - 0 H * . s .
43 (n a n ta t t e r ^ l s ta a ).
 T I W .Y ^ a n c - H C H m s w id m w ie n .
Y
One o f th a buys o f ctaeputar h i s t o r y I s w ait- lfo Jkew^aj

HITS' new c d ^ u t e r w ill be b a sed on Oil

motorola 6800, end s e l l in k i t f e n f o r around
$300. But t h e i r a a ln 1* t o th e
i r q up a t A aerlcan Used C e ^ u t e r . in B oston,
617/261-1100.
H o o re x , fo r t o t u n f a th n a b le re a s o n , b u i l t
in th e e a r ly 70a a a ^ u t e r inte n d e d to be upwerd-
c o n p a tlb le h a th a 360/20. But I t was r o t a 360.
TNf fiV iN StU R ue
0>V aT E ^,
EQDIPtW
W>y d id they do th la ? Th* kin d o f p e o ple who
A lta ir , a lin e based on th * I n t e l SOSO, and
the c u a tm e r a a lre ad y in to th a t a a c h in e w ill
not be in any way l e t down, they aay.

A c p u t e r k i t based on th a M o u r o la 6800,
with 21K b y te s o f c o re , e a e s e tt e r e c o rd e r and
TV d isp la y (32 eh ara. by 16 lin e s ) l a o f f e r s
shop around would not buy 360/20e, and th e kind o f
p e o ple who buy 360/20* would sc a r c e ly le a v e IBM'a
a k l r t e a t upgrade t l a e .
Thus th e Meaorex 40 hae, q u ite u n de rstan da bly ,
be en d ia co n tln u ed . And a l l tha ones th e y had l e f t
a r e w aitin g fo r you hrand new up a t A ae riea n Used
The g re a t H aruin Minsky i s reno&isd on fi v e
c o n tin e n ts. Dean o f th e ancrphoue f i e l d o f "a r
t i f i c i a l in t e l l i g e n c e ," and r e fe r r e d to u ith o u t
am biguity ae "Marvin" throughout o c p u te r l a n i,
he i e a th e o r e t ic i a n 's th e o re tic ia n .
PAGE
C oaputer fo r $he h e a rt-sto p p in g p r ic e o f
But a t th e h e a rt o f every th e o r e tic ia n , I

fo r $ l a,4S by th e SPHSIE. 96 E aat S00 South,
B o u n tifu l, Utah 84010.
T w c o p u t a r k l t a , one b u i l t a round th a PACE
and a n o th er a Nova lo o k a lik e , )uve eean a n n ou nce
by B i l l Godbout E le c tr e n ic e , Box 2355 Oakland
A ir p o rt, Oakland CA 94614. Ha a la o p la n a an 11
le o k a lik a .
il
fzsoo.
th in k , burnt th e d r e a t th a t he v i l l scmeday prove
th e o u tr ig h t, u o r ld ly vnpcrtance o f h is tto u g h ts. The a o e t g la ao ro u s o n p u te r * being b u i l t
today a l l H a i to be o p e n ly c a lle d by t h e i r devel-
L ike Deaery, a t l a s t he v i l l go to h is su ito a se
and g e t ou t h ie g uns, and th e audienae v i l l cheer. P*r * b e e : th e G re e n b ls tt empMKtt. H insky's
T h at p r ic e in clud ea 4Bk b y te s ep u te r, th e Aadahl a a c h in e , th s Crsy c oaputer.
How fo r th e bad news. The g re a t Marvin Minsky hat come out
I t c o i l ba re -kc nee , w ith a o ftw a re , and no
hardw are su p p o rt. You g e t th e w irin g d ia g ra a w ith

Or you a ig h t g a t an L SI-11. An LSI-11

buying p ool ia taalng fo ra e d by Hal L aahley,
Southern c a l Coaputer S o c ie ty , P.O. Box 967,
S. Paaadsna CA 91030.
Pro ceaeor Technology, 2465 4 th S t . , Berkeley
94710, Bakes a t e a t d ia p la y k i t f o r th a A lta ir
fo r $160 (you supply th a TV a o n lto r and e v id en tly
tha key bo ard). 64 c h a r a c te r p a r l i n a , 16 lln a a .
B o o tstrap E n te rp r is e s , Ann A rbo r, a re a l w
working on a e i a i l a r u n i t , e a lla d *The Duab Tar*
l n a l , w ith a e o lo r o p tio n .
i t , and a l i e t o f o th e r owners, and y ou r e on your
own. AUC does hava spare p a r t s , however. And
p e r ip h e r a ls , a o s tly v r e expensive.
H r. Honeson o f AUC to ld ae on tlt t phoM th a t
i t had 1S8 in s t r u c tio n * , in c lu d in g 6 4 - b lt f lo a tin g
p o i n t , 3 2 - b it b in a ry . On stud yin g th e l i t e r a t u r e ,
however, i t app ears to ae t h a t th e in s t r u c t i o n - s e t
he d e e c rit e d i s a lcro p ro g ra aa ed , w ith th e a ic r o -
code in te n d e d to be read in a t s t a r tu p t i a e .
(Thera a r e 6S B ic r o In s tru c tio n * .) Haybe you ean
g e t th e alero co d e f o r th e se 1S6 I n s tr u c ti o n s a id
Bayba you c a n 't . Haybe you d o n 't c a r e , i f youre
w e ll enough fix e d to handle ona o f th e ee .
I t c a e * in b a sic b la c k , 2aSs4 f e e t , f l t e in
a v a n , and supposedly does n o t need a irc e n d l tio n -
in g . Supposedly p l t ^ - c v p a t l b l e w ith 370 p r i-
p h e r a le : I t ' s r e a l l y a s ix t e e n - b i t m achine, and
i t haa e ig h t s e ts o f e ig h t r e g i s t e r s , having been
d e sig n e d to p e tf o t a up t o e ig h t f u n c tio n s s l a u l -
m e B u e R .C H W W A il
ta n e o u sly .
So. 64 a a ln r e g i s t e r s , 4K dy n a alc a lc r o s to r s ,
48K o f a e a o ry , fo r about th a p r ic e o f a uaed n)P-
1 1 /10 w ith 4K. S a e llin g s a l t s , anyons?
G eneral T u r t l e , In co rp o ra te d , i s a toy
coepany th a t th e te a a o f Hlnaky and P a p e rt put
to g e th e r to a a r k e t t h e i r e d u ca tio n a l R a p u ce r
a c c e s s o r ie s . (Sse p . 57.1
T hey've s o ld a few, b u t th e ia p a c t has been
B d e e t . And, a s a a a l e r e f the p r o je c t p u ts I t ,
"W* wanted to g e t ou r Ideas fo r e du catio n o u t to
the w o rld .'
So they d e cid e d to b u ild a te r a i n a l . But
i t grew, aa t e r a i n a l dssig n* w i l l , i t i s now
th e GTI 2$00.
R n b e r t h s to r t o i s e and th s h ars? T his
i s th e h e i r l e s t t o r t o i s e on fou r w heels. F i r s t
d s li v e r le s t h i s f e l l .
And h e r e 's w het you gee fo r your f iv e thou
sand d o lla r s
a 1 6 - b it a n p u t e r l i k e rone you ever taw.
8 working r e g i s t e r s , in a d d itio n to PC.
32 sc ra tc h p ad r e g ia te r a (70 naieaeco nd ).
2SO-nano second 1/ 0 .
4K o f a a in OMDry, 250 nanosecond. (Expand
a b le , o f c eu ree .)
AM DAHL
The Aadahl c o ^ u t e r o r S y a t a 470, a euner-
p u te r o f th e 360 a e r ie e by one o f th e e uv iw ho
d esigned t h o r ig i n a l l y a>* p i k*
a v a ila b le f n Aadahl C o rp o ra tio n , 12S0 East
Arques Avenue. Sunnyvele CA 94086. (They a re now
a d v e rtisin g fo r s y e t m p e o ple who know th e in
s id e . o f OS/XVT. VS, e t c . ) . The f i r s t 470 i s up
snd n i M i q a t NASA's I n s t l t u t s f e r Space s tu d ie s .
C o lw b l. u. But IM i s s a id to be read yirq one
o f t h e ir faaous 'k nockout* aac h ln ss to do i t In
(D staa stio n, J u ly 75, 94 .)
O C T o (iT O |
Of co u rse y ou 'v e t> e ^ h t th a t hardwired
se tu p s were fo r ilo p p y a n alog typ es of th in g ,
b i t h e re tom m hsve THE CHESS MACHINE, unter
e tra lg h tf a c e d c o n s tr u c tio n e t th e h it Al u b ,
which w ill prov ide HARDWIRED THREAT ANALYSIS.
Yee, I t s advanced p e rc e p tro n a rc h ite c tu r e w ill
siiroossdly be cspable o f a n aly sin g th r e a ta to

HITS la c ^ s i t t a d now a b u ild in g a video

t a n i n a l , th e CT-6096, t h a t w ill p ro v id e both
te x t and g ra p h lc e . Follow ing apeea a re n o t f i n a l .
r t J IJ i 8 ft hS/r / f o o o .
I t w ill have a keyboard and v id e o a o n ito r ,
pl<q s t r a i g h t I n to th e A l t a i r , and r e f r e s h f r
A lta ir a ^ n r y a o d u le s - - which a ay d ou ble aa reg
u la r i t y , I f you d o n 't Bind garbage on tha
sc rse n .
I t w i l l hava 24 lln a a o f u p p e r-e a e e charec-
ta r a . SxB d o te to the c h a r a c te r , 80 c h a r a c ta r a
to th a lin a on a b u i l t - i n u n i t o r . In a d d itio n
i t w ill o f f e r grap hiea f r a b i t a ap a (ae e p . z ) ,
e ith e r 120x120 o r 240x240. (Tha r a a o lu tlo n w ill
be iw itc h - a a le c ta b le , i f you hava enough b u ffe r
o o r y j a acraen o f t e x t ta k a a 2K, eo doea a
120x120 p ic tu r e , and 240x240 ta k aa a whola 4K.J
Su ffer aM ory w ill a la o be d iv ld a b le I n to eepa-
r a ta 'p ages* o f te x t o r g rap h ic * ; and two pages
w ill be su p sria p o a sb ls, I n te r la c i n g a l t e r n a t e
video f ie l d a (aee pp. 0H 6-7). Note t h a t r e f re a h -
a en t l a f r a ran d o a -a cc ess, r a th e r th a n a e r i a l ,
w r y , so th a t a u l t i p l e f i e l d a e ann ot be o v e rla id .
* f X & s o e .'G j
While none haa b een announced aa y e t , a nualc
sy n th s s lre r th a t plugs in to th a A l t a i r w ill a l s i t
c e r ta i n ly be a v a ila b le in 1976.
(Note th a t th ia could p ro v id e an e n t i r e l y new
fora o f in te r a c tiv e t e r a i n a l I f u aed w ith th a
H achsprsss e q u l^ a n ti aae n e a r b y .)
OEC'a own floppy d la k , fo r th e 6 and 11,
f in a l ly c a n o u t. P r ic e f o r l l s $3000 f o r ona
d r iv e , $4000 fo r double.
LD ictapa, d ilc h l a v i r t u a l l y th e sa a e as
OBCtape b u t un patanted , haa j u s t e v e o u t a t
$2000 fo r one d r iv e , In clu d in g c o n t r o l l e r and
in te r f a c e t o 11 o r Nova ( I n t e r r u p t - d r iv e n ) .
Note th a t th e u n it i a c o n ta c t a id rug ged, and aay
be B>r s u it a b le than d la k o r c a s s e t t e f o r th e se
e f u s concerned about p o r ta b l e r i g e and van-
eou ntin g. C a p u te r O p eratio n s, I n c . , 10774
Tucker S t . , B e i u v l l l e MD 2070S. (The bad newei
softw are c o sta $300 f o r th e d r i v e r , p lu s S7S0
to dec i f you want o p e ra tin g f y i t v RT-11.)
o r le s , I n c ., c le v e r l y s e l l s
K>ry banks fo r th e 11 which can a tta c h to
t o two r u - l L i i t o n e e - - th u s c o n n e c tin g th e
two aac h in es w ith ou t uaing DEC'S e x p en siv e
Unibus c o up ler.
T,lJ)lftgL04fc,
"Diabolc" u a s a gwne o f the tu s n tia a t h i t in
v o lv e d poking a sp in n in g o b je c t. O ddly, Chat's
uhat to d a y s D iablo in v o lv e s.
Redoubtable Hax Pal eveJcy, who b ro ug ht you
S c i e n t i f i c d a ta S y s tv s (which Xerox bo ught and
r e c e n tl y sh u t down). R olling Stons and th e a ev ls
*Harjoe* h ss another w inner, which h e 's a lso
T his i s th e Diablo c ^ p a n y . which f i r s t
a ad e dla ka and now Bakes a se n s a tio n a l p r in tin g
a ae h ljie . i t has a w h irling p l a s t i c 'd a ie y
wheel* o f ty p e . In terc h an g e ab le , and c an type
IS S j 30 c h a r a c te r s p e r second in e ith e r d i r e c t i o n , as
a s w ell as draw p ic tu r e s o f a s o r t.
The b a sic d if f s re n e s between th e e e p r in
t e r s snd conv en tio nal ty p e w rite r s , l i k e th e S e l-
e c t r l c , i s t h e i r use o f a r v o s r a th e r th a n r a t
I - I ?
c h e ts . T his aeans t h e i r e h a r a c te r a c an be p o si
21 tio n e d In aany In term ed iate p o s it io n s , u n lik e
*i s : . t h e fix ed p o sitio n * a v a ila b le on an o rd in a ry
ty p e w rite r . For in s ta n c e , th e D iablo can p o si
t i o n th e type to 1/60 e f an inch h o r iz o n t a ll y
and 1/48 of an inch v e r t i c a l l y . (Hice f o r j u s t i
f ie d ty p e s e ttin g .)
There a re new a nuaber e f a ac h in es of th i s
k in d . F i r s t case th e D iablo p r i n t e r , o f f i c i a l l y
th e IlyType I : then the e n gin eers who b u i l t th a t
w ent o f f and c re a te d a c n p e t l t l v e p r i n t e r c a lle d
th e QUME ( p r o n . 'k y n a ') ; now t h e r e 's an iaproved
D ia b lo HyType H i In te r d a ta aakes a c o m p etitiv e
u n i t , th e C aroussl p r i n t e r , w ith a l i t t l e p r i n t
c upi and to aake thln ga t o t a l l y c o n fu se d , t h e r e 's
a s p e c ia l nodel Diablo c a lle d th e 800, which
c a n 't be connected to c o ap u te rs b u t i s s o ld for
o f f i c e u a aa a word p r o c e s s o r ."
A nuabsr o f eonpanies Bake te rm in a l* In the
$5000 hallm ark b r a c in g one o r th e o th e r o f
tlt ts e p r i n t e r s . Gen-Coa S y stea s aakee ona around
th e D labloi Afrierson-Jacobson aakee one around
th e QUME. Hero* aakes i t s own c o ap u te r te r a i n a l ,
th e 3010, around th a D iablo I w hich, i t should
be n o t i, can be ren te d fo r a s l i t t l e a s th re e
a e n th s , a t $190/aonth.
The one everybody w ants fo r t h e i r c tn p u ta rs
I s c a l M th e Xertta 800, b u t eo f a r t h a t i s not
a v a il a b le a s a c t ^ u t e r t a n i n a l . i t goea f a s t e r
t t a n th e e th e r D iablos and e f f s r s ty p e fa c e s th a t
lo o k b e a u tifu l fo r ty p e s e ttin g ) au d \ n i c e r , i t
s m s , than th s types e u r r s n tly a v a il a b le fo r th s
o th e r D iab los.
For tle a a in te r e s t e d in ju e t hooking up th e
p r i n t e r a ec hanla n. fo r s u b s ta n tia lly l e s s y Cray-1, an other su p e rc o sp u te r, is neerln } c ts p le -
th a n a whole te r a i n a l , in te r f a c e s f o r hooking
t l a D iablo o r QUHE p r in te r * to PDP-B o r PDP-11
a r e a v a il a b le f rc a Data S y a t a s D ssig n. I n c .,
1122 U n iv e rsity Avenue, Berkeley CA 94702.
IK OP MICROPROGRAM H0RY, 40 NANOSECOND,
DYNAMICALLY ALTERABLE. (Expandable to
4K.) Likewise 16 b i t s .
h b v P p M W W K .e W
any given p o s it io n in a GRAND PARALLEL PLASH.
The la p ac t o f th le a s to n is h in g d e v e lo ^ a n t on
th e world e f E le c tr o n ic C ta e s , or anything a ls s ,
p r e d ic t. V
C a se ette ndsw ry, 1 d riv e .
A lphafcatical d ia p la y , standard vid e o , with
B xl6-dot c h a ra c te r g e n e ra to r, 64 ch ar
a c t e r , DYNAMICALLY ALTERABLE. Also
expandable.
V ectoring g ra p h ic d isp la y w ith 2D r o ta tio n
( t u r t l e g e o u tr y '* * lin e s a re s p e c i
f ie d n ot by endpoints h i t by a n g les and Over a very niae luneh
le n g th ) . 512x512 re s o lu tio n , 1 B i llio n
a t R oditys in Chicago,
a n d p o in ts/a e c r e f re s h . P rof. Minsky and I d is
cussed p o ssib le s ty lin g
f o r h is &*vputer. He
p a r tic u la r ly lik e d the
I aaked Dan H i l l i s , a mstiln* e f th e grot?), about a rro n g n g n t suggested
th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f I n s ta llin g th a 2500 in a van.
in th is sketch: a fo ld -
'T h in k o f i t a s a r e c re a tio n a l v e h ic le w ith the down keyboard and the
van o p tio n a l,* ha s a id . d isp la y s s o r t o f on poles
so they could be seen
e a s ily through a croud
o f ty eto n d ers. The fon
d le uould only uork, o f
course, v i t h the ecopee
Wiat Bakes p o u l b l e the co ep uter co u n ter
c u ltu r e and e v ery th in g e ls e i e , o f e o u rse , th e
rtnoved. V e 'll see Li m t
uhat i t f i n a l l y looks
sp e c ta c u la r d e v e l o ^ e n t o f e le c tr o n ic ch ip te c h lik e .
nology, th e te ch n iq u es e f shrinking g r e a t e lec
tr o n ic c i r c u i t s to a l t no s ia s . E le ctro n ic
r ig s th a t were sho ebo a-eize te n y e ars ago a re
ty p ic a lly now e tch e d on ch ips th s s ic e of your
t h t n t e a i l and s o ld fo r s few d o lla r s , no B a tte r
what they c o n ta in . U n ea tia fied w ith th e e tru c tu r e o f no re a l
c w p u te r* . they s r e b u ild i n g s t HIT'a Al Lab a
A few y e a r s ag o, th e chlpa only co ntain ed
b u ild in g b lo c k s, such as r e g is te r s u n its fo r c ta p u ta r whoas n a tiv e language le LISP- I t w ill
h olding i n t o n a t i o n t a ^ o r a r l l y . But now in have 32 b i t s w ith v i r t u a l a a o r f , and axscute
th s a ld -s e v e n tie e they havs co a l to co n tain LISP lik e a b a t o u t o f h a l l .
whole c tv p u te re , o r la rg e s e c tio n s o f th w . In a re fre a h ln g r e v e r s a l e f tren d s . I t w ill
(The d i s t i n c t i o n betw een aiero p ro ca eso ra and be fo r one ueer a t a t i a e . *T iae-aharlng la an
c oapu tera i a ta k en up en p. 44.) idea w tess t l a s has g on e,* chuckles ons p a r t i
The f i r s t b lg g ls s wars f m I n t e l : th e 8006 c ip a n t. (P ro je c t MAC. where tla e -e h a r ln g grew
snd then th e 8080, a ch ip th a t haa b a c a e the
h e a r t s f th a A l t a i r (eea p. X), aa w ell ae r i v a l
c c a p u te rs.
Hew e ce p u ter c h ip s kssp cealng o u t j p ip le
keep te l l i n g a e to a en tio n s p e c if ic o nes, b u t I 1H C C W C P M T O IL
c a n 't keep tr a e k o f th e a . Tha Motorola 6800
Seyaour Cray, Beater cca p u ter b u ild e r , c re a
* * pop ular 1 I t w i l l eoon be the h e a r t o f new
computers f r a HITS and SPHERE (aee p.W end Y) . te d th a 6600 e y s t v f o r C o n tro l D sts. Indeed, he
had th a au d ac ity to re iuire CDC to b u ild the cca-
(An a u g a a te d and f a a te r copy o f the 6800 la r e
p u te d ly being s o ld by H05 Technology fo r $20.) p u te r fac to ry on th e p r o p e r ty a djo inin g hi* own
s s t a t s In Chippews P a l l s , M innesota. Mow th a t
Another I n te r e s tin g e o ^ u t e r ch ip i s th e PACE
a ic r o p ro c e sso r f r o N ational S a ic o n d u c to r, w ith h s s broken o f f to e t a r t h ie own ecapany (with
aoney f n * CDC, a a n g o t h e r s ) , th e new cosgmter
fo u r working r e g i s t e r s snd a te n -ie r d sta ck ;
w ith 16K a o D r y i t c o s ts $500. (The PACE is f a c to ry ad jo ln a h ia e e t e t e en the o th e r s id e . The
h ld dsn in sn a u t m a t i c d rin k a ljia r and booxa
In vsn tory c o n t r o l l e r f r a e le c tr o U n its Corp., tie n th e re .
San Jo se , C a l i f . Adjuata p r ic e s to hours and
can svsn w ater th e d rin k s p r s c l s s ly . C laiaed
to aake a b a n t e e ownerehip o f h a rs p r a c tic a l.)

Aleo fo r l l s i P o r a a tio n , I n c . , s e l l s a
c u rio us p r e g r a a a e r 's c onsole t h a t t r a p s and d ls -
playa th e l a a t a lx te e n Unibus a ld r e iM * r e f e r
enced; and Fabrl-Tek o f f e r s a c ach e a M o ry fo r
th e PDP-11/45.
A a l a a r p r i n t e r , th e eodal
3600, which p r in ta a t 13,360 l i n e s p e r a ln u te .
1-ike a o a t o f t h e i r p r in tin g a a c h in e s . I t ' s good.
I t i s b a s ic a lly aa e l e c t r o s t a t i c dr> c o p ie r , lik e
the o r ig in a l Xerox 914. en which th a p a te n ta have
run o u t. (Even T oshibafax new a ak e s o n e .)
Anytay, t h i s spec ta c u la r b e a s t w r i te s with
a scanning la s e r on th e e l e c t r o s t a t i c d r o . But
I K has c le v e rly found th e way around t h s p r o b l a
e f s p o ila g e o f th e d n a su r fa c e i in s t e a d o f Juat
a p o lis h e d a e ta l su r fa c e , i t ' a a renew able s u r
f a c e , which ia I t s e l f changed a u t ^ a t l c a l l y when
r a q u lr a l fo r new la ag a s.
Moreover, you can hava up to 18 ty p e r e n ts ,
d s fin a d In 16a24 d o t a a t r i c e s . (THESE ARE H R
CM A PLCPFT DISK, AND UP TO POUR KAY BE CUMBHT
AT AMY OSE TIKE.) P onts a re u a e r -d e s ig n a b ls .
A f la e h - p ro je c to r can p u t b u s in e s s f e r a s on
th e d r w .
Now f o r th e bed newsi baaa p r ic e i a $310,000,
plu a e xten slT e e x tra c h a rg e s. A lso i t d o e s n 't
aake c a r to n e ep lsa , and need* a new t e i o f paper
s p li c e d on th e e id e v ery 20 a im ite a .
(Canon, o f Ja pan, ha s o u t a v r e a o d e st
la s e r p r in te r th a t goes a t only 4000 l i n e s per
a io u te . And i t a ls o p l o t s . Burroughs i s sa id
to be tr y in g to g e t th a b i^ s o u t e f a a i a l l a r
d i v i a .)
1
SUGGESTIONS TO XBR0X C0RCERNI8G DIABLO PRINTERS.
He e>viTQt.
. S ll tt* 800 a s a te rm in a l, f o r goo&isae ta k e.
2. F a ilin g th a t, a ke th o se p r e tty ty p e fa c e s
a v a ila b l* f o r the o th e rs.
3. Already you o f f e r b la c k and re d ribbona; a
blu e and ysll& J ribbon wauId p e rm it p r in l lr y
PJCTUIES IX FULL COLOR, a developm ent o f
g re a t i n te r e s t tc th s n a n / co n p u ter graphics
fre a k s .
t , g guever, th a t uould r e q u ire s&neuhat fin e r
p o s itio n in g o f the p la te n ; sa y , 1/120 in both
d ir e c tio n s .
S. . . . f a i l i n g wh ie h , you co u ld p u t o u t a "gt\tp h ta
d a isy v i t h in te rm ed ia te d o t p o s itio n s
a a u ia a le n t to d o t p o s itio n * b e tu ee n those
n a i aoaiiabTe.
S. Could tfm D iablo o*ehtni be mad* to sound le s s
l i k e a d e n t i s t ' i r i l l l
?. Bov a b out a porta b le?
M n H i l l l s and Aadia P e rlaa n , o f th e L0GD
g ro up a t MIT, e r e working on a s p e c ia l * p r s l l t s r -
a ta * t e r a i n a l to allow n on -readare ( p o ssib ly in
c lu d in g c h ia p s and g e r il la s ) to p r o g ra a in LOB,
e s p e c ia l ly on th e G eiral T u r tle 2500 (see 'Min
s k y 's c o ^ u t e r , ' nearb y ). P l a s t ic a e d l t cards
w i l l lu v e syahol* fo r th e v a rio u s p ic tu r e and
u s l e - b e x fu n c tio n s. To w rite a p r o g ra a , or
e c e a te a B v l e on th e scope, th a ua er w i l l lA se rt
fu n c tio n eard s in s l o t s . Color ceding w i l l bs
u sed f o r prog raa tr a n s f e r i a red s a rd Beans
t o th e red su h r m tin e .* Sines t h i s i s MIT, the
f u l l re c u rsiv e p a a r o f th e s y s t a t w i l l e f eourse
be a v a ila b le - (My hope i s th a t c h i^ a n s e a a and
o th e r l i t t l e e lo tn ik s can be ta u g h t re c u re lv s
p r o g r a d e f in i tio n . T ten w ill th e p u b lic wake 19
to c x ^ u t e r s being easy?)
Becauea o f c h ip s , th e p r ic e e f cca p u ter a s in
w r y i s c o lla p s in g apace. S c a th in g l i k e a
d o lla r a word in th e a lx tle a , i t i s so aeth in g lik e
lik e a din e a word now. t i t I n t e l new o f f e r a a
s to ra g e chip h old in g 16X b i t s fo r $55, which is
P a te n t 13,875,932 haa m been lasu ed for
How Machapress' e le c tr o n ic eez aachine o r what
ever i t ia (you saw i t f i r s t on p . m i ) . In tha
3 s b i t , and a f rie n d e f a ina e s t i a s t a s th a t i l l u s t r a t i o n we see i t t i c k l i n g a a lK rt.
aMDry c hip* w i l l c o s t 1/10 e f a c a n t pe r word in
A fter you eend Mecheprsss h is f ifty -b u c k
1976. ro y a lty , you can e ith e r buy th e k i t o r a pre
These c o s t e o lla p s s s causa aany to p r e d ic t b u i l t a o d al. Coneava o r convex, a s th a poet
th e id of d is k and ta p e . But t h a t s p r w a tu r s . sa y s. (Etchinga a re a n te d ilu v ia n and w atarteds
W ills th e w s a p p ie r chip s hold a l o t fo r a l i t t l e , a re c tn o n p la c e j as an in v i t a t i o n , what so re ln -
t h e i r c o n te n ts d la ap p a ar when th e lig h t a go o u t. c la lv a cseu p p e n ce c ou ld be p roffere d?)
U n til la ser-p u n ch e d ta p e ceaes s lo n g , d isk snd
a a g n e tie ta p e w i l l be vary auch w ith us a s long-
t e n a id nackup s to r s g s de vicss.
M cauaa o f th e a e tic n in chip te chnology,
a p o te n tia l) la p o r t a n t aav^ e n t In e a p u t e r desig n
aey hava been p a ssed o v e n th e * a ac ro v d u le s* de-
v e lo p ^ a t Washington U n iv e rsity lo S t . lo u ts by
a s s C lark ( f a th e r o f th e o r ig in a l DEC a o d u le s ) ,
and a s s o c ia te s .
Ths b s s lc id e a o f the a ac R M d u le approach
waa to have e n p u t e r su b se ctio n s th a t ware
p le te ly in ta r p lu g g a b le . w ith t h you ean b u ild
any c ^ q u t a r , to your own daaig n, in a couple o f
d a y s. The s y s t a e x i s t s now snd i t w r k s j u s t
f in e i c o u n te rs, r e g i s t e r s , a e r i s t can be a t
Speaking e f M achspress, i t l e a s th a t the
tach ed q u ic k ly by c a b le .
unusual 1/0 e q u lp n n t o f f e r e d by th e Federal
U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e c o s t i s high and they Screw itorks (Trey, M ich.) i s only s voice outp ut
havent fo u n l a a a n u f a c tu r e r . w ith ch ip p r ic e s
f s l l i n g , and e h ip know-how w idespread, i t a hard
to j u s t i f y c h arg in g te n o r so t l a s s a s auch fo r S u r p risin g ly , a v o ic e in p u t deviee i s now
o p p o n e n ts j u a t because they can be plugged to c ^ B o r c la l ly a v a ila b le tr im Threshold Technology,
g e th e r f e s t a l . ( J u a t a s u n f o rtu n a te ly , every I n c ., Cinnaaineen. MJ. r o r $10,500 you g e t a
t h i n ; in the a a c r v e d u l e y s t i s b u i l t en sec dev iee th a t w ill re c o g n ise 32 spoken w r d s , and
tio n s e f tw elve b i t s . ) For t h i s reason th e S t. lc ro p h e n aa . (Each u se r h a s to t r a i n i t on h ia
32 lo r d s , b u t s s p s r a te v o c a b u la rie s asy be
U>uls f o lk a r e having tr o u b le g e ttin g c < B e r c le l
s to r s d on th e ^ n t e i f o r d i f f s r s n t u se rs or
spon sorship . Itowaver, perhsp s boh b r ig h t hun
g ry eh ip c t*p any , rea d ing t h i s , w u ld lik e to purposes. T his i s s t i l l a t ny f ro a the
fab le d 't a l k i n g c s p u t e r * se a pp. DM 13-14 f e r
g e t In to th e M c r a e d u l e geae. An) p re e w a b ly
w h ittl e th s Module down to p r c b la is a id o b je c t io n s - - b u t i t s undeniably a
u se fu l ste p .)

- mi

G W H IC *
The h a l f t o n e s y s te m o f KUMRRO, rumored on
p . DM36, i s r e a l , c l e v e r in d e ed ! i t d i v i d e s t h e
h a l f - t o n e p roble m i n t o two p a r t s , one t h e o r i g
in a l p ic tu rin g o f th e sc en e, th e o th e r i t * p res
e n t a t i o n I n t h e t e r m i n a l . T hat means t h a t t h e i r
s y s t a a p e r m i ts o n e c e n t r a l image g e n e r a to r to
se nd o u t p i c t u r e s t o a s many t e r m i n a l s a t de
s i r e d . U n lik e th e W atk ins Box (see p . DM37),
whose h a l f - m l l l i o n - d o l l a r op u le n ce c an be poured
o n l y on a s i n g l e u s e r a t o n c e , in t h l e s y s te a
th e c e n t r a l r e s o u r c e c an b e d i s t r i b u t e d among
v a r i o u s u s e r s , w ith each o n e ' s p i c t u r e changed
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y , o r p o u r e d o n a s i n g l e u se r f o r
f u l l a n im a tio n . C u r r e n t l y i t runs in F o r t r a n ,
t r a n s m i t t i n g encode d p i c t u r e s t o t h e unusua l t e r
m in a ls r e q u ir e d ( b u i l t a ro u n d T r i n i t r o n s ) . But
a S p e c ial c e n tr a l p r o c e s s o r l e fo reseen .
The ays ta n i s c a l l e d CHARGE, and Ron Swallow,
i t s d e v e lo p e r, i s in d e ed a h a rd c h a r g e r . ( S o f t
ware: B i l l U n d e r h i l l and Roger Gunw ald se n.)
S w a llo w 's game I s n t m o v ie s o r e n g in e e ri n g g r a
p h i c s ; h e w an ts CHARGE to compete h e a d - to - h e a d
w ith PLATO (see p p . DM26-7). And a t t h e p r i c e s
h e ' s t a l k i n g a b o u t - - $SOQO p e r te r m i n a l and
$150,0 00 f o r t h e c e n t r a l p r o c e s s o r - - who knows?
UHP.F.AL ESTATE: f o r r e la jz '.i o n , Ron uo rka or.
th e "dream h o u se he kn ep e in ttid e th e e y a te n .
T u t y T W ) ,1 u |
Sin ce th e f o r t i e s , th e r e have been c o n t i n u a l
announcements t h a t v id e o d i s k s movies you p l a y
on y o u r TV o f f a r e c o r d w ere r i g h t a ro und t h e
c o r n e r . E a r l i e r t h i s y e a r th e y w ere suppose dly
g o in g to be a v a i l a b l e b e f o r e C h r istm a s. Now th e y
n i g h t be on s a l e , "on a l i m i t e d b a s i s , " i n 1976.
(TV Guid e, 1$ Aug 7 5 , p . 7 . ) Because o f th e g r a v e
d i f f i c u l t i e s o f e n g i n e e r i n g - - i n a c c u r a c i e s in pun
c h in g th e c e n t e r h o le mean th e t r a c k c a n t h e l p
b e in g o f f c e n t e r , f o r I n s t a n c e sane o f u s a r e
sk e p tic al.
Two sy stems ha v e be en c o n f i d e n t l y announced.
P h i l i p s , th e f ir m t h a t g ave ua th e a u d io c a s s e t t e ,
h a s a s y s ta a t h a t w i l l f o llo w th a s p i r a l t r a c k on
th e d isk f r a n u n d e rn e a th w i t h a l a s e r . The d i s k
t u r n s a t 30 r e v o l u t i o n s p e r s e c o n d , o r one t u r n
p e r TV frame, so i t c a n suppo se d ly f r e e z e On one
fra me when d e s i r e d .
The o t h e r s y s t a a i s from r c a , w hic h h a s
a lo n g h i s t o r y o f m e-t oo announcemen ts, b u t a t
l e a s t two o f them made i t b i g ( th e 45 re c o rd and
t h e c o l o r TV s y s t a a now u se d i n t h e USA), s o RCA
sh o u ld n o t b e d is m is s e d o u t o f hand. T h e i r d i s k
e y s t m w i l l su p p o se d ly go a t 450 r p s (7 .5 r e v o l
u t i o n s / second) , b u t t h e y s t i l l mean t o t r a c k i t
w ith a n e e d l e . The man fro m TV Guide s a y s h e ' s
se en I t and I t w r k l p e r f e c t l y , b u t I 'would p e r
s o n a l l y look f o r h id d e n w ir e s .
(MCA, an e n t e r t a i n m e n t c o n g lo m e ra te , h a s
h i t c h e d up w ith P h i l i p s and p r i n t e d a c a t a l o g o f
a l l th e s o v ie s t h e y w i l l s u p p o se d ly make a v a i l a b l e
on d is k f o r th e "MCA-Phllips" syste m Huch a s
D e s t ry Rides Again f o r a round te n b u c k s . T h is i s
p ro b ab ly j u s t a b l u f f ) w i t h t h o p r i c e o f a u d io
r e c o rd s what th e y a r e , no way i s a movie g o in g to
c o s t te n bucks- B u t i t makes RCA look weaker,
which i s p r o b a b ly th e p u r p o s e .)
The p r o s p e c t s u r p r i s e d th e n , b u t MAGI ( s e e
p . DM36) a llo w s aa how th e y m ig h t l e t you make
m ovie s on t h e i r o v e r - th e - p h o n e movie-making s e t u p
(s k etch e d o n p . DM36). P r i e s t o c a p a b le o u t -
d e r s , i f th e s o f tw a r e mesh ed, would b e a b o u t $50
an h o u r. (Six h o u r s makes one min ute o f f i l m ,
n o t c o u n tin g t h e phone b i l l . Cheap i f you know
movie e c o i m i c s . )
Me anwhile , Jo hn l^>wry, a t D i g i t a l Video Lab
o r a t o r i e s i n T o r o n to , h a s be en d e v e lo p in g h i g h -
q u a l i t y v id e o s u i t a b l e f o r t r a n s f e r to t h e a t r i c a l
f ilm . He and t h e y have dev elo p e d a 6 5 5 - lin e
c o l o r e y s t w i t h heavy d i g i t a l e n h a n c s ttn t
(aee " P i c t u r e P r o c e s s i n g ,* p . DM10). I s c a r c e l y
b e l i e v e By n o t e s , b u t I saw I t , and wro te down
t h a t i t was co m p arab le to 35aaa s t u d i o c o l o r .
T he d ay o f " e l e c t r o n i c cam e ra s" t h a t i s , f i l m -
q u a l i t y v id e o -- may be upon us soon.
AtDUt 197 2, t h e r e wae announced an e l e c t r o n
i c a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d c o l o r f i l t e r t h a t c ould chareje
t o an y hue i n n a n o s e c o n d s . T hat would t o j u s t
h a t we a l l need f o r c o l o r movies f r o a 03Ms
b u t what happened t o i t ?
M i l l i o n s o f p e o p le saw c o n p u te r g r a p h i c s f o r
t h e f i r s t tim e on t h e PBS A c c e n t o f Man" s e r i e s ,
where a s c r e e n draw in g o f E a r l y Ma n's s k u l l was
se e n t o r o t a t e and g r a d u a l l y change i n i t s f e a
t u r e s . T h is waa s t a r t l i n g even i f you know a b o u t
com pute r g r a p h i c s , s in c e it s e o ae d to b e p r o c e e d
ing frcsn complex d a t a c o n c e r n in g th e e n t i r e
s k u l l s and t h e i r changes.
Not so . A c t u a ll y what you saw was a s e r i e s
o f s k u l l draw in gs by P a t e r F o l d e s , a P a r i s i a n
a r t i s t , w ith th e c o a p u te r g e n e r a t i n g t r a n s i t i o n a l
draw in g s betw een t h a n . ( In d e e d , though you saw
P r o f . Bronowskl n e x t t o th e s c r e e n , you d i d n o t
s e e him n e x t to th e s c r e e n a t t h e same tim e th e
draw in g s were c hangin g b e c a u s e t h a t ha d t o be
f ilm e d v e r y s lo w ly .)
The s y s ta o was c r e a t e d b y N e s t o r B urtn yk and
M a r c e l l l H ein, o f th e N a t io n a l Re se arch C ounc il
o f Canada. I t currently r u n s only On a n SEL 840A.
( I t was a l s o used by t h e N a t i o n a l F ilm Boa rd o f
Canada f o r c r e a t i n g F o l d e s ' s p l e n d i d f i l m "Hun
g e r . ) They can p r e v ie w b y r o l l i n g t h r o u g h b i t
map v id e o on a mov in g-head d i s k . (See Burtnyk
and Mein, " Ceoputa r G e n e ra te d Key-Frame Anima
t i o n , " J . SKPTE, March 71 , 1 4 9 - S 3 .)
What a b o u t th e a n im a ted f i g u r e t h a t t a l k s to
J o e G a r l a g l o l a b e f o r e b a e e h a l l games? Ha ha
T h a t 's a rubber p u p p e t m a tte d i n f re s i a b l a c k toX)
t h e guy who does th e v o ic e w orks th e mouth.
Many u n lik e ly in d iv id u a te h a ve sto rm e d th a t
h e a rtb re a k toon o f H o llyw o o d , le a v in g e a d d e r b u t
u ia e r b u t Iva n S u th e r la n d , d e a n o f e o n p u ts r
g ra p h ic s? W ell, h a v in g fo u n d th a t th e n w i e -
m akere a re n o t rea d y f o r im age s y n th e s is th e
dreamanrithB u n p re p a red , a e i t u e r e , f o r th e T o ta l
F orge he ia s o jo u rn in g a t th e Hand C o rp o ra tio n .
A f e l l a named C h a r le s McCarthy, o f suburban
C hicag o, ta u g h t the " C oa puter Eye* f r o # S p a tia l
D at a S y s to n s , and w i l l do m a i l - o r d e r p i c t u r e con
v e r s i o n s . H e ' l l c o n v e r t yo ur f a v o r i t e sn a p sh o t
t o a p r i n t o u t o f th e same s u b j e c t made o f l i g h t
a nd da rk l e t t e r s . I f y o u ' r e i n t e r e s t e d i n h aving
t h e a c t u a l g r e y - s c a l e d a t a f o r p r o c e s s i n g in your
own c o a p u t e r , i n q u i r e .
The t b i u s Gro up, I n c . , P .O . Box 30 6 , Win
f i e l d IL 60190.
Kant a c o m p u te r - c o n t r o ll e d v i d e o c a s s e t t e
r e c o rd e r? The model to a s k f o r i s th e Sony 2850,
c o s t i n g (gasp) seme s i x th o u sa n d bu c k s. An i n
t e r f a c e t o t h e PDP-11 i s made b y CKX Syste m s,
635 V aqueros, A v e ., S unnyvale CA 94086-
I n c i d e n t a l l y , sc ale d-dow n CKX e d i t i n g s e tu p s
a r e b e g in n in g to g e t a ro u n d . F o r i n s t a n c e , they
hava a sm a ll se tu p I n th e p l e a s a n t o f f i c e s o f DJN
F ilm & T ape, 4 E a s t 46, NYC: t h r e e o f th e above
Sonye and th s D1X Model 50 c o n t r o l s e t u p , u sin g
a PDP-11 and key s c o p e . Though p r i c e s a r e by th e
j o b , th e b a s i c c h arg e i e $ 7 5 /h o u r . (Nots t h a t
t h a b ig o ra se tu p , w ith a d i s k , i s th e model 300.)
iB C F K p s r L W
At tho h ig h end o f t h i n g s , a f ir m c a l l e d
T hree R i v e r s Coap&ny h a s come i n w i t h a 3D ve c
t o r i n g s y s t a a (c o m p e tit o rs d i s c u s s e d p . DM30).
Supposedly th e y can pa ck a l o t more l i n e s On ths
The p r i c e o f t h e GT40 d i s p l a y (see p . DM21),
which a l l i n a l l ie one o f t h e b e s t d i s p l a y s on
t h e m a r k e t, has j u s t dropped t o $6500. To d i s
g u is e t h i s p r i d e d r o p , DEC g i v e s you t h e s m a lle r
t u b e and no keyboard.
And a t th e low and, a f i r m c a l l e d Hegatek
in San D ie go o f f e r s li n e - d r a w i n g COT c o n t r o l l e r s
f o r $1000 t o $3000. A l l p e r m i t a n im a tio n . You
ha ve t o Supply th e o s c i l l o s c o p e . T h e i r e q u i i n e n t
p lu g s i n t o t h e PDP-11 o r th e Nova, o r i n one
c a se c o n n e c ts in tandem t o a n ASCII tim e - s h a rin g
te rm in al ( ! ] .
The 11 and Nova m ode ls w ork d i r e c t l y from
BASIC; your program i n B a s ic p u t s l i n e l i s t s in
t h a d e v i c e 's b u f f e r m e nory. The tim e - s h a rin g
model c o n v e r ts incomin g l i n e l i s t s f r o a ASCII to
b i n a r y and s t o r e s them i n t e r n a l l y . 2S6 l i n e s
w i t h 8 - b i t r e s o l u t i o n c o s t $19 0 0 , S llcP an d $1600
f o r 1 1 , Nova and t ~ s r e s p e c t i v e l y ; 1024 l i n e s
w ith 10- b i t r e s o l u t i o n c o a t S2BO0, $2000 and
$2500 r e s p e c t i v e l y . (Nova and 11 m odels c an be
c o a p l e t e l y update d i n two r e f r e s h c y c l e s , y i e l
d in g a s much an im a tio n a s anyone can d e c e n t l y
e x p ec t f o r th e p r i c e . S o f tw a re i s s u p p l i e d to
p r o v id e d i s p l a y O u tp u t from Nova, PDP-11 o r tim e
s h a ri n g BASIC; a l s o t - * F o r t r a n . )
M eanwhile, f o r th e ha n d s-o n e l s c t r o n i c s guy,
O p t i c a l E l e c t r o n i c s , I n c . makes a l l k i n d s o f r o
t a t i o n modules. You c a n b u i l d y o u r own 3D r o t a
t i o n s e tu p o u t Of t h e i r module s f o r a c o u p le o f
th ousa nd) b u t , o f c o u r s e , t h e f a n c y d i g i t a l I/O
f o r h ig h - s p e e d r e f r e s h m e n t i s n o t a v a i l a b l e -
An i n t e r e s t i n g c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e 0E I equip aenl',
th o u g h , i s t h a t you c a n b u i l d 4 0 - o r e v e n SP-
r o t a t l o n a y sto n s o u t o f t h e i r m odule s, w n .
E x c e l l e n t ma nuals on th e PLATO s y s t a a and
TUTOR language a r e now a v a i l a b l e from CERL, Uni
v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , U rbana.
The n e x t g e n e r a ti o n o f PLATO te rm in a l s i s
c o o in g down th e l i n e . The m ic r o f i c h e p r o j e c t o r
i s w ith e ri n g away, a s was e a s i l y f o r e s e e a b l e )
meantime, s te p s a re b e in g ta k e n toward a s r e
h igh-perform anc e t e r m i n a l , b y p u t t i n g a c m p u te r
i n I t . T h is i s b e in g done b o th by J a c k S t i f l e ,
who ha s done i t w ith th s I n t e l c h i p , and Roger
Jo h n so n , who has th a p a n e l i n t s r f a c e d to a n 11.
(11 f a n s p l e a s e n o t e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n : i t i s pos
s i b l e t h a t the i n t e r f a c e may ba m a rk e te d .)
Meanwhile, PLATO-like te r m i n a l s ( th e model
AG-60) a r e a t o u t $5000 (r<m A p p l i c a t i o n s Group,
I n c . , P.O . Box 444B, H a w s e , O hio 43S37. Note
t h a t th e s e have s ta n d a r d non-PIATO i n t e r f a c e s
and s ta n d a r d keyboards, b u t t h e O w e n s - I l lin o is
p l a n a p a n e l ( e r ro n e o u s ly c a l l e d C ornin g e l s e
where in th e book) b l a z e s in a l l i t s g l o r y .
f w t m
L abor Day, 1975
MORE THANKS
? I T W S
The main de v elo ]K en t in c a i u t e r g r a p h i c s i n
th e l a s t y e a r ha s been the sudden u p s u r g e o f th e
b it- m a p a ppro ach to c p u t e r d l e p l a v . While th e
a p p ro a ch , and e q u lf n e n t f o r i t - - l i k e t h e Data
I n h a n g in g t o g e t h e r t h i s
volume o r i g i n a l l y , 1 f i t t e d
th a n k in g Heeh W iener, b r a z e n t
b r a s h young o l d - f a s h i o n e d new
e d i t o r o f Coa pute r D e c is io n s ,
D isk s y s t m have be an a round f o r some tim e , th e who h a s ch an ged t h a t p u b l i c a
f a l l i n g p r i c e o f e l e c t r o n i c s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e t i o n f r o a s t o l i d to peppery.
maaory a r e a , have made i t a b r u p t l y th e c h e a p e s t Than ks a l s o to a y good
and th u s th e most popula r t y p e o f c o a p u te r d i s f r i e n d R o b e r t W. F i d d l e r , E s q . ,
p la y f o r g rap h ic s. p a t e n t a t t o r n e y and s t i l l a n
A " b i t map" i s a s e r i e s o f d o t p o s i t i o n s , e x -p h ilo so p h y p ro fe sso r a t
o r b i t s , r e c o rd e d i n soae form o f f a s t mesry h e a r t , f o r many d e l i g h t f u l and
and r e a d Out i n sync to a c o n v e n ti o n a l scanned w i t t y c o n v e r s a t i o n s on p r o b lo a s
v id e o s y s t n ( se e pp. 0 H 6 -7 ) . Th* one b i t s o f p a t e n t , c o p y rig h t and th e
s ta n d f o r d o ts o r l i t t l s s q u a r e s , th e z e r o e s v a g a r i e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l pr op
f o r n o th in g , and th e vid e o s y s t a a b r i g h t e n s th e e r t y . Any h a re b ra in e d id e a s o n
c o r r e s p o n d i n g z ones on th e s c r e e n . T h i s method th e s e t o p i c s e x p re ese d h e r e ,
h a s c e r t a i n d is a d v a n t a g e s p a r t s o f p i c t u r e s how ever, a r e alm ost a s s u r e d ly
c a n n o t be a u t o a a t i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d o r sepa
r a t e l y a nim a ted, a s w ith s u b r o u tin ln g d i s p l a y F o r much o f t h e inform a
(see "Tha M in d's E y e ," e s p . p . 0 K 2 3 )-- b u t f o r t i o n i n t h i s supplement I am
t h e money i t ' s g r e a t - S i z e s g iv e n r e f e r t o th e g r a t e f u l to Bob A lb r e c h t o f
number o f s q u a re s i n th e r e c t a n g l e o f t h e p i c t u r e . PCC i m e n tio n e d h e re and th e r e -
F i n a l l y , s p e c ia l th a n ks
BLACK-AND-WHITE to Comaander Hugo McCauley,
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An o f f - t h e - s h e l f b it- m a p s y s t a a f o r the
Book S e r v i c e , f o r h i s yeaaan
PDP-11 o r th e Nova I s a v a i l a b l e from I n te r m e d ia
p e rf o rm a n c e In sh ip p i n g o u t
S y s t o a s , 20430 Town C e nte r L an e , C u p e r tin o CA
t h e b o o k s - - n o t to men tion c a r
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Fo r t h e A l t a i r , th e f o r t h c o a i n g 80 96 d i s p l a y
c h e c k in g f o r bad o n e s, and
( see p . Y) w i l l have 120*120 o r 240x240 b it- m a p
s e n d in g o u t a l l th ose n o te s o f
g r a p h i c s , f o r p r i c e s s t a r t i n g a ro und $1 000.
ap o lo g y when we were O ut o f
books a g a i n and a g a in and a g a in .
COLOR
And t o l o n g - s u f f e r i n g t o l a amj
Megan McCauley, my e s p e c i a l
E x tr a b i t maps, p l u s e l e c t r o n i c s , c a n g e t you g ra titu d e .
c o l o r ) I f you double th e number o f b i t * you can
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c in e " O f a l l t h i n g s b u t th e y w i l l p a r t w ith i t My scheme f o r ta k in g o n Appren
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TV p r o j e c t o r , t h e most g l o r i o u s TV t h i n g t h e r e i a . r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of how t h i s
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g o in g f o r 1000*1000 on th e A dvent, r e j i g g e r i n g t h e /D ream M a ch in e s, Computers
e l e c t r o n i c s frcxa s c r a t c h . A r i s e !/ C o a p u t e r s A r o u s e , and
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m a tio n . T h e i r sy stem i s 600x800. ( I a l s o daydreamed a t o u t p u t
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g r i d s , now t h a t th e y a r e g j ipu t a r - c o n t r o l l e d , But r e a s o n h a s p r e v a i l e d , and
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s m a ll one f o r shopping c e n t e r s c o s t s a hundred The p r e s e n t p la n i s f o r
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y o u 'v e g o t th a c o n p u ter i n s i d e . (W e're t a l k i n g about f a l l '7 6
o r l a t e r . ) P r i c e w i l l have t o
be $15. I f you t h in k t h a t ' s a
r l f S f f you c an * t l l l g e t t h i s
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th ey e v e r b ought o th e r book s? )
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a b l e t o t y p e s e t f r o a my own
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s o n s wto have soug h t me o u t
s i n c e t h e book f i r s t a p p ea re d ;
a s w e ll a s a l l th e sp eakin g en~
g a g m e n t s , s o i r e e s and whatnot.
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c a t i o n s o f any k in d , a lt h o u g h
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a P e r s o n a l Type Re ply.
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my m o r a le to sh a re a t o f th e s e
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IBM, which did not ta k e p a r e i n i t * develo p
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a t t h * U n i v e r s i t y o f W ate rloo, I n Canada.
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c i a t i o n f o r C o m puting M a c h i n e r y , t h e C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e A g e n c y , t h l
I n a t i t u t e o f E l e c t r i c a l and E l e c t r o n i c s E n g i n e e r * , t h e P r i m i n g a o d
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m a t i o n D i s p l a y , t h a S o c i e t y o f M o t i o n P i c t u r e and T e l e v l a l o n E n g l n e e r a ,
TIME I n c o r p o r a t e d , U nio n T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y ( t h a A u b u rn l e c t u r e s )
X e r o x P a l o A l t o R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , and v a r i o u s a r t s c h o o l . , c o l l e g e s .
u n i v e r s i t i e s aod J o i n t C o a p u t e r C o n f e r e n c e s .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

E v e r y b o d y a t C h i c a g o C i r c l e Campus
has been v e ry s p o r t i n g abour t h i s p r o j e c t .
I aa g r a t e f u l n o t o n ly o t th e e n c o u rag e
ment and a s s i s t a n c e o f v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s
( e s p e c i a l l y J o s e p h I . L i p s o n , D a v i d C.
M i l l e r and Samuel S c h r a g e ) , b u t f o r th e
a t m o s p h e r e o f s u p p o r t w h i c h h a s made t h i s
p o ss ib le . My t h a n k s t o t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f
A r t a n d t h e O f f i c e o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l Re
s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t f o r f r e e i n g me fro m
l e a c h i n g d u t i e s , t o t h e C o m p u te r C e n t e r
and th e D e p a rtm e n t o f C h e m is try f o r l e t
t i n g ae u s e p i c t u r e s o f t h e i r e q u ip m e n t,
an d e v e r y b o d y f o r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t .
I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h e W a lt D i s n e y
o r g a n iz a t io n f o r th e iT p e rm issio n to d e
p i c t t h e i r w o n d e r f u l c h a r a c t e r s , an d e v - -
e r y o n e e l s e who f u r n i s h e d m a t e r i a l s a n d
p e rm issio n s fo r th e th in g s h e re in .
T h a n k s a l 9 o t o t h o s e who l o o k e d o v e r
some o f t h e m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y H e r b e r t
G r o s c h o f C o m p u t e r w o r l d , Dan McGuTk o f
t h e C o m p u t e r I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n , and
W illiam R o d g e rs.
1 am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l t o t h e
many who h a v e e x p l a i n e d c o m p u t e r s t o me
o v e r t h e y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y Dave D e n f i i s t o n ,
R o b e r t F e n i c h e l , A n d re w J . S i n g e r , J o h n
R. L e v i n e .
Pe rsons of sa gacity have b e e n s a y in g for
some time lhat we a re m e ie rie lia U c .
In an Important se n se this la not so .
The machines, and to y s, a nd Involvementa
wa b u y Into , are In but a small prop o rtio n of
c a se s owned sim ply aa sc o re s, for th e i r eoet
a s consumption symbols.
R a th e r, we buy th in g s lha t REPRESENT
IDEALS, hopin g o u r se lv e s lo p a rta k e o f some
a bstr ac tion or Im age-- th e P layboy ro an , th e
Smart B usinessm an, the C lev e r Hom emaker.
Each product tr ie s to tell ua It Is lha key
stone of a way of life, and Ihen, at le ast a t that
moment of p u r c h a s e , we ste p In to , w e embrace
thal Way of Ufa, co v erin g o u r s e l v e s wilh tha
f ee ling, th e a u ra , the magic we sa w In I t a com
mercia l .
I a lre ad y sa id on the oth e r side t h a t the
T h is Is not m a te ria lis m . It la wishful com puie r Is a R orschach, and you make of It
g r a s p i n g st mi asm a. (Following s e n te n c e op
tio n a l.) It la communion, with th e o bje ct se ized
sim ply ihe Objective C orrela tive of a hoped-for
tr a n s a u b sla n d a tlo n . ( S o r r y . ) Its a se e k in g ,
some w ild reflection of what you are y o u r s e l f.
T h e r e is more lo It lhan thal.

Am erica is the land w here the m a ch in e Is

(feHmNT5
if
not to p o s s e s s ,4 to belo ng. an in ti m ate pa rt of our fantasy life.
My t h a n k s t o T o n B a r n a r d f o r so m e o f
th e e a T ly t y p i n g , and f o r th e P o rta -X a n .
G erm ans are too lite r a l, th e y c sn g e t off
I am g r a t e f u l t o C o m p u te r D e c i s i o n s on w ell- oile d cogs. The French are loo v a gue,
m a g a z i n e f o r t h e i r g oo d w i l l , a n d h e l p in ( I'v e notic e d that German Bclence-flclion m a ga 2 DREAM MACHINES
r e s e a r c h i n g c o m p u te r im age s y n t h e s i s .
zin es had covefB of machines and p la nets; French 4 APPARATUSES OF APPARITION
scien c e-fictio n m agazin es, of d ragons and people 6 VIDEO
My r o o m m a te Tom D e F a n t i , m e n t i o n e d 6 LIGHTNING IN A BOTTLE:
e ls e w h e r e i n t h i s b o o k , h a s been c o n s i d with w in g s . O u r scle nce-flc tlo n c o v e r s sh ow
people w ith m sc hlne s. Intim ately, e m otiona lly.) THE CATHODE-RAY TUBE
e r a te beyond th e c a l l o f du ty in g iv in g a HOLOGRAPHY
o v e r a l l t h e f i r s t - f l o o r r o om s o f o u r German fanta sy la Icy end Im perso nal, F r e n c h B S a n d i n ' s Im age P r o c e s s o r
h o u s e to t h i s p r o j e c t f o r s i x m o n t h s . fanta sy loo p e rsona l, and American f an ta sy le 9 3 0 DY ELECTRONICS
aplat i n th e mid dle, u niting both: man and 10 PICTURE PROCESSING
My t h a n k s f i n a l l y t o t h e many o t h e r s 11 AUDIO G COMPUTERS
w ho se g o o d w i l l h a s k e p t me g o i n g , i n D.W. GRIFFITH-- look th e m ovle -box and cre ste d m achine, means and en d s, emotion and d e ta ils.
the photo p la y , no lo n g e r a tw isted stage 12 THREE COMPUTER DREAMS:
p a r t i c u l a r my f o r m e r w i f e an d e t e r n a l 12 Al ( a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e )
fT ien d , D eborah S to n e N elson. p r o d u c ti o n . Men alw ays longed to fly , bul It w a s h e r e
IS IR ( i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l )
lhat th e y f ir st d id , T h is Is the land of Ihe 15 CAI ( c o m p u t e r - a s s i s te d
S p e c i a l g r e e t i n g s t o my f r i e n d a n d WALT DISNEY c re ate d a hypnotic pa nth eon of MOVIE. a fanta sy fabric ate d with e n d le s s dif fi in stru c tio n )
n e i g h b o r , M r s . J o h n R. N e i l l : I h o p e y ou kin d ly and Innocent se m i- a n i m a l s . se nti culty u s in g various kin ds of equip m ent. 16 "N o M ore T e a c h e r s '
e n jo y th e u s e s w h ich y o u r h u s b a n d 's i l mentally u n iv e rs a l, g e n e r a lly a cc epta ble . D i r t y L o o k s."
l u s t r a t i o n s o f T i k - T o k t h e M a chin e Man T h e mad tin k e r e r i s a fabled c h a r a c te r 20 Till: MIND'S F.YE
ha v e f o u n d h e r e . (co m p u ter d is p la y )
JOHN W. CAMPBELL-- aa auth or and th e n editor In o u r fiction.
of A sto u n d in g , tu r n ed A m erican acience- 24 COMPUTER MOVIES
L a s tly , f o r h er c o n trib u tio n s to 26 PLATO
m o rale (an d f o r n o t f o o t p r i n t i n g th e flction from Ihe Buck R o g e rs s p s c e Opera T h i s is the land of the kandy kolo r hot
28 "L aw s o f th e U n iv e rse
p a s t e u p s ) , l e t ' s ha v e a warn hand f o r lo th e human s t o r y , b u ilt a r o u n d thought - ro d , th e Hell's A ngel c h o p p e r , the d r i v e - i n H y p er-C o m ic s"
Pooky t h e W o nd er Dog. out prem ises and s t r u c t u r e s . movie. And th e wild ho t- r o d , In fact, la jusl 30 THE MIND S EYE MOBE:
Ihe f lip side o f the deep-ca rpe te d Cadillac: eac h 3D LINE SYSTEMS
IVAN SUTHERLAND-- progra m m e d and syatematlzed l a f a n ta s y . an extension of Ita o w n e r 's im age 31 D c F a n t i s Coup de GRASS
a c om pute r se tu p for h e lp in g people think of h im s elf in th e w o rl d , 32 HALFTONE IMAGE SYNTHESIS
and w ork with d e e p ly - s lr u c l u r e d plclorlal 1. P o l y g o n S y s te m s
T h u s It was nol an historical a c c id e n t , 34 2. Shades o f R e a lity
I nformation. (See p .) b ,Z j.)
( n lc c r groys)
but utte r ly p redete rm ined, lhal In th e h a n d s of 37 3. H ard e n in g o f th e
DOUG ENGELBART-- fore saw th e u s e o f computer A m e ric ans th e computer would become s w a y of A r t i s t r i e s ( s p e c i a l ha rd w are )
sc re e n s a s a w ay of e x p a n d in g th e mind, rea liz in g e v e r y con ceiv able wild fanta sy tha l 39 4. C o m p u ie r Im age C o r p .
and ove r the la st decade and a h a lf haa was d e a r lo th em. 40 TIIL MIND'S EYE MORE:
brought aboul Ju at th st. n D im e n s i o n s
T h i s i s pe rfec tly all r ig h t, T his Is a s It 41 The C i r c l e . G r a p h i c s H a b i t a t
r e e d I** 42 The T i s s u e o f T hought
A nd m ore, and o n . should b e . T h is i s the beat pa rt of o u r cuH ure-
Not "Let a hu n d red flowers bloom.* b u t "Let a 42 How t o L e a r n A n y th in g
43 On W r i t i n g
h u n d r e d gizmos c lan k ." This has spe d Immeas- 43 The H e r i t a g e
u r sb ly th e Imaginative development of many dif 44 HYPERMEDIA, HYPERTEXTS
-M - ferent th in g s we might w a n l. I t r y h e r e fairly 46 lin g e lb a rt
Th e o c ca sio n al Oz Illustr ations a re ail b y to e x p lain a few differences among th em. 48 FANTICS
John R. N eill, from v a rio u s oul- of-c opy right Oz S2 TIIINKERTOYS
book s b y L . F r a n k B a u m , e specia lly Qzma of O i ANOTHER QUICKIE T h er e Is Juat one problem with all th ls . 56 XANADU
a n d T lk - T o h o f O t . T U c-T o k . the Ma chine Man, Now that all these th ings e x is t, or come n e a r e r 58 WHAT NELSON IS REALLY SAYING
Is the f ig u r e to whom o ccasio n al allegorical s i g Com pare A lice, when she gets to W onderland to e x is tin g , which ones will oth e r pe ople want? 59 FL IP OUT
nificance Is a tta ch e d h e r e by Juxtaposition. ("Deary me! C u r io se r and c u r io s e r ") What will it be po ssible for ev ery o n e to ha ve?
with Dorothy G al e, tr a n s p o rte d to Oz And how can we tie all the se th in gs to g e th e r?
T h e O* p ic tu r e In Ih ls s p rea d Is from ("How do I ge t ba ck to K a n sa s? ! ! ! " )
The P a tc h w o rk O lr l o f O s. F a nta sy ties In with e v e r y th in g , in c lu d in g
American gil- o u l- n - d o -H . (N o te: t h i s t h e s i s ia b e in g a dvanced
o n ly h a l f - a e r l o u a l y . T here h a v e b een a
T h o u g h t y o u might w o n d er. n u a b e r o f e x a c t l y - d r a a a f u l P r a n c h a n t , and
f o r t h i s t h r e e - n a t i o n a l i t y S p l i t to bo
r e a l l y t r u e , t h e y w o u ld a l l h a v o t o h a v o
c o n e f r o a A ls a c e , n e x t t o G erm anyi J u l o s
V e rn e , D a g u e rre , th e b r o th e r s H o n tg o lf l e . ',
OOT THE DOOB I S '7 4
t h e b r o t h e r a L u w i e r e , t o name a f e w . )
foe of wee-M i
In ihc ruiUMd oi iKeir ubjK ts, which they
I h a v e w a n t e d t o w r i t e a o i n t r o d u c t i o n t o c o m p u t e r s , a n d a a e p a r a t e b o o k on F a n t l c e , f o r y e e r e . lad are thr prauraaix of new artritic i n | a
But t h a I d a a o f b i n d i n g cham b a c k - t o - b a c k i n a W hole E a r t h f o r m a t , w i t h l o t * o f m i a c h l e v o u * E n r l c h - lhat will in tom adiuluB thrrmtlm a* amriha
a a o t m a t e r i a l , d i d n t h i t ma t i l l J a n 7 3 . I h a v e t r i e d t o add a l l t h e s t i m u l a t i n g a n d e x h i l a r a t i n g f r o of bring, Maalcn and Hnotion n a mrw
t u f f 1 c o u ld f i n d , e s p e c i a l l y p e r s o n a l ( s a t l o n s , as on t h e o t h e r a i d e ; c o m p u te re a re d e e p ly p e rs o n a l hoe Ggarc rrw nfiilhy m a n in |. 7>it* m hae
S C h l n e a , c o n t r a r y t o l e g e n d , and ao a r e a h o w l n g - a y s t e r n s . I r e g r e t h a v i n g to t h r o w ao many o f my Ii b ! ihc old hero of lhooind (ana,* lha
c o n c e r n * i n t o c o m ic r e l i e f , b u t I h o p e t h a t some r e a d e r s w i l l s e n s e e h e * e r l o u e n e t b e lo w . jndiridailnl who a lie n , die*, and t* iriu u ,
liu th loin | and conquering along lh way. Ib-
T h e f i n a l l n * p l r a t l o o f o r t h l e b o o k c am e f r o m a o m e t h l n g e a l l e d c h e D om ebook. t h a t t e l l s you Uhq, he is Protean, capable of mfinil* chauum
e t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y how t o m ak e G e o d e e l c Domes. And o f e o u r e e I ' m b l a t a n t l y I m i t a t i n g , l n a w ay , ehe ia appearance and tlylc, a magician, a Bahhe-
w o n d e r f u l W h o le E a r t h C a t a l o g o f S t e w a r t B r a n d . Ae I t h i n k b a c k , t h o u g h , c h e t o n e a l a o c o a e a l o p a r e rar bringing gif la. Ht rnpfom categorin n d
fro m P e t e S e a g e r * w o n d e r f u l b a n j o b o o k , a n d Tom M c C a h i l l e a u c o m o b l l e r e v l e w a I n M e c h a n ic I l l u * e r a c e d . cailimm ihe r w . and in doing ao he holda
ooi ihe promis- of fusion m a hignej leaeL
Aa co c h e l a e c a e p e c t , c h a t o f t a k i n g my c a a e co t h e p u b l i c b e c a u e e t h e e x p a r t * w o n ' t l i s t e n , t h e o o l y If nch a hero were to become Ihc model for
p r e c e d e n t I c a n t h i n k o f l e K s j . A l e x a n d e r d e S e v e r s k y ' e V i c t o r y T h r o u g h A i r P o w e r , t e l l i n g eha c o u n tie approaching age. he wmld probably im he
t r y how h e t h o u g h t we a h o u l d w in W o rld War I I . the founder 01 a mam rnuitiiiriil or ihe god of
a new rrligicai. He wmld he nwtr ekxtvr. m
T h l* p r o j e c t , s im p le i n p r i n c i p l e , h aa beeo i n f i n i t e l y b o th e r* o m e . S * 1f - p u b 11 c a t 1 on waa n e c * * - ehangefol lhan hi* p n d o i a i L He wmild be a
* * r y b e c a u s e n o p u b l i s h e r c o u l d h a v e c o m p r e h e n d e d t h e c o n c e p t o f t h i a b o o k ; I h e a r t i l y rec om mand H i l l amieici who treat* ilw mental r a id aad the
H en d e rs o n ( e d . ) ' * Tha P u b l l e h - I t ~ Y o u r * a l f H a n d b o o k . $4 f ro m The P u e h c e r e Book P t e e s , Bo* 8 4 5 , Y o n k ers Internal wtrid on equal ten**, grrmg ^jirit la
T 10701. the T erm and Be*h u> the laner. He weald ba
a naata of paradox and a player of gnaw,
p r e e e n t p r o d u c t i s o o t th e book I had m eant t o w r i t e . Moat 1* f l r e t - d r e f c ; how eh* e e n e e n c e * n a U a a a new language. Hm one payer aright
do rN j o . ( B e l i e v e i t o r n o t , 1 do o o t l i k e u n d e r l i n i n g t h i n g s - - e f i r s t - d r a f t e x p e d i e n t . ) Fa c t- be ihe b n of Sake:
c h e c k i n g a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i e s h a d t o b* l a r g e l y a b a n d o n e d . B e tte r p la n n in g c o u ld hav e in c rs s e e d Mrr GrJ u inp
ty p e a l i a ; and ao o n . H a l f t h e m e n u e c r i p t , an d t h e g l o e e a r y , had co b e k i c k e d a a l d e ; I n c l u d i n g s e c rnmoM fUwinm
t i o n * o n m o v i e * , " m u l t i - m a d i a , " m i c r o f i l m , t r a i n i n g e l n u l a c o r a , a u g m e n te d s t a g e p r o d u c t i o n s o f che Amd VoUal tiacp.
f u t u r e , a n d g o o d n e * * kno w* w h a t . S o rry f o r a l l e h ac.
K enneth Cavander,
... WITH A LITTLE HELP PBOM MY FBI ENDS 'Voyage o f th e Psychenaut a . "
H a rpere . Jan 74, p . 74.
T h i a p r o j e c t c o u l d n t v e r h a v e b e a n c o m p l e t e d w l t h o u c e h* d e d i c a t e d e n d e x t r a o r d i n a r y e f f o r t * o f
my w i* e an d w arm f r i e n d * S h a l l * M cK enzie and U ade F r e e m a n , b o t h f a c u l c y member* a e C i r c l e , who he v e
ay d a e p e a t g r a t i t u d e . T h ey g a v e m oocha a n d w eek* o f t h e i r g o o d ti m e t o c h e t e d i o u s a s p e c e e o f e h l*
p r o j e c t ( w h i c h I c o o t l n u o u a l y u n d a r a s t imae e d . ) 1 h o p e I t h a a b e e n w o re h e h e l r w o rk a a w e l l a* ay own.
Ma. I f c l a o z l e , w h o s e c o n c e r n ( o r I n t e l l i g e n t c h a n g e l o e d u c e e l o n d r o v e h e r c o b o u n d l e s s e f f o r t s on
e h l * p r o j e c t , - h a a a l a o my d e e p e a e a d m i r a t i o n .

T h a a a d t h i n g abOuC i t a l l i s C h a t 90Z o f t h e a e e f f o r t a a r e u n n e c e s s a r y . A d e c e n t c o m p u te r Cext

*y*e*m ( o f w h i c h o n l y a c o u p l e e x i s t a a y e t ) w o u ld h a v e o b v l a c e d a l l ehe f l n d l n g - a n d - r e t y p l n g p r o b le m a .
I f e e l d e e p l y f o r e v e r y o n e who ha a t r o u b l e w r i t i n g by c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n s , a n d who w o u l d n t I f o n ly
grandfather,
Theodor Holm.
 S*|0W BW'MCM O K t SMk}&<lS<H*SS
or AfP^HiOKJ
Y ou C a n ' t T e l l t h e E x p e r t s W ith out T h e y P r o g r a m Y ou
( C f. " C a l l i n g a S p a d e a S p a d e , p . I J . )

I t s e e m s d i f f e r e n t c o m p a n i e s e r e a l l th e
ti m e i n t r o d u c i n g w o n d e r f u l n e w d e v i c e s t h a t w ill
r e v o l u t i o n i z e , u h , w h a t e v e r It i s w e d o w i t h , u h ,
I n f o r m a t i o n a n d s t u f f . T h i n g s y o u ' l l a t t a c h to
y o u r T V to g e l h i g h b r o w p r o g r a m s o r d i r t y m o v i e s .
M ic r o f il m d e v i c e s t h a l w ill s h r i n k t h e c o n t e n t s
o f t h e V a t i c a n L i b r a r y lo a d o t o n y o u r g l a s a e a .
G u y 's B a c k g r o u n d

T elev is io n :
IN Tomb
T e l l - T a l e P h r a s e s fc J a r g u m e n t a t i o n

G o g g le s th a t ahow y o u h o lo g ra p h ic c o lo r m 6 v le s.
A p in c e - n e z th at le ts yo u see th e f u tu r e . A nd
so on.
R e a d i n g P o p u l a r M e ch a n ic s o r th e S a tu r d a y
r e v i e w o f p a t e n t s I n t h e N ew Y o r k T i m e s , y o u
g e t t h e i d e a o f S o m e t h i n g B i g , N ew a n d W o n d e r
f u l A b o u t to H a p p e n , s o w e ' l l a ll h a v e a c c e s s to
a n y th in g , a n y tim e , a n y w h e re .
But it's b een th at w ay lo r d e c a d e s, a n d
w ith c e r t a i n e x c e p tio n s h a s n 't h a p p e n e d y e t .
H e r e a r e som e th in g s th a l h a v e c a u g h t o n ,
a n d a r e m o s t l y f a m i l i a r lo u s a l l .
Book. N e w s p a p e r . M a g a z i n e . R a d i o ( A M ).
P h o n o g ra p h re c o rd (7 8 ). T a p e r e c o r d e r , t " .
B l a c k - a n d - w h it e te le v is io n . R a d io (F M ). P h o n o
g ra p h r e c o rd (3 3 ). P h o nogra ph re c o rd (4 5 ).
C o lo r te le v is io n . T ap e c a r tr id g e ( 1 " ) . Tape
c a sse tte (P h ilip s, c a. 1 /8 " ). S tereo re c o rd s
and ta p e s. O h y e a h , a n d m o v ie s : 3 5 m m , 16m m ,
0 m m , S u p e r 8m m . C a r o u s e l p r o j e c t o r s . V iew -
m a ste r a te re o v ie w ers.
H e r e a r e s o m e t h i n g s in I h e p r o c e s s o f
c a tc h in g on (and nol a s s u re d of s u c c e s s ):
Q u a d r o p h o n i c a o u n d . D o lb y . C h r o m iu m , d i o x i d e
t a p e e m u l s i o n . S u p e r 16 m o v ie f o r m a t .
B u t fo r e v e r y th in g th a t d i d c a ic h o n . d o z e n s
d id n 't. S o m e e x a m p l e s : 1 2 - l n c h 45 r p m r e c o r d s .
1 1 . 5 m i l l i m e t e r m o v i e s . R C A 's { - I n c h t a p e c a r t
r i d g e , w h i c h b e c a m e a m o d e l f o r lh e m u c h s m a l l e r
P h i lip B . W ire r e c o r d e r s .
1 . V id e o f r e a k s
2. N e lw o rk P e o p le
3. C a b le O p e r a t o rs
M a th /E n g in e erin g
D isp la y E n g in e e r in g
Pro g ram m ed
In stru c lio n .
C o m p u ter-A ssiste d
In stru ctio n
P u b lish in g
A d v e rtis in g ,
Pu b lic R e la tio n s ,
M a rk e tin g
A rtific ia l In te llig e n c e
M c L u h an a tic
N elso n ian
" M e d i a " ( m e a n i n g t e l e v i e i o n );
" S o f tw a r e " ( m e a n i n g v i d e o t a p e s ) .
"P ro g ra m m in g " (m e a n in g c o m p etitiv e s c h e d u lin g );
" S o f tw a r e " ( m e a n i n g f i x e d - l e n g t h T V s h o w s ) .
H ead e n d , u p s tr e a m k d o w n s tr e a m , b a c k - c h a n n e l,
"in te ra c tiv e T V " (m e a n in g a n y fo rm of in te r a c tiv e
c o m p u t e r s y s t e m t h e y c a n g e t in o n ) .
I n fo r m a tio n t h e o r y , c h a n n e l c a p a c i t y , b a n d w i d t h ,
f e e d b a c k , a n y th in g c o m p le x a n d I rre le v a n t.
F ull d u p le x , e c h o p le x , a s p e c t r a ti o , s c ro l l, c u rs o r ;
" in f o r m a tio n t r a n s f e r " ( m e a n i n g t e l l i n g o r t e a c h i n g ) ;
"d ata d e liv e ry " (acl th e re o f ).
" S o f tw a r e " ( m e a n i n g s e q u e n t i a l o r b r a n c h i n g t e l l - i -
te s t m a te ria ls); " P ro g ra m m in g " (c re a tin g I h ese );
re in fo rc e m e n t s c h e d u le s ( m ea n in g p r e s e n ta tio n a l o r d e r ) ;
" i n p u t s ( m e a n i n g i d e a s a n d in f o r m a t i o n ) : " f e e d b a c k
(m e a n i n g r e p l i e s ) ; ' ' s i m u l a t i o n s " ( m e a n in g p i c t u r e s o r
ev en ts a u s e r can in flu e n c e ).
" S o f tw a r e ( m e a n i n g b o o k s ) .
"D e m o g ra p h ic s (m e a n in g fa c tio n s ) : cam p a ig n s tr a te g y
(m ea n in g how y o u h it a m a rk e t) ; "p e n e tra tio n "
( m e a n i n g e x t e n t to w h i c h y o u r s t u f f c a t c h e s o n ) ;
" P ro g ra m m in g " ( m e a n in g a n y th in g w h a te v e r).
A n y th in g m a th e m atica l; th e o r e m s , d is c r im in a to r s , n e u r a l
n e ls; " p ro g r a m m in g " ( m e a n in g s e ttin g u p a n y th in g
v e r y c o m p lic ated a n d in c o m p r e h e n s ib le ).
G lo b a l V i l l a g e , m o s a i c , s u r r o u n d ; " P r o g r a m m i n g "
(m ea n in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l in d o c trin a tio n ); a n y b o d y
e l s e ' s t e r m s , d y n a m i c a l l y i n f u s e d w ith n e w s e n s e s .
M e d iu m ( m e a n i n g s t a b i l i z e d p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c o n t e x t ) ;
W rit in g a n d C r e a t i o n ( m e a n i n g t h o u g h t f u l p r o d u c t i o n
o f s o m e th in g p r e s e n t a b l e , w h e t h e r s e q u e n tia l o r n o t.
in a m e d i u m ) ; " P r o g r a m m i n g ( m e a n i n g g i v i n g
e x a c l i n s t r u c t i o n s to a c o m p u t e r ) ; m e d ia i n t e g r i t y ,
i n v e n t i o n s & c o n v e n t i o n s ; h y p e r t e x t , t h i n k e r t o y , f a n ti c s

T h e n t h e r e a r e t h e th in g B t h a t c a u g h t o n
fo r a w h ile a n d w e n t a w a y . S t e r e o p t ic o n s ( an d
th e i r b e a u ti fu l d e s c e n d a n t, th e T r u - V u e . w h ic h
I loved a s a k id ) . C y lin d rica l r e c o rd i n g s .
P ian o r o l l s . A n d so o n .
; ti m e t
a n d a m o n g th e s e a r e a s , 1 h a v e d e v e lo p e d c o n sid
W o n d e r f u l S y s t e m s T h a t W ere G o n n a Be
e ra b le c y n ic ism a n d a b a d c a s e o f th e g ig g le s .
O r i g i n a l l y it a ll s e e m e d lo fit t o g e t h e r a n d to b e

T h e n th e re a r e th e v id eo r e c o r d i n g s y s
te m s . C B S ' EVR d i e d b e f o r e il g o t a n y w h e r e .
R C A ' s S e l e c t a V i s l o n i s n t o u t ^ e t . 2 -in ch q u a d
i s s t a n d a r d in t h e s t u d i o s , i - i n c h P o r t a - P a k
i s s t a n d a r d a m o n g th e V id e o F r e a k a , a n d il l o o k s
l i k e S o n y s 3 /4 " c a r t r i d g e w ill w in a s I h e m a in
s a l e s a n d s t o r a g e m e d iu m . (T h e P h i lip s s y ste m
h e r e l o o k s a s t h o u g h it w o n 't m a k e i t . a n d 1 - i n c h
is d u b i o u s .) B u t w h a t 's t h i s w e h e a r a b o u t
v id e o d i s k s (tw e n ty - f iv e y e a r s a fte r t h e y a n n o u n
c e d P h o n e v lslo n . A h. w e ll.)?
T h e t h in g l a , so m any o f th e s e th in g s seem
lo s o u n d a l i k e . T h e y a ll m e n t i o n " i n f o r m a t i o n
r e t r i e v a l , " e d u c a tio n , te c h n o lo g y , p o s s ib l y " th e
In fo rm a tio n e x p lo sio n " a nd " th e k n o w le d g e i n
d u stry ." P r e s s r e le a s e s o r effu siv e n e w s p a p e r
a r ti c le a m a y u s e p h r a s e s lik e " s p a c e - a g e ,"
" fu t u ris tic ," "M cL uhanesque" o r e v en "O rw ellia n "
( t h o u g h f e w p e o p l e w h o u s e t h a l w o r d s e e m to
k n o w w h a t O r w e l l s to o d f o r ; s e e p . * * ^ ) .
A n d th e in tim id a tin g c o m p a n y n a m es!
O u t f i t s w i t h n a m e s l ik e G e n e r a l L e a r n i n g , I n c . ,
o r S y n e rg istic C y b e rn e tic s, I n c ., o r even
C o m m u n ic a tio n s | R e s e a rc h | M a c h in e s , I n c .
S u r e ly s u c h p e o p le m u st k now w h a t th e y a re
d o i n g , to u s e s u c h s c i e n t i f i c - s o u n d i n g p h r a s e s
a s Ihese!
T h e n th e re a re th e b u s in e s s m a g a z in e s .
In th e la te s ix tie s th e y w e re ta lk in g a b o u t "T he
K n o w l e d g e I n d u s t r y " ( a f i c t i o n , it l u r n e d o u t ,
o f a n e c o n o m i s t 's l u m p i n g a l o t o f t h i n g s t o g e t h e r
o d d ly ). N ow t h e y t a l k a b o u t t h e C a b l e T V o u t
f i t s a n d t h e V id e o C a r t r i d g e o u t f i t s a s t h o u g h
t h e y 'r e th e c a l 's p a ja m a s.
l e a d i n g s o m e w h e r e , b u t t a l k i n g to p e o p l e a t all
l e v e l s , a n d e i t h e r g i v i n g a d v i c e o r t i y i n g to
i n t e r p r e t Ihe a d v ic e o f o t h e r s , I am c o n v in ce d
th a t w h ai w e h a v e h e r e in t h is w h o le a u d io -
v i a u a l -p r e s e n ta lio n a l w h iz b a n g fie ld is n o th in g
l e s s th a n a v e ry h ig h o r d e r o f c o lle c tiv e in s a n ity .
T h e s tr a n g e w ay c o m p a n ie s a d o p t a n d d ro p v a r-
i o u a p r o d u c t l i n e s , a n d v e r b a l i z e w h a t t h e y t h in k
t h e y a r c d o i n g , s e e m to m e a c o m b i n a t i o n of
le m m i n g i s m a n d a w i l l i n g n e s s to f ollow a n y A u th
o rity in an e x p e n s iv e s u i t . 1 h a v e t a l k e d to
e n o u g h v ic e - p r e s id e n ts a n d p r e s i d e n ts of com pu
te r co m p an ies, p u b lis h in g c o m p a n ie s , n e tw o rk s,
m e d ia o u tf its a n d s o o n , to b e to ta lly c e r ta in
th a t Ihey h a v e no s p e c ia l k n o w le d g e o r u n u su a l
b a a i s o f in f o r m a t i o n : y e l t h e s e p e o p l e ' s r e m a r k s ,
a s a m p lifie d th r o u g h th e b u s i n e s s r e p o r t e r s ,
s e n d l h e w h o le n a t i o n e - d i t h e r i n g . T h e r e a r e
ti m e s 1 t h i n k e v e r y b o d y i n M e d i a i s e i t h e r d e l u d e d ,
m is g u id e d , ly in g o r c ra z y .
T H R E E CR UC IA L P O I N T S .
1. SY S T EM S "IN T H E H O M E ."
T h e e m p h a s i s h a a c h a n g e d f r o m t r y i n g to
s e l l s n a z z y s y s t e m s lo t h e s c h o o l s ( w h i c h d o n 't
h a v e I h e m o n e y ) to t h e h o m e . T h i s i n t u r n
h a s c o n v in c e d m oat p e o p le th a t th e n e w sy ste m s
h a v e to b e v e r y l i m i t e d , l i k e j i m m i e d - u p TV s e t s .
(We e a s i l y lo s e t r a c k o f t h e f a c t t h a t y o u c a n
h a v e a n y t h i n g ''in t h e h o m e " i f y o u w a n t to p a y
f o r i l; a n d a n e c o n o m y in w h i c h M a r a n t z e s a n d
sn o w m o b ile s h a v e c a u g h t o n b i g in d ic a te s that
s o m e p e o p l e a r e g o i n g to b e w i l l i n g to p a y for
r e a lly hot s lu ff.)
2. CA T CH IN G O N .
W H tie c w s+ yok rr
V e S T E W A * .?
1 o n c e r e a d a m i n d - b l o w i n g r e v i e w a r t i c l e In
F i lm s in R e v i e w . e a r l y s i x t i e s 1 t h i n k ,
o n s c h e m e s lo m a k e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
m o v ie s b e f o r e 1930. T h e r e w e r e d o z e n s .
Thei t h e r e w a s t h a t m u l t i s c r e e n f ilm N a p o le o n
a le g e n d d o n e in th e n in e te e n -tw e n tie s .
(T h s t one rea lly e x is te d .)
P h o n e v i s i o n . a b o u t 1947 o r s o , w a s g o i n g to
s to r e a h a lf- h o u r m o v ie on a 12 -in ch d is k .
D id t h e y g e l t h e i d e a f r o m t h e LP? D id
t h e y r e a l l y t h i n k t h e y c o u l d d o it ?
T h e G e r m a n p h o t o - g i z m o , a r o u n d 1950: a s p e c i a l
c a m e ra that s u p p o s e d ly c re a te d a s c u lp tu r e
o f w h a t it w a s p o i n t e d a l . ( B u t how d i d
it k n o w w h a t w a s b e h i n d t h i n g s ? )
A w e i r d l e n s a r o u n d 1950 I t h i n k It w a s d e p i c
te d a s h a v i n g a b l u e c e n t e r a n d a r e d p e r i
p h e r y , lik e a fif tie s h o o d lu m t a i l - l i g h t
th a t w a s s o m e h o w g o i n g lo f i n d " r e s i d u a l
t r a c e s " o f c o lo r in b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e s ,
a n d m a k e 'e m in to c o l o r , z o w i e , J u s t b y
c o p y i n g th e m .
T h e n t h e r e w a s th e P a n a c o l o r C a r t r i d g e . D u rin g
t h e D a y s o f M a d n e s s - - 1960, I t h i n k It w a s
a r a t h e r good lit tle m o v ie g a d g e t w a s
b e i n g p u s h e d b y a fir m c a l l e d P a n a c o l o r .
It h a d te n p a r a l l e l m o v ie a n d a u d i o t r a c k s ,
1 b e l i e v e , on a 70mm s t r i p . T h e p r o t o t y p e s
w e re b u ilt by Z eiss.

T h e k e y q u e s t i o n i s n o t h o w g o o d a s y s te m
i s i n t h e a b s t r a c t , b u t w h e t h e r i t w ill c a t c h o n .
( O b v i o u s l y I f w e ' r e p u b l i c - s p i r i t e d w e w a n t th e
b e a t s y s t e m s to c a t c h o n , o f c o u r s e . )

T h i s m a t t e r o f C a t c h i n g O n i s a f ic k l e a n d
cru c ial b u a ln ess.

A c c o r d i n g to o n e a n e c d o t e , M r . B e ll
c o u l d n ' t I n t e r e s t a n y o n e in h i a I n v e n t i o n , w h ic h
h e w a s s h o w i n g a t s o m e t r a d e f a i r . T h e n w ho
s h o u ld com e b y b u t th e E m p e ro r of B ra zil ( ! ) .
w h o w a s a b o u t to l e a v e w i t h h i e r e t i n u e o f a d
p a c t m o v ie p r o j e c t o r . I k e p t t r y i n g to p e r
v ise rs. "W hat i s t h a l ? " a s k e d l h e E m p e r o r of
su a d e th e c o m p a n y 's p r e s i d e n t th a t th e y had
B ra zil. " N o t h i n g to b o t h e r w i t h , " t h e y s a i d , a n d
in a d v e rte n tly d e s ig n e d a s p le n d id d e v ice
t r i e d to r u s h h im b y , b u t h e s t o p p e d a n d lo v e d
f o r b r a n c h i n g m o v ie s ( s e e " H y p e r f i l m s , "
I t, a n d o r d e r e d th e f i r s t p a i r o f te le p h o n e s so ld .
T h i s m a d e th e h e a d l i n e s , a n d t h e s a l e o f t e l e
P
phones began.
E x e r c i s e f o r th e r e a d e r : m a p o u t p r o p
e r t i e s o f th e b r a n c h i n g a n d e x p o s i t o r y
A n o th e r a n e c d o te . It i s l e g e n d a r y t h a t
s t r u c t u r e s im p l ic i t in s u c h a d e v i c e . ( I t 's
In v en to rs o v e rv a lu e t h e ir ow n w o rk . Y et a / l e r
o n e - d l r e c l i o n a l . G o tta r e w i n d w h e n y o u
T h o m a s E d iso n h a d I n v e n te d th e k in e m a to g ra p h ,
g e l lo th e e n d . B ut y ou c a n Jum p b e tw e e n
o r " m o v i n g p i c t u r e . a d e v i c e y o u lo o k e d into
t r a c k s w h e n it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e . )
t u r n i n g a c r a n k , h e d e c l i n e d to b u i l d a p r o j e c t o r
f o r It, s a y in g th a t th e n o v e lty w o u ld w e a r o ff.
Anyw ay, it's gone now .
O b v io u sly h e d ld 't q u ite a e e w h a i " c a tc h in g on"
w o u ld m e an h e r e .

The G r e a t R o b e r t C ru m b.
(P ro m Za p C o m i x H O .)
" I* ft*
tU rt. ii
> f t e tr* H + * J
H ere i; *o " Another example. When they designed the
f a r m * [ro vcsl.
* I z .y e it ii.
* * f r * v 4 i.
HARDWARE. SOFTWARE AND WHATNOT (rep ris e)
Among the many odd things lhat have
re sulte d from ths collision of computer people
with e d u c a to rs , pu b lish ers and others has been
the respectful Imitation of computer ways by
those who d id n 't quite understand them. Again,
the cargo cu lt.*
The most dismal of these practices has been
the adoption of the term "software" for any intel
lectual o r artistic property .** This wholly loses
the d istin c tio n , made on the other side of the b o o k ,
between:
h a rd w a re (programmable equipment)
softw are (program s, detailed plans
of operation lhat the hardw are
c a rrie s out)
contents or data (material which is
w orked on b y , moved in or
p re sented by the hardw are
u n d e r control of the software)
In o ther w o rd s, hardware and software
together make sn environm ent; data o r contents
move and a p p e ar in that environment.
The publishing-and-picturefolk have missed
thle distinction e n tire ly . Not realizing that their
productlona are the contents (m aterial, m atter,
dala, stuff, m e s s a g e ...) that come and go in the
prefabricated hardw are-softw are entlronm ents,
they have m ushed this together into a state of
self-feeding confusion.
(The m atter has not been helped by the
com puter-assisted instruction people see p . DM I 5
whose bra n ch in g productions seemed to them
enough IJke com puter programs lo be called
"softw are.")
" Primitives exposed to "civilized" man imitat
his ways ridiculously -in religious ritu a ls ,
hoping for the shipments of canned goods,
etc. that his behavior seems to brin g down
from parts unknown.
B k -sr o tr -w se
* * Mere corroborative detail,
to enhance an otherwise
uninteresting n a r ra tiv e ..."
Pooh-Bah,
Lord High
Everything
Else
3. STANDARDIZATION "The Emperor has no clothes on!"
In o rd e r for something to Catch O n, it has Small Boy
to be standa rdized. Unfortunately, th e re is mo (name withheld)
tivation for different companies to make th e ir own
little changes In order to re strict u sers to Its
own p ro d u c ts . The best exsmple of how to
avoid this: P hilips patented its audio c a rtrid g e
? ---------------------------- s .
to the teeth, b u t then granted everybody free
Last year I actually heard a phone company
use of the patent provided they adhered to the lecturer say that in the future we
exact standardization. The re su lt has bee n the
will have "Instant Access to Anything,
system 's spectacular success, and P hilips, rather Anytime, Anywhere."
than dominating a small m arket, has a s h a r e of
a far la r g e r m arket, and hence makes more
What they're pushing ie Picturephone, which
money. T h a t's a virtue-rew arded kind of story. it seems to me is u n n ec essary , wasteful
and generally unfeasible.
The o th er problem with standardization,
though, is th at we tend to standardize too soon. (See: Robert J . Robinson, "Picturephone-- Who
We s tanda rdized on AM radio, even though FM
Needs It?", Datamation 15 Nov 71, 1S2.)
would probably have been better. (One Major
A rm strong, a great figure in the development
of radio, committed suicide when nobody would
accept FM. If he could only have h eard o u r FM
of today, he might h a ^ said "Oh. n u ts ," and
liv e d .) 0 |j W t f lr
I n a n y m ediu m w r i t t e n , v i s u a l , f i l m i c
o r w h a te v e r you g e n e r a t e I n s t a n t a n e o u s l y
Touch-Tone phone pad. the Bell people evidently a n a t m o s p h e r e , a p a t i n a , ,a m ia s m a o f s t y l e ,
saw no reason to have ll match the adding ma in v o lv e m e n t, p e r s o n a l i t y ( p e r h a p s i m p l i c i t ) ,
chine panel, so they put " 1" in the u p p e r left o u tlo o k , p o r te n t. C o n sid er
ra th e r than (he lower lefl. Now there a r e lols
of people who u se both arrangem ents, e v e ry day, The c o m p la c e n c y o f t h e S u l z b e r g e r s '
and at least one of them cu rses lhe d esig n e rs' New K ork T i m e s
The c y n ic is m and m i s c h i e f o f K r a a s n e r 's
lack of consideration.
R e a list
Another interesting example of Catching The p e r k i n e s s a n d s e n s e o C f re e d o m o f
Sesa m e S t r e e t
On: d u rin g the early sixties, it was fun being The p e r s o n a l i z e d , f o c u s s e d f o re b o d in g
at places w h ere they were jusl getting Xerox
copiers for the first time. Everyone would a r
o f O rs o n W elles f i l m s i a s d i s t i n c t
C ron t h e i m p e r s o n a l ! z e d , f o c u s s e d
gue that nobody needed a copier. T hen, g ru d fo re b o d in g o f H i t c h c o c k -
gingly, one would be ordered. The firs t month's
use invariably would exceed the estimate for the N e x t t o t h i s m a t t e r o f m ood, a l l e l B e p a l e s :
first y e a r, and go up and up from there. t h e a c t u a l c o n s t r a i n t s a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f m e d ia ,
th e e x p o s itio n s and c o m p lic a tio n s of p a r ti c u la r
The w orst aspect of the confusion among c o g n i t i v e w o r k s a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n s w i t h i n m e d ia ,
the corporations ie that certain deficiencies and a r e a s n o th in g .
crudities of vision slip into the mix. Unless
o u r new media and Iheir exact ramifications and
concomitants a re planned with the greatest ca re ,
everybody stands to lose. We must u n d ersta n d the
detailed p rope rties of media. (The first question
to a sk . when somebody is showing you the
Latest and G reatest, is; "What are the properties
and qualities of the medium?" The followup
questions come easily with experience: How of
ten do you have to change It, what are the b ra n T im e a f t e r t i n e , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t h a s
ching options, what part could somebody acci t h o u g h t s a n e g r e a t r e v o l u t i o n w o u l d cosie th r o u g h g e t t i n g
ne w k i n d s o f e q u i p a e n t i n t o t h e c l a s s r o o m .
dentally put in backw ards, are there d istrac ting
complications? etc. ) F i r s t I t w as w v i e s , More r e c e n t l y I t ' s b e e n '' a u d i o
1 am unpersuaded by McLuhan. His in v i s u a l " s t u f f , t e a c h i n g m a c h i n e s , f i l t f l o o p s and c o m p u t e r -
a s s is te d in stru c tio n .
sights are rem arkable, yet suspicious: he s u p
poses thal electronic media are all lhe s am e. How I n no c a s e s have th e e n t h u s i a s t s f o r th e s e sy stem s
can thia be? Here we may now decide what elec s e e n how t h e e q u i p n e n t w o u ld f i t i n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l e d u
tronic media we want in lhe future-- and this de c a t i o n o r , m ore l i k e l y , s c r e w t h e t e a c h e r u p . T e a c h e r s
cision , I would s a y , is one of lhe most important a r e e m b a r r a s s e d a n d C l u s t e r e d w h e n t h e y h a v e t o monkey
we have lo face. w ith e q u ifin en t In a d d i t i o n t o e v e r y th in g e l s e , and f i t t i n g
t h e a v a i l a b l e canned m a t e r i a l s i n t o t h e i r le s s o n p la n s
d o e s n ' t w o rk o u t w e l l , e i t h e r .
The en g in e ers seem to be quite the oppo
site of McLuhan: somehow to them it's alw ays a The o n ly r e a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c hange l i e i n sy ste m s
multiple-choice, mulll-engineerlng problem , dif t h a t w i l l e h a n g e t h e I n s t r u c t o r ' s p o s i t i o n f r o a a m a n ag e r
ferent every time; "this technique is good for A, to a h e lp e r. Many t e a c h e r s w i l l l i k e t h i s , many w i l l n o t .
that technique is good for B." But the n et ef-
fecl is the sam e: "electronic media are generally
the sam e." I would claim that th e 're all differ
e n t, all ten million of them (TV being only one
electronic medium out of the lot), and the dif
ferences m atter v ery very much, and only a few
can catch o n . So it matters very much which.
Some are g re a t, some are lousy, some a re s u b
M f C W P J L ( W |W (
tly b ad, having a locked-ln information s tru c tu r e , when somebody shows you an electronic or other
built deep-down into the system. (Example: presentational system , device or whatever.
the fixed " query modes" built into some sy s tem s .)
A certain kind of slight-of-hand goes on.
One last point. Everybody only has a It's very easy to get fooled. They may show
24-hour d ay. Most people, If they increase con you one thing and persuade you you've seen
sumption of one medium (like magazines o r books) another.
will cut down on anolher (like TV). This d r a s
tically reduces the sorts of growth some people And if you're canny enough lo ask about
have been ex p e c tin g . Except, now , if we can a feature you haven't seen they'll always say,
begin to replace some of the Inane paper-ahuffllng
and pap e r-lo sin g of the business world, and "WE'RE WORKING ON IT."
replace lhe cree p y activitlea of the school (as now
generally constituted) with a more golden u s e of It's only dishonest if ihey s a y . "It'll be ready
time and mind. Read on. next monlh."
A s e lf - e m p lo y e d re p a irm a n o f m o b ile homes
na med D o n a l d W e l l 9 h a s I n v e n t e d a s o l a r - p o w e r e d
to m b s t o n e t h a t c a n show m o v ie s a n d s t i l l p i c t u r e s
o f th e d e p a r t e d , a lo n g w ith a p p r o p r i a t e o rg an
m u s i c a n d a n y l a s t w o rd s o r e u l o g i e s s e l e c t e d
by t h e d e c e a s e d .
T he d e v i c e l e a c t i v a t e d by a r e m o t e c o n t r o l
d e v ic e c a r r i e d by a v i s i t o r to th e g r a v e 9 i t e .
T he m o v i e s w o u l d b e show n o n s t w e l v e - i n c h s c r e e n
m o u n te d n e x t t o t h e e p i t a p h .
"You c o u l d a l s o h a v e p i c t u r e s o f C h r i s t a s
c e n d i n g t o h e a v e n o r C h r i s t on t h e c r o s s , w h a t e v e r
you w a n t ," s a y s W e ll s . " I t a d d s a w h o le new d i
m en sio n t o g o in g t o th e c e m e te ry . . . . "
C levela nd P l a in D e a le r b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f th e m a n ip u la tio n o f r u b b e r p u p p e ts
(Quoted i n n a t i o n a l Lampoon bv m in ico m p u ter, th ro u g h c a b l e s an d p u f f s o f a i r .
True F a c t o , 'lay 7 4 , 1 0 . ) H a l t D isn e y P r o d u c tio n s .

;e h l *><>1
y l i k e " t h e w r i t t e n w o rd i s d e a d , " p r a p t e d p e r h a p s b y McLuhan.
W ould y o u b e l i e v e t h e r e w aa t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t i n g
o v e r th e a irw a v e s i n t h e n i n e t e e n - t w e n t i e s ? The t h i n g i s ,
i t u s e d b i z a r r e s p i n n i n g e q u l p n e n t b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e no
CRTs ( s e e " L i g h t n i n g i n a B o t t l e , " n e a r b y . ) O n ly w i t h
t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f r a d a r i n W o rld War I I d i d t h e r e a l s o
c a n e a p r a c t i c a b l e C a t h o d e Ray T u b e , m a k in g h o n e t e l e v i s
io n f e a s i b l e .
But th e b i g c o m p a n ie s w ere a t f i r s t v e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e
l n t h e i r m a r k e t i n g , f i g u r i n g t e l e v i s i o n w o u ld b e a l u x u r y
ite m o n ly . I t t o o k a man named Madman H u n t s , who c a r i c a
t u r e d h i m s e l f i n a N a p o l e o n h a t , t o a e e t h a t m i l l i o n s w ould
b u y t e l e v i s i o n l f t h e p r i c e w as r i g h t . S o h e cam e o u t w i t h
H u n ts TV I d t h e l a t e f o r t i e s . As I r e c a l l , t h e H u n t s TV
c o s t $1 00 a n d h a d o n e t u n i n g k n o b . (T h is w as l e s s I n t i m i
d a t i n g t h a n t h e row o f k n o b s on more e x p e n s i v e s e t s . ) I t a r y - m a k i n g t h a t s h u c k s dumb t r a d i t i o n s a r t i s t i c a l l y , much l i k e
d o n ' t know how H u n t s c a a e o u t on I t a l l , b u t h i s o p e n i n g o f
t h e mass m a r k e t made t h e b i g g e r c o r p o r a t i o n ! r e a l i s e i t was
th e re . ( T h i s sa m e t h i n g may y e t h a p p e n a g a i n l n n e w e r
m e d ia .)
O r i g i n a l l y a l l t h e r e w as waa K ra s y K a t a n d F a r m e r
Brown c a r t o o n s . But b e h o ld , so o n er th a n you c o u ld say
" v e r t i c a l h o l d , t h e r e w e r e S i d C a e s a r a n d Im o g en e Coca
on t h e A d m ir a l Sh ow , a n d we w e r e o f f .
A q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu r y l a t e r , th e b e e t o f t e l e v i s i o n
l a no b e t t e r a n d th e b u l k o f t e l e v i s i o n i s a b o u t a s bad
a s i t e v e r w as.
We " u n d e r s t a n d " t e l e v i s i o n . T h a t i s , we know w h s t a
TV show i s , how i t f i t s t o g e t h e r and e o o n .
ICECUBES
But w h a t p e o p l e d o n ' t r e a l i s e a b o u t TV i s t h a t t h e
g o v e r n i n g f e a t u r e i s t h e t i m e - s l o t . I n a n y m ediu m w i t h
t i m e - s l o t s , w h e t h e r TV, r a d i o o r c l a s s r o o m e d u c a t i o n , th e
tim e -s lo t r u le s b e h a v io r. W h a te v e r c a n h a p p e n i e a s c o n
s tr a in e d as ic ec u b es in a tr a y .
T h i s l a t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r when o p t i m i s t s t r y t o
u s e TV f o r t e a c h i n g . I f I t s c om in g o v e r a c a b l e , e v e r y
t h i n g h a s t o b e s c h e d u l e d a r o u n d I t , and t h e c o n t e n t s a r e
c l i p p e d an d c o n s t r a i n e d t o f i t t h e t i m e - a l o t . I t may be
b e t t e r w ith v id e o ta p e .
CABLES
I n t h e l a s t d o s e n y e a r s , C a b le TV, o r CATV, h a s
become b i g b u s i n e s s . A V id e o C s b l e i s a h i g h - c a p a c i t y
e l e c t r i c a l c a r r l e T t h a t r u n s th r o u g h a g i v e n n e i g h b o r
ho o d o r r e g i o n . B u s i n e s s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s may " s u b
s c r i b e " an d g e t t h e i r own s e t s hooke d o n t o t h e c a b l e .
What t h i s d o e s f l r e t o f a l l 1s Im p ro v e r e c e p t i o n .
The f o u l e d - u p v i d e o p i c t u r e c a u s e d by s u c h e x t r a n e o u s
o b j e c t s a s t h e W o rld T r s d e C e n t e r I n New Y o rk c a n be
c o r r e c t e d b y h o o k i n g I n t o t h e v i d e o c a b l e : you g e t a
n ic e , sharp p ic tu r e .
In a d d i t i o n , th o u g h , th e c a b le o f f e r s e x t r a c h a n n e ls .
Now, t h e b u s i n e s s m e n who h a v e b e e n t h r o w i n g t o g e t h
e r t h e s e v i d e o c a b l e o u t f i t s a r e a im in g f o r s o m e t h i n g .
They h a v e b e e n t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e s e e x t r a c h a n n e l s w o u ld
n e t them a l o t o f m o n e y : b y s h o w in g t h i n g s on th e m t h a t
c a n ' t b e o f f e r e d o n t h e a i r h ig h b r o w d r a m a , o r p e r h a p s
X -ra ted s t u f f th e y c o u ld g e t e x tra rev e n u e . ( Y o u 'd pa y
e x t r a to w atch i t by b u y in g a n u n e c r a m b l e r , o r w h a t e v e r .)
T h le I s t u r n i n g i n t o som ew hat o f a d i s a p p o i n t m e n t .
T he c a b l e p e o p l e h a d f o r e s e e n , e v i d e n t l y , t h a t p e o p l e
w o u ld s t a y home i n d r o v e s t o s e e t h e new o f f e r i n g s o n th e
c a b le . I n Show B u s i n e s s I t ' s e a s y t o f o r g e t , t h o u g h , t h a t
e verybody h a s o n ly tw e n ty fo u r h o u r s l n a d a y , a n d f a r l e s s
t h a n 26 h o u r s t o d i s p o s e o f f r e e l y ; ao e v e r y l e i s u r e o c c u -
p s t i o i r i s c o m p e t in g w i t h e v e r y o t h e r l e i s u r e o c c u p a t i o n .
H o r e o v e r , t h e r e s i d u a l l e i s u r e o c c u p a t i o n , w hen t h e r e ' s n o
t h i n g e l s e t o d o , i s TV. I t w o u ld se em t h a t few p e o p l e
w o u ld w a t c h m o r e t e l e v i s i o n I f i t w e r e b e t t e r , b u t many
w o u ld w a t c h l e a s l f t h e y c o u l d a f f o r d t o g o o u t .
EXTRA CHANNELS
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , a num be r o f e x t r a c h a n n e l s h a v e b e e n
made a v a i l a b l e b y l a w . T h e s e a r e t h e UHF, o r U l t r a H ig h
Frequency c h a n n e ls . T hese, lik e c a b le s , r e p r e s e n t a con
s u l a r b r e a k th r o u g h b u t w i l l ha v e o n ly n e g l i g i b l e im p a c t.
THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATION
W h a te v e r e l s e y o u may s a y a b o u t th e m , t h e n e t w o r k s
a n d TV s t a t i o n s a r e a t l e a s t o r g a n i s e d a s g o i n g c o n c e r n s
w ith in th e I n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f th e c o u n try . Id ea s
o f "co m m u n ity t e l e v i s i o n " a n d o t h e r s u c h s c h e m e s w h ic h c a l l
f o r some new f o r m o f s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n t o s p r i n g f o r t h
a r e a b o u t a s p l a u s i b l e a s " co m m u n ity c o n t r o l " o f s c h o o l s
an d p o l i c e o r a t b e s t l i k e l y t o b e a e I n f l u e n t i a l a s
" c o u u n lty s o c ia l c e n te re ."
INTERACTIVE TV?
Some p e o p l e , I w o n ' t a a y w ho, ha v e g o t t e n a l o t o f
money f o r s o m e t h i n g t h e y c a l l " i n t e r a c t i v e t e l e v i s i o n .
What t h i s t u r n s o u t t o mean I s a n y form o f c o m p u t e r ti m e
s h a r i n g t h a t w i l l u s e home TV t e r m i n a l s a n d v i d e o c a b l e s .
Th e q u e s t i o n s a r e why u s e home TV t e r m i n a l s a n d v i d e o
c a b l e s , i n s o f a r a s t h e y w o u ld se em t o p r o m i s e o n l y com
p a r a t i v e l y l o w - g r a d e p e r f o r m a n c e ; a nd w h e t h e r t h e s e p e o p l e
h s v e th o u g h t o u t a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s o f th e v a r i o u s m e d ia th e y pro p o se w i t h s u c h abandon.
N oth in g I ha v e s e e n o r h e a r d a b o u t t h i s i s r e a s s u r i n g .
I r w t H w ir
W ) K * v e A B E T T E *. J Y S T t ^ ^ O U .
Lef f t , k N *
ALTERNATE" TELEVISION, o r VIDEO FREAKS
uINhmB0w
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , many yo u n g f o l k s h a v e ta lc sn t o v i d e o
a s a w ay o f l i f e . I n t h e m o s t e x t r e m e c a s e s t h e y s a y t h i n g s
I have found I t r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t e t a l k to v id e o f r e a k s .
TT&
( I t may b e t h a t some o f th e m a r e a g a i n s t s p o k e n w o rd s a a w e l l . )
I r e a l l y j u s t d o n 't k n w w hat t h e y 'r e a b o u t.
T h e w o rk o f t h e s e p e o p l e i e a s e x u b e r a n t a a i t i s s t r a n g e .
1 h a v e n ' t s e e n much o f I t o r u n d e r s t o o d much o f w h a t I ha v e
I n so me c a s e s , " a l t e r n a t i v e t e l e v i s i o n " s im p l y means d o c u
TH*
m e n t a r i e s o u t s i d e t h e n o r m a l fra m e w o r k o f o w n e r s h i p a nd r e p o r t
in g . I n o n e e x a o p l e c i t e d b y Sha m be rg ( s e e b i b l i o g r a p h y ) ,
v i d e o f r e a k s d i d e x c e l l e n t c o v e r a g e o f t h e 1966 R e p u b l i c a n c o n v e n A c a th o d e -r a y tu b e is a c tu a lly a b o ttle fille d
tio n . P e o p le w ere allo w ed to sp e ak f o r th e m s e lv e s , u n lik e " n o r w ith a vacuum an d som e fu n n y e le c tric a l e q u ip -
m a l" TV j o u r n a l i s m w h ere " c o m m e n ta to r s " t e l l you w h a t th e y s e e . m e n t . T h e e q u i p m e n t i n th e n e c k o f t h e b o t t l e
s h o o t s a b e a m o f e l e c t r o n s t o w a r d t h e b o tto m o f
Now, t h i s i s h a r d l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y ; i t i s j u s t good docum en th e b o ttle.
t h e P e n n e b a k e r f i l m s . H ow ever, v i d e o e n t h u s i a s t s c l a i m I t i s
somehcw d i f f e r e n t , a n d in d e e d c l a i m t h a t v i d e o i e d i f f e r e n t i n
p r i n c i p l e f ro m f i l m s . I ha v e b e e n u n a b l e t o g e t a s a t i s f a c t o r y
c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s id e a .
V id e o i s b e i n g u s e d i n o t h e r w a y s , h a r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d , by
a r t i s t s ( b e s t d e fin e d a s p e rs o n s c a l l e d " a r t i s t s " w ith in th e a r t T h is beam of e le c tro n s is c a ll e d , m o r e o r le s s for
w o r l d t o d a y ) . V e r y odd " v i d e o p i e c e s " h a v e b e e n shewn a t a r t h is t o ric a l r e a s o n s , a c a th o d e r a y . T h in k o f it a s
s h o w s , w h e r e t h e o b j e c t se em s t o b e t o c o n f u s e t h e v i e w e r o r
a s tra w th a t can be w ig g le d in th e b o ttle .
k n o c k h im i n t o a c o n d i t i o n o f E n l a r g e d P e r s p e c t i v e , s h a l l we s a y .
And a v a r i e t y o f n o n ^ b j e c t i v e v i d e o t a p e s a r e now b e i n g c r e a t e d .
(A g a l l e r y sh ow i n 19 69 w as c a l l e d " V i d e o a s a C r e a t i v e Medium" A c t u a l l y t h e b o t t l e i s s h a p e d s o a s to h a v e
im p l y i n g s a r c a s t i c a l l y t h a t i t h a d n o t b e e n b e f o r e , on t h e a l a r g e v i e w i n g a r e a a t t h e b o tto m ( t h e s c r e e n ) ,
a i r w a v e s .) a n d th is sc re e n is co ate d w ilh so m e th in g th a t g lo w s
w h e n e l e c t r o n s h it i t . S u c h a c h em ica l i s c a lle d
Saae v id e o fre a k a th in k o f v id e o a s i n t r i n s i c a l l y r a d i c a l o r a phosphor.
R e v o lu tio n ary . I n t h i s r e s p e c t th e y d i f f e r i n t e r e s t i n g l y f r c n ,
s a y , t h e e d i t o r s o f t h e N a t i o n a l | -*mp o o n . T he e d i t o r s o f t h e
N a t i o n a l Lampoon a p p e a r t o b e p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l s , b u t do n o t s u g
g e s t t h a t t h e v e r y m e d ia o f c a r t o o n a n d j o k e - p l e c e a r e th e m s e l v e s
r e v o l u t i o n a r y . Scute v i d e o f r e a k s a p p e a r t o b e p e r s u a d e d t h a t t h e
medium o f t e l e v i s i o n i t a e l f 1 s I n h e r e n t l y a v e h i c l e f o r c h a n g e .
I c a n u n d e r s t a n d o n e i n t e r e s t i n g s e n s e i n w h ic h t h i s may b e N o w , tw o u s e f u l t h i n g s c a n b e d o n e w i t h t h i s
t r u e s Sh a m b e rg t a l k s a b o u t v i d e o a s a m e th o d o f a e l f - d l a c o v a r v . beam .
S e e i n g y o u r s e l f on TV d o e s , o f c o u r s e , c o n f e r c e r t a i n I n s i g h t s .
B u t Sh a m b e rg s u g g e s t s i t may e x p a n d p e o p l e ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n
1) It c a n b e m a d e b r i g h t e r b y i n c r e a s i n g
l a r g e r w a y s -- a llo w in g p e o p le t o s e e th e b l e a k n e s s o f c e r t a i n
p u r s u i t s (h e u s e s t h e ex am p le o f S h o p p i n g ) , f o r I n s t a n c e . B ut th e v o lta g e , w h ic h i n c r e a s e s th e
i f t h i s d o e s h i t h o n e t o p e o p l e , i t d o e s n ' t se em t o me t o b e t h e n u m b e r o f e le c tr o n s in th e b e a m .
n e d iu m t h a t ' s d o i n g i t b u t t h e s e l e c t e d c o n t e n t a s i n a l l p r e
v i o u s m e d i a . Maybe I ' v e m is s e d t h e p o i n t i n seme w ay. 2) T h e be a m c a n b e m o v e d ? T h a t i s . i t
can be m ade to p la y a r o u n d th e fac e
T h ese d e v elo p m en ts a r e a l l v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g . I t c an be of th e tu b e Ihe w a y y o u c a n s lo s h
h o p e d t h a t t h o s e t r y i n g t o d e v e l o p new f o rm s o f c a n u n i c a t i o n
th e s t r e a m o f a g a r d e n h o s e b a c k
w i l l make a n e f f o r t t o c c n a u n i c a t e b e t t e r w i t h t h o s e who, l i k e
t h e a u t h o r , o f t e n c a n n o t c o m p re h en d w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g . a n d f o rt h o n t h e l a w n ; o r w i g g l e a
s t r a w in a c o k e b o t t l e . T h e beam
can be m oved w ith e i t h e r m a g n etism
o r s ta tic e l e c t r i c i t y . T h is is a p p lie d
in Ihe n e c k o f t h e b o t t l e o r e v e n
f ro m o u t s i d e t h e n e c k b y d e f l e c t i o n
B ut d e c e n t r a l i z e d t r a n s m i s s i o n o f p la te s, w hose e le c tric a l p u lsa tio n s
i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u ld b e d o m i n a n t , n o t f u g i d e te rm in e th e p a tte r n t h e be am
tiv e . Eac h c i t i z e n o f M e d ia - A m e ric a t r a c e s on t h e s c r e e n . (N ote th a t th e
s h o u ld g u a ra n tee d a s a b i r t h r i g h t acc ess beam c a n b e m o ve d o n (h e s c r e e n at
t o t h e means o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n f o r m a - g reat s p e e d .)
( S h a m b e r g , p . 67)
T h e v e rtic a l d e fle c tio n p la te s c a n p u ll th e
W e l l , we w e n t down t h e r e w i t h o u r b e am u p o r down on th e s c r e e n , c o n tro lle d by
P o r ta - P a k and t r i e d t o ta k e i t i n s i d e . a s i g n a l to them ;
A g u a r d came o v e r a n d s a i d we c o u l d n ' t
a n d e v e n t h r e w o n e o f u s o u t o f t h e b o o th
w h i l e t h e o t h e r wae i n s i d e . A gua rd
t e l l i n g you w h a t t o d o i n a c y b e r n e t i c
e n v ir o n m e n t? "
( S h a m b e r g , p . S3)
( " C y b e r n e t i c " i s e v i d e n t l y a code
w ord h e r e f o r w h a t t h e y t h i n k i s
goo d, t r u e , b e a u t i f u l and i n e v i
t a b l e . C f . p . D/1 | 5 . )
H A b o u t t h e o n l y g e n e r a l i s a t i o n t o be t h e h o r i z o n t a l d e fle c t io n p l a t e s c a n p u l l t h e b e a m
made i s t h a t c o m s u n ity v i d e o w i l l b e s id e w a y s on th e s c r e e n , c o n tro lle d b y a s ig n a l
s u b v e r s i v e t o a ny g r o u p , b u r e a u c r a c y , o r t o th e m .
i n d i v i d u a l w h ic h f e e l s t h r e a t e n e d by a
c o a le sc in g o f g ra s s ro o ts c o n scio u a n sss.
B e c a u s e n o t o n l y d o e s d e c e n t r a l i s e d TV
s e r v e a s an e a r l y w arn in g s y s te m , i t p u ts
p e o p le i n to u ch w ith one a n o th e r about
connon g r ie v a n c e s ."
(S h a m b e r g , p . 57) B y s e n d i n g c o m b in e d s i g n a l s to b o t h h o r i
BIBLIOGRAPHY z o n tal a n d v e rtic a l d efle ctio n p la te s , w e c a n m a k e
th e e n d o f th e beam *- a b r ig h t do t o n th e s c r e e n ,
M ic h a e l S ham berg a n d R a i n d a n c e C o r p o r a t i o n , s o m e tim e s c a ll e d a Q y i n g s p o t j u m p a r o u n d in
G u e r r illa T e le v is io n . ( H o l t , 5 4 .) a n y p a t t e r n on t h e s c r e e n . A r e p e a t e d p a t t e r n
TUBE, a n u n d e r g r o u n d TV m a g a z i n e . $ 8 / y r .
o f t h e b e a m on th e fa c e o f ih e C R T i s c a l l e d a
TUBE, 1B26 S p a i g h t S t . , M a d is o n , WI
raster.
5 3 704.
C a b le R e p o rt, $ 7 /y r . 192 N. C l a r k S t . ,
Rood 6 0 7 . C h i c a g o . S a m p le s $ 1 . F r o m th e s e tw o c a p a b i l i t i e s - - b r i g h t e n i n g
"SCANDAL IS RAMPANT i n t h e c a b l e a n d m o v in g t h e b e a m - * a n u m b e r o f v e r y s p e c i a l
t e l e v i s i o n I n d u s t r y . O nly C a b l e Re te ch n o lo g ies em erge:
p o r t f o l l o w s c a b l e TV d e v e lo p m e n ts
from t h e c i t i z e n s p e r s p e c t i v e and
TELEVISIO N u s e s s s i g - s a g s c a n n i n g p a t
t e l l s y o u w h a t s h a p p e n i n g a n d w h a t 's
t e r n w h ic h r e p e a l s o v e r a n d o v e r .
g o in g w r o n g ." Ad i n C h i c a g o READER.
N i c h o l a s J o h n s o n , How t o T a l k Back t o Your T h i s z ig z a g p a t t e r n i s a l w a y s th e
T e le v is io n S e t. B a nta m , 95# s a m e , n ig h t a n d d a y .
tv whcw we You c a n u s u a l l y s e e th e l i n e s c l e a r l y
on a b la c k -a n d -w h ite s e l . T h e p ic
tu r e c o n sists o f th e c h a n g in g p a tte rn
of b rig h tn e ss o f th is b e am , w h ic h
c o m e s in o v e r t h e a i r w a v e s a s th a
" v 1* f c *
tele v isio n s ig n a l.

RADAR DISPLAY u s e s a CRT to show re flec
te d im ages a ro u n d w here the r a d a r
a n te n n a is s ta n d in g . Thia u s e s a
s c a n n in g r a s t e r of a s t a r s h a p e ,
b r i g h t e n i n g the beam when reflected
im ag es a r e re c e iv e d .
COMPUTER CRT GRAPHICS gen e ra lly u s e
t h e CRT in s till another way; the
beam i s moved around the s c r e e n in
s t r a i g h t lin e s from point to p oint.
(B etw een diffe re nt p a rts of th e p ic
t u r e the beam is d a rk e n e d , t u rn e d
v e r y low so you d on'l see i t .)
B ec au se the image on a normal
CRT fa d e s q u ic k ly , the com puter m ust
o rd i n a r i ly d ra w the p ic tu re aga in and
a g a in a n d ag a in . (Methods fo r this
a r e d is c u s s e d on p . pH 2*5.)
SPECIAL KINDS OF CATHODE-RAY TUBES
T h e CRT is n o t m erely a s ingle in v e n tio n ,
b u t an e n t i r e fam ily of in v entions. T h e o rd in a ry
CRT, w h ich we h av e d is c u s s e d , is .v ie w e d at one
e n d b y a h um an b e i n g , has an im age w hich fades
q u ic k ly , an d can h av e its flying spot d riv e n in
any k in d of r a s t e r o r p a ttern .
H e re a r e som e o th er k inds of CRT:
T h e p i c t u r e t ra n s m itte r, w hich h as d iffe re n t
v e r s io n s an d n am es: V idicon, Image O rth icon,
P lu m b ico n . e t c . THIS IS THE MAGICAL DEVICE
THAT MAKES THE TELEVISION CAMERA WORK.
AND Y ET, BY GOSH, IT'S JUST ANOTHER CRT.
Except In s te a d of th e p ic tu re coming into i t as
an e l e c tric a l s i g n a l an d out of it as an optical
im ag e, th e p i c t u r e com es into it as an optical
im age an d goes out of it as an ele ctrica l s ig n a l:
How c a n t h i s be?
T h e tu b e s i t s In sid e th s television camera-,
w hich is an o r d i n a r y cam era, lik e , With a le n s
p ro je c tin g a p i c t u r e th ro u g h a d a r k cham ber
onto a s e n s itiv e s u rf a c e . But In stea d of the
s u rf a c e b e i n g a film , the su rface is the faceplate
of a CRT w ith some k in d of a spec ial pickup
p hosphor:
T V
T h e e le c tro n b ea m , which is j u s t lik e any
o th e r ele c tro n b ea m , is made to zigzag ac ro ss
the fa ce pla te in a s ta n d a rd television r a s te r .
And th e s p e c ia l p h o s p h o r of the tube m ea sures
the b r i g h t n e s s of th e p ic tu re at the sp o t the
beam i s h ittin g . I have no idea how th is h ap
p e n s . b u t i t 's chem ical and electronical and m y s
t e r io u s , an d is b a s e d on the way the p h o s p h o r
i n te ra c ts w ith th e lig h t from erne side and the
e le c tro n s from th e o th e r sid e at the sam e tim e.
A nvhow . a m e a su rem en t s ignal comes out of the
f a ce p la te, in d ic a tin g how b rig h t the pro je cted
p ic tu re i s in th e v e r y spot the ele ctro n beam is
now h i t ti n g .
As the beam c r is s - c ro s s e s the faceplate in
the z ig -z a g television r a s te r , th e n , a continuously
c h a nging o u tp u t s ignal from the faceplate show s
the b r i g h t n e s s e s all ac ro ss lhe s u c c e s s iv e lin e s
of the sc a n .
And th at i s the television s i g n a l . T o g e th e r
with s y n ch r o n iz in g Information, i t 's w hat goes
out o v e r the a ir w a v e s , down y o u r ante n n a and
into y o u r s e t . Y our s e t, o b e y in g - th e .s y n c h ro n
izing inform ation, b rig h te n s and d a rk e n s its own
beam in p ro p o rtio n to the b rig h tn e s s of the
in d iv id u a l te e n y re g io n s of the faceplate in the
television c a m e ra . And this p ro d u c es th e s c i n
tilla tin g su rfa c e we call television.
T he co lo r tu b e is a w eird beast in d e e d .
T h e re a r e s e v e r a l ty p e s , b u t w e'll only talk
about the s im p le st (and many think the b e s t ) ,
S o n y 's T rin ilro n (T M ) tube.
T h is is an o rd in a ry CRT which h a s , i n
stea d of a uniform coating on the fa c e p la te , tiny
v e rtic a l s t r i p e s o f th re e p rim ary colors r e d ,
blue and g r e e n . (You thought the p rim ary col
o rs w e re r e d , b lu e and yellow , d id n 't y o u . If
y o u 're m ixin g pigm ents that happens lo b e t r u e .
F or some u n g odly re a s o n , h ow e ver, if y o u 'r e
m ixing l i g h t s , th e colors that yield all o th e r s
t u r n out to b e r e d , g reen and blue; it t u r n s out
that yellow lig h t can b e made oul of re d and
g re e n . If you d o n 't believe me go to a chintzy
h a r d w a r e s t o r e , get a re d and a g reen b u l b ,
t u rn 'em on an d see what happens in a w h ite -
walled room .)
At any ra tp , color television u ses a d d i
tional color s i g n a l s , and in the T rin itro n th ese
control the r e s p o n s e of the faceplate. If the
color s ignal s a y s "gre en" as the electron dot
c ro s s e s a c e rta in p a r t of the s c r e e n , the color
s ig n al tells th e g re e n s trip e s lhat t h e y 'r e free
to light up w hen h i t . If i t 's Yellow T im e, the
s ig n al tells b oth the red s trip e s and the g r e e n ,
and so side by s id e they light up red and g r e e n ,
as the beam c r o s s e s lhem , but the total effect
from m ore lh an a few inches is Yellow.
Most A m erican color TV s e t s , h o w e v e r, at
lea st u p till th is y e a r , used som ething v e r y dif*
fe re n t, s om ething en tire ly w eird called the
Shadow Mask T u b e . I'll s p a re you the p i c t u r e ,
but th e r e w e re s e v e ra l different electron beam s
often r e f e r r e d to jokingly as the " re d ele ctro n
b ea m ," " blue ele ctro n beam" snd "g re en ele ctron
b ea m ," though of c o u rse they w e re identical in
c h a ra c te r. T h e s e hit a perforated s ie v e , up
n e a r the s c r e e n , called the shadow m a s k , and
the co lo r s ig n a l tw eaked the unwanted beam s
so they did n o t h it different-colored p h o s p h o r
dots that w e re in tric a te ly a rra n g e d on th e s c r e e n .
Im s o r r y I s t a r t e d to explain th is.
Multi gu n tu b e s have more than one ele ctro n
gun and m ore th a n one electron beam . T h e y
can b e u s ed in d ifferent w ays (aside from the
old shad o w -m ask TV tu b e , mentioned a b o v e ).
F or in s ta n c e , one gun can be d riv e n in a
video r a s t e r , lo show television, while an o th e r
gun can be u s e d as a com puter d is p la y , d ra w in g
ind iv id u a l lin es w ith no re g a rd to the TV p a tte r n .
T h e sto rag e CRT comes in two flavors:
view able a n d n o n-vie w able. But w hat it does
i s v e r y neat: it holds the p ic tu re o n the scre e n .
T he m echanism s for th is a re of v a r io u s t y p e s ,
and i t 's all w e ird and e le ctro n ic, b u t the idea
is that once som ething is put on th e s creen by
the e le c tro n beam , it s tay s find s t a y s . Up to
s e v e ra l m in u te s, u s u a lly . The m ain manufac
t u r e r s a r e T e k tro n ix , P rinceton E lectronic Pro
d u c ts , a n d Hughes A ircraft; each of ihese ihree
h a s a p ro d u c t that works by a d iffe re n t melhod.
Note: T e ktronix' tu b e b u ilt in to a num
b e r of d iffe re n t com puter d is p la y s , and is re c
ognizable b y its Kelly g reen s u rf a c e . They
them selve s make complete com puter term inals
aro u n d th is scope fo r $4000 and u p , b u l lots of
o th er people put it in th e ir p ro d u c ts also. It
show s w h a te v e r has alread y bee n p u t on the
s c r e e n , an d the electron beam d o es not have to
repeat the action. However, it u s u a lly only
sta y s lit fo r about a m inute.
P rince ton Electronic P roducts (gue ss where)
is a m uch sm aller outfit, so p e r h a p s it is ap p ro
p ria te th at they make a much s m a lle r s torage
tu b e. It i s about one in ch s q u a r e at its storage
en d , a n d you d on't look at it d ire c tly . Instead,
an image can be s to red on it e ith e r w th a TV
ra s te r o r by com p u ter-d riv e n lin e d ra w in g .
After th e im age is stored on i t , th o u g h , it func
tions a s a TV cam era: the p ic tu re s to re d on the
plate can b e re ad out with a s c a n n in g ra s te r,
exactly as i f it w ere a p ictu re tra n s m itte r in a
television cam era. The P rinceton folks have
built a q u ite ex p e n siv e, b u l q uite sp le n d id ,
com plete term inal around this device: it can hold
both v ideo and com puter-draw n p i c t u r e s , s u p e r
im posed o r com bined, an d s en d s them back oul
in s ta n d a rd b lac k -an d -w h ite TV. $12000.
CRTS which b r i n g in a p ic tu re one way
(suc h as a video ra s te r) and s en d it back out
a n o th e r w ay (such as by letting a com puter
sea rc h out individual points) are ca lle d scan
c o n v e rte rs.
A w ord about this last m ethod. It is often
d es ire d by com puter people to tu r n a picture
into some form of d ata (see p . )(_,). Scan c onve r
t e r s , u s u a lly by the th re e m an u factu re rs named
above, can be hooked up to let the com puter p ro
gram p oke aro u n d in the p ictu re an d m easure the
b r i g h tn e s s of the p ictu re in a r b i tr a r y p laces.
A device w hich exam ines the b r ig h tn e s s of some
th in g in a r b i tr a r y places is called a flying spot
s c a n n e r . ) Here a re some different k in d s of
O y ing-spot scanners:
y i A c .0 i f a l f it v
I h av e h eard it said that it m ight be pos
s ib le to b u ild a CRT with a chan g ea b le m irro r
surface: th at is , the s c r e e n becomes m irro red
tem porarily w here it is b ein g hit w ith the elec
tron beam . In te restin g . T his would mean that
you could m ake com puter d isp lay s (a nd TV)
b rig h t and projectable to any d e g r e e , s s y , by
p o u rin g a s u p e r-ln te n s ity la s e r beam on it. "Be
g reat for w ritin g 'C oca-Cola' on th e m oon,'1 says
a friend of m ine. If you believe in a s tr a l p ro
jection .
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C o l o r TV T r a i n i n g M a n u a l , S a n s h C o .I
B o b b s - H e r r l l l ( $ 7 ) . I s a w e l l - i l l u s t r a t e d and
i n t e l l i g e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e TV u s e o f CRTs.
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p ro fe sso r o f A rt 1 . ADDER-MULTIPLIER. T h le c o mbinee two i n p u t D iagra m o f ho u holo g ra m i s m a d e , p . DH ?0.
a t V. o f I l l i n o i s , I c h a n n e l s , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r a e s p e c i f i e d by a t h i r d .
Ch icago C i r c l e ,
eaye v e r y u i s e A sm -
th in g s (h a v in g
been a p h y s i c i s t ) ,
;
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and ue u e r e g o in g
t o h a v e a D h o le
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b u t ob y o u ea n e e e
P

I
th e r e u a e n ' t room .
D a n i e l J . S a n d in ( p ro n ou nc ed san-DEEN) haa
epent th e l a s t s e v e r a l year* p u t t i n g to g e th e r a
d e v i c e h e c u r r e n t l y c a l l o t h e IP (Im ag e P r o c e s
so r). I t ' s a syste m o f c i r c u i t s f o r c hanging
and c o l o r i z i n g TV. What f o l l o w s I s t h e f i r s t
p u b lis h ed d e s c r i p t i o n o f I t .
I r e g r e t t h a t t h e follo w in g I s p ro b ab ly
one o f t h e D o s t d i f f i c u l t s e c t i o n s o f t h i s b o o k .
( I f you know n o t h i n g a b o u t v i d e o , r e a d E tm z n p p o ^
........ T ^ . . f i r s t . ) 01 1 6 -7
The i d e a I s b a s i c a l l y t o c r e a t e a c o m p l e t e
l y g e n e r a l i z e d s y s t e m f o r s l t e r l n g t h a c o l o r and
b r i g h t n e s s o f v i d e o im a g e s. ( I . e . , t h e s y s te m
d o e s n o t move the m on t h e s c r e e n . T hu s I t
d i f f e r s fro m t h e Computer Image l i n e o f v l d e o -
t w i a t l n g g r a p h i c s s y s t e m s , which a l t e r p o s i t i o n s
o f o b j e c t s ; s e e p . DM . Note a l s o t h a t
t'ath e r s i m i l a r f a c i l i t i e s e x i s t a s p a r t o f , e . g . ,
t h e S c a n im a te s y s t e m , f . DM 3 1 )
T h i s mean s t h a t b a s i c a l l y S a n d i n ' s s y s te m
p l a y s w i t h t h e p a r t o f t h e TV s i g n a l c a l l e d ,
o r b r i g h t n e s s ( a s d i s t i n c t from o r y , t h e s i g
n a l s f o r h o r i z o n t a l sn d v e r t i c a l movement o f t h e
S ..
Now, a s a p h y a l e i s t and f l e l d - t h e o r e t l c i a n ,
Sa nd in a p p r o a c h e d t h l e a s a pro ble m i n g e n e r a l i t y ;
an d in d e e d , t h e e t y l e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n e h o u l d b e
a p p re cia te d . S a n d i n r e p e a t e d l y c h o se f l e x i b i l i t y
and power r a t h e r t h a n o b v io u s n e s s i n t h e p a r t s he
c re ate d . The r e s u l t i n g s y s te m I s b o t h p s r s l m o n -
lo u s s n d p r o d u c t i v e .
H is f i r s t i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n was t h a t a l l
p a r t s o f t h e s y s te m sh o u ld be co m p atib le a nd i d i o t -
p r o o f , eo t h a t a n y u a er c o u ld f ri v o l o u s l y p lu g i t
t o g e t h e r a ny way a t a l l w i t h o u t b u r n i n g o u t t h e
c irc u its .
I n d e e d , S a n d i n d e c i d e d t o b u i l d i t l i k e a m u sic
s y n t h e s i z e r : by m a k in g a l l sy s te m s e l e c t r i c a l l y com
p a t i b l e ( a a t h e y a r e on t h e Moog and I t s p r o g e n y ) ,
an y s i g n a l c a n b e u a e d t o a l t e r o r I n f l u e n c e a n y
oth e r s ig n a l. T h i s i s a v e r y p r o fo u n d d e c i s i o n ,
whose f a r - f l u n g r e s u l t s h s v e n o t y e t b e e n f u l l y e x
p lo r e d e v e n among S a n d i n ' 8 r a t h e r f s n s t l c a l s t u d
e n ts .
B a s i c a l l y , t h e I nc omin g v i d e o Image i s " s t r i p
p ed" o f I t s s y n c h r o n i z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , s o t h a t a l l
s i g n a l s t u r n i n g u p i n t h e g u t s o f t h e m a c h i n e msy
b e f r e e l y m o d i f i e d . Only a t t h e f i n a l o u t p u t e t a g e
a r e t h e J o t s and t i t t l e s o f t h e v i d e o s i g n a l p u t ba ck
Thu a t h e f i r s t and l a s t b lo c k s o f t h e Image
P r o c e s s o r a c t l i k e b o o k e n d s , b etw ee n w h ic h t h e o t h e r
m od ules h a v e t h e i r f u n . The f i r s t b l o c k ma kes t h e
in c o m in g s i g n a l i n t o " n a k e d " v i d e o , t h e l a a t b l o c k
d r e s s e s i t up r e s p e c t a b l y a g a i n .
, Hfvr ei-oct. Sxot eSU .
I, DUYPv'Tm
The c h a n n e l A I n p u t s a r e a d ded t o g e t h e r and- Mul
t i p l i e d by C; t h e c h a n n e l B I n p u t s a r e a d d e d t o g e t h e r
a n d m u l t i p l i e d by t h e r e v e r s e o f Cj b o t h r e s u l t s a r e
a d d e d t o make t h e o u t p u t . (NOTE: t h i s u n i t I s u se d
among o t h e r t h i n g s , f o r f a d e s an d k e y i n g . )
2 . COMPARATOR. T h le i s l i k e K o d e l i t h f ilm , m a k
i n g a n im a ge I n t o s t a r k b l s c k an d w h i t e . I t s o u tp u t
l e p u r e b l a c k o r w h i t e . One I n p u t S i g n a l ( t h e v id e o )
l a co m par ed w i t h a n o t h e r I n p u t s i g n a l ( r e f e r e n c e l e v e l ,
o th e r v id e o , w h atev e r).
W hile one l a g r e a t e r t h e o u t p u t g o e s a l l b l a c k ,
and w h ile th e o th e r I s g re a te r I t goes a l l w h ite .
3 . VALUE SCRAMBLER. T h le I s a s i n g l e module
d iv id i n g th e p ic tu r e in to e ig h t le v e l s . I t msy be
th o u g h t o f as e i g h t o f th e sbove c o m p arato rs, d i v i d
i n g t h e b r i g h t n e s s s p e c tr u m by qu antum j u m p s . The
f l o o r and c e l l i n g of th e s i g n a l t o be d iv id e d a re
s p e c i f i e d by t h e two c o n t r o l c h a n n e l s , b u t t h e d i v i d
i n g l i n e e b e tw ee n them a r e t h e n a u t o m a t i c a l l y d e t e r
m in e d . Eac h c o r r e s p o n d i n g o u t p u t l e v e l n a y be co n
t r o l l e d by a k nob.
T hu s from a r a n g e o f I n p u t v a l u e s , we g ee an
o u t p u t s t e p - f u n c t i o n e a c h o f whose b r i g h t n e s s e s I s I n
d iv id u a lly a d ju sta b le.
N o te t h a t th e e e d e v i c e s may be a r r a n g e d In
p a r e l l e l , t h u s d i v i d i n g th e b r i g h t n e s s s p e c tr u m I n t o
a s many l e v e l s a s d e e l r e d .
4 . OSCILLATOR MODULE ( v e r y u n u s u a l ) . S a n d l n ' s
o s c i l l a t o r s a r e v o l t s g e c o n t r o l l e d . J u s t l i k e t h e ones
i n m u sic s y n t h e s i z e r s . However, i f g i v e n any k in d of
a sy n c s i g n a l , t h e y l o c k i n t o t h e n e a r e s t m u l t i p l e
(o r s u b m u ltip le ) w ith in th e s p e c if ie d ran g e . (But
t h e n t h e c o n t r o l s i g n a l , i f a n y , tw eak e i t h i g h e r o r
l o w e r . ) S t a n d a r d i z e d o u t p u t c o o e s i n s i n e , s q u a r e and
sa w tooth.
rtOtfiQBW W .,.
V uA
H o lo g r a p h y i e on e o f t h o s e M o d e m M i r a c l e s
t h a t we r e a l l y c a n ' t g e t i n t o . I t le m in d -b lo w in g .
I n f l u e n t i a l , and o f u n c l e a r i m p o r t a n c e .
T h e o r e t i c a l l y p r e d i c t e d by D e n n is G a b o r, t h e
h o lo g r a m ( C r e e k "whole p i c t u r e " ) w as f i n a l l y ma de
t o w ork i n t h e l a t e f l f t l e e b y L e i t h a n d U p a t n l e k s .
S in c e th e n dozens o f o th e r ty p e s o f h o lo g ra m s h a v e
been e xperim e nted w ith , in c lu d in g c o l o r h o lo g r a m s ,
m o vie h o l o g r a m s , v i d e o h o l o g r a m s , a u d i o h o l o g r a m s
a n d g r a c i o u s know w h a t .
B a s i c a l l y a h o lo g r am i s an a l l - a r o u n d p i c t u r e .
I t d o e a n 't lo o k l i k e a p i c t u r e , b u t lo o k s l i k e a
smudged f i n g e r p r i n t o r o t h e r m l a t a k e o f some k i n d .
Y et i t i s a m a rv e l.
A b a s i c ho lo g r am ( a c t u a l l y i t s h o u l d be
c a l l e d a l a s e r ho lo g r am o r L e i t h - D o a t n l e k a h o l o
g r a m , b u t w e ' v e no ti m e f o r s u c h d i s t i n c t i o n s )
I s o n e o f t h e s e smudgy p i c t u r e s w h i c h , w h en v i e w e d
u n d e r a p r o p e r l a s e r s e t u p , s h o w s y ou a t h r e e -
d i m e n s i o n a l p i c t u r e . Worse t h a n t h a t : a s y o u move
your head, th e p ic tu r e changes c o r r e s p o n d i n g ly .
I t l o o k s , no t l i k e the f l a t s u r f a c e l e 1 s , b u t l i k e
a l l t - u p box w i t h a model I n i t .
What d o e s t h e h o lo g r am do? A c t u a l l y i t r e
c r e a t e s , n o t a s i n g l e vie w , bu t th e e n t i r e t a n g l e
of l i g h t r a y s t h a t a r e r e f l e c t e d fro m t h e r e a l o b
je c t. Even down t o b r i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s , w h i c h
s c i n t i l l a t e i n t h e u s u a l way, a e f ro m c h ro m i u m .
The o n l y p r o b le m : o r d i n a r i l y t h e y h a v e t o b e .
u s e d w i t h l a s e r l i g h t , w h ic h I s s p o o k l l y o n e -
c o lo re d .
N o te e fro m a l l o v e r : a r t a t y l l s t S a l v a d o r D a l i
p r e s i d e d s t an u n v e i l i n g o f " t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t 3 6 0
h o lo g r a m " a t a New York g a l l e r y n o t l o n g a g o . The
a u b j e c t was s o n g s t y l i s t A l i c e C o o p e r .
The H au nt ed House a t D is n e y W orl d I n F l o r i d a
w i l l r i d e you th r o u g h a b u i l d i n g f u l l o f h o l o g r a m s .
T h a t ' s one wsy t o move t h r o u g h g h o s t s , a l l r i g h t .
T h e r e i e a New York S c h o o l o f H o l o g r a p h y .
6. FUNCTION GENERATOR. T h i s d e v i e e i s h a r d e s t t o
e x p l a i n . L e t ' s do I t I n te rm s o f t h a t f i r s t m o d u l e , t h e
A d d e r - M u l t l p l l e r . Know how t h e A d d e r - M u l t l p l l e r p u t s o u t
e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e o r a n e g a t i v e p i c t u r e , d e p e n d i n g on
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For
F o r t h e sa a k e o f cr l a r i t yv we w i l l r e f e r t o t h e
n e s s e s i n t o t h r e e r a n g e s , and m u l t i p l i e s e a c h r a n g e p o a l -
o u tp u ts a s p i c t u r e s , o r a s b la c k , w h ite o r g re y ,
t i v e c n e g a t i v e . I n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s own k no b s e t t i n g .
wh ic h t h e y w o u ld b e i f t h e y wen t s t r a i g h t o u t t o a
s c r e e n ; b u t t h e y may b e t u r n e d ba ck i n t o t h e s y s t e a The two p la n n ed u s e s w ere A) w i t h s s y n c , t o
g e n e r a t e f i x e d p a t t e r n s , sn d B) w i t h o u t a a y n c , to T hu s t h e combined s e t t i n g o f t h e t h r e e k n o b s g e n e r a t
and f u n c t i o n a s i n p u t a a a w e l l . " W h it e " me ans + . 5
g e n e r a t e m ovable p a t t e r n s . I f b o t h i n p u t s a r e u s e d , es a " f u n c t i o n , " o r c u r v e , from t h e e l o p e a o f t h e I n d i v i d
v o l t s , " b l s c k " m e ans - . 5 v o l t s .
i t b eco me e s s tu b b o r n l o c k - o n v o l t a g e - c o n t r o l l e d o s u a l s e t t i n g s . See g r a p h . What in p h o to g r a p h y I s e a l l e d
c i l l a t o r , w hic h t e n d s to g r a b a t p a s s i n g s u b w l t l p l e s . " e o l e r l z e t l o n " r e p r e s e n t s J u s t one o f t h a a e c o m b in e d s e t
L e t u s c o n s i d e r , t h e n . S a n d in s m o d u le s a n d w hat
t i n g s . The o t h e r s s r e na m elea s.
t h a y do i n d i v i d u a l l y t o t h e b r i g h t n e s s s i g n a l z_.
C o m b in a t io n s a r e be yo nd t h e eco pe o f t h i s a r t i c l e 5 . DIFFEREHTIATOR. B a s i c a l l y t h i s s e e s ed gee In
t h e p i c t u r e , o r s n y o t h e r p a r t o f a s c a n - l i n e whose
What Dan ' a p r o c e s s o r c o lo r i s c hanging. I t s ou tp u t i s p r o p o rt io n a l to
c a n do t o t e l e v i s i o n change o c c u r ri n g in th e b r ig h tn e e e of a s c a n - l i n e ,
i s not to be b e lie v e d . Ae t h e i n p u t g o e s from b l a c k t o w h i t e i t s o u t p u t i s
l i g h t ; a s t h a I n p u t go es from w h i t e t o b l a c k i t s o u t
S a va g e c o l o r s o r put ia d a rk . (Tbs i n p u t h o le s e l e c t e d d e t e r m i n e s th e
d e lic a te o ff- w h ite s , amount o f m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . )
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7. COLOR ENCODER MODULE. T h is I s t h e l a s t b l o c k .

I n t o i t go t h r e e s i g n a l s , t h e d e s i r e d r e d , b l u e e n d g r e e t
and o u t cornea e t a n d a r d BTSC v id e o .

$J> Y E u e n s N i^ s
" I e i n g t h e b o d y e l e a t r i e . . . " W a lt W hitman
T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s p e o p l e who w a n t t o a t
tach e l e c t r o n i c s t o p e o p l e 's b o d ie s and b r a i n s .
T h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y tw o s t a r t i n g p o i n t s
for th is a m b itio n . On e i s a u t h o r i t a r i a n , t h e
o th er is a l t r u i s t i c . 1 an not sure b o th sch o o ls
a re n o t e q u a l l y d a n g e r o u s , how ever.
L e ts c o n s i d e r f i r s t the a u t h o r i t a r i a n s .
P ro f. D e lg a d o o f Y a le h a s d e m o n s tra te d t h a t any
c r e a t u r e ' s b e h a v i o r c a n be c o n t r o l l e d by j o l t s '
to th e b r a i n . D elgado has d e a lt e s p e c ia lly w ith
the n e g a t i v e c i r c u i t s o f t h e b r a i n , t h a t i s ,
p la c e s w h e re a n e l e c t T i c & l im pulse c a u s e s p a i n
(or " n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t " ) . In D e lg a d o 's
n o st s t u n n i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n , he sto p p e d a c h a r
ging b u l l w i t h j u s t a te e n y r a d i o s i g n a l . En
t h u s i a s t i c a l l y D e l g a d o t e l l s u s how f i n e t h i s
s o r t o f t h i n g w ould b e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g U n d e s ir
a b l e Human B e h a v i o r , t o o .
Now, l e t ' s c o n s i d e r j u s t w h a t w e ' r e t a l k i n g
about. I n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s , n e e d l e s a r e im
p lanted i n th e c r e a t u r e 's b ra in . T his can i n
volve re m o v in g a s e c t i o n o f th e s k u l l , o r i t can
be don e m e r e l y b y h a m m e rin g a lo n g h o l l o w n e e d l e
s t r a i g h t i n t o t h e s k u l l and th u s t h e b r a i n .
T h e r e s e a r c h e r , o r w h a t e v e r we w a n t t o c a l l
h i m , h a d b e t t e r kn o w w h a t h e i s d o i n g . But due
to th e r e m a r k a b l e m ass a c t i o n o f th e b r a i n , th e
d e s tr u c tio n c a u s e d by such n eed les w i l l have n o t
ob serv ab le e f f e c t s i f done p ro p e rly .
T he h o l l o w n e e d l e , o n c e i n p l a c e , b e c o m e s a
tube f o r s h i e l d e d e l e c t r i c a l w i r e s , w hose b a r e
m e t a l l i c t i p s may t h e n b e u s e d t o c a r r y l i t t l e
e l e c t r i c a l j o l t s , t o w hatever b ra in tis s u e is
re a c h e d b y t h e t i p o f t h e n e e d l e , w h e n e v e r t i n y
sig n als a re a p p lie d .
Now t h e r e a r e r e g i o n s o f t h e b r a i n , d i s t r i
buted i r r e g u l a r l y th r o u g h i t s m y ste rio u s c o n t e n t s ,
w h ic h a r e l o o s e l y c a l l e d t h e " p l e a s u r e " a n d
"p ain " s y s t e m s . They a re c a lle d th a t b ecau se o f
w ha t t h e o r g a n i s m d o e s w he n y o u j o l t i t i n t h o s e
p laces. (We d o n o t kn o w w h e t h e r j o l t s t o t h e s e
areas r e a l l y c a u s e p l e a s u r e or p a in , because
t h e s e t h i n g s h a v e n ' t b e e n d o n e t o huma n b e i n g s .
Y et. The c r e a t u r e s i t h a s b e e n done t o c a n ' t
t e l l u s j u s t how i t f e e l s ; t h u s " p l e a s u r e " a n d
"p ain " a r e i n q u o t a t i o n m arks. For now .)
Anyway, w h a t h a p p e n s i s t h i s . I f you s t i m
u la te a c r e a t u r e i n t h e " p a in " sy stem i t te n d s to
sto p w hat i t i s d o i n g - - t h i s i s c a l l e d n e g a tiv e
r e i n f o r c e m e n t - - a n d i f you s t i m u l a t e i t i n t h e
p l e a s u r e s y s t e m , i t t e n d s t o d o m o re o f w h a t i t
was d o i n g . P o s i t i v e rein fo rcem en t.
Now, t o s o m e p e o p l e t h i s sug g ests w onderful
p o ssib ilitie s.
D elgado, f o r i n s t a n c e , b e lie v e s th a t t h i s
t e c h n o l o g y g i v e s u s e v e r y t h i n g we n e e d f o r t h e
co n tro l o f A n t i - S o c i a l T endencies. C rim inals,
p s y c h o p a t h s a n d B a d G uy s l n g e n e r a l - - a l l c a n b e
e f f e c t i v e l y " c u r e d " ( i . e . , p u t on t h e i r b e s t b e
havior) by t h e s e te c h n iq u e s . A l l we h a v e t o d o ,
he h h e h , i s g e t i n t o t h e i r h e a d s , h e h h e h , h a b i t s
of p ro p e r b e h a v i o r . And w i t h t h e s e ne w t e c h n i q u e s
o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t , w e c a n r e a l l y t e a c h 'e m .
U n fo rtu n ately D elgado is p ro b a b ly r i g h t .
In p r i n c i p l e t h i s i s j u s t a d r a s t i c form o f
b e h a v io r c o n t r o l on t h e B .F. S k in n e r model ( d e p i c
ted a l s o i h N i n e t e e n E ig h t y - F o u r and A C lockw ork
Orange) , T h e n e w s y s t e m i s m or e s t a r l t a n d s t a r t
lin g because o f i t s v io la tio n of the in d iv id u a l's
body i n t e r i o r , b u t n o t i n p r i n c i p l e d i f f e r e n t .
S k i n n e r h a s t h e sa m e n a i v e , s i m p l e m i n d e d s o l
u tions f o r e v e r y th in g . A l l " w e" h a v e t o d o - -
u s in g "w e" t o m ean s o c i e t y , t h e good g u y s , good
g uy s a c t i n g o n b e h a l f o f s o c i e t y , e t c . - - i s c o n
t r o l t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e bad g u y s, and e v e r y t h i n g
w i l l be b e t t e r , a n d "w e" can a c c o m p lish a n y t h i n g
"we" d e s i r e .
T h e r e a d e r ma y s e e s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s w i t h t h i s .
In t h e f i r s t p l a c e (and th e l a s t ) , t h e r e i s
t h e o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n o f who we a r e , a n d i f we a r e
g o i n g t o c o n t r o l o t h e r p e o p l e , who i s g o i n g t o
c o n tro l u s.
A t a t i m e w h e n o u r " h i g h e s t " l e a d e r s sh o w
t h e a s e l v e s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h low r e t a l i a t i o n s a n d
l o w e r i n i t i a t i v e s , we c a n w o n d e r i n d e e d i f i t i s
n o t more i m p o r t a n t t o p r e v e n t anyone f r o a e v e r
g e t t i n g t h i s k i n d o f c o n t r o l o v e r humans t h a n t o
fa c ilita te it.
Even i f t h a t w e r e n 't a p ro b le m , t h e r e i s th e
moTe s i m p l e m i n d e d q u e s t i o n o f who i n t h e e x i s t i n g
sy s te m w ould u s e such t e c h n i q u e s . I t tu rn s o u t,
o f c o u r s e , t h a t th e y w ould b e added t o w h at i s
la u g h a b ly c a l l e d the C o r r e c tio n a l S y ste m , o r even
mo re l a u g h a b l y c a l l e d t h e J u s t i c e S y s t e m . A ll
t h e s a d i s t s you c o u ld p o s s i b l y w ant work t h e r e .
(And n o d o u b t so m e v e r y n i c e g u y s - - b u t e x p e r i
ments h a v e d e m o n s tr a te d h o r r i f i c a l l y t h a t d e c e n t
p e o p le , tu rn e d in to " guards" even f o r a s h o r t tim e,
a d o p t t h e p a t t e r n s o f b r u t a l i t y we h a v e known f r om
tim e im m em o rial.)
S o , l i k e t r u n c h e o n s and e l e c t r i c s h o c k t h e r
apy and s o l i t a r y c o n f in e m e n t and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e ,
th e se te c h n iq u e s - - i f they a re u s e d -- w i l l e n te r
th e re a lm o f A v a ila b le P u n ish m en ts, n o t to be used
w ith c l i n i c a l p r e c is io n b u t w ith g r a tu ito u s ly b ru
t a l i z i n g i n t e n t , new t o o l s f o r p u n i t i v i t y a n d
sadism . The " c o r r e c t i o n a l " sy stem w o u ld hav e to
be m a g ic a lly c o r r e c te d i t s e l f b e f o r e s u c h t o o ls
c o u ld b e em p lo y ed w ith o u t sim p ly m aking th in g s
w orse. And t h e p r o s p e c t i s n o t g o o d .
Such sc h e m e s grow, o f c o u r s e , from a c a r i c a
t u r e o f t h e m a l e f a c t o r - - t h i n k i n g h i m t o b e some
s o r t o f m i s w i r e d c i r c u i t , r a t h e r t h a n a huma n b e i n g
c a u g h t up i n a n g e r , p a i n , h u m i l i a t i o n a n d une m
p lo y m e n t.
(T h ere a r e a ls o a l o t o f c a n a rd s a b o u t Free
W i l l , b u t t h e s e d o n o t h i n g f o r e i t h e r s i d e i n t h i s
c o n tro v e rsy .)
NEW FACULTIES
S t a r t i n g fro m an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t o u t l o o k ,
v a r i o u s d e s i g n e r s and b i o - e n g i n e e r s a r e t r y i n g
t o a d d t h i n g s t o t h e human b o d y a n d n e r v o u s s y s
te m , f o r t h e v o l u n t a r y b e n e f i t o f t h e r e c i p i e n t .
A num ber o f r e s e a r c h and d e v e lo p m e n t e f f o r t s
a r e aim ed a t h e l p i n g th o s e w ith s e n s o r y i m p a ir
m e n ts, and e l e c t r o n i c s o b v io u sly i s g o in g to
in v o lv ed .
An e x a m p l e : a f i r m c a l l e d L i s t e n i n g , I n c .
i n B o s t o n , f o u n d e d b y Wayne B a t t e a u (whom J o h n W.
C a m p b e l l c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e G r e a t Men o f O ur
T im e), d e v ise d a sy ste n fo r h elp in g th e t o t a l l y
deaf to h ear. Sup p o sed ly t h i s c o u ld t r a n s m i t the
a c tu a l s e n s a tio n o f hearing in to the nervous s y s
tem b y s om e s c a r c e l y - u n d e r s t o o d f o r m o f e l e c t r i
cal in d u c tio n . Th e m a c h i n e w as s o l d o f f ; w h e t h e r
i t e v e r g o t a s a f e t y r a t i n g I d o n ' t k n ow .
T h is i s t h e s o r t o f th in g p e o p le w ould l i k e
to do f o r t h e b l i n d , as w e l l .
Now, i n p r i n c i p l e , i t m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e t o
t r a n s m i t a n i m a g e i n some way t o t h e a c t u a l v i s
ual area of the cerebral cortex. ( T h is m ight or
m ig h t n o t i n v o l v e opening th e s k u l l . ) S o m e b o d y 's
w o r k i n g on i t .
In a r e l a t e d t r e n d , numerous d e s i g n groups
a re a t t e m p t i n g t o ex te n d th e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f the
huma n b o d y , b y m e a n s o f t h i n g s v a r i o u s l y c a l l e d
p o s s u m s . w a ld o e s and t e l e f a c t o r s .
"Possum s" (from L a tin " I can") a r e d e v ic e s
t o a i d t h e h a n d i c a p p e d i n m o v i n g , g r a s p i n g an d
co n tro llin g . W h atev er m o tio n s th e p e r s o n can
ma ke a r e e l e c t r o n i c a l l y t r a n s p o s e d t o w h a t e v e r
realm o f c o n t r o l i s needed, such as t y p e w r itin g
or gu id in g a w h e e lc h a ir. ("W aldo" i s H e i n l e i n ' s
term f o r a possum t h a t can be o p e r a te d a t a d i s
ta n c e .)
I n t h e s p a c e p r o g r a m , t h o u g h , t h e y c a l l th e m
telefa c to rs. A t e l e f a c t o r i s a d e v ic e w hich con
v e r t s o r a d a p t s b o d y mo ve m e nt s by m a g n i f i c a t i o n
o r rem ote m im ick in g . U nlike possum s, th e y are
m e a n t t o b e o p e r a t e d by p e o p l e w i t h n o r m a l f a c u l
t i e s , b u t t o p r o v i d e , f o r exam ple, superhum an
s tr e n g th : c r a d le d in a la r g e r t e l e f a c t o r body, a
man c a n p i c k u p imm en se l o a d s , a s t h e m o v e m e n t s
o f h i s a r m s a r e c o n v e r t e d t o t h e m o v e m e n ts o f t h e
g r e a t e r r o b o t arm s.
T e l e f a c t o r s c a n a l s o w o r k f r o m f a r , f a r a w a y.
T h u s a man s i t t i n g i n a b o o t h c a n c o n t r o l , w i t h t h e
m o v e m e n t s o f h i s own a r m s , t h e a r t i f i c i a l a r m s o f
a r o b o t v e h i c l e on a n o th e r p l a n e t .
( T h is w h o le realm o f s e n s o ry and m o to r mechan
i c s an d t r a n s p o s i t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f
w h a t I c a l l " F a n t i c s , " d i s c u s s e d on p p . M y S - fr ).
T h e n t h e r e a r e t h o s e wh o , l i k e How W a c h s p r e s s
( s e e n e a r b y ) , w a n t t o expand m an 's s e n s e s beyond
t h e o r d i n a r y , i n t o new s e n s o r y r e a l m s , b y h o o k i n g
him t o v a r i o u s e l e c t r o n i c s .
THOUGHTS
T h e r e a r e two p r o b l e m s i n a l l o f t h i s . The
f i r s t n n d w o r s t , o f c o u r s e , i s who c o n t r o l s a n d
w h a t w ^; .' h o l d t h e m b a c k f r o m t h e m o s t e v i l d o i n g s .
R e c e n t h i s t o r y , b o t h a t home a n d a b r o a d , s u g g e s t s
the answ ers a r e d isc o u ra g in g .
The s e c o n d p ro b le m , w i s p i s h and t h e o r e t i c a l
n e x t t o t h a t o t h e r , is w h e th e r in t u r n i n g tow ard
b i z a r r e new p l e a s u r e s a n d i n v o l v e m e n t s , we w i l l n o t
l o s e t r a c k o f a l l t h a t i s hu m a n . (O f c o u r s e t h i s
i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t i s a s k e d b y so m e b o d y w h e n e v e r
a n y th in g a t a l l changes. Bu t t h a t d o e s n ' t mean i t
i s alw ays i n a p p r o p r i a t e .)
I n t h e f a c e b o t h o f p o t e n t i a l e v i l a n d d e hu m
a n i z a t i o n , t h o u g h , we c a n w i s h t h e r e w e r e some
b o u n d a r y , so m e g o o d a n d c o n s p i c u o u s s t o p p i n g p l a c e
a t w h i c h t o s a y : no f u r t h e r , l i k e t h e t h r e e - m i l e
l i m i t i n ' i n t e r n a t i o n a l law o f o l d . 1 personally
t h i n k i t s h o u ld be th e huaan s k i n . Perhaps th a t's
o l d - f a s h i o n e d , b e i n g lo n g b re a c h e d by t h e P a c e
m aker. B u t w h a t o t h e r l i n e s c a n we d r a w ?
The p r o s p e c t s a r e h o r r o r s h o w , me d r o o g i e s .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T .D . S t e r l i n g , E .A . B e r i n g , J r . , s . v . P o l l a c k
a n d H. V augha n, J r . , V i s u a l P r o s t h e s i s !
T he I n t a r d i g<p<-Y D i a l o g . ACM
M o n o g r a p h . $21.
PSVC^O-ACDOSTld J>|Lj)0HICS
I o rig in a lly h a d n 't in t e n d e d to inclu de a n y
t h i n g lik e thia ln th e b o o k , w a n ti n g It to b e a
f am ily - st yl e ac c e ss catalog a n d all tha t, b u t this
p a r t i c u l a r item see ms fa ir ly I m p or ta nt .
Re member how we la u g h e d at the O rgasmo-
i r o n ln Woody Alle n's Sl ee pe r ? Well, it tu r n s
o u t not to b e a joke .
An in div idu al named How (not Howard)
W a c hs pr e a s, e le c t r o n ic k e r - in - r e a l d e n c e at a San
F r a n c is c o r a di o st ati on , ha s b e e n de ve lop ing juat
t h a l . ex c e pt th at he ha s more e le va te d pu rp o se s
ln m in d. Th e se c r e t w as b r o k e n to the world
i n Oul ma gazine e a r l i e r thle y e a r ; bu t He fner,
th e p u b l i s h e r , e vi de ntl y h e ld b a c k the more
s t a r t l i n g p h o to gr ap h s of a mod el In el ec tn m lc all y-
in d u c e d ec sta ay .
Wach spr es s' d ev ice s tr a n s p o s e sou nd (aa
a u d io si gn a ls ) into fe e lin gs ; y o u touch yo u r
b o d y wi th an o p e n - e n d e d t u b e o r o th er soft
f i x t u r e atta ch ed to h is d e v i c e - - whic h in tu rn
ie atta che d to a hi-f i.
T h e se n sa ti o n s , it is c la i m e d , a re p ro
f o u n d and moving. You may ta k e them an yw h e re
on y o u r body; the effect la d e e p l y r e la x in g and
emotionally e n g r o a si n g . W a c h s p r e s s th in ks he
h a s r e a c he d an e n ti r e ne u ro lo g ic a l syste m that
w a s n 't known b ef or e, much l i k e Olds' di sco ve ry
o f th e " pl e a su r e c e nt e r " in th e b r a in ; he a ee s it
a s a new modality of e x p e r i e n c e a nd a g e n e r al
iz a tio n of music an d t o u c h . T h a t la the main
p o in t . "H yp e r -r e al ity " is w h e r e he s s y s It gels
you: a point cu r io u s ly c o n g r u e n t with the a u th or 's
o w n notions of h yp e r t e x t a n d h y p e r m e di a aa e x
t e n s io n s of the mental life.
T hi a s a id , we can c o n s i d e r the p ru ri e n t
a s p e c t s of W ac hsp re ss' A udl tac a nd Telelac de vi-
c e s (which he in te nd s to m a r k e t In a couple of
y e a r s as h i- fi ac c e s so r ie s , b ' g o s h ) . When
p l a y e d with the ri g h t au di o , in the rig h t p lacea,
a n d a good op e r a t o r at th e c o n tr o la , they pro vid e
a s e x u a l e x pe r ie nc e sa id to b e o f a high o r d e r .
W a ch spr ess ' wor k tie s in i n te r e s tin gl y with
t o d a y 's "a w a re n e ss " movement, o f which Esalen
i s th e sp ir itu a l c e n t e r , w hi ch h o ld s that we have
gott en oul of (ouch with o u r b o d i e s , o u r fee lings,
o u r n a tiv e p e rc e pt io ns . As s u c h , the Wachapreas
m a c hi ne s may b e an unf o ld ln g- m e c ha nt sm for the
u n fe e l i n g ti ght ne ss of M o d e m M a n - - as well as
a l e s s profo und treatment for " m a ri ta l difficulties"
a n d W hy -C a n 't- Jo h n ny -C o m e -L a te ly .
In sc ru ta b le San F r an c is c o! Wachapreas
g a v e a nu m be r of d e m on s tr a tio ns o f his devices
in Bay A r e a c h u r c h e s , until h e beca me d is t u r b e d
at Immodest u se s of the p ro b e b y female communi
c a n t s who h ad stood In lin e to t r y the machine.
( Audltac . L t d . . Dept. CLB,
1940 Wash ing ton S t . .
San F r a n c is c o CA 94109.)
H a r r y M e n d e l l , a g o o d f r i e n d o f m i n e , r i g g e d an
i n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t w h i l e h e w a s s t i l l l n h i g h BCho ol.
He u a e d a l i t t l e H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d m l n i c w p u t e r , w h ic h
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r had g e n e r o u s l y l o a n e d t o h i s K n i g h t s o f
C olu m b u s C om p u ter C l u b o f K a d d o n f i e l d , N . J .
H a r r y ho o k e d t h e H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d up t o a CRT d i s p l a y
(see p p . t h e t o p o f t h e CRT. f o l l o w i n g
h i s p ro g ra m , th e c o a p u te r c o n t in u o u s ly d i s p l a y e d th e l e t
te r s o f th e a lp h a b e t. A l i t t l e m a rk e r (ca lle d a c u rs o r)
w o u ld a k i p a l o n g u n d e r n e a t h t h e l e t t e r s , a c t i n g a s a m a r
k e r f o r e a c h o f th e m i n t u r n .
H a r r y r i g g e d o n e more e x t e r n a l d e v i c e : a s e t o f e l e c -
tro d ea . T h e s e w ould be s t r a p p e d , h a r m l e s s l y , co t h e h e a d
of a s u b je c t. H a r r y s c o a p u te r p ro g ra m u se d th e a e e l e c -
t r o d e a t o M a a u r e a l p h a r h y th m , o n e o f t h e a y s t e r i o u a
p u la e a l n th e b r a in th a t cone and g o .
E v e r y tim e t h e s u b j e c t f l a s h e d a l p h a , H a r r y s p r o g ra m
w o u ld c o p y t h e l e t t e r a b o v e t h e c u r s o r t e t h e b o tto m o f
th e sc re e n .
S i t t i n g ln t h i s r i g , s u b je c t s w ere a b le to le a r n ,
r a t h e r q u i c k l y , TO TYPE WORDS AND SENTENCES. J u a t b y
f l a s h i n g a l p h a rh y th m w hen t h e c u r s o r w as u n d e r t h e r i g h t
le tte rs .
J u b i l a n t , H a r r y show ed t h i s s e t u p t o a n e n l n e n t n e u r o
p h y s io l o g is t f r a g re a t u n iv e r s ity nearby, a nan s p e c ia l
i z i n g i n e l e c t r o d e ho ok up e. H arry w as a h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n t
and d i d n o t u n d e rs ta n d a b o u t P r o f e e s l o n a l l s a .
W h a t's s o g r e a t a b o u t t h a t ? a n i f f e d th e em in e n t
p ro fe ssio n a l. " I can ty p e f a s t e r . *
So H a rry d rop ped t h a t and w e n t on t o o t h e r s t u f f *
O il
FTOtVCE Pg>Clkfe-
"Picture processing" ia an important technology,
largely separate from the reat of computer graphics.
It meana taking an incoming picture, usually a photo
graph, and doing something to it. (Some now call this
area computer pictoricB.1)
Flrat of all, there ia image enhancement. Thia
meana taking pictures, dividing them into points whose
brightness is separately measured,and then using spec
ial techniques for making the picture better. To
people familiar with photography, this may seem im
possible; to photographers it is a maxim that photographs
always lose quality at each step. Nevertheless, various
mathematical techniques such as Fourier Analysis (men
tioned elsewhere) do just that, producing a new data
structure improving on the original data. Surfaces ap
pear smoother, edges sharper.
(These techniques have been extensively used to
clean up photographs sent back from our unmanned apace
vehicles both those used exploring other planets and
those spying on our own see Secret Sentries in Space.
Bibliography.)
Then there are recognizers programs that look at
the data structure from sn Input picture, and try to
discern the lines, corners and other features of the
picture. (Uhile your eye lnstsntly sees these things,
computers do not, and must look at the dots of a picture
one'-by-one. How to analyze pictures In such tedious se
quences Is no simple matter.)
For recognizing more complex objects in pictures
boxes, spheres, faces or whatever more complex struc-
ture-analyzing programs are necessary. As the possibil
ities of what might be in a picture Increase, these in
creasingly become guessing programs. (This becomes a
branch of artificial intelligence, a misleading term for
a curious field, discuBsedonjANZ'fY.)
Numerous cooputer people think it la important to
match up our computer graphic display systems (described
Variously on this side of the book) to image input sys-
tema. This 1s a matter of taste.
T h ese a r e a l l b a s i c a l l y t e c h n i q u e s f o r m ak in g a
d a ta s tr u c tu r e . A ny d a t a s t o r e d i n c o a p u t e r s m u s t h a v e ,
o f c o u r s e , a d a t a s t r u c t u r e w h ic h b a s i c a l l y m eane a n y
a rran g e m e n t o f i n f o r m a t io n you c h o o se, ( e e e p . 2 6 _<f . )
These various techniques are Intended to create re
duced data structures, recording only the 'most impor
tant" data of the picture from which new and varying
pictures may be created, reflecting the "true" structures
originally shown in the initial picture. How much it's
going to be possible to create these data structures
from input pictures remains to be seen*, some of us think
its not going to be generally worthwhile.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Azrlel Rosenfeld, "Progress ln Picture Processing
1969-71." ACM Computing Surveys June 73,
81-100.
Ken Knowlton and Leon Harmon, "Computer-Produced
Grey Scales." Computer Graphics and Image
Processing. April 72, 1-20.
Philip J. (Class, Secret Sentries in Space. Random,
1971, $8. Interesting general book on geopo
litical strategy and orbital photoreconnais-
aance. "Now-it-can-be-told" approach.
SA t u u t e p ic t u r e o r
-ibOR own HOHt Q50NTY,
OR.
Y o u can get pictures of
any area you want from ERTS
(Earth Resources O b s e r v a t i o n
Systems) satellites, from
EROS Data Center (no, not a
d ating service, see p. )*
S ioux Falls SD 57198, or call
605/594 -6511 bet. 7 AM 6 PM
central time.
11A n r *
fc M K * M IT D K |
K e n n e th K n o w lto n i s a B e ll L a b s l i f e r .
T a l l , p a t r i c i a n a n d g r a c i o u s , h is w o r k , li k e
S u t h e r l a n d 's , s h o w s t h e i n n e r l i g h t o f u n i f y i n g
in te l l i g e n c e . H e w o r k s in M a x M a th e w s ' s e c ti o n
o f B e ll L a b e a t M u r r a y H ill , w h e r e t h e y d o a ll
t h a t i n t e r e s t i n g s t u f f w i th m u s i c a n d p e r c e p t u a l
p s y c h o l o g y a n d s o o n . D u r i n g th e l a s t d e c a d e ,
K n o w llo n h a s t u r n e d o u t v a s t q u a n t i t i e s o f a r t
i c l e s , p r o c e s s e d p i c t u r e s , m o v i e s , a n d a c tu a l
c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s ; w h i le a n y o r d i n a r y m a n
w o u ld b e s a t i s f i e d to b e s o p r o d u c t i v e , a p p a r
e n tl y h e d o e s a l o t o f o t h e r t h i n g s in h i s w o r k
Knoulton and Leon Hannon have done a th a t h e d o e s n 't t a l k a b o u t .
lo t o f experim ents w ith p ic tu r e con
version (eee b ib lio g r a p h y ). Here ie Som e o f K n o w lt o n 's b e s t - k n o w n w o r k
a phone made i n to teeny p a tte rn s h a s b e e n in p ic tu r e p r o c e s s i n g , w h e r e h e h a s
(ahoun around). (^ K n o v lto n & Harmon.
c o n v e r t e d p h o t o g r a p h s i n to m o s a ic s o f tin y
p a t t e r n s w h ic h n e v e r t h e l e s s sh o w t h e o r i g i n a l .
%
H is f i r s t w i d e l y - k n o w n l a n g u a g e w a s
BEFLIX (BE11 L a b s m o v i e - m a k i n g s y s t e m ) ; t h is
w a s p r o g r a m m e d f o r t h e 7094 i n t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s .
BEFLLX a llo w e d t h e u s e r to c r e a t e m o tio n p i c t u r e s
b y a c l e v e r m o s a ic p r o c e s s t h a t u s e d t h e o u t
p u t c a m e r a m o re e f f i c i e n t l y . ( A c t u a ll y , t h e l e n s
W89 t h r o w n o u t o f f o c u s m a n u a l ly a n d th e e n t i r e
fram e c re a te d a s a m o sa ic o f a lp h a b e tic a l c h a r a c
t e r s ; t h i s d i d t h e w h o le t h i n g m u c h m o r e q u i c k l y
a n d in e x p e n s iv e ly .)
(Som e o f t h e c l e v e r d a t a - h a n d l i n g te c h
n i q u e s o f BEFLIX K n o w lto n t h e n t u r n e d a r o u n d
a n d u s e d i n L, a l a n g u a g e w h i c h m a d e th e s e
t e c h n i q u e s a v a i l a b l e to o t h e r c o m p u t e r p e o p l e .
T h i6 m a y s o u n d l i k e o n ly a c o m p u t e r t e c h n i c a l i t y ,
b u t i t 's Ih e s o r t o f t h i n g t h a t 's w i d e l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
(L 6 s t a n d s f o r " b e lL L a b s ' L o w e r - L e v e l L ist
L a n g u a g e ." ))
W a n tin g to g e t o u t s i d e a r t i s t s i n t e r e s t e d
in BEFLIX a n d r e l a t e d m e d i a , h e w o r k e d f o r a tim e
w ith f ilm - m a k e r S ta n V a n d e r b e e k ; f ro m t h i s
K n o w lto n sa w t h a t a r t i s t s ' n e e d s w e r e m o re
i n t r i c a t e th a n h e h a d a n t i c i p a t e d . A u g m e n tin g
BEFLIX w ith so m e o f t h e t h i n g s V a n d e r b e e k
a s k e d f o r , K n o w lto n c a m e u p w i l h a n e w l a n
g u a g e c a lle d TA R PS ( T w o - D i m e n s io n a l A lp h a -
N u m e r ic R a s t e r P i c t u r e S y s t e m ) . T h i s in t u r n
le d to EXPLOR ( E X I 'lic it ( ly p r o v i d e d 2D P a t t e r n s , )
L ocal ( n e ig h b o r h o o d ) O p e r a t i o n s , a n d R a n d o m -
n e s s ) . EXPLOR i s f a s c i n a t i n g b e c a u s e o f its
o r i g i n a l i t y a n d g e n e r a l i t y n o t o n l y d o e s it
m odify p i c t u r e s a n d s e r v e a s a n a r t i s t ' s to o l,
b u t it h a s f a s c i n a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s a s a c o m p u t e r
l a n g u a g e a n d m a y e v e n h a v e a p p l ic a t io n s in
c o m p le x s im u l a t i o n s f o r t e c h n i c a l p u r p o s e s .
S in c e V a n d e r b e e k , K n o w lto n h a s e n t e r e d
L I Z Z I E OP THE LINEPRINTER in to a l o n g a n d f r u i t f u l c o l la b o r a ti o n w i th L illia n
S c h w a r t z , a ta l e n t e d a r t i s t . T h e i r m a n y film s
A fam ous c o n v e r te d p i c t u r e . The p a in tin g h a v e b e e n c le v e r , s t a r t l i n g a n d p o w e rfu l. I
w as d i v i d e d i n t o 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 b r i g h t n e s s - m e a s u r e d s p o t s m u s t s a y th a t t h e y g r o w o n y o u : I lik e d th em a t
b y H. P h i l i p P e t e r s o n o f C o n t r o l D a t a C o r p o r a t i o n ;
f i r s t , b u t w h e n 1 s a w f iv e o r s i x i n a ro w t h i s
t h e n e a c h d o t w a s made i n t o a s q u a r e o f o v e r p r i n t e d
J a n u a r y , I f o u n d th e m J u s t i n c r e d i b l e . B e c a u s e
l e t t e r s on th e p r in tin g d e v ic e . T he p ro g ra m a llo w
e d 100 l e v e l s o f g r e y . A bove: C o n t r o l D a t a 's v e r t h e y a r e a b s t r a c t , a n d f u ll o f f a s t - c h a n g i n g
s i o n , r e p r i n t e d by p e r m i s s io n . B e lo w : a c u t - d o v m p a tte r n s a n d r e v e r s a l s , th e y ta k e som e a d ju s tin g
v e rs io n th a t o f te n tu rn s u p. (Prom o r i g i n a l f l a t to; b u t t h e y 'r e w o r th s e e i n g o v e r a n d o v e r .
2D a r t w o r k b y L e n D a v i n c l o f M e d i c i A s s o c i a t e s . )
EXPLOR m ay b e t h o u g h t o f a s a h i g h l y
NOTEi t h i s i s n o t a " c c r o p u t a x p i c t u r e . " T h e r e g e n e r a l i z e d v e r s i o n o f C o n w a y s gam e o f Life
i s no su c h th in g . I t ' a a q u a n t i z a t i o n p u t o u t on ( s e e p . 4 f ) . Y ou s t a r t w i th tw o - d im e n s io n a l
a lin e p rIn te r. p a t t e r n s a s y o u r d a ta s t r u c t u r e ; th e s e c a n b e
......... n w * r r s w i r r i i t i t t m < < l a b s tra c tio n s o r e v e n c o n v e rte d p h o to g ra p h s, a s
u n n n n i i i n i 'W W . . . . . . . . . . . . . i iK n ru n t H H T f> tt t> in a r e c e n t K n o w l to n - S c h w a r t z film s h o w in g
..
............ . . M u y b r id g e s R u n n i n g M a n . In y o u r EXPLOR
m u m i m n m m n ............. p r o g r a m , y o u m ay t h e n c a u s e t h e p a t t e r n to
c h a n g e b y d e g r e e s , e a c h c e l l o f th e p a t t e r n
r e a c t i n g to th e c e ll s a r o u n d i t o r to ra n d o m
e v e n t s a s s p e c if i e d b y th e p r o g r a m m e r .
imwtminiinuiwuiii ii **.... . . f w i i t n i u m w i w
B t i t i n t t w c w m n n M M M i . i - i i i - ..........m i n n n n w ! H t t >
lH H m tiH W H tfM lfK M M B ........... EXPLOR, r u n n i n g w i th o u t e x t e r n a l d a t a ,
i m t n w n m t n i m i i " " i ................. t m i n n m m m i M n
co m e s u p w ith so m e e x t r a o r d i n a r y s n a k e s k i n a n d
4i i 4 fiii i i f m i
J a c k F r o s t p a t t e r n s . B u t its u s e s in tr a f f ic
s im u la tio n a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r s t u d i e s o f p o p u
w iu m n w H M w iim n t u iim .u iim im u t i iw u im n m m i
r w K t r M r t n w i i n i H i n f i i m i h i n n w m i i n T w w i i M i la tio n s i n s p a c e c o u l d b e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g .
t lW M W f I I M I H W I H W I O T lM n lH H W lW I I W W f r n W f W H t f C M
EXPLOR h a s o b v io u s a r t i s t i c a p p l ic a t io n s .
L illia n S c h w a r tz is u s i n g i t e x t e n s i v e l y i n film -
m a k in g . I ts now r u n n i n g o n a m in ic o m p u te r
w u u iw w K m w titw w i
H l k K H M H H M M W I H K t H M I H H I H I'll! I I f 141 I f W l l t M I M M t f e e d i n g to a m od ified So n y T r i n i t r o n c o lo r T V .
m i i m i i i u u iD iiiit n iiu m u u if t iiw K H im iiiu ii r te r tm i
( T h is c o lo r s e t u p w aa c r e a t e d b y M ike Noll
a n d i s d e s c r i b e d in a r e c e n t i s s u e o f th e C A C M ,
t N m u t m M i w i i m n i i n i * 1111111 - * pm r th o u g h o n ly fo r b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e TV ; t h e c o lo r
m iiiih h * * * . * .e n n n t t t r r f i r is m o r e r e c e n t. It s t o r e s th e c o lo r p i c t u r e a s
( [ c t i t m o c i r N H n i i t i i 11 a lis t o f s e q u e n tia l c o lo r s r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e
c o m p u te r s c o r e m e m o ry , e a c h d o t b e i n g r e p r e
11 H l l W H ' J H I H l H t f l l l M t u i l l i l l M M i x m i m i I CL'WUIH i 114141 s e n te d . Cf. " B o y e ll's T e r r a r i u m , " p . > K 3 l - )
> t < i i < * i i i r n r t i ( ( i i n " " ...........
.......................................
*>.* f u l m i v j j .o v u j i l U i t t l Knowlton h a s u s e d EXPLOR f o r te a c h in g
F i ii i i M 'H t ii K N .................. .. K iim n r w r w c o m p u te r a r t at th e U n i v e r s i ty o f C a lif o r n ia ;
ti> m iin i(iin ((m iu ii:n r H v .f m tn tm a iitic jiifin th e la n g u a g e is a v a ila b le p r o g r a m m e d in " m e d iu m
r n n m m n a i i M d i i i i h i i i i m i i i h w w m h h i i p i ' W m m s iz e " F o r tr a n from H a r r y H u s k e y , D e p t. o f
Info rm a tio n a n d C o m p u te r S c i e n c e . U. o f C a l.
a t S a n ta C r u z , S a n ta C r u z , C a li f o r n i a .

This ie a non^gimple picture
conversion. The original
photograph uos converted into
measured points; but these
were in turn made into grou-
together patterns by a
program in the EXPLOR language.
() K n o u lto n & Harmon.
M J)IP
Wish there were room to calk about plain
regular audio here matters like "binaural"
recording, and Why don't they make hi-fi systems
based on a Grand Bus (see p M 2 )? But theres
no room here.
AUDIO AND COMPUTERS
People are occasionally still startled to
hear thdt computers can make sound and music.
They can Indeed.
First of all, note that an Incoming sound Is
a fluctuating voltage and can thus be turned Into
a data structure, i.e., a string of measurements.
To make sound by computer is the obverse. If
the coaputer can be set up to send out a string of
measurments, these can be turned back into a fluct
uating voltage, and thus make sounds.
Q jfc l.
4*!-
problem of analyzing pictures (see p.f^iO), and indeed
the selfsame technique of Fourier Analysis is employed.
In the easiest case, the computer can just
sefid back out the voltages It originally got in.
This is rather ridiculous using the computer
just as a recording device but it's a clear and
simple example.
The question after that is what next: how to
have the computer make interesting streams'Joutput
measurements, i.e., sounds and tones.
There are numerous methods we cant go Into.
Max Mathews, at Bell Labs, has for years been doing
music by computer; his current systea Is called
GROOVE. Heinz von Foerster, at the University of
Illinois (Urbana), has been doing the same. An
other lab at MIT has just gotten a PDP-11/45 (see
p. *or the 8ame purpose.
(The problem is: can the computer keep up
with the output rate needed to make music in real
time? maybe the 11/45 can.)
Another approach is to relieve the computer
itself from making the tones, and use other de
vices-- music synthesizers for this, controlled
by the computer. This is essentially the approach
taken with General Turtles Music Box (see p. S7 )
,
and at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Cen
ter where their RCA Mark II music synthesizer an
immense one-of-a-kind jobbie is under more general
computer control.
for a system to synchronize motion pictures with "wild1
w . l . t
tv I* H v ctV
MUSICAL NOTATION
Note that the computer handling of musical
notes, ae symbols, is another task entirely,
closely resembling computer text handling (mention
ed variously in the book). A high-power structur-
ed-text system or Thinkertoy (see p.fi*ft5) is fine
for storing and presenting written music.
And, of course, such stored musical notation
(a data structure) can obviously be played by
the hookups mentioned.
SPEECH BY COMPUTER
You may have heard about various kinds of
talking computer." Thia deserves some explanation.
Computers may be made to "talk" by various
means. One la through an output device that
simply stores recordings of separate
words or syllables, which the computer selects with
appropriate timing. (Machines of this type have been
sold by both IBM and Cognltronlce for a long time.)
A deeper approach ia to have the conputer synthe
size speech from phonemes, or actually make the tones
and noises of which speech is composed. These are
very tricky matters. Bell Labs, and others, have been
working on many of these approaches.
The real problem, of course, ia how to decide
what to say. (This was discussed under Artificial
Intelligence, p. )
AUDIO ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT
The problem of analyzing audio ia very like the
some of the same techniques are used. The audio goea
into the computer as a stream of measurements, and
This reduces the audio to a series of frequency measure
ments over time but, paradoxically, loses little of
the fidelity.
Once audio is reduced to Fourier patterns, it can
be reconstituted in various ways: changed in tining and
pitch independently, or enhanced by polishing techni
ques like those used in image enhancement (see ).
This haa been done with great success by Tom Stock-
ham at the University of Utah, who has reprocessed old
Caruso records into improved fidelity. In the picture
we see him with equipment of some sort and an old record.
U n iv e r s ity o f Utah
(Stockhaa has been in the news lately, bb one of
the panel puzzling over the notorious 18-Minute Gap.)
(The author has proposed the name Kitchensynctm ^
sound recording l>y these means.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thomas G. Stockhaa, Jr., "Restoration of Old Acoustic
Recordings by Means of Digital Signal Processing.
Audio Engineering Society preprint no. 831 (D-4),
presented at Audio Engineering Society 1971 con
vent ion.
Prentiss H. Knowlton, "Capture and Display of Keyboard
Music," Datamation May *72, 56-60. Describes a
setup he built at U. of Utah thst allows pianists
to play music on an ordinary keyboard, and converts
the input to symbolic representation in tbe com
puter. It uses an organ, a PDP-8 and a couple of
CRT displays.
Heinz von Foerster and James Beauchamp, Music b Computer*.
Wiley, 1969. HAS RECORDS IN BACK.
Some of the early Bell Labs work may be heard on an
excellent Decca LP with the misleading title
"MUSIC from MATHEMATICS." (Decca DL 79103). (The
mathematical myth Is discussed on p. 8*).)
8X 1

W '( iK ttll^ e K d e
lfj for A n t
M .tU cv i'('i cfc / e tjp .
T h e s e a r e t h r e e t o p i c s o f g r e a t im p o r t a n c e ;
o f I m p o r t a n c e , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , l e a e for w h a t th e y
ha v e a c tu a lly a c c o m p lish e d th a n fo r th e d e g re e
t o w h ic h t h e y h a v e c o n f u s e d a n d I n ti m i d a t e d p e o
p l e w h o w a n t lo u n d e r s t a n d w h a t 's g o i n g o n .
M e re ly to m e n t i o n lh e m c a n b e o n e - u p m a n s h i p .
A ll t h r e e t i t l e s m e a n s o m u c h , s o m a n y d i f f e r e n t
s p e c if ic t h i n g s , a s to m e a n a lm o s t n o t h i n g w h e n
l u m p e d t o g e t h e r a s a w h o l e . A ll t h r e e h a v e d e
v e l o p e d a w e b o f i n t r i c a t e te c h n i c a l f a c ts ( a n d
s o m e tim e s t h e o r e m s ) , b u t th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f
t h e s e e l e g a n t f i n d i n g s i s in a l l t h r e e c a s e s a
m a t t e r o p e n to c o n s i d e r a b l e s c r u t i n y .
S ince e a c h of th e s e f ie ld s h a s d e v elo p e d
a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f te c h n i c a l d o c t r i n e , t h e
r e a d e r m ig h t w e l l a s k : w h y a r e n ' t th e y o n th e
o th e r s id e o f th e b o o k , th e c o m p u te r sid e ? T h e
a n s w e r i s t h a t t h e y a r e c o m p u t e r m a n 's d r e a m s ,
d ream s of c o n s id e ra b le In trica cy and p e rs u a s
i v e n e s s , a n d w e a r e n o t c o n s i d e r i n g th e t e c h
n i c a l i t i e s h e r e a n y w a y . A s o n th e o t h e r s i d e ,
t h e p r o b l e m I s to h e l p y o u d i s t i n g u i s h a p p l e s
f ro m o r a n g e s a n d w h i c h w a y i s u p . F o r m o r e
g o e l s e w h e r e , b u t I h o p e t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n w ill
m ake s o r tin g th in g s o u t q u ic k e r for y o u .
T h e s e th r e e t e r m s - - " a rtific ia l in te llig e n c e ,"
" in f o r m a tio n r e t r i e v a l , " " c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d
i n s t r u c t i o n " - - h a v e a n u m b e r o f th l n g a in c o m
m o n . F i r s t , th e n a m e s a r e s o p o r t e n t o u s a n d
f o r m id a b l e . Second, if you rea d o r he ar a n y
t h i n g in t h e s e f i e l d s , c h a n c e s a r e il w ill h a v e
a n a i r o f u n f a t h o m a b l e t e c h n i c a l i t y . Bo th s t r a n g e
t e c h n i c a lis m a n d d e e p m a th e m a t ic s may c o m b in e
to g iv e y o u a s e n s e t h a t y o u c a n 't u n d e r s t a n d
a n y o f i t . T h i s ia w r o n g . T h e fact t h a t t h e r e
a r e o b s c u r e a n d D e e p T e a c h i n g s in e a c h h a s n o
b e a r in g on th e g e n e r a l c o m p re h en s ib ility o f w hat
t h e y a r e a b o u t . M o r e I m p o r t a n t l y , th e q u e s t i o n
o f how a p p l i c a b l e a ll th e t h i n g s th e s e p e o p le
h a v e b e e n d o i n g i s g o i n g to b e Is a q u e s t i o n
o f c o n sid e r a b le I m p o r ta n c e , e sp e c ia lly w hen
s o m e o f th e s e p e o p l e w a n t to t a k e s o m e t h i n g o v e r .
D o n 't g e t s n o w e d .
E ac h o f t h e s e f a s c i n a t i n g te r m s i s a c t u a l l y
a r o o f o v e r a v e r i t a b l e zoo o f d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h e r s ,
o f te n o f ( h e m o st e c c e n t r i c a n d i n t e r e s t i n g s o r t ,
e a c h g e n e r a l l y w i t h h i s o w n d r e a m of how h is
o w n r e s e a r c h w ill b e th e b r e a k th r o u g h for
h u m a n ity , o r fo r so m e th in g . It w o u ld t a k e a
L em u el G u l l i v e r to to s h o w y o u th e c o l o r f u l n e s s
a n d f a s c in a tio n o f t h e s e f ie l d s : a g a i n , w e j u s t
s c r a t c h th e s u r f a c e h e r e .
A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g th e s e t h r e e f ie l d s
n a v e In c o m m o n : th e f r e q u e n t u s e of a c l a s s i c a l
c o m p u l e r m a n 's p u t d o w n o n a n y b o d y w h o d a r e s
q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e i r s u p e r - u l t i m a t e g o a ls c a n
e v e r be a ch ie v ed .
T h e l i n e i s , "WE D O N 'T KNOW HOW T O DO
T H A T Y E T ."
If s o m e b o d y p u l l s it o n y o u , th e r e p l y Is
s i m p l y , "H ow d o y o u k n o w y o u e v e r w ill? "
CWtfW fWGooj) a w T e it JO K E S
I llu s tr a tin g a ls o c e r ta i n p ro b lem s o f A rtificial
In tellig e n ce .
A v e r y l a r g e a rtl fic la l- ln te U ig e n c e sy ste m
(g o e s th e s t o r y ) h a d b e e n b u ilt fo r th e m ilita ry
to h e l p i n l o n g - r a n g e p o lic y p l a n n i n g ; f i n a n c e d
b y A R P A , w i t h p e o p l e from M . I . T . , S t a n f o r d
a nd so on.
" T h e s y s t e m i s n o w r e a d y lo a n s w e r q u e s
t i o n s , " s a i d t h e s p o k e s m a n f o r th e p r o j e c t .
A f o u r - s t a r g e n e r a ] b it off th e e n d of a
c i g a r , lo o k e d w h im sic a lly at h is c o m ra d e s a n d
sa id
" A s k t h e m a c h i n e th is : Will It b e P e a c e
o r W ar?"
T h e c l e r k - t y p i s t (Sp4) tr a n s la t e d th is
I n to t h e q u e r y l a n g u a g e a n d t y p e d i t i n .
T h e m a ch in e rep lied :
YES
" Y e s w h a t ?" b e l l o w e d t h e g e n e r a l .
T h e o p e r a to r ty p e d In th e q u e r y .
Came th e a n sw e r:
Y e s SIR
I R c tV itv * | J-
til"(c ,p u /u '- ^ n ii/e ^ \
I i * / f r w -it'oiAy
fiW B C ih L f y m u G e i / c L Z
... S O ft of
" A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e " I s a t once th e e e x ie e t
a nd a o s t om in ous t e r n i n t h e w o r l d . I t c h l l l e and im -
p r e s a e e a t che s a n e t i a e . I n p r i n c i p l e I t meana th e
s i m u l a t i o n o f p r o c e s s e s o f m in d , by sn y m e sas a t a l l ;
b u t i t g e n e r a l l y t u r n s o u t t o b e some f o r a o r a n o t h e r
of c o a p u te r s im u la tio n (see " S im u la tio n ," p . 7 9 ) .
A c t u a l l y , " a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e " h a s g e n e r a l l y be
come a n a l l - i n e l u e l v e t e r n f o r s y s te m s t h a t a m aze, a s
t o u n d . m y s t i f y , and do n o t o p e r a t e a c c o r d i n g t o p r i n
c i p l e s w h ic h c a n b e e a s i l y e x p l a i n e d . I n e way, " a r t i
f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e " i s a n e v e r - r e c e d i n g f r o n t i e r : ae
t e c h n i q u e s b e c o a e w e l l-w o r k e d o u t a nd u n d e r s t o o d , t h e i r
a p p e a r a n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , t o t h e e o p h l a t l c a t e d , con
tin u a lly recedes. I t ' s l i k e t h e o c e a n : ho w ev er much
you t a k e o u t o f i t , i t a t l l l s t r e t c h e s o o a a U m l t -
le aa as b e fo re.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y la y n e n a r e eo i m p r e s a e d by c o a p u t e r s
I n g e n e r a l t h a t t h e y e a a l l y s u p p o s e c o m p u te rs c a n do
a n y t h i n g i n v o l v i n g I n f o r m a t i o n . And p u b l i c u n d e r s t a n d
i n g l e n o t f o s t e r e d by c e r t a i n t y p e s o f e t u p i d demon
s t r a t i o n . One y e a r I h e a r d from nu m e ro u s p e o p le a bout
how " t h e y ' d s e e n o s TV a b o u t how c o m p u te rs w r i t e TV
s c r i p t s " w hat h a d a c t u a l l y b e e n ehown wee a hokey en
a c tm e n t o f how t h e co m p u te r c o u l d r e a d o n l y d e c i d e whe
t h e r t h e Bad Han g e t s s h o t o r t h e Good Cuy g e t s s h o t
b o t h o u tc o m e s d u t i f u l l y e n a c t e d by guya i n cowboy o u t -
f l t e . Duh.
I t s h o u l d b e p e r f e c t l y o b v io u s t o anybody w h o 's
b r u s h e d e v e n s l i g h t l y w i t h c o m p u t e r s , how eve r f o r
The B r u s h , a e e t h e o t h e r a i d e t h a t th e y j u s t d o n ' t
w ork l i k e a l n d e . But t h e a n a l o g y h a n g s s r o u n d . (Ed
mund C. B e r k e l e y w r o t e a bo ok I n t h e f o r t i e s , I b e l i e v e ,
w i t h t h e m i s l e a d i n g t i t l e o f G i a n t B r a i n s . o r Machines
T h a t T h i n k . The I d e a l a s t i l l a r o u n d . )
H e r e ' s a v e r y s im p le e x a m p l e , th o u g h . C o n sid e r
a n a z e draw n on a p i e c e o f p a p e r . J u a t by lo o k i n g , we
c a n n o t e l m u l t a n e o u a l y com pre hend a l l i t s p a th w a y s ; we
ha ve t o poke a ro u n d on i t t o f i g u r e o u t t h e s o l u t i o n .
C om p ute rs e r e s o r t o f l i k e t h s t , b u t more e o . W hile our
e y e s c a n t a k e i n a s im p le p i c t u r e , l i k e a s q u a r e , a t
o n c e , t h e c o a p u t e r progra m m ust poke a r o u n d i n I t a d a ta
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t l e n g t h t o s e e w het we saw a t on c e.
The p r i n c i p l e h o ld s t r u e i n g e n e r a l . The human
mind c a n do I n a f l a s h , a l l a t onc e ( o r " i n p a r a l l e l " )
many t h i n g s t h a t must be t e d l o u e l y c h e c k e d and t r i e d
by t h e h i g h l y a e q u e n t i a l c o m p u te r p r o g ra m . And th e
more we know a b o u t c o m p u te r s , t h e a o r e im p r e s s i v e th e
human b r a i n b e com e s. (The s e e m in g c l e v e r n e s s o f so a e
s im p le p r o g ra m s d o e s n o t p r o v e t h e s l o p l l c l t y o f th e
phenomens b e i n g i m i t a t e d . )
N e v e rt h e le s s , i t i s I n t e r e s t i n g t o t r y th in g s
w i t h c o a p u t e r s t h a t a r e more l i k e w hat t h e mind d o e s ;
a nd t h a t I s m o s t ly what a r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e I s
a b o u t.
In v a rio u s case s t h i s has r e s u l te d in h e lp fu l
t r i c k s t h a t t u r n o u t t o be u s e f u l e l s e w h e r e i n th e
c o n p u ter f i e l d . In th is senae, a r t i f i c i a l in te llig e n c e
l a a o r t o f l i k e m e n th o l: a . l i t t l e a a y im prove t h i n g s
h e r e sn d t h e r e . But ( i n my o p i n i o n ) , t h a t does n o t
mean a w h o le l o t o f i t would make t h i n g s b e t t e r s t i l l .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , some a r t l f i c i a l - l n t e l l l g e n c e en
t h u s i a s t s t h i n k t h e r e l e no U n i t on w hat m a ch in es can
d o . They p o i n t o u t t h a t , a f t e r a l l , t h e b r a i n l a a
aac h in e. But s o l e t h e u n i v e r s e , p r e s u m a b ly ; and
w e ' r e n e v e r g o in g t o b u i l d one o f t h o e e , e i t h e r .
PATTERN RECOGNITION
T h la l e one o f th e most a c t i v e a r e a s I n s r t l -
f l c l a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , p e rh a p a b e c a u s e o f D efense
D e p a rtm e n t a o n e y . ( I t n i g h t be n i c e , g o e s th e
r e s s o n l n g , t o he v e guns t h a t c o u l d r e c o g n i s e t a n k s ,
a a c h i n e s t h a t c o u ld lo o k o v e r a e r i a l T e c o n n a l e e s n c e
p i c t u r e s , r a d a r s t h a t c o u ld r e c o g n i s e a l e e l l e s . . . )
W iF /C H t
im&fz
lW /'K
(ifkVfar <ty7-)
What i t b o l l s down t o I s t h e s t u d y o f c l u e s sa d
g u e s s i n g a aong a l t e r n a t i v e s . I o some c a a e s , w e l l -
d e f i n e d c l u e s can b e fo u n d f o r r e c o g n i z i n g s p e c i f i c
th ln g a , l i k e p a r ts o f p i c t u r e s (even s t r a i g h t l in e a
c a n n o t be r e c o g n iz e d by c o n p u t e r w i t h o u t a co m p le x
p ro g ra a) or l i k e h a n d w r itin g ( s e e b e lo w ) . In th e
w o rs e c a s e s , th o u g h , c a r e f n l s t u d y o n l y r a i s e s t h e
n o a t h o r re n d o u s t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e n s , a n d t h e p u r s u i t
o f t h e s e t e c h n l c s l p r o b l e n s i s i t s own f i e l d o f
s tu d y ( a r t l c l e a ha ve t i t l e s l i k e " S e n s i t i v i t y P a r a -
a e t e r s l a t h e A d ju stm e n t o f D i s c r l n l n s t o r s , " m e an in g
I t S u r e I s Hard t o Draw The L l o e ) .
But I n some f e l i c i t o u s c a a e s , r e s e a r c h e r a a c
t u a l l y b o l l a r e c o g n i t i o n p r o b l a down t o a m a n ag e
a b le s y s te n of c l u e s . For I n s t s n c e , ta k a th e pro b
lem o f w r i t t e n I n p u t t o c o m p u t e r s . (S o n e p e o p le
d o n ' t l i k e t o ty p e a n d w ould r a t h e r w r i t e by h an d
on s p e c i a l in p u t t a b l e t s . ) B ut how c a n a p r o g ra m
r e c o g n ise tb e l e t t e r s ? Aha: t h e a n s w e r , k i d a , l a
i n your t e x t .
The Led eeo C h a r a c t e r R e c o g n i z e r ( d e s c r i b e d I n
d e t a i l i n Newman and S p r o u l l , P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r
a c t i v e Computer G r a p h i c s , A p p e n d ix 0) I s s m e th o d
by w hic h a program c a n lo o k a t a h a nd-^ lrsw n c h a r a c
t e r and t r y t o r e c o g n i z e i t . T he p r o g r a m e x t r a c t s
a s e r i e s o f " p r o p e r t i e s " f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r an d
e t o r e a t h e n I n aa a r r a y . E v e r y c h a r a c t e r i n a g iv e n
p e r e o n ' s b lo c k l e t t e r i n g w i l l t e n d t o h a v e c e r t a i n
p r o p e r t y s c o r e e . But t h e L ed e en r e c o g n i z e r m u st
s t i l l be t r a i n e d , t h a t i a , t h e a v e r e g e p r o p e r t y
s c o r e s o f t h e l e t t e r s t h s t e e c h i n d i v i d u a l draw a
muet be p u t I n t o t h e s y s t e n b e f o r e t h s t i n d i v i d u a l ' s
l e t t e r i n g c an be r e c o g n i z e d . E ven t h e n I t ' s s q u e s
tio n o f p r o b s b i l l t y , r a t h e r th a n c e r t a i n t y , t h a t
a g iv e n c h a r a c t e r w i l l be r e c o g n i z e d .
--------- V \
C P W O T C e; JM T T W k / .
You J o / T THIUK THCV THUf*.
W n .K lr.)
----- -----
HEURISTICS (pro n o u n c ed h e w H I S tl c e )
I f we w ant to a a k e a c o m p u te r do w h a t we know
p e r f e c t l y w e l l how t o do o u r s e l v e s , t h e n a l l we do
l e w r i t e a program .
Aha. But what i f we w ant a c o n p u t e r t o do
s o m e th in g we do n o t know how t o do o u r s e l v e s ?
We must s e t up i t e p r o g r a a t o b r o w s e , an d a e a r c h ,
a nd s e i s e on w hat t u r n s o u t t o w o rk .
T h is Is c s lle d h e u r i s t i c s .
What I t am ounts t o b a s i c a l l y l a t e c h n i q u e s f o r
t r y i n g th l n g a o u t , c h e c k in g t h e r e s u l t s , end c o n t i n u
i n g t o do a o r e and more o f w h a t a e e n s t o w o rk .
Or we c o u ld p h r a s e I t t h l e w ay: l o o k i n g f o r
s u c c e ssfu l s t r a t e g i e s In w hatev e r e r e a w e 're d e alin g
w i t h . As a h e u r i s t i c p r o g re m t r i e s t h i n g s o u t , I t
k e ep e v a r i o u s acoreB o f how w e l l I t ' a d o i n g a s o r t o f
a e l f - c o n g r e t u l s t l o n and n a k e e a d j u e t M n t S I n f a v o r
o f what w orks b e s t .
Thus t h e G r e e n b l a t t C h e ss P r o g r a m , n e n t l o n e d u n
d e r " C h e s s ," n e a r b y , c a n " I n v e n t " c h e s s s t r a t e g i e s
and " t r y t h a o u t " w h a t I t a c t u a l l y do e a i s t e s t
s p e c i f i c p s t t e r n s o f moves f o r t h e o v e r s l l g o o d n e ss
of t h e i r r e s u l t s (In te r n s o f th e u s u a l p o s l t l o n s l
a d v an ta g es in c h e a s ), and d i s c a r d th e s t r a t e g i e s th a t
d o n t g e t a nyw he re . I t d o e s t h l a by c c n p a r l n g I t s
" s t r a t e g l e e " ( p o s s i b l e move p s t t e r n s ) a g a l n a t t h e
re c o rd 'a o f c h e a s m a tc h e s w h ic h a r e f e d i n t o I t .
( I f y o u 'v e r e a d t h e o t h e r a i d e o f t h e b o o k ,
h e u r i s t i c s a a y be t h o u g h t o f a a a f o s n o f o p e r a t l o n e
r e s e a r c h ( p . T t ) c a r r i e d on by t h e c o n p u t e r I t s e l f . )
I n s o a e ways h e u r l e t l c e i s t h e n o e t m s g l c s l s r e e
o f a r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e : I t s r e s u l t s a re th e a o s t
im p r e s s l v s t o laymen. B u t . l i k e a o many o f t h e c o m p u t
e r a a g l c e , I t b o l l s down t o t e c h n l c s l l t l e s w h ic h l o s e
t h e roman ce t o a c e r t a i n e i t e n t .
/o & 4 K JT tiA f ( L K M C . G Joriw t-r;
 NEUBAL SIMULATION
An I m p o r t a n t b r a n c h o f A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e i e
c o n c e r n e d w i t h w ha t b un ches o f im a g in a r y n e u r o n s c o u l d
d o , e v e n n e u r o n s t h a t we na de up t o f o l l o w p a r t i c u l a r
ru le s . T h i s a r e a o f s tu d y l a somewhere b e tw e e n n e u r o l
og y an d m a t h e m a t i c s ; a i c h o f i t l a c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
m a t h o a t l c a of ln a g ln a ry e e tu p a , r a th e r th a n th e p r o p e r
t i e s o f a c t u a l n e r v e - n e t a , a s s t u d i e d by p s y c h o l o g l e t a ,
p h y a l o l o g l a t a an d o t h e r s . (Tha h y p o t h e t i c a l e t u d l e a ,
of c o u r s e , a l e r t r e s e a rc h e rs to co u p lei c o n fig u r a tio n s
sn d p o a a l b l l i t l e a t h a t a a y t u r n o u t t o o c c u r i n r e a l i t y ,
m i l a s b e i n g i n t e r e a t i n g f o r t h e i r own s a k e and
c o n c e i v a b l y a s u s e f u l weys o f o r g a n i s i n g t h i n g s t o be
b u ilt.)
H o w ev e r, a n e e r l l e r m yth, t h a t you c o u l d s i m u l a t e
n e u r o n s t i l l yo u g o t a p e r s o n , i s s b o u t d e a d .
SIMULATION OF THOUGHT-PROCESSES
Nobody t a l k s anymore a b o u t s i m u l a t i n g a r t i f i c i a l
b r a i n s ; t h e r e ' s t o o j c h t o i t , and I t i n v o l v e s d i r t y
a p p ro x im atio n s.
H ow ev e r, a c l e a n e r a r e a I s I n th e s l m u l s t i o o o f
t h o u g h t : c r e a t i n g c o m p u te r p r o g r a a s t h a t a l a l c m a n 's
m e n t a l p r o c e s a e s a a he dopea t h r o u g h v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s .
T r y i n g t h l n g a o u t , d e d u c in g t h o u g h t s fro m w h a t 'a a l
r e a d y kn ow n , f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
guesses t h e s e c a n a l l b e done by p r o g r a a s t h s t " t r y
t o f i g u r e o u t " s n s w e r s t o p r o b l e a s l i k e The C a n n l b s l
an d T h e M i s s i o n a r y , o r w h a t e v e r.
AUTOMATA
" Autom ata , as th e t e n l a used In t h i s f i e l d ,
i s J u s t a f s n c y word f o r I m a g in ary c r i t t e r s . p a r t l -
c u l a r l y l i t t l e t h i n g l e s t h a t behav e i n a s s e t w ay a.
(T he Game o f L i f e , s e e p . 1 8 , i s an a u t o a a t o n i n
th le a en se-)
SELF-ORGANIZING SYSTEMS, SELF-REPRODUCING SYSTEMS
AND SO PORTH
T h e s e a r e te r m s f o r I m a g in ary o b j e c t s , h a v in g
e x a c t l y d e f i n e d m a th e m a t ic a l p r o p e r t i e s , a b o u t w h ic h
v a T l o u e a b s t r a c t t h l n g a can b e p r o v e n t h a t te n d t o be
o f i n t e r e s t only to m a t h a a t i c l a n s .
SPEECH
1 . SENTENCE GENERATION
The p r o b l a o f c o a p u t e r s s p e a k in g hu a a n l a n g u a g e s
n o t t o b e c o n f u s e d w i t h c o a p u t e r la n g u a g e a , p p . 1 5 - 2 5 and
e ls e w h e re I s I n c r e d i b ly com plicated. J u a t be c a u se l i t t l e
human t y k e s s t a r t d o i n g i t e f f o r t l e s s l y , i t i s e s s y t o a u p -
p o se t h s t i t s a b a s i c a l l y e a s y prob le m .
Ho way.
O n ly a i n c e t h e m i d - f i f t i e s h s s hua an l a n g u a g e be gu n
to be u n d e rsto o d . T h a t waa when Noam Chomsky d i s c o v e r e d th e
i n n e r s t r u c t u r e o f huaan la n g u a g e s : n a a e l y , t h a t t h e lo n g
( a n d c o m p le x ) s e n t e n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f la n g u a g e s r e b u i l t
o u t o f c e r t a i n e x a c t o p e r a t i o n s . P r e v i o u s l i n g u i s t s had
s o u g h t t o c l a a a l f y th e aente nce e t r u c t u r e s th e m se lv e s ; t h i s
l e d t o c o m p l e x i t i e s w hic h Chomsky d i s c o v e r e d w e r e u n n e c e s
sa ry . I t i s u n n e c e s s a r y t o c a t a l o g s e n t e n c e t y p e s th e m
s e l v e s ' I f we c a n s i m p l y i s o l a t e , I n s t e s d , t h e e x a c t p r o c e s s
e s by w h i c h t h s y a r e g e n e r s t e d .
T h e s e p r o c e s s e s he c a l l e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ( a t e r m he
b o r ro w e d f r o m m a t h e m a t i c s ) . A l l u t t e c s n c e s a r e c r e a t e d f r o a
c e r t a i n e l e m e n t a r y p i e c e s , c a l l e d k e r n e l a . w hic h a r e th e n
chewed by t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n t o s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e s , t h e
fin a l u tte ran c es. Ex am ples of k e r n e l a : T he man l i v e s i n t h e
h o u s e , The h o u s e i s w h i t e . R e s u l t o f co m bin in g t r a n s f o r m a
t i o n : The man l i v e s i n t h e w h i t e h o u se . K e r n e l : 1 g o .
R e s u lt o f p a s t - t e n s e tr a n s fo r m a tio n : I w ant.
T h e m o a t I m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g , now, i s t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r -
m a t l o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t I n o r d e r l y s e q u e n c e s : any a e n t e n c e s
c a n h a v a m ore t r a n e f o r a a t l o n a c a r r i e d o u t on I t , a l l a d h e r
in g t o t h e b a s i c r u l e s , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e mo at com p le x s e n
te n c e s o f s n y l a n g u a g e .
L i n g u i s t s s i n c e th e n ha ve c o n fir m e d C ho m sk y's c o n
j e c t u r e , s n d p r o c e e d e d t o work o u t t h e f u n d a m e n ta l t r a n s
fo rm a tio n s o f m a jo r languages, in c lu d in g E n g lla h .
Now, on e r e s u l t of a l l t h l a I s t h a t i t t u r n s o u t to
be e a s i e r t o g e n e r a t e s e n t e n c e s I n s l a n g u a g e t h a n t o un
d e r s t a n d th e m . Why? Beca uae i t i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a e y to
p r o g ra a c o m p u te rs t o ap p ly tra n s fo rm a tlo n a to k e r n e l s ,
BUT v a r y h a r d t o t a k e a p a r t t h e r e s u l t . A com ple x " s u r -
f s c e S t r u c t u r e " may h a v e nu me rous p o s s i b l e k e r n e l s - d o e s
"Time E l l a * l i k e a n a rr o w " ha ve th e same s t r u c t u r e a a
" S u s i e s l o g s l i k e a b i r d 1' o r " F r u i t f i l e s I l k a s n o r a n g e ? "
R e s u l t : t o p r o g ra m s com p ute r t o g e n e r a t e e p a e c h
t h a t l a . I n v e n t a e n te n c e s about a d a ta s t r u c t u r e and ty p e
t h a a o u t l a c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a s y , b u t t o ha v e i t r e c o g n i z e
in c o m in g s e n t e n c e s , and b r e a k t h e a up i n t o t h e i r k e r n e l
a e a n ln g s ,is n o t.
We a a y t h i n k o f a la n g u a g e - g e n e r a t i n g co m p u te r s y s
tem a S f o l l o w s :
2. SENTENCE RECOGNITION
Chomsky an d o t h e r s ha va d is c o v e r e d t h a t s e t s o f t r a n s
f o r m a t i o n r u l e s ( o r i t r i r s . p r a i s e be ) v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y .
I t l a p o s s i b l e t o I n v e n t la ng uag e s whose s u r f s c s e t r u c t u r e s
a r e e a s y t o t a k e a p a r t , o r p s r s s : s u c h la n g u a g e s s r e c e l l e d
c o n t e x t - f r e e l a n g u a g e s . (Moat c a ^ u t e r l a n g u a g e e , s s e o t h e r
s i d e , s r s o f t h i s t y p e . ) U n fo rtu n a te ly n a t u r a l la n g u a g e a ,
I l k a E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h and Ravaho, a r e n o t c o n t e x t - f r e e .
I t t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e hu a an b r a i n c s n p i c k s p a r t la n g u a g e
s t r u c t u r e s b e c a u s s I t ' s s o good a t a a k l n g s e n s i b l e g u e s s e s
a s t o w h a t I ' m e a n t and i f t h e r e 1s one t h i n g h a r d t o
p ro g ra m f o r c o m p u te rs , i t i s s e n s i b l e g u e s s in g .
(B ut s e e " H e u r i s t i c s , " n e a rb y .)
T h l a M a n s t h a t t o e r a a t a c o m p ute r s y s t e m s w h ic h w i l l
r e a l s s n te n c a a a p a r t i n to t h a l r a aa n ln g e la q u i t e
d iffic u lt. He c a n ' t g e t i n t o t h a v a r i o u s s t r s t s g l e s h e r e ;
b u t w i t r e s e a r c h e r s c u t t h a pro blem down I n one way o r
o th e r.
I '
I Th*** s p ^ ta , aob. .,4
L- bm ^
11D o you
JS
O z m a o f O z
I d o n t k n o w ," answ ered D o r o t h y , w h o bad
m o re t o re a d . " L i s te n to this, B i llin a :
D IR E C T IO N S F O R U S IN G :
F o r T H I N K I N G : W i n d lh e C lo ck - w o rk M a n u n d e r h is
left a r m , (m arke d N o. 1.)
F o r S P E A K I N G : W i n d th e C l o ck -w ork M a n u n d e r his
r i g h t a r m , (m ar k e d N o. 2.)
F o r W A L K I N G a n d A C T I O N : W i n d C lo c k - w o r k In th e
m id d le o f his back , ( m a / k e d No. 3.)
H. H.-TM. M*d
W e ll, I d e c l a r e ! " gasped th e y e l l o w h e n , in
a m a z e m e n t; i f th e c o p p e r m a n c a n d o h a l f o f these
th in g s h e is a very w o n d e rfu l m ac h in e . B u t I suppose
i t is all h u m b u g , lik e o m an y o t h e r p a t e n t e d articles."
" W e m ig h t w in d him u p ," su g g e s te d D o ro th y ,
a n d see w h a t h e 'll d o ."
GORDON PASi:
G o r d o n P a s k i s o n e o f t h e m a d d e s t mad
s c i e n t i s t s I h av e e v e r m e t, and a l s o on e o f
th e n i c e s t . An e l o q u e n t L n g l i s h l e p r e c h a u n
w ho d r e s s e s t h e E d w a r d i a n d a n d y , T a s k s o w s
awe w h e r e v e r h e g o e s . A form eT d o c t o r and
t h e a t r i c a l p r o d u c e r , Task i s on e o f t h e g r e a t
in te r n a ti o n a l f a s t - t a l k e r s , c o n fe re n ce -h o p p in g
round th e g lo b e from U ta h to W a s h i n g t o n to
h i s p r o j e c t a t t h e B r o o k ly n C h i l d r e n ' s M useun.
T h is s p r i n g , 1974, he has been a t th e U n iv e r
s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t C h icag o C i r c l e , b u t soon
he g oe s b a c k t o E n g la n d a nd h i s l a b o r a t o r y .
In a f ie l d f u ll o f b r i l l i a n t e c c e n tr ic s ,
Pask h a s no d i f f i c u l t y s ta n d in g o u t.
P ask i s one o f th e A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i
g e n c e r s w ho i s w o rk in g on t e a c h i n g b y c om pu
t e r , a b o u t w h i c h m ore w i l l b e s a i d ; b u t t h e
o r i g i n a l c o re o f h is i n t e r e s t i s p e rh a p s th e
p r o c e s s o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n .
P a s k h a s d o n e a good d e a l o n t h e m a t h e
m a tic s o f s e lf -c o n te n p la tin g sy ste m s, th a t i s ,
sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f w h at i t m eans f o r
a c r e a t u r e ( o r e n t i t y om ega) to lo o k a t t h i n g s ,
s e e th a t th e y a re a l ik e , and d iv in e a b s t r a c t
c o n c e p t i o n s o f th e m . A c ro w n in g m om ent i s
w h e n Omega b e h o l d s i t s e l f a n d r e c o g n i z e s t h e
c o n tin u ity and se lfh o o d . (P a sk s a y s s e v e r a l
o t h e r s - - s c h o l a r s from A r g e n t i n a , R u s s i a and
e l s e w h e r e - - h a v e h i t o n t h e sam e f o r m u l a t i o n . )
M o d e l s a n d a b s t r a c t i o n , t h e n , a r e w h a t we
may c a l l t h e f i r s t h a l f o f P a s k ' s w o r k .
G ordon P a s k u i l l bo o o n t i n u e d o n p . 4 M 7 *
3. SPEECH OUTPUT AS SOUND
p o s s i b l e I n p r i n c i p l e t o s e t up c o m p u te rs t o
t a l k " by c o n v e r t i n g th e la n g u a g e s u r f a c e a t r u c t u r s s t h s t
t h e i r p r o g re m s come up w i t h i n t o a c t u a l s ou nd . Sse
" A u d i o , p . DH 1 1 .
4. SPEECH INPUT TO CCMPUTEHS BY ACTUAL SOUND
we h ave be en t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e c o m p u te r 'e m a n i
p u l a t i o n o f la n g u a g e a s a n a l p h a b e t i c a l c o d in s o r a l m l l a r
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . To a c t u a l l y t a l k a t a com pute r l e e n o t h e r
S e t t l e o f f i s h . T h i s mesns b r e a k i n g down t h e so und i n t o
ph one mes an d t h e n b r e a k i n g i t I n t o a d a t a a t r u c t u r e whic h
can be t r e a t e d w i t h t h e r u l e s o f g r a * a r a w ho le n o th e r
d if f i c u l t ste p .
A few a t t e m p t s ha ve been made t o a a r k e t d e v i c e s which
would r e c o g n i s e l i m i t e d sp e ec h and c o n v e r t I t t o sym bols t o
j go i n t o t h e c o m p u te r. One o f th e m , w h ic h su p p o s e d ly csn
d i s t i n g u i s h aaon g t h i r t y o r f o r t y d i f f e r e n t spok an w ord s,
i s s u p p o s e d l y s t i l l on t h e m a r k e t . S p e c i f i c u s a r s h ave to
" t r a i n " i t to the p a r t i c u l a r s of t h e i r v o ic e s .
J > rum o rs o f " d i c t a t i o n m a ch in es" which
w i l l t y p e what you s s y t o them. I f s u c h t h i n g s e x i s t 1 ha va
b e e n u n a b l e t o c o n f ir m I t .
(E veryb od y s a y a t h a t o f c o u r s e w h a t we wan t 1s t o be
a b l e t o e o M l c i t c w i t h c o m p u te rs by s p e e c h T s pe e k i n s
p e r s o n a l l y . I c e r t s l n l y d o n ' t . E x p l s i o i n g my p u n c t u a t i o n
to human s e c r e t a r i e s i s h a rd e no ug h, l e t s l o n e t r y i n g t o
t e l l i t t o s c o a p u t e r , when i t ' s e a s y enough t o ty p e I t I n . )
5.- ALL TOGETHER NOW
The c p l e K l t y o f t h e p r o b le m s h o u l d by now b s c l e a r .
(\> H P u rt " t> W s
b J - r n
CYBERNETICS
G o rd o n P a s k c a l l s h i s f i e l d C y b e r n e t i c s .
T he te rm " c y b e r n e t i c s i s h e a r d a l o t , and is
o n e o f t h o s e te rm s w h i c h , i n t h e m a in , m an k in d
w o u ld be b e t t e r o f f w i t h o u t ; a lth o u g h a f t e r
t a l k i n g t o P a s k I g e t t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e r e may
b e so m e th in g to i t a f t e r a l l .
T he t e r m " c y b e r n e t i c s " w a s c o i n e d by N o r-
b e r t W ie n e r, th e fa m o u s ly a b s e n t- m i n d e d m a th
e m a t i c i a n w ho ( a c c o r d i n g t o l e g e n d ) o f t e n
f a i l e d t o r e c o g n i z e h i s ow n c h i l d r e n . ' W i e n e r
d i d p i o n e e r i n g w o rk i n a n u m b e r o f a r e a s . A
s p e c i a l c o n c e rn o f h i s w as t h e s tu d y o f th in g s
w h ic h a r e k e p t in c o n t r o l by c o r r e c t i v e m eas
u r e s , o r , a s he c a l l e d i t . F e e d b a c k T he te rm
" c y b e r n e t i c s " he made o u t o f a G re e k w o rd
f o r s te e r s m a n , a p p ly in g i t to a l l p ro c e s s e s
w h ic h in v o lv e c o r r e c t i v e c o n t r o l . I t tu rn s
o u t t h a t alm o st e v e r y th in g in v o lv e s c o rr e c tiv e
c o n t r o l , so th e te rm " c y b e r n e tic s " s p re a d s out
a s f a r and as t h i n l y as you c o u ld p o s s ib l y w ant
(The p u b lic i s u n d e r th e g e n e r a l im p re ssio n
t h a t " c y b e r n e t i c s " r e f e r s t o c o m p u te r s , and
th e co m p u te r p e o p le s h o u ld be c a l l e d " c y b e r
n e tic ia n s ." T h e re seem s t o b e n o th in g t h a t
can be done about t h i s . See "cy b e rc ru d ,"
p. g . T h is i s an e v e n w o rs e te rm m eaning
" s t e e r i n g p e o p le in to c r u d ," s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
p u t t i n g th in g s o v e r on p e o p le u s in g c o m p u te rs.)
P r o p e r l y , t h e c o r e o f " c y b e r n e t i c s ' seem s
to d e a l w ith c o n tro l lin k a g e s , w h eth er in
a u to m o b ile s , c o ck ro ac h es o r co m p u te rs. How
e v e r , p e o p l e l i k e P a s k , v o n F o e r s t e r , Ashby
(a n d so on) a p p ea r to e x te n d th e c o n c e p t g e n
e r a l l y to th e s tu d y o f form s o f b e h a v io r and
a d a p ta tio n c o n sid ere d in th e a b s tr a c t. The
v a l i d i t y and f a s c i n a t i o n o f t h i s w o rk , o f
c o u r s e , i s q u i t e u n r e l a t e d t o w h at you c a l l i t .
THE TUBING MACHINE
I s t h e i w t t c l s n l c s l a b s t r a c t A uto m st o n.
A T u r i n g N ac hin e , nanmd a f t e r I t s d i s c o v e r e r .
I s a h y p o t h e t i c a l d e v ic e w h ic h h a s s n I n f i n
i t e r e c o r d i n g t e p e t h a t I t c a n s o v a ba ck sn d
f o r t h , and t h e a b i l i t y t o make d e c i s i o n s d e
p e n d i n g on w h e t 's w r i t t e n t h e r e .
T u r in g p r o c e e d e d t o p o i n t o u t t h a t no
m a t t e r how f a s t you 90 s t e p - b y - s t e p , you can t
e v e r o u t r u n c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s b u i l t I n to
a l l s e q u e n t i a l p r o c e s s e s a s r e p r e s e n t e d by
t h e T u r in g Mach ine. T h is l a y s h e a v y l i m i t s
on w hat c an e v e r b e done s t a p - b y ~ * t p bY
c o m p u te r . ( I t means w have t o lo o k f o r
n o n - s t e p - b y - s t e p m e th o d s, w h ic h much o f
A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Is a b o u t . )
 DO WE MAHT TALKIBG STSTEMS?
I had one q u i t e i r r i t a t i n g e x p e r ie n c e w ith a
''c o n v e rs a ti o n a l" a y ate m , t h a t l a , computer p r o g ra a
c h a t was su p p o se d t o t a l k ba ck t o a e . I v a e su p
pose d co ty p e co 1c I d E n g lis h aod I t vaa supp o se d ly
g o in g t o ty p e ba ck co a e I n E n g lla h . 1 found t h e ex
p e r ie n c e t h o r o u g h ly I r r i t a t i n g . Ky a id e o f che con
v e r s a t i o n , w hic h I s i n c e r e l y c r ie d to ke ep s im p le ,
produce d r e p e a t e d a p o l o g i e s and c o n fu sio n from t h e
p r o g ra a . The guy w h o 'd c r e a t e d che p r o g r a a k e p t e x
p l a i n i n g c h a t t h e p r o g r a a w ould be im proved, ao
Chat e v e n C u a lly I t c o u ld h a n d le re s p o n s e s l i k e v i n e .
My r e a c t i o n w a s , an d l a , Who neede l e t
Many p e o p le i n t h e c o a p u te r f i e l d s e e a Co t h i n k
we want t o b e a b l e t o t a l k t o c o a p u te rs a nd have t h e a
c a lk back t o u a . T h ia l a by no Beans a s e t t l e d B a t t e r .
T a l k in g p r o g r a a a a r e c o m p lic ated and r e q u i r e a
l o t o f a p ac e I n th e m a ch in e, and (ac re i a p o r t a n t l y )
r e q u i r e a l o t o f t i a e by p r o g r a M e r e who c o u ld a c h ie v e
( I t h in k ) s o r e I n l e a a ClM by o th e r me ana. M oreover,
c a lk in g p r o g r a a s p ro d u ce an i t T l c a c l n g s t r a t e g i c a l
parad o x . I n d e a l i n g v i c h huaan b e lo g e , we knew vhec
w e 'r e d e a l i n g w i t h , and can a d j u s t what we eay a c c o r d
i n g ly ; t h e r e l e no wav co c e l l , e x ce p t by a l o t o f e x
p e r im e n ti n g , what t h e p r l n c l p l e e a r e i n s i d e a p a r t i c u
l a r t a l k i n g p r o g r a a ; so t h a t c ry in g t o a d j u e t co i t
l a a s c r a l n and ao I r r i t a t i o n . (C oapare: t a l k i n g t o a
s t r a n g e r who a ay o r a a y n o t Curn o u t Co be your now b o s s . )
Now, so a e p r o g r a a o e r s keep e e y in g t h a t e v e n t u a l l y t h e y ' l l
have l c a c t i n g J u e t a e e a a rc aa a r e a l p e r s o n , eo we n e e d n 't
a d j u e t ; b u t t h a t ' s r i d i c u l o u s . We alwave a d j u s t t o r e a l
p e o p le . I n o t h e r w o rd s , th e huaan d is c o m f o rt and i r r i t a
t i o n o f p a v c h ln a t h e s v s t m o u t can n e v e r be e l i a l n a t e d .
F u r th e r m o re , on to d a y 'e s e q u e n t i a l e q u lp a e n t and
w ith f e a e i b l e b u d g e t s . 1 p e r s o n a l l y th i n k t h e l i k e l i h o o d
o f Baking p r o g r a a s c h a t a r e r e a l l y g e n e r a l t a l k e r s i e a
f o o l i s h g o a l . T h ere a r e many s l a p l e r waye of t e l l i n g
c o a p u te r sy ste m s w h at you want to t e l l t h e a l i g h t pen
c h o ic e , f o r e x am p le.
M oreover, h a v in g t o ty p e i n whole E n g lla h p h r a s e s
c an be i r r i t a t i n g . (We c a n ' t even gee in c o th e p r o b l e a
o f havin g t h e c o n p u te r p ic k a p a r t Che a u d io l f you c a lk
i t in .)
T h is i s n o t t o e ay u n d e rs t a n d a b ly r e e t r l c t e d t a l k i n g
s y s t e a s s r e b a d . I f you know and u n d e rs t a n d th e s o r t s of
r esp o n se th e sy ste m makes Co what k in d s o f t h i n g , th e n an
E n g l l e b - l l k e r e s p o n s e i s r e a l l y s c l e a r m eeaag e. F or I n
a ta n c e , th e JOSS sy ste m ( t h e f i r s t Q u ic k ie la n g u ag e
s e e p . IS) had en e lo q u e n t message:
eh?
which a c t u a l l y a e a n t , What you have J u s t tg ge d I n doee_jiot_
f i t t h e r u l e e o f a c c e p t a b l e I n p u t f o r t h i s s y s t e a . But I t
was s h o r t , i t was q u i c k , I t waa s im p le , and i t wee a lm o st
po lite.
S i m i l a r l y , t a l k i n g a y a te a s t h a t use a n e x a c t voc abu
l a r y , whose l l m i t e and a b i l i t i e s a r e k n w n to th e p e r s o n ,
a r e okay. (W ln ogred, eee B i b lio g r a p h y , ha e a n i c e e x a a p le
o f t e l l i n g a co m p u te r t o s t a c k blockS) where t h e eyetem
knows words l i k e b e tw ee n, o n , sbove and ao o n .) Where
t h i s i s u n d e rs t o o d by che human, 1C c an be a ge n u in e con
ve n ie n c e r e t h e r th a n a a p u rlo u e one.
(The p ro b leB o f r u d e n e ss in computer d i a lo g u e h a a not
been auch d i s c u s s e d . T h is l e p a r t l y b e c a u se a a n y p r o g r a a -
a e r a a r e no c f u l l y aware o f I t , o r , I n d e e d , some s r e so
s k i l l e d in c e r t a i n s u b t l e form s of r u d e n e ss th e y w o u ld n 't
even know chey w e r e n ' t a c c e p t a b l e . The r e s u l t i s t h a t c e r
t a i n ty p e s o f putd ow n, p o ke , p e re m p to r in e s s and lm portu na cy
can f in d t h e i r way i n t o c o a p u te r d ia lo g u e a l l to o e a s i l y .
O r , t o p u t i t a n o t h e r way: nobody l i k e to be t a l k e d b a c k t o .
Cf. Those e t u p l d g r e e n TRANK YOU l i g h t * on a u to m a tic c o l l
b o o th s .)
Now, c h l e l e n o t to s s y t h a t r e s e a r c h in th e e e a r e a s
l e wrong , o r even t h a t r e e e a r c h e r e ' hope s o f some b r e a k
through ln ta l k l n g - e y a t e m s i a m le guld ed. I em s a y i n g ,
b a s i c a l l y , t h a t t a l k i n g syste m s c ennot be te k e n f o r g r a n t
ed ae th e p r o p e r g o e l l n c om pute rs t o be uaed by p e o p le ;
t h a t th e p ro b le m a o f r u d e n e e e , and I r r i t a t i n g th e human
u e e r , a r e f a r g r e a t e r th a n many o f th e s e r e s e a r c h e r s sup
p o se ; sn d t h a t t h e r e may be a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h l e p o c e n t l a l -
ly e t e r n a l le p r e c h a u n - c h a s i n g .
I f l i k e t h e a u t h o r you a r e beau eed by ehe g r e a t
d i f f i c u l t y o f g e t t i n g a lo n g v i t h human b e i n g e , th e n th e
c r e a t i o n o f e x t r a n e o u s b e in g e o f I m p e n e tr a b le c h a r a c t e r
w ith v a g u e ly human q u a l l t l e e can o nly a la r m yo u , and
th e p r o s p e c t o f th e e e e d d l t l o n a l c r y p t e - e n t l t l e s whic h
n e t be fend e d and p l a c a t e d , c la w in g a t ua f r m t h e i r
n ic h e s a t e v e r y t u r n , l e b o th d l e t a e t e f u l and a l a r a i n g .
A r t i f i c i a l I n te llig e n c e e n th u sia sts u n fo rtu n ate ly
t e n ! t o ha v e a m a g i c i a n ' s o u tlo o k i t o make c l e a r how
t h e i r t h i n g s work w ould s p o i l th e ehow.
Th u s, f o r a r a t h e r p e c u l i a r a r t show h e l d a t New
Y o rk 's Je w i s h H uee ua i n 1970, a group f r a MIT b u i l t a
la r g e d e v i c e t h a t s t a c k e d b lo c k e un d e r c o n t r o l o f a
m i n l e e ^ u t e r ( I n t e r d a t a b r a n d ) . Now, t h e f a c t t h a t i t
c o u ld s t a c k and r e * t a c k b lo c k s w ith j u s t a m ln i e o s ^ u t e r
waa r e a l l y q u i t e an a c c tm ^ llsh m e n t. b u t t h i s was n o t
e x p la i n e d .
I n s t e a d , ehe b l o c k - e t a c k i n g mechanism waa e n c lo s e d
i n a l a r g e g l a s s p e n , i n which numerous g e r b i l s - - hoppy
l i t t l e r o d e n t s - - w ere f r e e t o wander a b o u t. When a g e r -
b i l eaw t h a t a b lo c k was a b o u t t o be s t a c k e d on him , he
would s e n s i b l y a o v e .
Now, i t i s f a i r l y hum orous, and n o t c r u e l , t o p u t
g e r b i l s I n t o a b l o c k - s t a c k i n g machine. B u t t h i s was
o f f e r e d t o th e p u b l i c a s a d e v ic e p a r t a k i n g o f a f a r more
g l o b a l a i s a l o n , t h e e x p e r im e n ta l I n t e r a c t i o n o f l i v i n g
c r e a t u r e s and a dynamic s e lf - im p r o v i n g e n v iro n m e n t,
b la h b l a h b l a h .
P a s s e r s b y w ere awed. "Why a r e th o s e a n im a ls i n
t h e r e ? o n e w ould s a y , and t h e more in fo rm ed one w ould
u s u a l l y s a y . ' I t ' s s< ne k i n d o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i m e n t . *
W ell, t h i s i s a t w i l i g h t a r e a , be tw ee n s c i e n c e and
w h im sica l h o k u a , b u t one c a n n o t h e l p w is h in g s im p le and
h ta o r o u s t h i n g s c o u l d be p r e s e n t e d w ith t h e i r s i x p l l c l t y
1
and humor l a i d b a r e .
remember w atch ljig one g e r b l l who s to o d m o ti o n le s s
on h i s l i t t l e k a n g a r o o m a tc h s tic k l e g s , w a t c h in g th e G re a t
G ra p p le r r e a r r a n g i n g h i e w o r l d . G erblLe a r e a i ewh a t i n
s c r u t a b l e , b u t I h ad a c e n s e t h a t he wae w o r s h ip in g i t .
He d id n o t move u n t i l t h e b lo c k s t a r t e d coming down on top
o f him.
I t a k e t h i s a s an a l l e g o r y .
S tt
The r e a l q u e s tio n l a , can a aet^ o f p r o c e d u re s
p la y c h e s s ? Because C h a t's what t h e c om pute r p r o
gram r e a l l y d o e s , e n a c t a s e t of p r o c e d u r e s .
And t h e answer l a y e s , f a i r l y w e l l .
Now, a cheBa p r o g r a a i e n o t s o a e t h i n g you Joe
down on ehe ba ck o f a n envelo pe one a f t e r n o o n . I t ' s
u s u a l l y an Im ae nse , conv o lu te d t h i n g Chat p e o p le have
worked on f o r y e a r s . (A lth ough I v a g u e ly r e e a l l Chat
second p l a c e l n th e 1970 I n t e r c o m p u t e r c h ee e c o n t e s t
waa won by a p r o g r a a t h a t oc cupie d o n ly 2000 lo c a t i o n s
l n a 1 6 - b i t m in ico m p u ter ln o t h e r w ords , a compact
a nd e r i c k y s n e a k e r . )
Now, s im p le games ( l i k e t l c - t a c - t o e and Nlm and
e v e n C u b ic) c an be worked eue e l l Che wey: a l l a l t e r
n a t i v e s c s n be examined by th e program and t h e b e e t
one fo u n d . Not eo w ith c h e ss.
C hess b s s l c a l l y in v o l v e s , b e c a u se o f I t s ve ry
many p o s s i b i l i t i e s , a " c o m b i n a to r ia l e x p l o s i o n " of
s l t e r o a t l v e e ( se e p . 4 f ) : Chat i s , t o lo o k s t " a l l "
th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a a id g a a e w ould ta k e f o r e v e r '
( p e r h a p s l i t e r a l l y che T urin g p r o b le m ), and th ue
means w e t b e found f o r d i s c a r d i n g some p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
The s t r u c t u r e o f bran c h in g p o s s i b i l i t i e s i s a
t r e e *(eee p . ) i 00 t h a t me thods o f p r u n in g " Che
c r e e t u r n o u t to be c r u c i a l .
B a s i c a l l y Chere e r e two e p p ro e ch e s t o th e d e sig n
o f c h e s a p r o g r a a s . In one e p p ro a c h , t h e programmers
l o o k f o r s p e c i f i c c h r e e t s sod o p p o r t u n i t i e s I n t h e
d s t a s t r u c t u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g th e b o s r d , snd t r y t o f in d
good s t r a t e g i e s f o r s e l e c t i n g good moves en th e b a s i s
o f t h a . T h i s i s t h e a ppro ach ta k e n i n CORO, th e
"C oo pe r-K os"c hess progra m . The pr ogrammers s e l e c t i v e l y
cope w ith l n d l v l d u e l problem s and a t r s t e g l e s s s th e y
t u r n e u t t o be n e c e e s a r y . ( T his meana t h a t i t la
l i k e l y t o ha v e s p e c i f i c A c h l l l e e ' h e e l e ; w h ic h , of
c o u r s e , t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e p r o g re a ke ep t r y i n g t o r e
p a i r by a d d in g s p e c i f i c c o r r e c t i o n s . )
A d i f f e r e n t s p p r o s c h I s ta k e n by th e G r e e n b l s t t
c h e s s p rog ra m . T h is 1s b a s i c a l l y a b i g H e u r i s t i c prog
r a a . I t " l e a r n s " b e s t s t r a t e g i e s l n c h e s s by " w a tc hin g"
t h e game. T h a t l e , your po ur h l e t o r l e e l c h e s s matc hes
th r o u g h i t , and l c t r i e s o u t s t r a t e g i e s - - m aking v a r io u s
t e n t a t i v e r u l e e a bout what klnde o f a o v e s a r e good, th e n
s c o r i n g th e e e u v e i a c c o rd in g to t h e r e e u l t e o f making
C h e i ^ s s s e e n l n p o s i t i o n a l a d v a n ta g e s t h a t r e e u l t e d ln
a c t u a l l y cham plonahlp p la y .
O b v io u sly t h i s i s a f i e l d lo I t s e l f , You w o n 't g e t
g r a n t e f o r I t , b u t Co th o s e who r e e l l y c a r e a b o u t b oth
c h e s s and c o a p u t e r s , I t ' s th e o n ly t h i n g t o be d o ing.
FRANKENSTEIN MEETS CYBERCRUD
Fred B rooks, t h e ke ynote e p e s k e r s t t h e IEEE coa
p u t e r c o n f e r e n c e l n F a l l 74, seems Co have e a l d t h s t
HAL 9000 ( t h e u n c tu o u s , c r s l t o r o u s P r e s e n c e l n th e
a o v le 2001) waa th e way compute rs sh o u ld b e . (Comguter
D e c i s i o n s , Apr 74, 4 . )
I f i n d i t h a rd t o b e l i e v e t h a t anybody c o u ld th i n k
c h a t . N e v e r t h e l e e s , th e r e a re t h o s e a r t i f l c i a l - l n t e l l l -
ge nce f r e a k s whose v ie w lc i s t h a t t h e p u r p o se o f a l l
t h i s le e v e n t u a l l y ( s ) co c r e a t e s e r v a n t s t h a t w i l l read
o u r mlnde and do o u r b i d d in g , (b) s e r v a n t s who w i l l ta k e
t h i n g s o v e r end w i l l implement human m o r a l i t y , r e g a r d l e e s
o f ou r b i d d i n g (th ough we h i o i n i s r e m f r e l l t o do s o
a s In A sim o v 's I_, R o b o t); or even ( c ) c r e s t e m s s t e r s who
w i l l t a k e e v e r y t h i n g ove r aod run e v e r y t h i n g a c c o r d in g to
t h e i r own p r i n c i p l e s aod th a h e l l w i t h u e . ( I met e men
in s b s r , a f t e r en ACM m e etin g , who c lelm ed t o b e l i e v e
t h i s was Che purpose o f I t a l l : t o c r e a t e t h e m a s te r r s c e
t h a t would r e p l a c e u e . )
A c c o r d i n g t o A r t h u r C. C l a r k e ' s r e t r o a c t i v e n o v e l
2 0 0 1 : A S p a c e O d y s s e y ( S i g n e t , 1 9 6 B , 9 S < ) , t h e HAL 9 0 0 0
c o m p u te r s e r i e s B egan a s f o llo w s :
" I n t h e 1 9 9 3 s , M i n s k y a n d G ood h a d s h o w n how n e u r a l
n e tw o rk s c o u ld be g e n e r a te d a u t o m a t i c a l l y - - s e l f -
.r e p l i c a t e d - * i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a n y a r b i t r a r y
le a rn in g p a tte rn . A r t i f i c i a l b r a i n s c o u l d b e grown
by a p r o c e s s s t r i k i n g l y a n a lo g o u s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f t h e hum an b r a i n . " (P. 9 6 .)
I d o n t kn ow w ho G o o d i s , b u t t h e s e a r e am ong t h e l i n e s
M in s k y h a s b e e n w o rk i n g a l o n g f o r y e a r s , s o 1 h o p e h e ' s
e n c o u r a g e d by th e news o f w h at h e 's g o in g t o a c c o m p lis h .
A n y h o w , s o o k a y t h e y g r o w t h e UAL 9 0 0 0 i n a t a n k .
T h e n how c o n e i n t h e D e a t h - o * H a l s c e n e w e s e e K e i r D u l l e a
b o b b in g a ro u n d lo o s e n in g c i r c u i t c a r d s , j u s t a s i f i t
w e re a p l a i n o l d 1978 c o m p u te r?
P o s s ib le answ er *1. I t i s ru m ored t h a t C l a r k e 's
r e t r o - n o v e l w a s C l a r k e 1^ r e b u t t a l to K u b ric k 's f i n a l f ilm .
P o s s ib le answ er *2. H A L 's t a n k s o f n e u ra l g lo p a re
c o n t r o l l e d b y P D P - l l s , one t o a c a r d .
(O f c o u r s e , i f y o u t a k e t h e l e t t e r s a f t e r H, A a n d L
30S )
in t h e a l p h a b e t , y o u g e t 1 , B a n d M. So m aybe t h o s e a r e 1 1 3 0 s . )
DEUS EX MACH1NA
O b v io u s ly suc h b e l i e f s a r a o u t s l d a t h e r e a l s of
s c l e n c s o r e n g i n e e r i n g . They b s lo o g Co pu r e s p e c u l a t i o n ;
a nd w h ile v a r i o u s mechaolsma have i n f a c t b e e n p r o g r a m e d
to c r o a k , s t a g g e r , s t a c k b l o c k s , c o sp o se s e n t e n c e s and so
o n , to su p p o se t h s t we s r e i n any r e a l s e n s e anywhere n e a r
m im ic king human i n t e l l i g e n c e , l e t a lo n e s u r p a s s i n g aod
s u p e r s e d i n g i t . I s s l t h e r to be t o t s l l y f o o l e d o r t o hanker
a f c e r s o m c u r i o u s dream from i n s i d e y o u r s e l f .
As we s s l d on Che oc her s i d e o f Che b o ok, everybody ln
c o a p u t e r s h a s d e ep e r m o ti v a ti o n s and i n t e r i o r t w i s t s t h a t
f o r a h i s own s p e c i a l d e e to th e s e m a c h in e s; and when i t
c o m s t o o u r c h o ic e s o f f a n t a s y m a c h i n e s , o b v io u s l y an even
d e e p e r l e v e l o f p s y e h ic im p r in t i s p r o j e c t i n g I t s e l f i n t o
cbe w o rld .
...E X KENSA
P e o p le vbe f a n t a s i z e abouc wondrous c r e a t u r e s and d e i t i e s they
want t o make o u t o f th e com puter o b v io u s l y ha v e s e e t h i n g i n
t e r e s t i n g i n t h e i r own he ads from whic h t h s t comes. Perhaps
i t c ones f r c * s d e s i r e f o r Im ag in ary p la y m a te s , o r an ambi
v a le n c e coward a u c h o r l c y , o r goo d n e ss knows whac; Chere a r e so
many odd p e o p le a t d i f f e r e n t e nds o f A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e
t h a t t h e r e may be a l o t of d i f f e r e n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l sy ste m s
s t w ork. Or maybe a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e I s j u s t where Cbe
m ost b r i l l i a n t , de term in e d aod e c c e n t r i c d rea m ers g o . Anywsy,
I c s n o n ly a s k t h e ^ u s t l o n , n o t g i v e t h e a nsw e r.
THE THREE LAWS OP ROBOTICS
1 A r o b o t may not I n ju r e a h u m a n b e i n g , o r ,
th r o u g h in a c t io n , allow a h u m a n b e i n g to come
to h a r m .
1 - - A r o b o t m u st ob ey th e o r d e r s g iv e n It b y
h u m a n b e i n g s e x c e p t w h e r e a u c h o r d e r s w o u ld
c o n flict w ith Ihe F i r s t Law .
3 - - A r o b o t m u st p r o te c t ils ow n e x i s t e n c e aa
l o n g a e 9uch p r o te c tio n doe s n o t c o n flict w ith
t h e F i r s t o r S e c o n d Law.
- - H an d b o o k of R o b o tic s ,
56th E d iti o n , 20S8 A . D . .
q u o te d in I . A s im o v , R obot.
M ** to & IH If t W M . , T le K ft
EMZA WHL se t you MoU
(Hhat th e ELISA program ty p e s , we r e p r e s e n t a s a l l c ap si
w hat t h e p e rs o n ty pe s i s n o t . )
PLEASE TELL ME YOUR PRDBLDi.
I am f e e l i n g d e p r e s s e d .
HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEM FEELING DEPRESSED?
Ever s i n c e a y a e t h e r l e f t .
TELL HE MORE ABOUT YOUR FAMILY.
My f a t h e r i s ve ry s t r i c t .
PLEASE GO ON.
L a s t n i g h t I dream t h e spa nked me .
WHAT MOULD IT MEAN TO YOU IP HE SPANKED YOU?
D i d n 't yotl e v e r g e t epan ked?
HE WEHE DISCUSSING YOU, NOT ME.
Y o u 'r e j u a t a d i a b machine anyway.
DO COMPUTERS PRIQ1TEN YOU?
(quote d i n W ln ograd, 74-5)
The f a s c i n a t i n g t h in g a b o u t t h e ELISA pr ogram i s
t h a t i t s e a t s s o l i k e a r e a l pers on* t h a t i a , a psycho
a n a l y s t o f t h e n o n d i r e c t i v e , C a r l Rogere s c h o o l .
B ut a l l i t i s i s a bag o f t r i c k s .
I t h a s a l o t o f canned p h r a s e s I t c a n th row o u t ,
l i k e PLEASE TELL ME YOUR PROBLEM.
Then i t s p o t s c e r t a i n ty p e s o f e e n t e n c e s and t u r n s
them a ro u n d . I f th e pe rson t y p e s a e e n te n c e b e g in n in g w ith
" I a m . . . " , th e ELIZA program t u m e i t a ro u n d w ith HON LONG
HAVE YOUR BEEN. . . ?
And i t lo oka f o r s p e c i f i c w ord s w hic h i n d i c a t e a s e n
te n c e c an be tu r n e d a ro und f o r a c o n v in c i n g r e a u l t . P o r i n
s t a n c e , i f th e p e rs o n u se s th e word " e v e r y o n e ," t h e program
S l a p l y r e p l i e s , MHO IN PARTICULAR CAN YOU THINK OP?
And c e r t a i n h ig h ly - c h a r g e d w ord s a r e a l g n a l s t o throw In
a s i n g e r , r e g a r d l e s s o f what t h e u s e r may ha v e s a i d . P o r i n
s t a n c e , i f th e p e rs o n u se s th e word " m o th e r ," th e a ae h in e
re p lie s:
TELL HE ABOUT YOUR FAMILY.
Now. do n o t be f o o le d . T h e r e I s no G h o st in th e
Machin e. The program does n o t " u n d e r s ta n d " t h e u s e r .
THE PROGRAM IS MERELY ACTING OUT THE BAG OF TRICKS THAT
JOE WE1ZENHADM THOUGHT UP. C r e d i t w here c r e d i t I s due:
n o t t o The C o a p u te r 'e t e n l s c l e n c e , b u t t o W eiE e nb aia 's
c le v e rn e s s .
(Look a t t h e above sample d i a lo g u e a n d s s e l f you
g u e s s w hat t r i c k s th e program waa u s i n g . )
The th i n g i s , many p e o p le r e f u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t ' s
a p rogra m . Even when th e p r o g r a m 's t r i c k s a r s e x p la i n e d .
And even b o m who u n d s r s ta n d &U2A l i k e t o c a l l i t up
f rca*n t h e i r te r m i n a l e f o r com panionship , now and th a n .
tr
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T e r r y W lnograd. "When H i l l C o ^ u t e r e U ndersta nd People ?"
Psycholo gy Today May 7 4 , 7 3 -9.
(Weizenhaum'j f u l l a r t i c l e on O.IZA a p p ea re d in th e
C m l c a t l o n a o f th e API e o M tlm e l n th a mid o r
l a t e s i x t i e s ; a f lo w c h a r t r s v e a l e d I t s a a j o r t r i c k s .
I ha v e s tr o n g h u n c h e s a b o u t th e I n n e r w o rk
in g s o f men w ho g e t m illions o f d o lla r s from the
D ep a rtm en t of D efense a n d th e n s a y in p r iv s te
tha l r e a lly th e y 'r e g o in g to u s e it to c re a te a
m a ch in e so in te llig en t it c a n p la y w ith th e i r c h il
d ren . (Nol to name n a m es o r a n y t h i n g . ) An
o b v io u s qu e stio n i s , do th e y p l a y w ith th e ir
c h ild r e n ? No. th e y p lo y w ith c o m p u te rs .
B ut Ihe po in t h e r e i s not lo h a s s le the
d r e a m e r s , Juet to s o r t o u t th e d r e a m s a n d pu l
them on h a n g e r s so y o u c a n t r y th e m o n . and
m aybe choose sn e n s e m b l e f o r y o u r s e l f .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T e r r y W ln ograd, "When W ill Computers U ndersta nd Pe op le ?
Psycholo gy Today May 74, 73-79.
P a r t i c u l a r l y r ea d ab le a r t i c l e .
N ic h o la s Negroponte , The A r c h i t e c t u r e M achin e. MIT P r e s s .
Tskee th e view t h a t compute rs sh o u ld be made l o to
m a g ic a l a e r v a o ts which n o t o nly h a n d le b o t h e r s n e
d e t a i l s , b u t more or l e e e rea d o u * m in ds a s w e l l.
L eonard llh r, P a t t e r n R e c o g n itio n . L e a r n in g and Thought:
Comcuter-P-"f, r *fl Models o f H ig her M enta l P r o -
e s s e s . P r e n tlc e - H a ll .
A rt h u r V. H o lt, " A l g o r i c ta f o r a Low CosC Hand PrlnC
R e a d e r ." Computer Deaign Feb 74, 85-89.
Edward A. Felgeobaum and J u l i a n Feldman ( e d s .) i
Computera and Thought. McGraw-Hill.
Old but a t l l l good f o r e r l e n c a d o n .
A j o u r n a l : A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e (N orth -H olla nd
P u b l is h in g C o., J o u r n a l D iv is i o n ; P.O . Box 211,
Amsterdam, The N eth erlan d a . Was $26 .5 0 a ye ar l n 1973.
T h i s ' l l ahow you what t h e y ' r e t h i n k i n g about now.
Roger L in d , "The Robots Are Coming, The Robote Are
Coming." O ut. Feb 1974.
T y p ic a l la ym an's hype. You d o n ' t g e t t o l d u n t i l th e
second page t h a t a t y p i c a l i n d u s t r i a l " ro b o t " le a
huge mechanlem w ith one g r a p p li n g a r a .
Edward W. Koadrowlcki and Dannie W. C oope r, "COCO I I I :
th e Cooper-Kos Cheas P rogram ." CACH J u l y 73, 411-427.
G r e e n b l a t t , R.D ., E a e tla k e , O .E ., and C r o c k e r , S .D ., The
G re e n b l a c t Chess Program ." Proc PJCC 6 7 , 001-810 .
R.C . G a * l l l , "An E xaaln acio n o f T lc - T a c - T o a - lik e Games."
P r o c . NCC 74, 349-355.
IHfORWCN trrEie^L
" I n f o r m a t i o n R e t r i e v a l " 1 b one o f t h o a e te r m s
t h a t la ym e n th r o w a r o u n d a s 1f I t w er e a ma nh ole
cover. I t eo unda a s t h o u g h I t means bo n u c h , bo v e r y *
ich. And eo yo u a c t u a l l y h e a r p e o p le s a y t h l n g a l i k e :
"But t h a t wo uld m e a n . . . ( p r e g n a n t p a u s e ) . . . I n f o r m a
tio n R e tr ie v a l! ! ! " S i m i l a r l y , some o f t h e ho k e y new
c o p y r i g h t n o t i c e s you a e e In b o o k s f ro m W i t h - I t p u b l i a h -
e r a I n t o n e t h a t s a i d b o o k s n a y n o t be " p l a c e d I n a n y I n
f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l s y s t e m . . . " I t a k e t h i s t o mean
t h a t t h e p u b l l e h e r a a r e f o r b i d d i n g yo u t o p u t t h e b o o k
on a b o o k s h e l f , b e c a u s e " I n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l " s i m p l y
means an y way a t a l l o f g e t t i n g b a c k I n f o r m a t i o n f r o *
a n y th in g . A b o o k s h e l f , a ln c e I t a llow s you t o r e a d t h e
s p in a s o f th e b o o k s . I s Indeed an In fo r m a tio n R e t r i e v a l
Sy s te m .
I t h a p p e n s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h a t th e p h r a s e " i n f o r m a
t i o n r e t r i e v a l " was c o i n e d I n t h e f o r t i e s by C a l v i n H o o e r s ,
i n v e n t o r o f TBAC* L an gu a ge ( s e e p p . 1 8 - 2 1 ) . ( I f W ie ne r
bad c o i n e d i t be m i g h t h a v e c a l l e d i t G e t b a c k . I f D l e b o l d
ha d c o i n e d i t i t m i g h t ha ve b e e n T h n u g h t o m a t l o n . )
Anyhow, nu m e ro u s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s g o o n I n
t h e f i e l d , a l l u n d e r t h e name o f I n f o r m a t i o n R e t r i e v a l .
Here a r e some.
1 . No n- C omp ute r r e t r i e v a l . ( See B e c k e r a n d H a y e s ,
A u t o m a t i c I n f o r m a t i o n R e t r i e v a l . ) Thes e t h i n g s a r e k i n d
o f o l d - f a s h i o n e d f u n c a r d s w i t h h o l e s pu nc he d a l o n g t h e
e d g e , f o r I n s t a n c e , t h a t you s o r t w i t h k n i t t i n g n e e d l e s ,
o r t h e m or e r e c e n t s y s t e m s w i t h h o l e s d r i l l e d i n p l a s t i c
cards. T r o u b l e I s , o f c o u r s e , t h a t c o m p u te r s a c e be co m i n g
i c h m or e c o n v e n i e n t a n d even l e a s e x p e n s i v e th a n t h e s e ,
c o u n t i n g y o u r m m ti m e a s b e i n g w o r t h s o m e t h i n g .
2. D ocument R e t r i e v a l . T h i s b a s i c a l l y i s a n a p p r o a c h
t h a t g l o r i f i e s t h e o l d l i b r a r y c a r d f i l e , e x c e p t now t h e
a t u f f i s s t o r e d i n c o m p u te rs r a t h e r th a n o n c a r d s . B u t
w h a t a s t o r e d I s S t i l l t h e name o f t h e d o c u m en t , who WTOte
i t , w he re I t was p u b l i s h e d and so on. O b v i o u s l y h e l p f u l
to l i b r a r i a n s , b u t s c a r c e l y e x c i t i n g .
3- A u t o m a t i c do cu me nt i n d e x i n g . Some o r g a n i s a t i o n s
f i n d i t h e l p f u l t o ha v e a co m pu te r t r y t o f i g u r e o u t v h a t
a book 1 b a b o u t , r a t h e r t h a n hav e a p e r s o n l o o k a t i t and
check. ( I d o n ' t a e e why t h i s s a v e s a n y t h i n g , b u t t h e r e yo u
a r e . ) A nyway, t h e t e x t o f t h e doc ument ( o r s e l e c t e d p a r t s )
a r e p o u r e d th r o u g h a c om pute r pr o g ra m t h a t s e l e c t s , f o r i n -
a t a n c e , k e y w o r d s , t h a t l a , t h e moBt i m p o r t a n t w o rd s i n i t ,
o r r a t h e r w or ds t h e pr o g ra m t h i n k s STe m o s t I m p o r t a n t . T h en
t h e s e ke yw ord s c a n go on t b e h e a d i n g s of l i b r a r y f i l e c a r d s ,
or w hatever.
T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s r e l a t e d s y s te m s by w h ic h p e o p l e
s t u d y , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e c i t a t i o n s b e tw ee n a r t i c l e s , b u t
we wun t g e t i n t o t h a t .
C o n t e n t r e t r i e v a l . Kow w e ' r e g e t t i n g t o t h e s e x y
a t u f f . A s y s t e a f o r c o n t e n t r e t r i e v a l I s on e t h a t somehow
s t o r e a i n f o r m a t i o n I n a co m p u te r and l e t s y o u g e t I t b a c k
T he t r i c k o n b o t h c o u n t s I s o f c o u r s e how.
H a l l , a s we s a i d on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b o o k , a n y
in f o r m a tio n s to r e d in a conputer has a d a ta s t r u c t u r e ,
w hi c h s i m p l y means w h a t e v e r a r r a n g e m e n t o f a l p h a b e t i c a l
c h a r a c t e r s , num be rs and a p e c l a l c o d e s t h e c o m p u te r h a p p e n s
t o bs s a v i n g .
In a c o n t e n t - r e t r l e v a l s y s te m , I n f o r m a t i o n on some
s u b je ct i s somehow ja m a ed I n t o a d a t a s t r u c t u r e p o s s i b l y
e ve n by human c o d e r s and th e n s e t up s o p e o p l e c a n g e t
i t back o u t a g a i n I n aome w ay . L o t of p o s s i b i l i t i e s h e r e ,
get it?
I n t h e w i t s t a r t l i n g o f t h e s e s y s t e m s , t h e QAS, o r
" Q u e s ti o n - A n s w e r in g S y s t e m , " some s o r t o f d i a l o g u e pr o g ra m
( see " A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e , " n earby) t r i e s t o g i v e you
a n s w e r s a b o u t t h e d a t a s t r u c t u r e . But t h i s means t h e r e
ha va t o b e a w ho le l o t o f p r o g ra m s:
T h e s e s y s t e m s c a n b e q u i t e s t a r t l i n g I n th e - w a y
t h e y s e e * t o u n d e r s t a n d you ( s e e L l c k l l d e r b o o k ; a l s o
H in o g r ad p i e c e u n d e r A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e ) . B u t t h e y
d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d y ou. They a re j u s t p o o r dumb p r o g r a m s .
Many p e o p l e ( i n c l u d i n g L l c k l l d e r ) se em t o s e e l a
|Q u e s t l o n - A n a w e r l n g - S y s t e m s th e wave o f t h e f u t u r e .
O the rs, li k e t h i s a u th o r , a r e s k e p t i c a l . I t ' s one th in g
t o ha ve a t y i t a t h a t ca n d e d u ce t h s t G r e e n ' s H ou se I s
West o f R e d ' s Rou se f ro m a bunch, o f i n p u t s e n t e n c e s on
t h e s u b j e c t , b u t t h e q u e s t i o n o f how much t h e s e c a n b e
i mp ro ve d i s I n g n u d o u b t . A s y s te m t h a t cSn a n s w e r t h e
q u e s t i o n , 'V h a t d i d H e g e l aa y a b o u t d e t e r m i n i s m ? " I s
oma way s a wa y, t o p u t i t m i l d l y .
L ik e A r t l f l c l s l I n t e l l i g e n c e and I n f o r m a t i o n R e t
r i e v a l , C o m p u t e r - A s s i s t e d I n s t r u c t i o n s o u n d s l i k e some
t h i n g e x a c t an d i m p r e s s i v e b u t I s i n f a c t a s c a t t e r i n g o f
te c h n iq u e s t i e d to g e th e r only nom inally by a g e n e r a l Id ea .
The r e a l name f o r i t s h o u l d be A u to m a te d D ia lo g u e
T e a c h i n g . T h a t would l m i e d i a t e l y a l l o w y o u t o a s k , s h o u l d
c o m pu te r t e a c h i n g u se d l a l o g u e a ? But t h e y d o n t wan t you
t o ask t h a t .
I n t h e c l a s s i c f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , t h e r e
w er e g o i n g t o be t h r e e l e v e l s o f CAI: " d r i l l - a n d - p r a c t i c e "
s y s t e m s , much l i k e t e a c h i n g a a c h i n e s , t h a t s i m p l y h e lp e d
s tu d e n ts p r a c t i c e v a rio u a s k i l l s ; a m iddle l e v e l ( o ft e n
i t s e l f c a ll e d , co n fu sin g ly , "co m p u ter-a ssisted in s tru c tio n " ) :
and a t h i r d l e v e l , t h e S o c r a t i c s y s t e m , w h i c h would s u p p o s e d ly
be I d e a l . S t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g on S o c r a t i c s y s t e a s w ou ld be
e l o q u e n t l y ond t h o u g h t f u l l y I n s t r u c t e d a n d c o r r e c t e d b y s
p e r f e c t b e i n g i n t h e m a c h i n e . "We d o n ' t know how t o d o t h a t
y e t , " th e p e o p le keep sa y in g . Y e t , in d e e d .
All these things
are very technical. (My p e r s o n a l v ie w o n t h i s s u b j e c t , e x p r e s s e d i n a n a r t i c l e
( f o l l o w i n g ) i s t h a t C o m p u t e r - A s s i s t e d I n s t r u c t i o n i n many
The reader ways e x t e n d s t h e w o r s t f e a t u r e s o f e d u c a t i o n a s we now know i t
must decide I n t o t h e new r e a l m o f p r e s e n t a t i o n by c o m p u t e r . )
for himself
which,
if any,
are misguided.
J)0tS Tftt NMC PMiOV
>M<r A B f i L
This Is a tr u e Sto ry. (The d e t a i l s a r e approx
im ate.) I t may provide c e r t a i n I n s i g h t s .
An A s s is ta n t Commissioner o f Edu c a ti on was
being shown a CAI system by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a
Then t h e r e I s t h e m a t t e r o f c o n s i s t e n c y . T h e r e a l l y la rg e and well-known computer company.
I n t e r e s t i n g s u b j e c t s a r e th e o n e s w h er e d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s
c laim o pposing f a c t s t o su p p o rt o p p o s it e c o n c l u s i o n s . One one s id e o f th e Conmlssloner s to od a s a l e s
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e i s i n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h i n t h e c o n t e n t man, who wanted him to be Impressed. On th e o th e r
of the f i e l d . I n t h i s c a s e su c h s y s t e m s a r e g o i n g t o h av e s i d e s to o d one Or. S . , who knew how t h e system
a p r o b le m . (S e e "R aaho-Hon P r i n c i p l e u n d e r " T i s s u e o f
T h ought," f f ~ y \ '*"1.7^
The t e r m in a l, de monstrating a h i s t o r y program
A n o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t 1b t h i s . I t may b e e a s y th a t had h u r r i e d l y been put t o g e th e r , type d : WHO
e nou gh t o pr o g ra m a s y s te m t o an sw e r t h e q u e s t i o n , CAPTURED FORT TICONDEROGA?
VHAT TIME DOES THE NEXT PLANE LEAVE FOR LAGUAHDIA? "Can 1 type anything? " asked t h e A s s is ta n t
Conmlssloner.
b u t I t i s a l o t s i m p l e r t o Ad l s p l a y s c h e d u l e s y o u r e y e ca n
r un down, o r a l l o w y o u t o go lo o k a t some k i n d o f g r a p h i c
" S u r e , " sa id th e salesma n, ig n o r in g th e Fr anti c
d isplay. he ad-sh aking o f Dr. S.
The A s s is ta n t Comnlss lo ner ty pe d: Gypsy Rose
Speaking p e r s o n a l l y , I d o n 't I l k a t a l k i n g t o m achines
Lee.
a nd I d o n ' t l i k e t h e i r t a l k i n g b a c k t o me. I ' m n o t s a y i n g
you ha v e t o a g r e e . I ' m j u a t t e l l i n g y o u y o u ' r e a l l o w e d t o
f e e l t h a t way. The machine r e pli e d:
5 . S c r e e n s u m n a r l e e T h es e s y s t e m s l e t y o u s i t s t
NO, BUT YOU'RE CLOSE. HE CAPTURED QUEBEC A
a c o a p u t e r d i s p l a y s c r e e n and r e a d su mm ari es o f v a r i o u s
SHORT TIME LATER.
t h i n g s , a s w e l l a s r u n th r o u g h t h e n w i t h v a r i o u s p r o g ra m s
The A s s is ta n t Conmlssloner e v i d e n t l y en liv en ed
t o lo o k f o r k e y w o r d s . (The Mew Yo rk T im e s now o f f e r s s u c h
many a luncheon w ith t h a t one, and Con^ ute r-A ss is te d
a s y s t e m , c o s t i n g o v e r a th o u s a n d d o l l a r s a m on th t o su b
i n s t r u c t i o n was e f f e c t i v e l y dead f o r t h e r e s t o f the
sc rib ers.)
a d m ln is tr a tI o n .
6. " F u l l - t e x t s y s t e m s . 11 T h es e a r e s y s t e m s t h a t
one way o r a n o t h e r a l l o w you t o r e a d a l l t h e t e a t o f
s o m e t h i n g f ro m a c o m p u te r d i s p l a y s c r e e n . T h e r e a r e
t h o s e o f u s who a e e t h e a e a s th e wave o f t h e f u t u r e , X "Fo il c m -
b ut aany o t h e r s a r e p e r f e c t l y o u trag e d a t th e t h o u g h t -
( H y p e r t e x t s y s t e m s , now, a r e s e t u p s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o
r e a d I n t e r c o n n e c t e d t e x t s from c o m p u te r d i s p l a y s c r e e n s .
s . . n l1 -7 -)
T h i s h a s b e e n b r i e f and h a s s k i p p e d a l o t . Anyway,
a s you s e e , IR I s n o o n e t h i n g .
BIBLIOGRAPHY w r f ei
V an n e v ar B u s h , "As We Hay T h i n k . " A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y .
J u l y 194$, 101-108.
T h e o d o r H. K e l s o n , "Aa He H i l l T h i n k . " P r o c . O n l i n e 72
C o n f e r e n c e , B r u n e i U. U x b r i d g e , E n g l a n d .
G. S s l t o n , R e c e n t S t u d i e s I n A u t o m a t i c T e x t A n a l y s i s t*. *. c t c r i t .
an d D ocument R e t r i e v a l . JACM, Apr 7 3 , 2 5 8 - 2 7 0 .
D ona ld E. W al k e r ( e d . ) . I n t e r a c t i v e B i b l i o g r a p h i c S e a r c h :
T he U s e r / C o m p u t e r I n t e r f a c e . AFIPS P r e s s , $1 5-
T h eo do r H. N e l s o n , " G e t t i n g I t Out o f Our S y s t e m . " I n
Sch ech ter (e d . ) , C ritiq u e o f Info rm atio n R e tr ie v a l
( Thompson B o o k s , 1 94 7) .
J . C . R . L l c k l l d e r , L i b r a r i e s o f t h e F u t u r e . MIT P r e s s ,
1965. C l e a r an d r e a d a b l e s u n a a r y o f t h e r e s t o f t h e
f i e l d ; t h e n h e g o e s on t o a d v o c a t e " p r o c o g n i t i v e
s y s t e m s , " s y s t e m s t h a t w i l l d i g e s t w h a t ' s known I n
any f i e l d and t a l k back t o you, u s in g t e c h n i q u e s
o f a r t i f i c i a l in te llig en c e.
W h a te v e r i t s o t h e r m e r i t s , t h i s b o o k i s g r e a t
f o r sh a k in g people up, e s p e c i a l l y l i b r a r i a n s . It
seeas so o f f i c i a l -
R i c h a r d H. L a s k a , " A l l t h e News T h a t ' s F i t t o R e t r i e v e . "
Co m p u te r D e c i s i o n s . Aug 72 , p p . 1 6 - 2 2 .
ANOTHER ANECDOTE
Some o f us have been s aying f o r a lo ng time
I t I s a t r u i s m th a t Mendel's th e o r ie s t h a t le a rn in g fr<xo computers oug ht to be
g e n e t i c s g o t " l o s t " a f t e r p u b lic a tio n I under c o n tr o l o f t h e s tu d en t.
1865, t o be re discovered in 1900. " I f
o n ly t h e r e had been proper Information One g r o u p ( n e v e r B i n d who) h a s t a k e n h o l d
o f t h i a i d e a and g o t t e n a l o t o f f u n d i n g
r e t r i e v a l under the r ig h t c a t e g o r i e s , "
peop le o f t e n sa y. Recent s t u d i e s i n d i f o r i t u n d e r t h e name o f STUDENT COWTBDL.
T h i s g r o u p t a l k s a s I f i t w er e s o a e k i n d o f
c a te t h a t th e p u b li ca tio n co n ta in in g
Mendels p a pe r reached, o r g ot n e a r l y t s c i e n t i f i c b rea kthrough.
'p r a e t t c a l l y a l l prominent b i o l o g i s t s <
t h e m id -n in e te en th c e n tu ry ." (S c le n t! I A f r i e n d o f in e s u g g e s ts , h ow eve r, t h a t
t h i s p h r a s e may hav e b r o u g h t t h e f u n d i n g
American, J u l y 68, 55.)
b e c a u s e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t h o u g h t i t m e an t
c o n t r o l o f th e s tu d e n t.
I ta k e t h i s as suggesting t h a t th e p r o b
lem I s n ' t c a te g o r ic a l r e t r i e v a l a t a l l .
I t ' s mult I -con nected a v a i l a b i l i t y (see
"h yp ertex t,
BIBLI OGR APH Y
G e o r g e B. L e o n a r d , E d u c a t i o n a n d E c s t a s y .
D e l l , $ 2 . 2 5 . A r g u e s f o r m a k in g
e d u c a tio n an e n t h u s i a s t i c p r o c e s s .
T h e o d o r H. N e l s o n , "No More T e a c h e r s '
D i r t y L o o k s. F o llo w s .
k it
i)* ib
(The follow ing a r tic le a p p e a re d in the S e p tem b e r, 1970 is s u e of C o m puter Decis i o n s ,
an d got an e x tr a o r d i n a r y am ount o f a tte n tio n . I h a v e c h ang ed my v iew s som ewhat
we all go t h r o u g h c h a n g e s , a fte r a ll b u t a fte r c o n sid e ra tio n h a v e d e c id e d to r e - r u n
it in the o r ig in a l fo rm , w ithout q u a lific a tio n s , m ollifications o r a n y th in g , for its u n ity .
T h a n k s to C o m p u te r D ecisions for u se of the a r tw o r k by Gans a n d fo r th e S u p e rstu d e n t
p ic tu r e on the c o v e r , whose a r ti s t u n fo rtu n ate ly i n s i s t s on p r e s e r v i n g h is anonym ity.

by T h e o d o r H . Nelson
T h e N elson Organization
N ew Y ork
Some think the educational system is basically
all right, and more resources would get it working
again. Schools would do things the same way. ex
cept more so, and things would get better.
In that case the obvious question would be, how
can com p uters help? How can computers usefully
supplem ent and extend the traditional and accept
ed form s of teaching? This is the question to which
present-day efforts in "computer-assisted instruc
tion called CA I seem to respond.
But such an approach is o f no possible interest
to the new generation of critics of our school sys
tem people like John Holt ( W h y Children Fail),
Jo n a th a n Kozol (D eath at an Early A g e ) and
Jam e s H erndon (T h e Way It S p o zed To B e ). More

and m ore, such people are severely questioning the

general framework and structure of the way we
teach.
These writers describe particularly ghastly
exam ples of our schooling conditions. But such
h orror stories aside, we are coming to recognize
Did you find school dismal and dreary? that schools as we know them appear designed at
Did it turn you off? every level to sabotage the supposed goals of e d u
cation. A child arrives at school bright and early
Here the author proposes safe and legal
in his life. By drabness we deprive him of interests.
ways to turn kids on. By fixed curriculum and sequence we rob him of
his orientation, initiative an d motivation, and by
testing and scoring we subvert his natural intelli
gence.
Schools as we know them all run on the same
principles: iron all subjects flat and then proceed,
in groups, at a forced m arch across the flattened
plain. Material is dumped on the students and their
responses calibrated; their interaction and involve
ment with the material is not encouraged nor taken
into consideration, but their dutifulness of response
is carefully monitored.
While an exact arrangement of intended motiva
tions for the student is preset within the system,
they d o not usually take effect according to the
ideal. It is not that students are //^motivated, but
motivated askew. Rather than seek to achieve in
the way they are supposed to. students turn to
churlishness, surliness, or intellectual sheepishness.
A general human motivation is god-given at the
beginning and warped or destroyed by the edu
cational process as we know it: thus we internalize
at last that most fundamental of grownup goals:
just to get through another day.
Because of this procedure our very notion ot
hum an ability has suffered. Adult mentality is

n
An i n te r e s tin g p o in t, in c id e n ta lly , is that p eop le r e a d th is a lot of d iffe re n t w a y s.
One Dean of E d u ca tio n h ila r io u s ly m is re a d it as an a c r o s s - t h e - b o a r d p l u g for CAI.
O th e rs r e a d i n it v a rio u s form s o f m enace o r a d v o c a c y of g e n e ra liz e d m ec h a n iz a tio n .
One l e t t e r - w r i t e r sa id I w as a m enace b u t at le a st w r itin g a rtic le s k e p t me off the
s t r e e ts . H e re is my fundam en tal point: c o m p u te r - a s s is te d in s tr u c tio n , a p p lie d th o u g h t
l e s s l y a n d i m ita tiv e ly , th r e a te n s to e x te n d th e w o r s t fe a tu r e s of e d u ca tio n as it "IF n o w .

cauterized, and we call it norm al.' Most people's

minds are mostly tu rned off most of the time. We
know virtually nothing of hum an abilities except
as they have been pickled and boxed in schools; we
need to ignore all th a t and start fresh. T o w ant stu
dents to be n o rm a l is criminal, when we are all
so far below o ur potential. Buckminster Fuller, in
/ Seem T o Be A Verb, says we are all b orn ge
niuses; Sylvia A shton-W arner tells us in Teacher
of her success with this premise, and o f the bril
liance and creative potential she was able to find in
all her schoolchildren.
Curric ula themselves destructively arra n g e the
study situation. By walls between artificially segre
gated "studies and "separate topics we forbid the
pursuit of interest a n d kill motivation.
In ordinary schooling, the victim c a n n o t orie nt
himself to the c u rre n t topic except by un d e rstan d -

<3
to o k *
ing the official angle of approach and p re s en ta
I
tion. T hough tie-ins to previous interests and
knowledge are usually the best way to get a n initial X
sense of a thing, there is only time to c o n sid e r the
officially presented tie-ins. (N either is the re time -If
to answer questions, except briefly and ra re ly well
and usually in a way that promotes o rd e r by If the computer is a universal control system,
discouraging e x tra ne ous tie-ins from c o m in g up.) lets give kids universes to control.
T he unnecessary division and walling o t sub
jects. sequencing a n d kibbling of mate ria l lead peo
ple to expect simplifications, to feel that n a m in g a
thing is und erstanding it, to fear com plex w holes;
to believe creativity means reco m bination, the
parsing of old relations, rather th an synthesis.
Like political boundaries, curriculum b o u n d a r
ies arise from noticeable features of a c o n tin u u m
and become progressively more fortified. A s be
hind political borders, social unification occurs
within them, so that wholly dissimilar practitioners
who share a nam e c o m e to think they d o the same
thing. And because they talk mainly to e ac h other,
they forget how n e ar is the other side o f the border.
Because of the fiction of "subjects, g re a t c o n
cern and consideration has always gone in to cal
culating the c orre c t teaching sequence for e ach
subject. In recent years radical new te a ch in g se
quences have been in troduced for teaching various
subjects, including m athem atics and physics. But
such efforts a p pea r to have been m isinfo rm ed by
the idea of supplanting the w rong te a c h in g se
quence with the " rig h t teaching sequence, one
which is "validated. Similarly, we have go n e from
a time when the instructional sequence was a b a l
ance between tradition and the lowest c o m m o n d e
nominator of each subject, to a time when teachers
may pick "flexible optim ized strategies from text-

TIT

Some premises relevant to teaching
1. The human mind is born free, yei everywhere
il is in chains. The educational system serves
mainly to destroy for most people, in varying
degrees, intelligence. curiosity, enthusiasm, and
intellectual initiative and self-confidence. We
are born with these. I hey arc gone or severely
diminished when wc leave school.
2. Everything is interesting, until ruined for us.
Nothing in the universe is intrinsically unin
teresting. Schooling systematically ruins ihings
for us, wiping out these interests; the last ihiog
to be ruined determines your profession.
3 . There are no subjects. The division of the
universe into subjects" for teaching is a mat
ter of tradition and administrative convenience.
4. There is no natural or necessary order of
learning. Teaching sequences are arbitrary,
explanatory hierarchies philosophically spuri
ous. "Prerequisites" arc a fiction spawned by
the division of the world into subjects:" and
maintained by not providing summaries, intro
ductions or orientational materials exccpt to
those arriving through a certain door.
5. Anyone retaining his natural mental facilities
can learn anything practically on his own,
given encouragement and resources.
6. Most (caches mean well, but ihey arc so
conccrncd wilh promoting their images, atti
tudes nnd style of order that very little else
can be communicalcd in ihe time remaining,
and almost none of it attractively.
books.' And this all ignores a simple fact: all arc
arbitrary. Instructional sequences aren't needed at all
if the people are motivated and Ihe materials are clear
and available.
Testing as we know it (integrated with walled curric
ula ancf instructional sequences) is a destructive activ
ity, particularly for the orientation which it creates.
The concerns of testing are extraneous: learning to
figure out low-level twists in questions that lead no
where, under pressure.
The system of tensions and defenses il creates in the
student's personality are unrelated to the subjcci or
the way people might rclalc lo the subject. An exploit
ive altitude is foslered. Nol becoming involved with
the subject, the student grabs for roie payoff raihcr
than insight.
All in a condescending circumstance. Condescension
is built into the system at all levels, so pervasive it is
scarcely noticed. Students are subjccicd io a grim
variety of put-downs and denigrations. While many
people evidently believe Ihis to be right, ils productivity
in building confident and sclf-respccting minds may be
doubted.
The problems of Ihc school are not parlicularly the
teachcrs fault. The practice of (caching is principally
involved wilh managing the class, keeping up face, and
projecting the image of ihe subject thal conforms to the
teachers own prcdilcclions. The educational system is
thereby committed to the fussy and prissy, lo the en
force men t of peculiar standards of righteousness and
the elevation of leachcrs a huge irrelevant shell
around ihc small kernel of knowledge transmitted.
TJie usual attacks on computer leaching tend to be
sentimental and emotional picas for the alleged hu
manism ot Ihe existing system. Those who are opposed
to (he use of compuiers lo icach generally believe the
computer to be cold and "inhuman." The leachcr
is considered ''warm" and human." 'I his view is ques
tionable on both sides.
The computer is as inhuman as wc make it. The
computer is no more cold" and inhuman" than a
toaster, bathtub or automobile (all associated with
warm human activities). Living tcachcrs can be as in
human as members of any people-prodding profession,
sometimes more so. Computcrists speak of Irccing
teachers for the creative part of their work;" in many
cases it is not clear what creative tasks they could be
freed for.
A t the last, it is to rescue ihc student from the in
human leachcr, and allow him to relate directly and
personally to the intrinsically interesting subject mai
ler, that wc need io use computers in education.
Many successful systems of icachcrlcss learning exist
in our socicly: professional and industrial magazines:
conventions and their display booths and brochures;
technical sales pitches (most remarkably, those of med
ical "detail men ) : hobbyist circles, which combine
personal acquaintance with a round of magazines and
gatherings; think-tanks and research institutes, where,
specialists trade fields; and the rcspcctful briefing.
None of these is like (he conventional classroom
with its haughty rcsource-chairman; they arc not run
on condescension: and they get a lot across. Wc tend
to think they arc nol educaiion and thal the methods
cannot be Iransfcrrcd or extended to the regions now
ruled by conventional leaching. Oul why nol?
If everything wc ate were kibbled into uniform dng-
food, and the amount consumed a( each feeding time
tediously watched and tested, we would have little
fondness for eating, But ihis is what the schools do to
our food for thought, and this is whal happens to
peoples minds in primary school, secondary school
and most colleges.
This is the way to produce a nation of sheep or
clerks. If wc are serious about wanting people to have
creative and energetic minds, il is nol whal we ought
io do. Energy and enthusiasm are natural to ihc hunun
spirit; why drown Ihem?
W
Education oughi to be d ear, inviting nnd enjoyable,
without booby-traps, humiliations, condescension or
boredom. It ought to teach and reward initiative, curi
osity, ihe habit of self-motivation. intellectual involve
ment. Studcnls should develop, through practice, abili
ties to think, argue and disagree intelligently.
Educators and computer enthusiasts tend to agree on
these goals. Bul what happens? Many of ihc inhuman
ities of the existing system, no less wrong for being
unitentional, arc being continued into coniputcr-assist-
cd leaching.
Although the promoters of computer-assisted instruc
tion, affectionately called CAI," seem to think of them
selves as being at the vanguard of progress in all di
rections, the field already seems to operate according
:o a stereotype. We may call this classic or "conven-
ional CAI, a way of thinking depressLngly summarized
n The Use of Computers in Education" by Patrick
iuppes, Scientific American, September, 1966, 206-
220, an article of semi-classic stature.
It is an uncxamined premise of this article that the
computer system will always decide what the student
is to study and control his movements through il. The
student is to be led by the nose through every subject,
and the author expresses perplexity over the question
of how the system can decide, at all limes, where to
lead the student by the nose (top of col. 3, p. 219).
But let us nol anticipate alternatives.
It is often asserted (as by Alpert and Bitzer in "A d
vances in Computer-Based Education," Science,
March 20, 1970) that this is not the only approach
current. The trouble is that it seems to be the only ap
proach current, and in the expanding computer uni
verse everyone seems to know whal c a i is. And this
is it.
Computer-assisted instruction, in this classical sense,
is the presentation by computer of bite-sized segments
of instructional material, branching among them ac
cording to involuntary choices by ihe student ("an-
swere") and embedding material presented the student
in some sort of pseudo-conversation ( Very good.
Now, Johnny, point at the . . .")
CAI; Based on nnnccessuy premises
At whichever level of complexity, all these conven
tional c a i systems arc based on three premises: lhat
all presentations consists of items, short chunks and
questions; lhat the items are arranged into sequences,
though these sequences may branch and vary under
control of the computer; and finally, that these sequen
ces are to be embedded in a framework of dialogue;
with the computer composing sentences and questions
appropriately based on the student's input and the
branching structure of the materials. Let us call such
systems sic (Sequenced-Item Conversational) systems.
These three premises are united. For Ihere to be
dialogue means Ihere musl be an underlying graph
structure of potential sequences around which dialogue
may be generated; for there to be potential sequences
means breakpoints, and hence items.
Let us question each of the premises in turn.
1. Is dialog* pleasant or desirable? Compulsory
interaction, whether with a talking machine or a stereo
typed human, is itself a put-down or condescension.
(Note lhat on superhighways there is often a line of
cars behind the automatic loll booths, even when the
manned ones art open.) Moreover, faked interaction
can be an annoyance. (Consider the green light at the
automatic toll booth thal lights up with a thank you.")
Moreover, dialogue by simple systems tends to have a
fake quality. It is by no means obvious that phony
dialogue with a machine will please the student.
2. Is (be Hem approach necessary? If (he student
were in control, he could move around in areas of
material, leaving each scene when he got what he want
ed, or found il unhelpful.
3- A n sequences necessary? Prearranged sequences
become unnecessary if the student can see whal he has
yet to learn, then pursue il.
T^- s e n s e o t p r e stig e a n d p a rticip a tio n
CAI: ttnncccssiii> coin plication
The general belief among practitioners is that ma
terials .for computer-based teaching are extremely dif
ficult to create, or "program." Because of possible
item weakness and the great variety of possible se
quences within the web, extensive experimentation and
debugging are required. Each item must be carefully
proven; and the different sequences open to a student
must all be tested for iheir effectiveness. All possible
misunderstandings by a student need lo be anticipated
and prevented in this web of sequences, which must be
designed for its coverage, correct order, and general
effectiveness.
CAI: general wrongfrinoss
Computers offer us the first real chance to let the
human mind grow to its full potential, as il cannot
within ihe stifling and insulting setting of existing
school systems. Yet most of the systems for computer-
assisted instruction seem to me to be perpetuating and
endorsing much that is wrong, even evil, in our present
educational system, c a i in ils conventional fonn en
larges and extends the faults of the American educa
tional system itself. They are:
Conducivtness to boredom;
The removal of opportunities for initiative;
* Gratuitous concerns, both social and administra
tive ( subject, progress in subject);
Grades, which really reflect commitment level,
anxiety, and willingness to focus on core emphasis;
Stereotyped and condescending treatment of the
student (ihe Now-Johnny box in ihe computer re
placing the one thal sits before the class);
* 4^ ie narrowing of curricula and available materials
for results" at the expense of motivation and general
ized orientation;
Destructive testing of a kind we would nol permit
on delicate machinery; and,
* oven or hidden emphasis on invidious ratings.
(Ungraded schools are nice-but how many units did
you complete today?).
There are of course improvements, for instance in
the effects of testing. In the tell-test, tell-test nattering
or CAI, ihe testing becomes merely an irritant, bul one
certainly not likely lo fosier enthusiasm.
Bul isn't CAI scknlific?
Part of Cai's mystique is based upon the idea that
leaching can bccomc "scicntific in the light of modern
research, especially learning theory, ll is understand
able lhat researchers should promote this view and
lhat oihcrs should fall for il.
Laymen do not understand, nor arc ihcy told. thal
'learning theory" is an extremely technical, mathemat
ically oriented, description of the behavior of abstract
and idealized organisms learning non-unificd things
under specific condiiions of motivation and non-dis
traction.
Let us assume, politely, lhal learning theory is a
full and consisieni body of knowledge. Bccausc of its
name, learning theory has al least whal wc may call
nominal relevancc to teaching: bul real rclcvance is
another matter, ll may he relevant as Newtonian equa
tions are to shooting a good game of pool: implicit but
without practical bearing.
Bccausc of the actual character of learning theory,
and ils general remoteness from non-sicrilc conditions,
actual relevance to any pariicular type of applicuiion
must still be demonstrated. To postulate lhat the theory
still applies in diluted or shifted circumstances is a
leap of faith. Human beings arc not. taken all together,
very like ihc idealized pigeons or rats of learning
theory, and their motivations and other circumstanccs
arc not easily controlled. Studies conccrncd with rate
of repetition and reinforcement are scarcely relevant
if Ihc student hates or docs nol understand whal he is
doing.
I do nol mean li> iiUaek all < a i. or an> leaching
system which is cHcclive ami gialifying. What I doubt
is that sic sysiems for cai will become more and more
wonderful as effort progresses, or lhat Ihe goal of talk
ing tutorial systems is reachable and appropriate. And
what I further suspect is lhat we are building boredom
systems that nol mil* make hie duller bul sap inicllcc-
lual interest in the same old way.
Should systems instructT
Drill-and-praciicc systems arc definitely a good thing
lor the acquisition of skills and response sets, an im
provement over workbtxiks and the like, furnishing
both corrections and adjustment. Ihey are boring, bul
probably levs so than (he usual materials. Itut the c a i
enthusiasts seem lo believe ihc same c o n w a iM B h m l
chunk techniques can he extcntcd to the realm of ideas,
to systems that will tutor and chide, and that this will
provide the same sort of natural interest provided by
a live tutors instruction.
The conventional poini of view in c a i claims thal
because validation is so important, ii is necessary lo
have a standardized formal of item, sequence and dia-
loguc. This jusiifies lurning Ihe endeavor into pkl>-
work within ilcms and sequence complexes, with
attendant curifcular frcc/c. and Modem inanition and
boredom. This is entirely premature. I h c variety ot
alternative systems for compuier leaching have ihM
even begun to be explored. Should s t e r n s instruct
at all?
R tsp o n d i.* * M .p c fM td i.-
Al no previous line h. il t a " i th is it can now, mduding operite cncifdex d isp lay
^ rs :rs iK S S K :
Wc can m. C O -T * * * * rrevrnuim ul
wo.HJccli.Hh. - h e r e
browse and ramble through a v.is v l - deverty. a nd integrate d a la a n d display f u n c t k n s u u f e r
pictures and appaotiom
rich data srriiciuros and lacuiov
These wc may call. Col.cc.ivdy
Responding resources arc of two . ps
hypcr-mcdia.
A futility is something the user may call u p to per
form routinely a computation or other act. behaving
in desired ways on demand Thus j o s s (a d e v e r tie s'
calculator available at a te rm inal) and the Culler-Freed
graph-plotting system (which graphs arbitrary func
tions the user types in) are facilities.
Hvprr-mrtUu arc branching or performing presenta
tions which respond to user actions, systems o f pre
arranged words and pictures ffor example) which i
he explored freely or queried in styli/ed ways. Ih 1 ey
will not be * programmed." but rather i/rv e w i/. "
ilrawn and rdiii'd. by authors, artist', designers and
editors. (T o call them programmed" would suggest
spurious technicality. Compuier systems to present
them will be programmed. ) l.ikc ordinary prose and
pictures, ihcy will be m edia: and because they a re in
some sense "mulli-dimcnsional." we may call them
hyper-niedki. following the mathematical use o f the
lerm hypcr-.
A modest proposal
The alternative is straightforward. Instead o f devis
ing elaborate systems permitting tbe computer o r its
instructional contents to control the situation, why
not permit the student to control the system, show him
how to do so intelligently, and make jt easy for him
to find his own way? Discard ihe sequences, items
and conversation, and allow the student to move freely
through materials which he may control. Never mind
optimizing reinforcement or validating teaching se
quences. Motivate the user and let him loose in a
wonderful place.
Let the student control the sequence, pul him in
control of interesting and d ear material, and m ake him
feel good comfortable, interested, and autonomous.
Teach him to orient himself: not having the system
answer questions, all typed in, bul allowing the student
to get answers by looking in a fairly obvious place.
(Dialogue is unnecessary even when it does not in
trude.) Such ultra-rich environments allow the student
to choose what he will study, when he will sludy it and
how he will study it, and to what criteria of accom plish
ment he will aim. Let the student pick what he wishes
to study next, decide when he wishes io be tested, and
give him a variety of interesting materials, events and
opporiunilies. Let the student ask to be tested on what
he thinks he knows, when he is ready, selecting the
mosi appropriate form of lesiing available.
This approach has several advantages. First, il cir
cumvents the incredible obstacles created by the
dialoguc-item-scquencc philosophy. It ends the danger
io students of bugs in the material. And last, it does
what education is supposed to do foster student e n
thusiasm, involvement, and self-reliance.
Under such circumstances students will actually be
interested, motivated to achieve far more than they
have ever achieved within the normal instructional
framework; and any lopsidedness which may result
will be far offset by the degree of accomplishment
which will occur it being much better to create lop
sided but enthusiastic genius specialists than listless,
apathetic, or cruelly rebellious mediocrities. If they
start soon enough they may even reach adulthood with
natural minds: driven by enthusiasm and interest,
crippled in no areas, eager to learn more, and far
smarter lhan people ordinarily end up being.
Enthusiasm and involvement are what really count.
This is why the right to explore far outweighs any
administrative advantages of creating and enforcing
subjects" and curriculum sequences. The enhancem ent
or motivation that will rollow from letiing kids le arn
anything they want to learn will far outweigh any
specialization lhat may result. By ihe elim ination or
benign replacement of both curriculum and tests in an
ultra-rich environment, we will prevent the attritio n of
Ihe natural motivation of children from its initially
enormous levels, and mental development will be the
natural straight diagonal rather than the cu stom ary
parabola.
Is It so hanf? so w Idea
c a i is said to be terribly hard. It would seem all the
harder, then, to give students the richer an d m o re
stimulating environments advocated here. T his is be
cause of the cramped horizons of computer teaching
today. Modest goals have given us modest visions, far
helow what is now possible and will soon be cheap.
Discrete (Chunk Style) Hyperteits
The n a rk computer displays now associated w ith
c a i wifl give way to dynamo displays driven fro m
miDkoniputen. such bs the m n M . i>m 22 5 0 4 o r
Imlac ros-l. (The lest erf these costs only S I 0 .0 0 0
mjwi by 1975 such unH will probably cost Si.OOO
tx less.) No* only will computers be much ch eaper, b ut
their inability will i n p o w : a small computer w ith a
fair amount of uicumj y will be ibie to do much m o re
frrm its owa axnpfc* data base.
ll is generally s u p p w d tha t systems like Ifaeae
big com ru ters aod n m r m r m o n o n c T h a is o o t
true if we use tbe ctjurpmciM wefl, o rganize s t o r a g e
a compact o n y x T h is ts the go a l a# T h e N e l s o n
O rgamzauon's Proje ct X an a d u , a syste m m t e i x k d t o
oompotB witb disk aod tape.

Discrete hyperlexis
H y p e r t e x t " m e a n s f o r m s o f writing w h ic h b r a n c h
or p e r fo rm o n r e q u e s t ; t h e y a r e best p re s e n te d o n c o m
pu ter d i s p l a y s c r e e n s .
In o r d i n a r y w r it i n g t h e a u t h o r m a y b r e a k s e q u e n c e
for fo o tn o te s o r i n s e ts , b u t th e use o f p rin t o n p ? pr
m ak e s s o m e b a s i c s e q u e n c e essential. T h e com puv
display s c r e e n , h o w e v e r , p e r m it s fo o tn o tes o n fo o t n o t e s
on fo o tn o te s , a n d p a t h w a y s o f a n y stru c tu r e th e a u t h o r
wants to c r e a te .
D is crete, o r c h u n k s ty le, h y p ertex ts c o n sist o f s e p a
ra te pieces o f t e x t c o n n e c t e d by links.
O r d in a r y p r o s e a p p e a r s o n th e screen' an d m a y b e
m oved f o r w a r d a n d b a c k b y throttle. A n as te ris k o r
oth er key in t h e l e x t m e a n s , n o t a n o rd i n a ry fo o tn o te ,
but a jump t o a n e n t i r e l y n e w p re s e n ta tio n o n th e
screen. S u c h j u m p a b l e in te rc o n n e c tio n s b e c o m e p a r t
of th e w riting, e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e prose m e d iu m itself as
a new w a y t o p r o v i d e e x p la n a tio n s and details t o t h e
seeker. T h e s e lin k s m a y b e artfully a r ra n g e d a c c o r d in g
to m e a n in g s o r r e l a t i o n s in th e subject, a n d p o s s ib le
tange nts in t h e r e a d e r s m in d .
W e lc o m in g n e s s a n d control
C H O IC E POIN T
GO ON
I D O N T UNDERSTAND
S O FAR IM BORED
EXPLAIN T H E BIG PICTURE
DETAILS PLEASE
TIE T H IS IN WITH SOMETHING
I KNOW
LET S G O BACK TO LAST CHOICE
PO IN T
GIVE ME M ORE CHOICES
M O R E C HOIC ES
I T E ST ME
I DRILL ME
R ID D LE ME
I DRAW ME A DIAGRAM
T ELL ME A RELEVANT JOKE
I CH A N G E TH E SUBJECT
S U R P R IS E ME
P erform ing h v p e r g r a m s
A h y p e r g ra m is a p e r fo rm i n g or b ra n c h in g p ictu re :
for in s tan ce , th is an g le , w ith the b a r -g ra p h of its r e
lated t r i g o n o m e t r i c fu n c t io n s . T h e s tu d e n t m a y t u r n
the angle u p o n t h e s c r e e n , seizin g it with th e lig h t- p e n ,
and w a tc h t h e re l a t e d trig o n o m e tric fu n c tio n s , d is
played as b a r c h a r t s , c h a n g e correspondingly.
H y p e r g r a m s m a y a l s o b e p ro g r a m m e d to s how th e
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a u s e r s p ro d w h a t follow s o r a c
c om pa nie s s o m e m o t i o n o f t h e p ictu re t h a t h e m a k e s
with a p o i n tin g t o o l , l ik e t h e h e a rtb e a t sequence.
S lr c lc h le x t^ ills in lh e d e t a il s
T h i s fo r m o f h y p e r t e x t is ea sy lo use w ith o u t g ellin g
lost. A s a f o r m o f w r iiin g . it h a s special a d v a n ta g e s for
discursive a n d lo o s e ly s t r u c t u r e d m aterials for in
stance h isto rical n a r ra tiv e s .
T h e r e a r c a s c r e e n an d t w o th r o t t l e s . The first
th ro ttle m o v e s th e lext fo r w a r d a n d b a c k w a r d , u p and
d o w n o n th e s c r c c n . T h e s e c o n d ih ro tilc c a u s c s ch a n g es
in t h e w r itin g itself: th ro ttlin g t o w a r d y o u cause* the
text l o b e c o m c lout; , r b y m i n u te d e g r e e s . G a p s a p p e a r
b etw e en p h r a s e s ; nu.v w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s p o p into the
gaps, an item a t a time. Push hac k o n t h e th ro ttle and
the w riting b e c o m e s s h o r t e r a n d less d e t a il e d .
T h e s t r e t c h te x t is sto re d as a text s t r e a m w ilh extras,
co d e d t o p o p in a n d p o p o u l at th e d e s i r e d altitudes:
S tr e t c h t e x t is a fo rm of writing.
It is re ad from a screen. The user
c o n tr o ls it w ith thro ttles . It gets
longer and shorter on dem and.
J
S tr e tc h te x t, a kind o f h y p e r te x t, D i s s e c ti o n on Ihe scrccn
is basically a form of writing closely
re lated to o th er prose. It is read b y T h e s tu d e n t of a n a t o m y m a y use his light-pen a s a
s c a lp e l for a d ec ea sed c r e a t u r e on the screen. As he
a user or s tu d e n t from a c o m p u te r
display screen. The user, or s tu d e n t, c u t s , th e tissue parts. H e c o u l d also tu rn the lig h t-p en
c o n t r o ls it, and causes it to change, i n t o h e m o s ta t o r fo rcep s , a n d fully dissect the c r e a tu r e
w ith t h ro ttle s con n e cted to the o r p u t it b a c k to g e th e r a g a in . ( T h i s nee d not be a
c o m p u te r . S tretch te x t gets longer, c o m p l e x s im ula tion. M a n y k e y relatio n sh ip s c a n be
by a dding words and phrases, or s h o w n by m ea n s of fairly sim p le s che m atic picture s,
s h o rter, by subtractin g words and n e e d i n g a d a t a stru c tu r e n o t p ro h ib itiv ely c o m p lic a ic d .)
phra ses, on dem and.
H y p e r m a p z ip s u p o r d o w n
I l y p c r - c o m i c s sire fun
T h e s c r e e n is a m a p . A s te e rin g d e v ic e p e r m its the
u s e r l o m o v e t h e m a p a r o u n d th e w o r l d s s u rfa c e : a H y p e r-c o m ic s a r e p e r h a p s th e sim plest an d m ost
thro ttle z o o m s it in. N o t b y d is c re te j u m p s , b u t ani s tra i g h t fo r w a r d h y p e r -m e d i u m , l h e screen holds a
m a te d in s m all c h a n g e s , the m a p g ro w s a n d gro w s in c o m i c strip, b u l o n e w h ich b ra n c h e s o n the s tu d e n t's
scale. M o r e d e ta ils a p p e a r as the m ag n ific atio n in r e q u e s t . F o r instance, d ilferen t c h a ra c te rs could be used
crea se s. T h e u s e r m a y re q u es t a d d itio n a l d i s p l a y m o d es lo e x p l a in things in different w a y s , with the s tudent ab le
o r o v e r la y s , s u c h as p o p u la tio n , c l i m a t e , a n d indus l o c h o o s e w hich ty p e o f e x p l a n a t i o n he w a n te d ;ii a
try. S u c h a d d i t i o n a l fe atu re s m a y p o p i n t o view on s p e c ific lime.
request
T e c h n i c a li t y is not n e c e s s a ry
P r o p o n e n t s o f c a i w a nl u s t o believe th at scientific
t e a c h i n g re q u ires a c c rta in s e t u p a n d fo r m a t, in c o m
p r e h e n s ib le to the laym an a n d lo be left t o experts.
T h i s is sim ply not true. T e c h n i c a li t y " is a m yth. T h e
Q u e ria b le illu s lra lio n s : a fo r m of h y p e r g r a m
p r o b l e m is not o n e of te c h n ic a l rightness, bul w hat
A h y p e r g r a m is a p ic tu re t h a l c a n b r a n c h or p e r .should be.
fo r m o n re q u e s t. In th is p a r tic u la r e x a m p le , we see T h e suggestions l h a t hiivc b e e n given ar e th in g s th at
o n th e sc re e n a lin e-d raw in g w ilh p r o t r u d i n g labels. s h o u l d b e, they will be b r o u g h t a b o u t.
W h e n th e s t u d e n t p o ints at a label, it b e c o m e s a sliding
d esc rip tiv e r i b b o n , ex p la in in g th e th in g labe lle d.
O r a ste risks in a n illustra tion m a y signal ju m p s to
d etailed d i a g r a m s and ex p la n a tio n s , as in discrete
hypertexts.
on
 The techniques of picture, by
computer e celled con,pUr 07 You i
all tha dlffarot ooaputar display urainali .
taclu'1 > 1 Una* of n e k l m you would ha n to andffntaid ail tbe diflcri
p ic tu ra e by com puter, t h . m e , ,h a ,
p e n s an d p rin tin g m achines. * * ly eorm r a few han, I
sparely.

,' k The technique, of melon, computer,

KtM
DX
present thing, lnler.ctl.ely on le S w of th* types of ooapular display **>
computer dl.pl.y- (Some esy "Inter,,!,, com
puter graphic;" this 1, 0, to. bu,
loo restrictive as mil: lmersctlve ten C B T . or cafhoda-rey tube, diaplaya;
re not "graphic" or pictorial. bui'tSy tol. ihese are sty b n r t u be<ae th*
to be a profoundly import. an,. of computer stuff cm their screens m m f be
display.) aiiaaiad by tbe eaaputar.

(Incidentally. the sUly w ord "in teractio n' Tidao diaplaya. which uee televiaioei
w as coined because the p re v iou s word "Inter tachnlquas. Theee hare Inwbtaa
c o u r s e , - w hich meant exactly th e same th ing, deriving b m (he way a T V p i d u n
h a d r a c y connotations to r some people. Cf.
" donkey" a n d " ro o s te r." alao relativ ely re c e n t.)
panal diaplaya. I.e., Owes hldi i
You will note that com puter diaplay la > a Dal pnel. Theee a going
w hat makea possible the com puter termin als with to be cropping up all over. (Tha
s c r e e n s lhal we saw on the o th e r side . All pictures can't aore nuch. but tbe
It w as e x p la in e d o n th e o th e r aide th at th a l a screen -term in al la is some e o n of com devices sre fotng U> te chaap-
com puters h a v e no fixe d p u r p o s e o r sty le of p u te r d is p la y , to which a key b oard haa been P \m . too. toe* peopla think lhat's
o p e ra tio n . b u t can b e se t In motion on d eta ile d added. vary kmpona)l.)
an d re p e titiv e ta s k s In any realm of human In
t e r e s t as lo n g as th o se ta sk s a r e exactly j-D diaplaya, especially c t lha C B T type.
specifiable In c e r ta in h um drum w ays. NOTE ihls ter* reiers M b i g x m e l y
lo two different thlnge: setups which
Now, if y o u h a d a m achine like that prasanl O* views of three -dinenskeial
b u r n in g a hole in th e c o m e r o f y o u r office, scenes. aid those which prwent
w hat would you r e a lly wanl to do w ilh it? sisreoeo^ic views a i 1-D sctee;
Iheee are much rarer.
You c a n 't d r iv e it on the road.
laap aynihaala or halftone tochniquee
You c a n 't make love to it. (But s e e p . * * . ) and systena. Theee are naputer
i which
r phocographllke
You c a n 't cook in it, o r get the new a
pictures. (This happens to be a
favorite topic of mine. m d *> theree
qulla s bli on it here, s lot a i ehidi
T o g et it lo c o n trol elabo rate e v e n ts in
la nol widely k m n in tha field.)
th e re a l w orld r e q u ir e s a lot of e x p e n siv e e q u ip
ment and in te r f a c e s , so c ro a s that o ut. itiL io c u rn f t * M V l m * f . t * .

Yet s u p p o s e y o u have an in q u ir in g Imag S p re u ll, I n t e r a c t i v e C c u t r C r e p h l o . _

^ HcCrew, 1 1 ). Tour b a a l c t e a t o s a l l f o t - M o f | |
in ation w h ic h is n o t u n lik e ly , c o n sid e rin g
^ c < ^ u t r ( r a p h l c * (aa d t b u a a s L a a t t o o ) .
th at you o re r e a d in g th is se n te n c e .

And we a r e a lso s u p p o sin g (from an e a r

li e r p a r a g r a p h ) th a t you h a v e a com puter.

What s o r ts of th in g would you do w ith it?

T h in g s that a r e im aginative and d o n t

re q u ir e too m u c h e l s e .

I am h i n t i n g at s o m e t h i n g .

v a x rr k m s rtrotts

* U w you
Responding conputer displays
>t"it**/ come in all sizes and prices. This
little setup (in the under-SlO,000
class) is a PDP-0 minicomputer with
hone-built display circuitry. Gothic
lettering data structure available
from somebody in the nilitary; mes
sage courtesy of R.E.S.I.S.T.O.R.S.
The big display is an IBM 2250 (over
and I f t h i s I d e a d o e s n ' t t u r n you o o a $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 , including minicomputer).
t h e r e s t o f t h i s bo ok l a p r o b a b l y n o t f o r y o u .

f f i 4K'6+|THfy

TH r 1^ '

w- r***

Me?
t3 H
\islfor
s y ] tv

d/wIt Gh k

is te .y -
rtUff-j

* . W e

>
ik O unO T
K ,p ;
' l ' * ,rS V . - r - v

* t * r ~ ~ -
j i-iir (-t ry*v)
wWW T T * i - U
JW AYIW inftis
So b s coaputer displays have to be deoply
attached to a conputer and soae don't. Those
latter we call display terminals.
A display terninal is like an ordinary
coaputer terainal (see p ): that is, funda-
aentally a device by which a computer and a
person can type at each other. However, dis
play terainal3 have screens.
Now, soae display terminals only show
te*t, just like ordinary printing terainals
(described on the other side). But manufac
turers are free to add any other features, and
so different manufacturers aake it possible to
do various kinds of pictuTe-aaking with their
particular display terainals, if appropriate
prograas are running in the coaputer that con
trols thea.
Soae dpvices are sold as display terainals
but actually, to further confuse the issue,
contain coaplete minicomputers. (The fact
that the aanufacturer may not stress this is
simply a marketing angle he has chosen.) Siai-
larly, certain terainals contain microprocessors
(see p. V*J), which means they can be prograamed
to behave like various other terminals, but ordi
narily they cannot be prograamed to do much else
by themselves.
Without getting into it deeplv, there are two main
types of display terainal: those that are refreshed and
those that are not. A refreshed display Is one whose
viewing surface fades and must be continually re-illed;
a non-refreshed display somehow stores the presentation
in the viewing surface itself.
Non-refreshed displays simply take the symbols
from the computer, blaa them onto the screen, and that's
it until the screen is erased (by either the computer or
the user).
T h ia h o n e y i a th a G T -4 0
f r o m DSC ( $ 1 2 , 0 0 0 , i n
c lu d in g o o m p u te r -- th e
th in g w ith t e e t h , b a lo u ) .
I t ' s a eu b ro utin in g
d i a p l a y ( a e e p . DM S 3 ) .
M an i a p l a y i n g N o o n - m m . m -m mm m
la n d e r gam e: c o n t r o l
lin g a oreen a o tio n u ith
lig h tp e n . C o n p u t e r s i m u l a t e s r e a l moon l a n d e r .
R eversed u h ite - to - b la a k fo r r e a d a b ility here.
m e woNhre^of
mTOMjCTNF fctfPUiy
If you have not seen interactive coaputer
display, you have not lived.
Except for a few people who can laagine it--
and I'a trying to help you with that as hard as I
can-- aost people just don't aet it till they see
it. They can't imagine what it's like to manipu
late a picture. To have a diagram respond to you.
To change one part of a picture, and watcIT TKe rest
adapt. These are some of the things that can hap
pen in interactive coaputer display-- all depending,
of course, on the prograa.
For soae reason there are a lot of people who
pooh-pooh coaputer display: they say it's "not
necessary," or "not worth it, or that "you can get
just as good results other ways."
Personally, I wouldnt thing of trying to
Justify coaputer display on "practical" grounds.
So what if it offers you faster access to infor-
aation and pictures and aaps anldiagraas, the
ability to siaulate extreaely complex things by
modifying pictures, the ability to go through
complex transactions with the system in very
little time, the ability to create things in the
world almost instantaneously (say, by creating
fabric patterns which are then automatically
woven, or design 3D objects which are then auto
matically milled by machines), and never mind
that It enables the user, say, to control entire
oil refineries by the flick of a lightpen.
As far as I'm concerned, the matters
aren't very important coapared to changing the
world: aaklng education an exciteaent, rather
than a prison; giving scholars total access to
writings and notes, in new complex fora; allowing
people to play laaginatlvely, and raising human
minds to tne potentials they should have reached
long ago; end helping people think at the deepest
level about very heavy and complex alternatives --
which confront us more ominously today than ever.
Two major types are the storage tube and the panel.
These in turn have separate subtypes, etc.
Refreshed displays have to have some other kind of
of symbolic (digital) memory, whose contents repeated
ly go to the screen:
Most refreshed displays use an actual television
screen-- that is, a CRT (see p.ft*t-7) whose entire area
is repeatedly re-painted by the elctron beam.
Since computers send text out to terminals as in
dividual alphabetic and punctuation codes, each terainal
must contain circuitry to change the character code to a
visible alphabetical character on the screen. Such a
piece of circuitry is called a character generator. There
are various kinds, they go at various speeds, some offer
more different characters than others.
Display terminals generally have a little marker, or
cursor, that the user or the computer can move around the
screen. The computer can sense what the user is pointing
at by the motion codes it gets, telling where the user has
moved the cursor.
I had intended here to print a little directory of
display terminal manufacturers, but there simply is not
time. See section on terminals, other side.
Note that the term video terminal is often used, in
correctly, for any display terminal. The term "video"
should only be used when the screen is refreshed by an
actual video raster. (See Lightning in a Bottle," p.***-}.)
Text terminals (also called alphabetic terminals,
character terminals or keyscopes) simply show written text,
put in either by the computer or the user. (Soae terminals,
called transaction terainals, can be divided up into specific
areas that the user may and may not type into-- for banking
and stuff. However, whether that form of terminal is
necessary may also be a matter of taste in the progTan
design.)
Text terminals range in price from, say, $1500 on up
to $6 500. (This last is the price of a remarkable color
text terminal demonstrated by Tec, Inc., at the 19 74 National
Coaputer Conference. Each alphabetic position could con
tain a letter and/or a bright color; altogether the screen
could hold big colorful pictures made up of these bright
spaces. Ostensibly just a text terminal, actually the de
vice could be regarded as an Instant Movie Generator for
television animation. But it may take Tec, Inc. awhile to
realize what they have created.)
Graphic terainals offer some kind of pictures on their
screens. TKese cone in a great variety: line-drawing, some
without, some with levels of grey. Of interest to the be
ginner are:
"The Tektronix." (Also called "the greenie," or
"the green screen.") Tektronix, Inc., makes a
display based on a pale green storage tube they
aake. (So does Computer Displays, Inc.) Such
displays allow you to put more and more text and
pictures on a screen, crowding it all up-- but
you can't take the lines or words off individually.
"The PEP." Excellent (but veTy expensive) display
that comes out to a video screen from a high-re
solution storage tube. Permits grey scales and
selective erase. Princeton Electronic Products.
The IDlgraf (Information Displays, Inc., Mount Kisco,
NY). Allows line pictures with aniaation; interest
ing unit; somewhat less than J1 0 ,(fifth
A PLATO-like terminal (see PLATO terainal, nearby, and
p p i s now available for use with STANDARD com
puter interfaces and software. "Less than JS000"
from Applications Group, Inc., P.O. Box 444A, Maumee,
Ohio 43537,
REFRESHED HI Gil-RESOLUTION COLOR SYSTEMS. A number of
companies manufacture computer displays allowing com
plex grey-scale pictures, including color. They are
expensive but very very nice. Indeed, if you buy then
in clusters, these fancy-picture scopes can cost as
little as text terminals. Soae manufacturers are:
Data Disk. (Disk refresh.) Note: I once recommend
ed them to a consulting client of mine, who
later expressed complete satisfaction with
their equipment.
Rantek. (iw&MucV
Adage, Inc. Their model 200 is a video system re
freshed from semiconductor storage.
Costal. (Disk.)
Spaflal Data Systems (Disk.)
DlcomeiT. (Disk.) Extremely high resolution.
Student progixumner Alan Mafieil,
an art " a jo r , ponders s&m thing
o r other. I t may be th e program
fo r t h a llova apace-game he and
Pete Rouell are b u ild in g .
Alan also made a film sharing who*
may have been the n a tio n s o f the
c o n tinents, shooting s tr a ig h t o f f
the PLATO screen.
S am PLATO p u r is ts p o in t o ut that
th is is n o t ex a a tly uhat FUTO
uas o rig in a lly in tended fo r . So 7
PLATO p a a a l . d ia p la y (aa* DM 2 6 - 7 ) .
W l V H o e i;
The computer diaplay screen la the new
frontier of ou r lives.
That auch eyutems should (snd will) be
fun goes without sa y in g . Thai they will also
be a place to w ork may be less obvious from
lhe lone of this p u b lic a tio n , so I want to stress
It h ere.
M a k in g p i c t u r e s u ith eh GE
h a lfto n e sy s te m (see p p . DM 3 2 - 9 ) .
The Ihing about diaplay s creen s especial'
ly the h ig h -pe rfo rm a n c e , sub routining Kind
is lhal the screen can become a place from
which lo control events In the outside world,
Example: I believ e a town In N .Y . State
has Its electrical system hooked up to an HJIIOM
subroutlning display (made b y Information Dis
plays, I n c .. snd coupled to a Vsrlan 820 mini
computer). Instead of having a wail with s big
painted map having sw ltchee set Into it, like
many such control c e n te r s , the sw itches a re
linked directly lo the minicomputer, and a pro
gram in the minicomputer connects these circu its
to the pictures on the s c r e e n . Thus to throw
a sw itch In the real w o rld , the operator points
with M s lightpen al th e p ic tu re o f the sw itch ,
and the minicomputer thro w s the aw ltch,
T here are oil re fln e rle a lhat work the
same way, The op erato r can control flows
among pipes and tanks b y pointing al th eir
pic tu re s , or at symbols connected with them,
and bingo, it happens Out T h e re .
In another case, a person designing some
thing at a s c re e n can look across the room and
see a machine p ro d u c in g what he Just finished
designing a few m inutes ago. I wish 1 could
say more sbout lhat p a r tic u la r setup.
T he tru e problem lhat 1 think Is emerging,
th ough. Is Lhe problem of system response and
s ty le . Okay, so y o u 're controlling widget
sasem bly, or traffic light g r i d s , at Lhe CRT
screen. The real queatlon la, how does lhe
screen behave and re sp o n d ? Thia la not, dam
it, a technical issu e . It's psychological and
then aome. T he desig n of acreen activities
which will enjoyebly focus the u a e r's mind on
his proper co n c e rn s-- no m atter how peraonal
these may be Is the new frontier of desig n ,
of a r t. and of a rc h ite c tu re . Bul more of that
la te r .
Now, the Xerox Corporation haa said lhal
they Intend to replace p a p e r (or, tha way I
heard it, "Somebody ia going to replace pap er
with s c re e n s, and It will be either IBM o r ua,
so l e t's have It be u s,"^
Well and good. Save the trees and stem
lhe grey menace. But the question la: what
will lhe system* be lik e? How should Ihey p e r
form? What forma will information take? What
conventions, s tru c tu re s , diagram a. animations,
ways to sign thin g s, waya to view things . . .
HOW SHALL IT BE?
I am afraid that aa lo n g as people are be
fuddled with tech n icalities, o r confused by those
Who profess that theae considerations are ihelr
apec laity by r ig h t, we will nev er get s tr a ig h t.
la c k in g dme for the full discu ssio n , I give you
a motto;
IF THE BUTTON IS NOT SHAPED LIKE THE THOUGHT ,
TH E THOUGHT WILL END UP SHAPED LIKE THE BUTTON.
SAVING ENERGY WITH COMPUTER DISPLAY
A timely criticism of computer display is
that it needs electricity. But (as mentioned
elsewhere) it saves paper, and, importantly, it
bodes to save energy as well.
IF WE SWITCH TO COMPUTER SCREENS FROM
PAPER, PEOPLE WONT HAVE TO TRAVEL AS MUCH.
Instead of commuting to offices in the center
of town, people can set up their offices in
the suburbs, and share the documentary struc
ture of the work situation through the screens.
This view has been propounded, indeed, by
Peter Goldmark, former director of research for
CBS Labs, the man who brought you the LP record.
WA
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YOUR BASIC TYPES OF COMPUTER DISPLAY
(Note: the term "display" is also used
in this field to re fe r to num bers and letters
that can be made to light up in fixed positions,
like on your pocket calculators. Those will
not b e discussed h e r e . If y o u 're interested
see an article on the subject by Alan Sobel,
Scientific Am erican, ea rly 1973 sometime.)
THE FORKED LIGHTNING
" Because t h e ir words have
fo rked no lightn ing they
Do not go gentle into that good n ig h t."
Dylan Thomas
The most b a s i c , and yet eventually the
most versatile, com puter display ie that of the
CRT, o r bottled lig htning (a s 1 like to call i t ) .
It i s , you know: a beam of ele ctrons, ju s t like
lightning in a storm , b u t from the neck of a
very empty bottle to its flat bottom, whose
chemically coated s u rfa c e we watch. As m anip
ulated by the com puter, the CRT stabs its beam
to all corners of the faceplate: forked lig h tn in g .
Computer d isplay began in the late fo rtie s.
Computers them selves w ere completely n e w ,
and so was Mr. Dumont's magical Cathode Ray
Tube o r CRT (see p.**&), developed on a
cr a s h basis d u ri n g the w ar so we could have
r a d a r , and as long as it was around a fter the
w a r, we gol television.
But the lig h tn in g bottle, o r CRT, can be
used in a v ariety of w ays. Its control pla te s ,
which move th e ra y of electro ns around on the
s c r e e n , can be given various different ele c
tronic s ig n a ls , ca u s in g the beam to move around
in different p a t t e r n s . In normal video, the
signals move the bea m in a zigzag p attern ,
where the zigs a r e v ery close together a n d the
zags are invisib le; the carpel of zigs covers
the screen o v e r and over in a repetitive p a tte r n ,
and the beam 's c ha nging intensity paints the
picture.
But we can d r i v e the CRT differe ntly,
by using differe nt control s ig n als . For instance:
we can apply a m easured voltage to the height
o r "Y" plates of the CRT, moving the beam
to a given v ertic al positio n, and another m eas
u re d voltage to the sidew ays or "X" plates,
controlling its horizonta l p o sitio n .
O h wre|oroo3
W e jAMKj/e. fte
ra d /fV e .
Lot
1. EARLIEST SYSTEM: A LITTLE PROGRAM
TO MAKE DOTS
Th e e a rlie s t s etup connected a CRT to a
com puter b y th e sim ple st p o ssible m ea ns, and
made its p i c t u re s with dots on the s c r e e n a
so rt of tattooing p r o c e s s .
It was simple because all the com puter
did was fu r n is h to th e connecting c ir c u itry (o r
interface) sym bols s pecifying how fa r u p , and
how fa r a c r o s s the s c r e e n , the n ex t dot should
b e. T h e se sym bols w e re actually coded num bers,
then moved th e beam co r re s p o n d in g ly . (This
p ro c e s s of m aking a m easured voltage out of a
coded n u m eric al symbol is called digital-to-analog
c o n v e rs i o n , s in ce (a s explained on the o th e r side)
the main m eaning of "analog" th e s e d a y s is "in
a m ea sured v o lta g e ." )
Now, t h is h a s s e v e ra l d r a w b a c k s . One ie
lhat the lin e s a r e dotty; nobody lik es t h a t. A
more im portant a nnoya nce , th o u g h , is thal the
com puter sc a rc e ly h as time for an y th in g e l s e .
Here ie a flow chart of what the com puter h as lo
do in its p ro g r a m . (Even if yo u d i d n 't look at
the o th e r s i d e of the book, flow charts a r e nothing
s c a r y . T h e y 'r e j u s t m aps of w ha t h a p p e n s .)
F u rt h e rm o r e , and h e r e was the indignity
of i t , th is system took far too l o n g . To draw
a line with t h irty dots in it took th irty times
around the loop in the flow c hart, and since each
box in the flowchart takes at lea st one of the
m achine's ro ck-b ottom in s t ru c t i o n s -- usually
m ore -- then the main loop of th is d isplay routine
take s fo u r s ep a rate operations p e r d o t , o r 120
o p erations for a stu p id 30-dot lin e . Plainly
t h ere h a s to be a b e t t e r way to u se an expensive
com puter.
Actually it w a s n 't ju s t the ignom iny of it,
bu t the fact that il took so l o n g , that made this
a poor m ethod. T h e amount of stuff the compu
t e r could d ra w ln l/4 0 th of a s ec o n d end Ihis
t u r n s out to be how fast the whole p ictu re has
to be m a d e -- was too liltle. After l/4 0 th of a
second th e human eye can see the lin es on the
CRT s t a r t to fa de, and so the p ic tu re has to be
re d ra w n to make it b rig h t aga in before that
h a p p e n s . If y o u r eye sees th e p ic tu re fading,
then w he n the com puier draw s' the p ictu re again
you will se e it get suddenly b r i g h t aga in and
it will s t a r t to D icker. T his is d is tra c tin g , u n
h ea lth y , a n d d is ag re ea b le .
Note that the mo 6 l im portant com puter in
the M alory of com puter d isplay u s ed th is tech
nique1, " o 'h i s was the TX-2 at Lincoln Labora
to ri e s , a h i g h ly -g u a r d e d installation outside Bos
ton w hich is formally p a r t of MIT. T h e TX-2
was one of the fi rs t tra n sis to riz e d com puters--
p e r h a p s Mie first; an d on it w e re program m ed a
nu m b er of milestone s y s t e m s , in clu d in g S uther
l a n d 's S k etch p a d , J o h n s o n 's Sketchpad IV, and
B a e c k e r 's GENESYS animation system (discussed
s o m e w h e re ).
2. LINE-DRAWING HARDWARE
The next step in des ig n is to get the com
p u te r pro gram out of the b u s in e s s of dra wing
lines by a succession of d o t s . So we build a
piece of hardware that the computer program may
simply instruct to draw a lin e . As an interface,
il looks to the com puter lik e four separate
devices: re giste rs that tell w h e re on the screen
the line must start ("flrat X" and "first Y") and
re g iste rs thal tell it w h e re to stop ("end X" and
"end Y").
This speeds things up considerably, and
allows the computer program to display on the
CRT simply by telling the device what lines it
wants draw n. M oreover, the program is free
to do other things while each line is being
draw n, though this involves the problem of how
the pro gram is to know when it's time to send
out another line and we n ee dg't go into that
h ere.
(Incidentally, it is a puzzlin g fact that
such a device is available nowhere, although
lots of people end up bu ild in g one for themselves.
The re was such a thing on the market a couple
of y e a rs ago-- lin e -d r a w in g hardw are with no
interface and no CRT-- b u t it was withdrawn
because of reliability pro b le m s . A just price,
if anybody wants to go into t h a t, would be five
hu ndre d to a thousand d o la r s this y e a r.)
3. EVOLUTION FROM THIS: TWO OPTIONS
T here are b asically two ways to go from
this basic s ta rtin g point. Either we can keep
the display device intimately and integrally con
nected to the com puter, o r we can say the hell
with it and cut the display device loose as a
sepa rate e n tity .
Ivan S uth erland h as cannily noled that
there Is a certain tra p involved in these designs:
as we build additional "independent" structures
lo take the b u rd e n of display away from the
computer, we a r e tempted to keep adding fea
tu re s which make the "independent" structure a
computer in its own rig h t. This paradoxical
temptation S uth erland ca lls "the great wheel of
Karma" of computer display architectu re.
It is tempting to cut the display loose from
the computer. It means the computer can be
fully occupied with o th er matters than refreshing
the s c r e e n - - p re p a rin g the next displays, p e r
h ap s . Many com puter people believe this is the
right way to do i t , and it is certainly one valid
approach. But unfortu nately it also drastically
re duces the immediacy of the system's reaction,
making interaction with the system less intimate
and wonderful.
Approaches which put display refreshment
and maintenance in a sepa rate device are less
interesting to me, and so that discussion contin
ues separately n e a rb y .

On th e o th e r e id e o f .th e book, I explained
th at a com puter la b a s ic a lly a zippy device,
ne v e r mind how c o n s tr u c te d , w hich follows a
pro g ram somehow s to r e d sym bolically in a co re
mem ory. Such a d e v ic e w e call h e re a program
follow er. While p ro g ra m s may be In many com
p u te r la ng u ages all of them c ontrived system s
for e x p r e ss in g th e u s e r 's w is h e s , in different
sty le s and with d iffe re n t g e n e ra l in te n t-- u n d e r
neath they all tra n s la te to an in n e r language of
b in a ry p a tte r n s , w h ich may Juat be thought of
aa p a tte rn s of X an d O , o r ligh t b u lb s on an d off.
The innerm ost p ro g ra m follow er of lhe computer
goes down lists of b in a r y p a tle m s stored in the
c o re memory, and c a r r i e s them out as specific
in stru c tio n s . I t also c h a n g e s its sequences of
operations u n d e r co n ditio ns that the program m er
haa told it to watch f o r .
. The most pow erfu l a n d respo n siv e com
p u te r d isplays a r e th ose w h ich b u ild a second
p rogram follower w hich g o e s down lista of p ic
tu re -d ra w in g in s tru c tio n s also store d in the same
c o re memory.
rto c tO M
fOUflUER.
m tie m inic om puters lo b ig stores of data a re n 't
RSfsafeA
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k'e.ft-ej k e j jcrc st
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We may call th is a lso a "list-of-lin es"
s y s te m , sin ce the com m ands recognized by the
diaplay p rogram follow er a r e typically p a tte rn s
that tell it what lin es to d ra w .
Typically also it h a s its own way of Jump
in g around In a p ro g ra m , and may jump to a
specific Hat of Unea, o r a u b p lc tu r e , from n u m e r
ous other pa rta of Its p r o g r a m , always re tu r n in g
each time to the point from w hich it had Jumped.
T hia -allows the same s u b p ic tu r e to ap p e a r in
numerous p laces on th e s c r e e n al the same time.
(A program that can be Jumped lo by o th e r p r o
grams which th en resu m e op eratio n is called a
su b rou lln e; (hue the r e a l, o r most p re stig io u s,
name for auch a device is a su b rou tin in g disp la y )
This design h as some e x trao rd inary advan
tages. One la th a t sin c e th e com puter's program
follower and the d ia p la y 's p rog ra m follower both
s hare the aame co re m em ory, they can w ork to
gether most Intimately. When the u s e r demands
something new by t y p in g , s a y , o r ^totaling
with a lig ht-p e n the co m pu ter can atep in and
take various actions. Ita p rog ra m can compose
a new pic ture for th e u s e r , g e t something from
a dlak o r tape mem ory, o r sw itch lhe d isp la y 's
p rogram follower o v e r to a new p ic tu re it has
already p re p a re d .
Moat im p o rtantly, th e com puie r can move
Images on th e sc r e e n , allow ing interactive an i
mation on the screen u n d e r the u s e r 's control.
Each time the disp la y ia about to show the same
p icture again, the com puter simply su p plies it
with a new sta rtin g p o in t. Since the list of lin e s
1s typically in the form of se q u e n c e s of lines
relative to one a n o th e r, th e p ic tu re is d raw n In
a new place each time a n d th u s seen to move
on the screen .
T h is d e sig n h a s some e x tra o rd in a ry a d van
tag es. One Is th a t s in c e th e com puter's p rogram
follower and the d is p la y 's program follower both
s h a re the same c o re memory, they can work to
gether moat intim ately. When the u s e r dem ands
so methin g new b y typ in g , sa y , o r poin ting
with a l ig h t- p e n - - th e computer can step In and
take va rio u s a c tio n s. Its program can compose
a new p ic tu re for th e u s e r , get someth ing from
a d isk o r tape m em ory, o r sw itch the d is p la y 's
pro g ram follower o v e r to a new p ic tu re il ha
alread y p r e p a r e d .
Moat im p o rta n tly , the computer can move
images on the s c r e n , allowing Interactive an i
mation on the s c r e e n u n d e r the u s e r 's control.
Each time th e d is p la y s ta r ts to show the same
p icture again, th e compute r simply s u p p lie s it
with a new s ta r tin g p o in t. Since the list of lin es
is typically in th e form of sequences o f lines
relative to one a n o th e r , the p ic ture la draw n in
a new place each tim e -- and thu s seen to move
on the sc re e n .
Fin a lly, th e com puter itse lf is fre e most
of the tim e-- f r e e , that i s , lo do o th e r th in gs,
w hich typically i s alw ays d e sira b le . Ju s l how
much the com puter can o r should do in such a
p a r tn e r s h ip is a m a tte r of d ispu te. (O rdinarily
such devlcea a r e s p lic e d onto minicomputers;
and minic om puter fa n s , such as the a u th o r, see
no reason not to p erfo rm all se rvic e s for the d is
play th e r e in th e minicomputer and a pox on
the big m achines. O th e rs, for various re a so n s,
aee the s u b r o u d n ln g display and its host mini
as n e eding the te n d e r min istratious o f a b lg-
com puter v ia some s o r t of communications line.
T h e re a r e v a rio u s re a so n s for holding th is en
tirely le gitim ate view . People who a r e devoted
to the hig h n u m b e r-c ru n c h in g capacity of b ig
c o m p u te rs, o r to la n gu a g e s which re q u ire great
big com puters to r u n in , have a rig h t to th e ir
opinion. M oreover, it is c u rre n tly feasible lo
store la rg e bo dies of data only on b ig computers
- - not b ecause b ig d isk and tape memories c a n 't
be e asily attached lo lh e small ones, for they
can, b u t they u s u a lly are n't; and o lh e r ways to
available y e t .)
S u b ro u tln in g d isp la y s often have commands
allowing them to d is p la y text a s well a s lines
and d o ts. In the d iap lay of lext they can use
the same te c hn iq ue of "moving the pic tu re " by
sta rtin g ita diaplay at su ccessiv ely c reepin g
points: th is will c a u s e , sa y , whole p a ra g ra p h s
to elide on the s c r e e n . The im portance of
th is feature in the d isp la y in g of text cannot be
o ve re m p h a siz e d. A s more and more people have
experience with d is p la y s of different k in d s , they
are b e ginn in g to re a liz e how confusing and d is
orien tin g it is fo r a s c re e n lo cle ar and be filled
with som ethin g new to re a d . You don't know
where you a r e . On su b rou lin in g disp lays,
moving lhe lexl can g iv e the r e a d e r the same
sense of o rientation he gels from tu rn in g p ages
-- an im portant th in g lo replace.
OV*/
iw f j - to v*i
It must be a t r e s s e d h ere th a t, Juat aa com-
p utera them selves h a v e no fix ed mode o r style
of o p era tio n , n e ith e r do computer d isp lay s; and
so the p u rp o se o f a u c h devices is almply
HELPING PEOPLE SEE AND MANIPULATE
PICTURES AMD TEXT
IN ANY STYLE, AND FOR ANY PURPOSE.
Since p ic tu re s can b e o f a n ythin g , and text can
be about a n y th in g , th is effectively comprehends
the e n tire mental an d w o rking life of m ankind.
Many re a d e r s w ill scoff, sup po sin g thal
com puter diaplay sy ste m s will alw ays cost Iona
of money. T h is is not the case. You can aJ-
ready gel a b e a u ty , w ilh its m inic om pute r, for
ae little aa $13,000; a n d this p ric e sho u ld fall
to th re e o r four th o u sa n d w ithin a few y e a r s
aa soon as th e m inicom puter m anufacturers realize
lhal the m arket f r o n tie r Is not in the office or
fa c to i^, bu t in Ihe home. But w e 're g e td n g a
b it ahead of o u rs e lv e s h e re .
TYPES OF SUBROUT1NING DISPLAY
Some e a rly su b ro u tln in g displays used a
scree n -d o ttin g te c h n iq u e , but took lhe b u rd e n of
il off lhe com puter itself: it would extract from
core memory the in stru c tio n s telling it to draw
in div id ual lines an d show text. (I re fe r h ere
lo the DEC model 338, introduced about 1965;
this attached lo a PD P-8 computer (see p .* f3 )
and cost about $50,000 in cluding the c om p uter.)
O th ers drew lines as s tra ig h t zips of lig ht acrosa
the sc re e n; an exam ple is the IBM 2250 d is p la y ,
introduced about 1966. (The model 1 of this
device b uck led d ire c tly to the 360, and cost, f
believe, something lik e $75,000; its su c c e s so r,
lhe model 4, b uckled to their 1130 minicomputer,
the package coaling some $150,000, and then
you w ere su pp o sed to attach It to an IBM 360.)
The 2250 was a good m achine, but in perfor-
mance su ffers g re a tly from the re striction s of
the 360 com pute r itse lf (see p .V j ) .
T h eee e a rlie r machines are b e in g replaced
by new v e rs io n s with b e tte r-d e s ig n e d in stru c tio n s
(see "C om puter A r c h ite c tu re ," p . 3 2 ., for a sense
of what w ell-desig ned instructions a r e ) . An e s
pecially One unit is DEC'a GT40, w h ich b uck les
on the exceptionally One PDP-11 m inicom puter
(see p . *'#1). The GT40 ia illu s tra te d n e a r b y . ( f $ l )
Il goes fo r some $12,000 in cluding th e com puter.
(T ha t's to d a y , we re p e a t. Co n sid er n ot the price
at th is in s ia n l. b u t how Cast i t's g oing d o w n .)
T h e u n its mentioned above a r e o f th e most
b aaic type: "tw o-dim ensional." whose p ic tu re s
al any giv en instant c orre sp o nd to flat draw in g s
- - b u t, of c o u rse , d eriv e th e i r excitem ent and
magnific ence from th e ir capacity to in te r a c t,
change and anim ate what you are lo oking at.
H H W 't .K f . J ify io .
Seldom h a a a n e v e n t I n a new f i e l d had a u c h power and
I n f l u e n c e aa w ha t d o u r I v a n S u t h e r l a n d d i d a a a you ng man Y th e
p e r i o d 1960-64. *
The SKETCHPAD s y s te m ,w h ic h was b a s i c a l l y h i a t h e e l a work ac
HIT. was a t on c e I n v e n t i v e , p r o f o u n d , o v e r w h e l m in g ly i m p r e s s iv e
to la y me n, and d e e p l y e l e g a n t . Simply f o r t h e u n i v e r s a l I n f l u e n c e
I t h aa had In t h e c o a p u t e r f i e l d . I t d e s e r v e s o u r c l o s e a t t e n t i o n .
S u t h e r l a n d waa o n e o f t h e f l r a t p e o p l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e uae
o f t h e co m pu te r I n h e l p i n g p e o p le v i s u a l i z e t h i n g s t h a t w e r e n ' t
f u l l y c l e a r y e t t h e o p p o s it e , of c o u rs e , o f th a c o n ventional
n o t i o n o f c o m p u t e r s . W hile c o m p u te rs had b e e n made t o do s n l m s t l o n s
a s e a r l y a s t h e f o r t i e s , and c om pu te r g r a p h i c s ha d be en p u t t o work
ad ay d u t i e s I n t h e o l d SAGE sy st e m ( d e f e n d i n g u s a g a l n a t b b t r l o
t h e f i f t i e s remember t h e good o l d d a y s ? ) , S u t h e r l a n d tu r n e d com
p u t e r d i a p l a y f ro m s n e x p e n s i v e c u r i o s i t y i n t o a t r u e d r s s a Ma chine.
SKETCHPAD r a n on t h e 3 6 - b l t T X - 2 , a o n e - o f - a - k i n d e x p e r i m e n t a l
ma chi ne ac L i n c o l n L a b o r a t o r i e s (a m i l i t a r y r e s e a r c h p l a c e n o m in a ll y
a p a r t o f MI T). I t ha d a d i a p l a y s c r e e n , l i g h t pe n and l o t a of handy
sw itc h es .
SKETCHPAD was b a s i c a l l y a d r a w in g s y s te m . B ut r s t h e r th a n
s i m u l a t i n g p a p e r ( a s some p e o p l e m ig h t ha v e d o n e ) , i t fou nd s p l e n d i d
ways t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e c o m p u t e r ' s s p e c i a l c a p a b i l i t i e s .
I n t h e S k e t c h p a d s y s t e m , S u t h e r l a n d lo o k e d f o r ways t h a t a
r esponding c o n p u te r d is p l a y sc re en c ould h e lp pe o p le d e sign th in g s .
He p i o n e e r e d m e th o d s o f d r s w ln g on s c r e e n s , w i t h s u c h t e c h n i q u e s
a s t h e r u b b e r - b s n d l i n e " ( s s t r a i g h t l i n e o n t h e s c r e e n , one snd
o f w h ic h f a l l o w s y o u r l i g h t p e n w h i l e t h e o t h e r r e m a i n s f i x e d ) , and
t h e " I n s t a n c e " a s u b p i c t u r e s t o r e d I n c o r e memory wh ich co ul d
I a la rge r p ic tu r e ) .
T h i s p i c t u r e v a g u e ly
a im u l a t e e t h e " i n s t a n c e 1
f a c i l i t y o f S k e ta h p a d ,
b y u h 'ia n a n o v e r a l l
p i c t u r e may b e c r e a t e d
o u t o f r e p e titio n s o f a
s in g le m a s te r p a tte r n .
S i m u l a t e d u i t h GRASS
la n g u a g e ( a e e p . 3 1 ),
The m i n d - b l o w i n g t h i n g a b o u t Sk e tc h p a d was t h e way you c o u ld
move and m a n l p u l s t e t h e p i c t u r e on t h e s c r e e n , w i t h a l l i t s p a r t s .
One o v e r a l l p i c t u r e c o u ld be c o n s t r u c t e d o u t o f s h u n d re d c o p ie s
o f a b a s i c p i c t u r e ; t h e n a ch ang e t n t h e b a a l c p i c t u r e would Im
m e d i a t e l y be shown I n a l l h u n d r ed p l a c e s . Or yo u c o u l d ex pan d
y o u r p i c t u r e u n t i l I t waa e f f e c t i v e l y t h e s i z e o f a f o o t b a l l f i e l d
( w i th you l o o k i n g a t a t i n y v ie w I n t h e h a n d k e r c h i e f - s i z e d s c r e e n ) .
Or y o u c o u ld d r sw m e sh in g g e a r s on t h e s c r e e n , a n d w i t h t h e I l g h t -
pen (an d th r o u g h t h e " c o n s t r a i n t f a c i l i t y ) siake o n e g e a r t u r n by
tu rn in g th e o th e r!
T h i s e l e g a n t t e c h n i q u e , t h e c o n s t r a i n t . d o e s n o t seem t o hsve
be en I m i t a t e d e v e n now. A " c o n s t r a i n t was a r e s t r i c t i o n p la c e d
on s o a e p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l s t o r e d p i c t u r e c o m p le x . Tha u s e r
c o u ld move o r m a n i p u l a t e v a r i o u s p a r t a o f t h a p i c t u r e on t h s s c r e e n ,
b u t t h e p a r t s t h a c ha d c o n s t r a i n t s c o u l d o n l y move I n c e r t a i n d i
r e c t i o n s , o r a c c o rd in g to c e r t a i n fo rm u las, o r d r a g g in g o th e r
pares a lo n g , e t c . , a s s p e c if ie d .
T h i s waa a p r o f o u n d i d e a , b e c a u a e I t m e an t t h a t any r u l a e f o r
t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s on t h e s c r e e n c o u ld be added
t o S k e tc hp ad a s n a r t l c u l a r a w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r p r o g r a m , r a t h e r th a n
h a v i n g t o be p r o g r a m e d i n from a c r a t c h .
(One e x t r e m e l y I n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f S u t h e r l a n d ' s t h e s i s , wh ich
moat p e o p l e seem t o h a v e m is s e d , d e a l t w i t h d i s p l a y i n g a a t r u c t u r e
o f c o n s t r a i n t s : t h a t 1 s , show ing w h at e l e m a n t a d e p en de d on what
o t h e r e l e m e n t s , i n s h i g h l y s b s t r a c t e d d ia g ra m t h a t th e sy st e m c o u ld
show y o u . T h i s f o rm o f d i s p l a y h a s r e m a r k a b l e p o s a l b l l l t l e s .
A f t e r h i s b r i l l i a n t SKETCHPAD w o rk , S u t h e r l a n d was made head
o f AHPA's c o n p u t e r b r a n c h ( s e e " M i l i t a r y , " p . 8 9 ) Th er e he was
I n v o lv e d I n many o f t h e co m pu te r f u n d i n g d e c i e l o n e o f t h e l a t e
s L a c i e s , wh ich c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e i m p e tu s o f c * p u t e r d l s p l s y .
( Hi s p r e d e c e s s o r . L l c k l l d e r , ha d b e e n a p i o n e e r I n t i m e - s h a r i n g , and
much o f t h e f o r w a r d *>ve ment i n t h e c om pu te r f i e l d i n r e c e n t y e a r s
may J u s t have ha d t o do w i t h t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n of t h o s e two men
when t h e y were a t ARPA/IPT.)
S k e tc hp ad w en t o n a s a c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h t r a d i t i o n a t L in
c o l n L ab s . T im o th y J o h n s o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , made a v e r a l o n o f I t t h a t
a l l o w e d t h e d r aw in g o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t s ; t h i a became t h e
f o re ru n n e r of th e v a r lo u a th ree -d im e n sio n al l i n e system s d e scrib e d
h e re ab o u ts.
From ARPA, S u t h e r l s n d wen t on t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U ts h ,
wh ence he s l i p p e d o f f w i t h t h e Com puter S c i e n c e d e p a r t m e n t c h a i r
man t o foun d t h e E van e and S u t h e r l a n d Com pute r Co-paoy, ma ker a ol
t h e t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c om pu te r d i s p l a y a ys te m a ( a e e p . J K V and p - J A ) ? ) -
S u t h e r l s n d 1s w or k h s s shown s n e l e g a n c e a n d I n v e n t i v e n e s s
o u tstan d in g in th e f i e l d . ( F o r I n s t a n c e , I believe one i s s u e of
C o m i n l e a t i o n s o f t h e ACM had two u n u a u a l a r t i c l e s by him : one de
s c r i b i n g an e c c e n t r i c ^ i n c s e a u c t i o n " s y s t e m w o rk e d o u t f o r
s c h e d u l i n g u s e o f a c a s p u t e r , wh ic h b e n e f i t e d o c * ch* * y
p r e v i o u s m e th od ; a n d t h e I nfa mo us " G r e a t Wheel o f Karma a r t i c l e ,
where h e co mpared t h e d e s i g n o f g r a p h i c a l c o m p u t e r s t o th e Hindu
s y s te m of r e i n c a r n a t i o n I f you keep ad d in g d e s i r a b l e
t h e d e s i g n , so o n you h s v e a n o t h e r p r o g r a a f o l l o w e r an d a n o t h e r com
p u t e r i n t h e same b o * o v e r and o v e r . )
 |e y JoHh)
H ow do co m pu t er s make movies?

Well, first of all, computers do n ot make

to u rn e y
m o vi e s unless tho r ou g hl y provoked.

In fact, only p e o pl e make movies. But

computers, if s u f fi c ie n tl y provoked, w il l do a
lot of it: en act the movie and p h o t o gr a ph it,
f rame by frame.

There is no s in g le method.

A ll forms of c o mp u te r display and comput e r

graphics may be us e d to make c om puter movies.

"Computer anim a ti o n" is any m e t ho d of m a k

ing movies in w h i c h a computer succ es s iv e ly
d raws or paints the successive individual frames, JOHN WHITNEY
w hich may be d o n e by any of the m e thods m e n t i o n
e d in this book. Now, since there are numerous John W h it n ey is the ancestor of us a l l ,
methods of m a ki n g p ic t ur e s by computer, t hen any probably the first computer m o v i e - m a k e r . He
m e t h o d of m aking d i ff e r e n t individual pictures, is also a gr i pping speaker.
in a succession of changing frames, is computer
animation. S o a " c om p u t e r movie" is any film In the forties, he built a special anima
m a d e by, or wi t h the p icture-making a id of, tion stand-- us ing ana l o r computers.
L il l i a n Schwartz
computers.
Deeply concerned with music, Whitney h a s
In other wo r ds - - it's no one thing. in his images emphasized rhythmic and c o n t r a
puntal mo v ement of shapes and lines.
Now, there al r eady e xist hundreds, if not
thousands, of c om p u t e r movies. So far m o s t of W h it n ey films available from: P y r a m i d
them have been on technical topics-- the m e c h a Films, Box 1040, Santa Monica CA 90406.
nics of s at e llite o r b it stabilization, the A talented artist wi t h a feel for tech
m ec h anics of ex p lo s io n s and so on. nology, Ms. Schwartz has bee n w o rking for
s ev eral years with Knowlton a nd others at
H ere are a few stills from some o t h er movies, Bell Labs. Her films wit h Knowlton, me n tion
mor e humanistic. ed elsewhere, are marvelous. She now works
at a mor e permanent setup, a minicomputer
BI ULIOGRAPilY that runs successive images on a color TV
screen, employing a m od i f i e d form of Knowl-
N e wm a n 5 Sproull, Interactive Computer ton's E X P LO R language. The w o r k is immediate
G ra p h i c s . McGraw, SIS . ly viewable. This allows rapid film co n
struction,- n ot previously p o ssible w he n the
This is the textbook. Anyone w o r k h a d to go t hr ough a slow animation
interested in comput e r display c amer a before she could see the result.
should get this immediately.
For Knowlton-i-Schwartz films contact: Martin
An expensive journal, Computer Graphics D u f f y , AT&T, 195 Broadway, NY NY.
and Image Process m g , comes from
Academic Press.

Sherwood Anderson,'' Computer Animation: A Survey.

Journal of Micrographics. Sep 71, 13-20.
Lists nineteen eomputer-animatlon languages
of that time.

Ken Knowlton, "Computer-Made Films," Filmmakers

Newsletter Dec 70, 14-20. John Whitney

J O 8
Instructions
for the desired Y G
movie enter the
computer as a
A > O n. 8 <
deck of punched'
cards. > O * 8
> O * 8
<Si > <3 * %
V intage K nowlton, u sing BEFLIX.
<3 > %
(T h is language used the COM q u ite
e f f i c i e n t l y : d o ts were a c tu a lly
o u t- o f- fo c u s l e t t e r s . )
> %
> * %
t
John W h itn e y

Vanderbeek & Knowlton (using TARPS,

w hich shows s tr o n g in flu e n c e o f SchD artz & Knowlton. Using the EXPLOR language;
BEFLIX, w hich i t grows from ). th ey make p ic tu r e s and p a t t e r n s s c i n t i l l a t e and
grow to g eth er. (EXPLOR i n some ways g en e ra lize s L illia n Schwartz
C onvoy's Game o f L if e ; s e e p . t y and p . DM 6 .) (w ith Henry H agruj.akij Be
'onj,

SOI
 Gwsvs
B y n o w there are dozens of computer anima
. 0 n ^ a n g u a g e s perhaps hundreds. Each one em-
P o y s t h e techniques of animation which ita de
th w a n t e d to use, tied together in the ways
s e e m e d appropriate to him. (See "Computer
g u a g e 8 > p _ and note Knowlton's various
an t l o n languages, deacribed nearby.)
h t*ie influential animation systems
J been R o n Baeckers GENESYS, a 2-dimensional
M T T ^ a t ^ 0 n 8 y B t e m Prgra Bed the late sixties at
th k l B h security Lincoln Laboratory. (It used
e T X 2 computer, mentioned elsewhere in this
book.)
B a e c k e r , a cheery and genial fellow, exp re e sec
t e r e B t a s a student in using the TX-2 for anima
t i o n , a n d w a s allowed to. The system he produced
haa a n u m b e r of lessons for us all.
G E N E S Y S is a "Good-Guy system,as discussed
o n p. I Meaning, in this case, th4t it is
e a s y t o l e a r n and simple to use. As argued else
w h e r e i n t h i s book, making computer systems clear
and s i m p l e is often hard for the programmer (and
m a y g o a g a i n s t his grain), but is essential.
P IC T U R E S A ND MOTIONS
G E N E S Y S makes the following alnpllficationa
of y o u r m o v i e : all images are made up of dots.
T h e y d o n o t change as you watch; animation con
s i s t s o f t h e images either moving or being re
placed .
T o c r e a t e an Image, you draw it onto the
s c r e e n w i t h a llghtpen or a tablet. (Aa in the
S K E T C H P A D system; see p .^ 2 .J ) Parts of .the
i m a g e m a y b e changed until you're satisfied.
N o w , t o create the animation, you do the
same t h i n g . Each image can be made to move on
the s c r e e n ; a nd the path of the motion may be
d r a w n o n t h e screen, through the picture area.
Not o n l y t h a t , but the timing of the motion is
c o n t r o l l e d t h rough the same diagram, by the
a p a c i n g o f t h e dots. (Baecker calls hie control
d i a g r a m s p c u r v e s .)
L a s t l y , sections of picture may be re
p l a c e d b y m e a n a of the control diagram (as
i n d i c a t e d i n picture above).
H a v i n g created such an animated sequence,
w h i c h i s s t o r e d in symbolic form in the com
p u ter ( " d i g i t a l l y " ) , you can view it on the
s c r e e n , d e c i d e what you do and don't like
about i t , a n d change any part of It.
T h e b a s i c elegance of the system la this:
B a e c k e r m a d e everything work the same way,
t h r o u g h c o n t r o l by screen dlagrama. He simpli
fied t h e a n i m a t i o n problem in s clear and simple
way.
Ron n o w teaches in Canada and Is into work
ing w i t h PDP-11- The results should be fun.
LY N tl S n iT H
Lynn Smith is a young Boston artist
Yrked exLte?sively with Baecker's
GENESYS (see nearby). One result has been
a movie which should be an example to us
all: "The Wedding Movie for Bob and Judy "
(Her Friends Bob and Judy were getting
married, so she made this movie, a few mi
nutes long and quite clever, to celebrate
xt.)
This is my favorite example of how
computers should be used in the human
world; it says more on the subject than
any dozen articles.
(One question that remains unanswered
is how a system like GENESYS could have
been used for such a purpose, seeing that
most people in the field believe GENESYS
only rum on the heavily-guarded TX-2 com
puter. Regretfully, I can shed no light
on this here.)
^ f Computer
f Output
f MIlf I ^ Microfilm
d e v ic e s^
are what you use to make ccxnputer movies.
Basically they consist of a CRT and a movie
camera in a box.
Mostly they are used to put text on
microfilm by computer, so generally they
are not connected to a computer but run
off magnetic tape.
This turns out to be very annoying if
you want to hook up the computer directly
to the COM, and make movies that fill the
frames spot-by-spot. For that you really
need your own movie camera and a minicompu
ter. (Movie cameras that can be made to
Start and stop by computer are called "pulse
caiuras" or "instrumentation cameras.")
The society for people who make Movies by
Computer is called UAIDE * (Users of Auto
matic Information Display Equipment an
obsolete title). It used to be a club just
for companies that owned COMa made by
Stromberg Datagraphlx, but evidently it haa
now cut Itself loose and becane a subsidiary
of the National Microfilm Association, 8728
Colesville Road, Silver Spring MD 20910.
(NOTE: for them as want to make color
movies, the two alternatives have been either
to have separate primary negatives combined
at a lab the "old Technicolor" process
or to add a complicated color-filter box to
a COH or other CRT setup. Such things are
available conanercially now, from Dicomed
a whole Color COM.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Coaputer Output Microfilm. $10 from National
Microfilm Assn., above. Lists available
COMs and service centers.
POT
 zm
TXt
Mew W iau<*
or
PLATO
irUm
iV j/C T )
0 0 . J -"i
0 1 & t . 7'
0 % "
P ? .? * .
^ a i y : i ' ^ r c i/i 'i s .'
Anyuay, the M>rd it a e l f
goes through changes irr
the G<une o f L ife to te
P- I V . go projratm ed
fo r the PLATO ayo te n by
:>m:ny S le a to r, and p h o t
Some 500 u s e rs , a t c e n Inn 1b around che world
(but n o stly In I l l i n o i s ) , sim ultaneously t i e up to
big coapute r In Urbans. I l l i n o i s and savor in sta n -
tansoua p i c t o r i a l and te x t d e liv e r le s on t h e i r b rig ht
orange s c re e n s. Diagraas, exp lan a tio ns, t e s t s and
even anim ation of s o r t, flow a lto s t w ithout i n t e r
ru p tio n t o th e b rig h t orange scrcens a l l ov er. The
system i s extremal? responsive: depending on what Che
use r I s up t o . I t s v a riou s prograas can respond to
each presa ln g of a key. usually w ith in a f ra c t io n of
a second.
While l i t e r a t u r e on PLATO 1* c o pio us, i t Is
hard to read and s l i g h t l y s s le s - o rI c n te d . Cut a f w
PLATO t e r a in a l mke
anyone an i t for the Systen
PLATO I s th e b r ain c h ild of Don R lczer. a I . of
I l l i n o i s e ngineer who has devoted ovar a decade to
I t a c r e a ti o n . Michael Scrlven, no slouch h ln se lf ,
has c a lle d B i tte r "one o f the g re a t a n o f our t l a . "
B itze r la a l s o c e r ta i n ly one of th e w o rld 's g r e a te s t
aaleamen. A crew -cut, huggy-bear s o r t o f a fell ow ,
ha F l ie s areund the world dem onstrating, lugging a
grea t t e r a in a l along. Vhen you a lg n on che aystea
you aay be Informed th a t Blccer l a a t th a t very mo
ment d eaonstracing In P a ris ot Tokyo. T his " tr a v e l
lin g dog and pony show," as PLATO s t a f f e r s c a l l i t ,
has creaccd awe and excitement wherever I t goes, and
t.:c re you m i l now f ind PL'.TO tc n - l a l s . *
I f you have a PLATO te r a in a l you' presumably
being a school o r ocher favored I n s titu t io n you can
ln p r in c i p le log onco PLATO froa anywhere ln th e world,
though a o st te r a ln a ls sta y In one p la ce . There la one
a l n ne tw ork, c o n sistin g of a b ig Control Pata c a p u -
t e r In Urbana (th e aodel 6800; aee p . ) w ith te n
d r i l s exte n din g out in to th e phone sy ste a and the
e d uca tion a l TV cable of th e s t a t e o f I l l i n o i s . Vhen
the Urbana sy s te a l a " finish ed " and f u lly losdad, i t
w ill have 1008 c eraln a la ; a l l are a lre ady spoken f o r.
The PLATO te ra in a l la a c o tally unique a n la a l (see boa),
manufactured ( a l] too slowly) by Magnavox, incorpora
tin g a t e r r i f i c pla sna panel b u i l t by Cornlnp,. (The
plaxna pa nel wag Invented liy B lczer, and even chough
auch of P1.AT0 was p u b lic ly funded, he I s repute dly
r ic h f r o a i t . We s a id he was a g r e a t p o l i t i c i a n . )
In t e r m o f high performance f o r t o t s o f users.
Various systems (described hereabouts) offer
" ore pcuer , b u t a t huge a o st.
- be in T isiv ktu an f<*<
As a f i r s t t a s t e o f i n t e r a c t i o n
a g r a p h i c a l c o u p u t c r s y s t e m , PLATO
i be a t h r i l l i n g n in d -o p en e r* * es-
: i a l l y t o p e o p l e wiio t h i n k c o u p J t e r s
i o n l y b e h a v e l o u t i s n l y o r th r o u g h
n to u t.
Col
monitor p r o l r ^ j * ' * with i t .
running on ths CDC &B00 tin g syste a (sea p, V5">
does not run on an o t h - r ^ ^ !* *U
aiaultaneoualy with any 01^ ^ ' " ' '
* * . I t
or
a n i c a t a s only w ith PLAIO t ! ^ , progT 1 I t c a -
PLATO te rm in a l., because of th li * " th*r *ad
c o a l e s c e m iT w l ^ j
5E;,
to get on eh, w a l t L ^ i ^
There wa, . t u . w t e n . t l ; . ^
Sac
* " Jau- *n>'-
In to PLATO, but C Id * *
S i . p i S J S
tlo n and th e aaklng o f a a t a t l a l i for 1, 11110
r a 'authoring" Z s l U W sViAlX
a Tbe l u m Lagnaga cam b a t ba ^ a r s u s d a
to believe PLATO could die. Rot n ' rd
Especia lly cooalderlng th a t two aore
now being pt together: st Lowry A ir Pores Base (Cnlo-
w ill
w i l l bbet n^Whole
t a i rld ^ Stcoaputers
other * U nlw ,rof,l ty - CDC
tha Th4t 6000
* a* eries
tha re
running che PLATO Monitor and ehepherdlng PUTT) mater
ia l s to uaara ac PLATO cerminale, unconnected to Ur
bana, one for Lowry AFB and one In Florida.
And I t won't end there.
Control Data, whose vested in te r e s t In the aye-
rea (though they didn'c pay Tor i t a cre atio n) i s anar-
aous. Is said to be projecting
ONE MILLION PLATO TEBH1NALS BY 1980.
Another algn in che wind: Houcgaery Ward haa m e .
Now, to 1 1 the PLATO sy ste a a "computer (repti
le s systsm aay e e a aaevhac odd co people wtn know
1C ln anochsr g u ise , ss s aystea f o r C a pute r-A ssle ta d
Inscru ction (cslled CAI). But es the suthor does oot
lik e CAI In g eneral, a t le ast a s I t ' s bsen going
P *Z-H~ and tscher lik e s PLATO, I p r s fs r to des-
c tlb e lc a s I prefer co eea I t .
N everthele ss, to underscsnd PLATO properly w
had bsccer consider vhac the psople have been doing
in ceras ot whac they think thay have been doing, snd
o f fe r any amendments or r e s ts te a e n ts la t e r .
"OPTIMIZED FOR CAI"
PLATO stands fo r Progressed Logic f o r Autouted
Teaching Opsraclons," snd hae been b ille d (and aold)
a s s sy ste a for e u ca atc d I n stru ctio n .
I t i s , aost PLATO f an c iers w ill t e l l you, "op-
tl a ir e d for In stru ctio n ." ("Optimized," ln c a p u te r
t a l k , aeans "Ju st whai aaebody says you need fo r s
p a c if ic p u rp o se/') As w ith any a y stea , the leaps o f
fa tc h between le s basic design prealaea have be ca a
l i t by alrp orc beacons; clearalnded in div iduals with
e l t e m s t e views hsve d if f ic u l ty asking theaselves
understood to soae PLATO e n th u a lssts. But th s a est
b a sic underlying feature of th a ayata a, INSTANT RES
PONSE, cannot be quarreled w ith. PLATO can respond,
as elread y mentioned, co a sin g le ksy-preia ln g by a
uaer, a laost in stan tly ; t h i s fea ture la v ir tu a lly lm-
p oaalb le, sa y, on IBM aystaam (but a j ^ b ^ , p. S"V )
This reaponslvnsss Is th e sy ste m 's greatest beauty.
Becauee o f the need f o r high rcsponslveneee, i t
wee decided t h s t s l l use rs had co have Chelr pa rtic
ula r prograas ("lessons") running In core at, tha s^ h
t i a e . That aeant there would be no swspplng (bringing
in a a [ e r ia ls frcm disk n a o t y ) , which csn bring a o r t i -
fyln g d slays ( l f a l o t of people need i t a t once): but
I t a lso aesnc leaaona have co ba very s a a l l . Large
bodlea of m aterial, which would have CO be aoved ln
from d is k , are not allowed; thua each leasoe i s bsalc*
a l l y a l i t t l e love-naat th a t u s e gaaerste I t s own
a c tio n . Hence there i s so eaphssis on l i t t l e t r m i f s
to respond vsrlo us wsya. r s th a r than te x t which aay be
read ln quanticy.
P a rtly because large amounts of te s t cannot be
shipped to che uer, a llc c l* PKUECTOS Is in the cer-
a l n a l . I t usaa a tin y a ie ro flc h a , or a lc r o f l l a sheet,
a a a ll enough to f i t In the palm o f your hand.
I f a PLATO author deeaa i t necessary, he requires
fo r h i s Issson, not Juat tha usa of the keyboard and
plasaa screen, bupi microfiche as w ell. Tha etudent
aust put ths a iero flch a in p lsc s whsn he s ta r ts the
le sso n; signala fr Urbana (o r wherever) then j<^>
the projecte d iaaga aaong 2 J t d if f e r e n t ia agea, lo
raaponee to whet th e etudent doea.
Now, PLATO people are not d o c trin a ir e ebout how
t h e i r eystem I s to ba used. The p ie s m screen can be
continuously sh y in g l i t t l e decoratiwis along with
Che teaching m aterial. The a iero flcha could be allow
ing I rrelev a n t works o f a r t o r tr a v e l scenes. These
a re a l l f a c l l l t l e a a t the o ption of tha PLATO author;
a t him beck and c a l l . I f he thlnke h ie prograa or
lesson needs Chea. (But I t ' s vmry botherscam to here
th e a lcro flch e asds sn Important d i f f ic u l ty .)
Every te ra in a l haa che ecreen. th e keyboard,
and th s p ro jec to r. Other options may be added, bow-
1. The touch panel, This Is s trensparent
window th at goes over the plssaa eeremo
and rep orts to the mein c o * w u r
I t has been touched, and where. (This
allows I l l i t e r a t e s , ampeclelly kiddle s,
to use the syste a without typin g.)
2. Tha audio dla k. Thle sllowe the termi
nal to respond with sound, including
csnned words, to the stodnC- ( I t
noc actu ally sy n th ss lis the soiaid. as
discussed on p.
M1JI> (^
i ^ j l t h Pershing' t h i s Is a connector
socket th at w ill send snd receive data
fro a a ia ocher device provided you
goc the r ig ht I n terfac e. Tbla alltwe
a l l kinds of othe r d evic es, M b as
i i i n e strea ely general sysc e-. D#,pU*
convsndon o f c s llln * -11 * n >T#y
despiC. Ch. odd being told
e lch e r stu d s r ts or aut n o r . ieMral-twrp<e
by PLATO s p o k e n Chat PLATO I s mot a l r . i
sy ste a ; a e tu s lly , * t 1<-
o a q u f r U ooneemeti.
PLATO's omOo devioe pomrfta
thm a jia ta f<j rmspoitd to t t e
user wicA a spots* pfcras,
snatoA o f a a i n , or irVirani
in a f n a tb m o f a a m <L
Ths my is r i fl disk is forvOmr
tuntimB; a m a s s e d a ir s to a ts
ths r a x ^ a s f to t t e aprfrm rf
^1 t t e disk for the rmplff.
,
Tte bar d a IS sma d a lg a a d by Bltsmr. The e o f t -
mlnd t a r ir a r a ~ t o he a h a a * ( a i m r ^ r r i t a b l y ca l W
' c l r a n * by M y * a s la ltlm lly l a n i m ^
by g its e r . bmt sv a tm slly g r a ' e ta d lr m c c la of
oth ers. In p a r t i / a l a r , a o - b l a l a g i a t a a d Pmnl
Te w asr ( p r a . ~Teasar ) crashed I t a a d a r l f l a g TVKB
Langnage. (Tot m I n r r o d a t ln a tn n a p r e r
e aia te a ly a PLATO; amd PLATO w h e n may a l y a a
the TVTOk lagu ag e. P a l T a m s c r u t l a .
offered by I K a I ta u o o laatrmctuimml I t a U s , ^ . , , . . . ,
Coa r mar r I t e r ' s a l g l a s l l a r a r a s ^ e l^
co enable n a - c a p n t a r paopla, ampmrlaHy t a a c k a n ,
CO c r a t e drlll-em d-prsctlca la tr m c tln m a l l a s a a a
rtn^bly of tbe tyja
t o , Jntemy. what le 3 * 51
f-ST* 1 10 Bo. 1
- (is c***: ]
(% vloaly. by chewing t t e m a b a r t end pnablag t t e
kid a t y p a of p r o b la a te b a a a 't meaterad, t t e
c e n t e r can petlanAly b rin g s t a d a t s tn mastery af
vsrloos s l ^ l e s k i l l s , d L s^ n sln g e a k a m s s a a d
acrsselng tbe ImdlvUaal e l d a s t ' l p n t l a . Tte
d if f ic u lty Is tbsc s l t a p t l ^ to s i t a d t h is a t b o d
a t af thm vmry s t a l e has g r a c p i t f a l l s a d a y
a t e v a be e o r tt te l le ( a a p p . J H I f l ) .
te p a y , C a m a r i t e r a a p t f l i s t e d fay I B
with the IW0 snd t b e a f f e r e d p r ^ a t e r e e t a d a r -
d l a s c l a before cblags bed bam r b n ^ h r out- I B
is a c Co b i a s for C u a i e a t i c a r 'e d a fu im a c la a ,
they a rm J a c crying to a t e s t e b ; fast ber a t e s
a lo t of a c a r^ people t e l Leva Cpara arr l t s r ass
the a y i t bed to be, the evm le linaery l a m a a t
usual for c r a t e r laageagM d l d n 't b a a t i a e to
occur. Aa egTegla s a l u l a : Comreamrlter d id aM
a l i a tba anchor a b t u e u to t a c a p u t e r H a l f .
That I s , prog ra a w r l e t a f o r a a r l c s l c a lc u la tio n ,
u y , cceiid not ba brought la to la str a c tio m a l a l a r -
Lsls a t a aophlatlcated level.
Tanczar'a TUTOg chaged a l l t h a t . I t bee both
the v l r t a a and d*fate o f be Lag o r ig in a l. I p p a r a t l y
l a t t a t dea i gn a l a la gu aga of g r a t p a r a d spaed I
la u t t s r l r atrsnse to c i ^ e t a r t a w l a . o f f e r s v a r l o a
b r l l l l a t f u t u r e s , sad la In mmm Tea pec La g a lte
Irr ita tin g . It looks w r y e U ^ le to t t e o a r bet
beyond a f a d e c e p tla ly a l a la t a c t e l g a s . I t haa
to be learned in coaeldereble d e t e i l to do anything
Inte resting, (lea bo*, ' I , I r t s-A
Thia ta la haa, of coairsa, b a n e lm p ilfln d . U t
ta r and Tanctar did not a r k a i m , b a t r a t t e r a r e
laadera le a aeatblag c ^ a n l t y of dnsana of a r t
people working like b la ae ao n t t e p r o j a c . I t te a
taken a a a fifteen yeara of i l c a e r 'a e f f o r t , sad Cams
of ml 11 Iona of doLLare, to gel Cte ayscen where I t ln
now leedy and Working.
Proje ct PLATO sow eatenda f a r beyond I t s o r ig in a l
d a a ln . O riginally a f a i r l y clghc a c l e n s a t t t e
C^vucer-kased I d u c a lla l e a a r c b Lsborsto ry (COL")
at tba D. s f tll ln o la ln Urbans, t t e c < ^ n a lty of flAIQ
o a a p m l a out through I ls l l u a to a la rg e r coast I t -
uency, the PLATO c a nlIT o f a a r a .
(Indeed, th ia ute n dn d g^pnbllc o f PLATO t t e
a y a t a paopla ( l a p. / S ) U Drbana, the a t b e r a
and locala-ln-cbarga throughout the a a n n r k camel*
tu te o a af the meddat rookerlea of c a a t e r frmaks
In the a r i d . Uhare alaa eould y a fin d a l* -jw ar-cld
a y a ta s p rog r^ M r wbo'a te d h is Job f o r t a ysmrs?
Uhera a l a would you a a p a p le f a l l In love o a r t t e
T a lk a a ttc (a PLATO p r a g r a Vtilch allow s y a to have
w ritten c a v e r e a t l o a wltb paopla a t o th e r t e f m l a l a ,
wbarever they a y be) a l y to claefa wtaa at la a t
they a a t la p e r s a l I t e t a e l a can y a pla y a a a y
d l f f e r a t g a l with fareway a traagere? (See t e a - )
Where e l a c a a t i d n i a aayvheta ln t t e network elga
Into tamdraa of d l f f a t m t lia a aa e In d l f f e r a t a t e -
jecta ( a a t of t ^ a la o d p le c e )! When a Lae arm p a
pla a r k ln g a v a rlo a d l f f e r a t p r o g r e a for a l a a -
cary a t a t l a t l c s , s l l to be offered a t t e aaa eye-
ta !>
MikM O 'tr im , a T o lk im fm a iM r, I m
pwt t te entilrs IlrCeM alptmbmt certs
FLATV as a sp * rla l akinm it*1 ^ t .
San eJw ewe Cm gtemm a ftw n m tamO^
to C m o b > , both im t e U s t mtd
tltrim h.
iia aaya i t I s t i e U r t t s am tf s w
poking am im i M s m it* ria t.
ao f e i PLAID lermlmala, lh a t m i e f th e te rm in als H t
u ba f a ir ly a tr i c tl y rentroIIm d ( T h e ig ht te rm lM la
ac the University of I l l i a e i * a t Chicago C i r c le , a t
Whlcb B a t of theae p l r t e r m w i e l a t a , g------- J H i t
aa elght-hoer day.) The rims wmm e t e pmmple c a U
Jose M lk l e , s i t t a n a t a te rm inal n d do efcat tk a r
liked; now. eadly, each M r M et havn ea "accmMt*
Bel tbe rabble le t a m l l ^ a t lha g a i ta y
r - - --------v t to a a I t le taka r a t e e m tsrts a f
t r i a l s h i to play I t a r u n | a a i ( h b a ) m d
timber with m l a u r a t l i * symCM e f I t s p M l
la d a a a . M M of ( I m w ill hmea t e a e U .
r u n ' i eerricee sre ~frae.* f a r m . That l a ,
i f ymmr school tae PLATO te im la a la. aed IP I t w ill pay
for tbe t ^ ^ B l c e i l a a e l i m e , I B th a a a n u s s e f
tbe cemtrsl c < ^ t e r s n T r e e - tha M l e e l gel I
PaMdatlta U l a l n l l l i Ita ^ e r a t l a la v c m ^la
of yaera m re. I W . haage, PUIO t r a l n g i l i a bm-
J w i t e give T m U a . U a f I LaI lam 1ira
to Orbeea fet Circle ' a a ' a e l ^ s t a n l a a l e i m
t i w 110 .OOP a rmsr i m thamm n a u m | U km -
lag sharply; It la U a FTIce e / t a l i ^ a fee
wheteeer Ihe PUIO h s i la F l a g le be. a f a r .
PW'10 (em p < ) - k a I b m 'i a l d e a p a r l a f a
to gm b a . k r-
Thls la s l l s fas e r r . ad o n e , f r a U t a n ' e
claim a t e ^ e eg> t a t PUTO r n e l a l i m i l <mm
a l t M . b e c a ld a rla g t a e p a a 'a e r 1. a
meate't ^ 1 1 a t b a .
Pubaga the rami p a l a La th l e i n t h a m -
- , - -1 |M ef th ia p a l T m a a a l f c l e ,
p ^ i s ' s la m f a th s i | a a mup P l s l a U 1

FW T ( jh \* 5
Hoonuar cm a Saturday in Urbana. And our doughty warrior looks to the
It's mm-to-man among tha craters
Big Board for more challengers.
than a quick kill of tha unknown Kids love PLATO gaims.
adversary.
k h a rd end th ey p la y hard on th mighty
When (he A uthor g e ts t i r e d o f A uthoring, o r the
Stud en t o f Stew in g, J u s t around th e c o r n e r , a few
k e y stro k es away, a re d iv e rs io n s and games to boggle
th e Imagination.
You can go to a program ("le sso n r o s e " ) and
look a t " th e g r e a t r o s e s " - - e la b o r a t e c u r l i c u e s gen
e r a te d by m athematical p a tte r n s t h a t ap pealed t o th e
a u th o rs of th a t program; o r f i n d , a ls o tucked In r o s e .
Conway's Game o f L if e (see w rite u p , p. *1 > , and p i e r
Cure s e r i e s , n e a rb y ).
Then th e r e a re g a m s you can pla y a g a in s t th e
syste m , lik e r a c e tr a c k and b le c k l a c k . (These games
l e t you win a stron om ic al suns o f money p la y money,
fo rg o tte n when you sig n o f f . ) Remnfcer, o f course
th a t y o u 'r e not r e a l l y p laying a g a in s t a cor-- but
1 lik e th is .
a g a in s t a s p e d f t c program, w ith I t s q u irk s
s h o r tc u ts and b lin d sp o ts .
Then th e re a r e games you pla y by y o u r s e l f
a c c u a ll y respo ndi ng r eso urce s (see i p . * e , i t - n ) , which
e n t i c e you In to t r y i n g th in g s o u t. Tenczar hi m se lf
has create d, two e l e g a n t , gem-1 Ike le s s o n s , man and
p l c t o . which te ac h you co<q>uter programming w ith o u t
ev er say ing so. These two programs pr es e n t th e u se r
w i t h a l i t t l e p i c t u r e o f a man on th e s c r e e n , and
shfM him k w the l i t t l e man may be roved around and
nude t o pic k up p i c t u r e s o f b a l l s . From th e r e on
th e stu de nt may have h i s way and i s ne v e r to l d t h a t
h e ' s le ar n in g t o program a tr u e computer language.
(Though I t Is a q u i t e r e s t r i c t e d one , d e a l i n g ex
c l u s i v e l y w ith l i t t l e men and t h e i r e x cu r si o n s among
b a l l s and f a l l i n g s t i c k v)
^itudTD'ee o r f(ATo -3MCF
Tha PLATO keyboard.
Vhat looks odd and arbitrary to you is believed by devout Platonists
to be divinely ordained.
PLATO IV- STANDARD KEYBOARD
m i tin iii ircircirami n m m w
E K M E I0 0 B 0 0 0 0 B B B B
S S E 0 0 0 0 0 Q C D B B B B
H ffiffl[S 0 0 0 0 [I][D 0 H B B
TO HOVE BETWEEN LESSONS, the basic action is to hold <k*Jn SHIFT and
press STOP. (For further explications see Ina-And-Outa diagram. >
TO MOVE VITRIN A USSOti, basic actions are BEXT (to go fonaard or
tall the system it's its turn; BACK, which sanetimes returns you to
earlier points i n the sequence of your lesson; and six step-out-of-llne
options, by whiah tha author may permit the user to sidestep to ex
planations, enrichment notarial, or things oul of sequence.
F U T o j m p u c .tr s n t y c w R e - - m iitt S IV * ' r-
* " * 'r N 1v*'* ^ ^ "3
The original idea was evidently that there Mould be a basic sequence,
in which NEXT and BACK would be the fonjard and back controls, and
the other six uould represent Help for the Confused, a "Lob" allowing
experiments, and additioml Data the student decides ha needs. Tha
three trttJi Shifts simply provided a second option of each type.
Bou the a u th o r might use these, however, was his own affair.
TERN" evidently was for when students wanted things Looked Op: by
pressing TEfft and typing the unknown word, the student would get a
definition. ",ANS" suggested that it might also be used when the
student uza allowed the option of being told the answer.
Bote the arrows over 6,U,E,AJD,Z,X,C. They allow the student to move
cursors, draw, point directions, etc. Unfortunate confusion ensues
with the left-arrow on tha far left, used tn programing (aa in APL;
eee p. 7 1) . )
ERASE allows the student to correct his input; COPT helps edit and
change things. SUP and SUB allow superscripts and subscripts;
FOITT MICRO is like a special shift key, going into whatever special
font is currently stored on the terminal. I have no inkling of what
the little square means.
A nother charming game, I d o n 't know by wtww, Is
c e l l e d candy f a c t o r y . Here to o th e us er may co n tr o l
VtA> fran your Bova spaceship in-
th e an im at ion o f the p l c t o r e by what he ty p e s . Ha-
chln es a r e se en t o manufacture candy, box I t and
oludes perspective viau of where
s h ip I f - depending on what bu tt o n s you p r e s s . you are among billion* of a t o m
and your various control*.
Some g a m s a re played between peo ple who s i t
to g e th e r b e fo r e a s i n g l e PLATO te rm in a l , o f t e n with
te a c h in g I n t e n t . Such g a m s Incl ud e th e hop' g a m ,
where Bunny (you) and Frog (your f ri en d) add t h e i r
way alon g a board with numbered sq ua re s. Older c h i l
dren can d ig Hw the West Was (l+2)M 3 . which Involves
groupin g th e nu xbers you g et by chance t o t r y t o get
ahead o f th e o th e r stagecoach. Tha navigation part o f ___ _
already working. .To get around
THE "BIG BOARD GAMES you need instruction; hars ue
a re at tha Training Can tar.
S t i l l a n o th er c ate go ry o f g a m s , though, M a l t s
the a d u lt who c ra v es r e a l ex citem e nt. Because PLATO
has so many te r m in a l s , a l l o v e r, th e re Is a c u rio u s a t th e o th e r guy by s p e c if ie d a n g le s a s you sta nd
coeA I n a tio n o f anonymity and Intimacy between u se rs * " ! c r a t e r s ) . In a d d itio n . PLATO o f f e r s (net during
( - - uch l i k e th e c uriou s N onexistent Phone H u b e r t
Marking h ours) whet la jst be two o f th e K>st baroque
o f P a r i s ; In th e French phone s y s te n , people c a ll in g space-w ar g a m s anywhere, em pir e (eig h t rac es (the
the s a m n o n e x is te n t phone n ix te r can t a l k to each V ulcanlans, Kllngons, e t c . ) se ek to c a u r o l the g a l
o th e r ; s t r a n g e b lin d f o ld e d e n c o w u e rs occur a t th e axy) and nova ( s l w l a t e d n a v ig a t io n w n j a l l lio n s of
MiMber o f The Day, spread by w o r d - o f ^ > u th ; t o n t i n e s d i f f e r e n t M a r t and s o la r s y s t e a s , a l l o f which may
th e se r e s u l t tn p eople r e a l l y g e ttin g t o g e t h e r . . . ) . . . be rcvl si te d , a l l o f rfilch a re d i f f e r e n t . . . )
Anyway, Ihe Big Board g a m s of PLATO have e xac
t l y that*, a sh a re d l i s t , o r "Big Board," sho e ing who People who o n ly p la y PLATO g a m s o c ca sio n ally
Is p la y in g th e s p e c i f i c g a m . have to sign on. by typing t h e i r n e m s I nto the big
bo a rd . (They o f te n g e t sla u g h te re d by tha r e g u la r s ).
But you d o n 't have to use your r i g h t n n e , The r e g u la r s hah. When t h e y 'r e sig ned In to the
s y s te a , th ey have m r c l y to Jix^i t o a s p e c if ic gam
In t h i s Jau nty s o c ie t y o f s h a d w s , you p i c k your f o r t h e ir f l g h t l n 1 nam s to be p o ste d on th e big
own noni de g u e r r e , or f i g h t i n g nane. This h as n i - bo ard . A mighty r o l l c e l l th ey make, to o such g r e a t
e ro u s a d v an ta ge s: the >lt obvious Is t h a t a s you Im w a r r io r s as yon Pave, l o t , f r i g h t p i l o t , AL 9000,
prove a t p l a y , you can shed th e I d e n t i t y In wh ic h you Sliq>son, d oc, THE RED BARON, The Red Sw eater, Tta
have been h u m il ia t e d . C lam Pud, F o d z lll a , t i g r e s s , e n n a s a la d , Conan,
S id d h arth a , wonder p l g l ! ! ! ! , and EXORCIST.
The main g am s w ith Big Boards are th a t o ld
sta n d b y , spacewar (ro c k etsh lp s w heeling and f i r i n g (As th ose In std e rs who hava a u t< M tlc s l p i - w
a t each o t h e r and s li d i n g aroiaid on the s c r e e n ) ; t o Big Boards w ri te programs to do th e slg n -tsi, t h e ir
d og figh t (b ip la n e s w heeling and f i r i n g a t each o th e r a r r i v a l tn a Big Board ga m Is o f t e n an animated
and s iT d in g aro und on the s c re e n ) , moonwar (shooting s lg h -o n . The c u te s t t r ic k i s THE RED BARON's: I t l o ^ S
THE RED BARON
* ^| *
I t wocks lik e t h i s . For d o g f ig h t, th e te ra in a l a l
Walcane to tha Hop Game. Hare it is Bunny's tu rn . Screen ready has sto re d In I t s t e ^ i o r e r y m n r y , as " ch a r
PLATO often usee animated inatructa you personally: a c t e r s . " the l i t t l e p ic tu r e s a f a ir p l a n e s th a t are
opening titles. ''Press -NEXT- to Spin, enrrintruda". goin g to buzz around the sc re e n . So the Baro^ Just
f o l l w s h is n a m w l t h the code f o r t h a t sp e cia l c h a r
a c te r.)
One la st p o in t. No longer can you sig n on w ith
an o b sc en ity : a l i t t l e o b sc en ity -c h ec k in g prograa
looks f o r th e usual e x p le t iv e s . In c a se v i s i t o r s or
o t h e r p r ig g ish folk might be lo o k in g . But o f course
t h l a I s easy to circumvent by p u t t i n g perio ds between
t h e l e t t e r s o f your n a sty w ir d , o r something s im ila rly
d e c e p tiv e to the poor progreij.
ts iru e m ^ T o Tr?
*A tutor who tooted the flute
Tried to tutor two tutors to toot.
But he asked through his snoot:
is i t better to toot
Or to tutor two tutors to toot?"
tw -arwzi/tfw
> tu tf
Oiv e of
<*fj)
---
T' L h T1 O
t iv*T
Folk thing HftMO OAJ n f e U IH I,
The TUTOR language grew out of d r i l l - a n d -
p r a c t i e e , f o r which I t hae a ccanand s p e c if y in g
where a s t u d e n t ' answer i e to appear on th a
e cree n. T hle i a Che 'arrow* com and. The l a n
guage haa a s tr a n g e ecanning s t r u c t u r e b u i l t
around t h i s ' u r i w - command, much ae th e TRAC
Language (Bee pp. 18-21) hae a ecanning e t r u c -
tu r e b u i l t aro und pa re nth eses and c om ae . Be-
gin ne re dont need t o understand Che sc an and
th e a r m c o n a n d , b u t Journeymen do.
TENCZARS CONCEPT OF A CONCEPT
Much ha e been mads of TUTOR'S f a c i l i t y You can rea d th e e te n d a rd - e lz e le t t e r i n g off
fo r 'a n a l y z in g th e c onte nt* of what e tu dante th e sc re e n e t SIX FEET even though I t ' s
ty pe i n . A c t u a ll y , o f couree. t h e c o q n ite r NO BIGCER THAN PICA TYPE. F e n ta s tic .
does n o t "understand* what the e tu d e n t eaye The I n te r n a l c i r c u i t r y t h a t draws on the sc re en
(see ' A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e / - tl), la h ig h ly c e p e b le . Receiving a 2 0 - b lt c o d e,
b u t r a t h e r o f f e r s c e r t a i n e f f i c i e n t t r ic k e to the te r m in e l I t s e l f de cip he rs i t aa
th e p e rson u sin g TUTOR t o p r ep a re p r e e e n ta -
ti o n a l m e t e r l e l s . A LINE ON THE SCREEN, or
TWO STANDARD CHARACTER ON THE SCREEN
B a s i c a l l y , TUTOR'a "concept* f a c i l i t y from I t a FIRED e h e r a c te r memory, or
reduc ee every i n p u t word to a 60- b l t code. TWO SPECIAL CHARACTERS OH THE SCREEN
The te chnique o f red u c tio n ( c e lle d a 'h a sh in g f r o a i t a CHANGEABLE c h e r e c te r memory
f u n c tio n ) su ppose dly e u b e tl tu te e f o r any (which can be loaded with Ruselen,
o r d of any la nguag e a code o f 60 b i t s (aee Armenian, kata kana, Cherokee or w hat
B inary P e t t e r n e , " p . 13), which meena the e v e r even l i t t l e p lc tu r e e e t the PLATO'S HABDY KFTBOAFD is on a
progra a i n TUTOR can r a p id l y t e a t a s t u d e n t 's e t e r t o f th e le s s o n ) , or
in p u t f o r num roue d i f f e r e n t po e eib le th ln g a . flexible oable, cmn be u o m
. A COMMAND TO THE MICROFICHE PROJECTOR, or
(The power o f t h i s tech nique w i l l be r e a d ily in your lap.
A C0M1AND TO THE AUDIO PLAYER, or
'j . recogniz ed by computer people ; u n f o rt u n a te ly A COHAND TO WHATEVERS IN THE GENERAL JACK.
th e r e ie no r o a t o e x p lain i t f u r t h e r h e re .)
Note t h s t a l l l i n e s and c h a r a c te r s for th e ple ea e
Thus a TUTOR program may c o n ta in 'c o n c e p t sc re en ceo be tu rned on (orange on ble ck) or
se arches* t h e t t e s t whether a s tu d e n t typee o f f (b le c k on orange).
e i t h e r a d e e ir e d reeponse o r n r n r o u s e l t e r -
n a t i v e s - While i t may bm etr a nga to c a l l
th i a a " c o n c e p t,* I t ie a powerful technique.
Paul T e n c z a r 'e TVTOR languag e, th e pro AUTHOR'* ttMO-SHCE M.W, W)
gramming language ineid a PLATO, i e l i k e any
o th e r prog reaming language (see p p . 15-31) i G e f a * * + .< / h, n . i
i n t r i c a t e , and u n lik e le a r e a u l t e . Thet i e ,
a program ba ara no more resemblance to what * 3t r /* f lu .
I t doea th a n th e word "cow" leoke l i k e a c a .
PLATO l e a ays tern f o r canned pr ese n ce tio n s
t h a t ree pond t o th e stu d e n t. St uden te need
not know TUTOR. Anyone out to p r ep e re such
p r e s e n ta tio n s must le a r n i t . howeveri and the
a tte m pt hae die courage d many.
Ten czar i e a former b i o l o g l e t , and had no
pr ec once p tlone from computer orthodoxy to b in d
... . j - , 0f TUTOR. Thus th e la n -
v. i g l n a l . There le on ly rooa
b th e follo w in g p o in ts :
To le a r n th e f i r e t a ta pe In TUTOR-- how
to s e t up dr 111-a n d - p ra c t ic e le sso n s, f o r i n
s ta n c e i s unu su a lly easy.
To do an y th in g c of> lex, however, r e q u ir e s
you co le a r n th e bulk o f th e TUTOR language.
Thus when pe ople say TUTOR le 'e a a y ." they
m e n th ose f i r a t s te p s .
TUTOR le n o t E x te n sib le , l i k e , sa y. TRAC
Language (eee p p . 18-19) o r GRASS (aee p .* * ^ l) .
That i t , e p r o g r a m e r cannot cuauxe iza the
language w ith new ctapound functi one o f hie
own aak in g . Stepe a re be in g ta ken t o c o r r e c t
th i e j meanwhile, i t l a s a id t h a t th e Urbana
people can be persuaded to p u t in new c m a n d a
o th a re want f o r , e . g . , c hocola te c h ip cookie s.
^0]
 WllAT T H IS I S . I b r i e f l y v i s i t e d A l f r e d B o r k | s CAI s h o p a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a T h i s i s my r e p l y to B o r k 's q u e s t i o n , " n ' e l l , how w o - l d you do it? "
a t I r v i n e on a c o n s u l t i n g b a s i s . Bork i s a r e a l l y s w e l l g u y , b u t h e s d e v o te d to
D ia lo g u e C A I-- t h a t i s , to t e a c h i n g p r o g ra m s t h a t have p s e u d o - c o n v e r s a t i o n s T h is t i e s i n t o B o r k 's p h y s i c s d i s p l a y s v s t e n That is i t ' s in te n d e d to be a f r o n t - e n d
w ith th e s tu d e n t. (As I ' v e s a i d v a r i o u s l y a l r e a d y , t h e p s e u d o - c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t s p r o g r a m ( s e c p. 13) on a T e k t r o n i x ' g r a p h i c s t e r a i n a l ( s e e p . DM7 a n d DM 2 0 - 2 3 ) .
a r e n o t o n l y e x p e n s i v e and d i f f i c u l t , b u t som e tim es i r r i t a t i n g a nd o b j e c t i o n a b l e - l e a d i n g i n t o a s i m u l a t i o n p r o g r a n ( l e e p . SB) a l l o w i n g t h e \ . s e r t o s e e a l l k i n d s o f
and h a p p i e r , z i p p i e r , s im p le r te c h n i q u e s a r e a v a il a b le u s in g v a rio u s te chniques of m o t i o n s in p h y s i c a l l a w . The p r o g r a n i t ' s i n t e n d e d t o s u p p l a n t u s e s d i a l o g u e .
o l d - f a s h i o n e d s h o w m a n s h i p - - a s f r o m m o v i e - m a k i n g , w r i t i n g a n d ( h e r e ) t h e co m ic b o o k .
WllAT IT CONTAINS: i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s ; s t a t e n e n t t h a t p h v s i c a l la w ( a s o f m o tio n s ) sim p ly
su m m a r iz e s c o n s t a n t c o v a r i a n c c s . Sorry i f r e a d a b i l i t y is p o o r (X erox o f a X e r o x j ^ ^ ^

ToT
 j>n

You will note the artistic problem of composing cumulative animation for a display screen.

Some people have accused me of trying to be humorous. Obviously nothing of the sort was
intended. Research supported by NSF grant no. GJ296 (but "Mr. Natural" character
property of Robert Crumb).
,Homage to Robert Crumb.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: for comic technique, study the works of Crunb; also, comicbook stands are
currently featuring reprint magazines of Till- SPIRIT, which is some of lhe finest stuff
ever done. Also study Wally Wood in the early MADs.
 THREE-DIMENSIONAL LINE DISPLAYS
So fa r w e'v e d is c u s s e d the two-dim ensional
s u b ro u tln in g d isp lay s. H ow ever, things do not
n by any means stop th e re . A n um b e r of people
in th e e a rly d ays experim ented w ith techniques
for dra w in g line pictures b y program ; the e a r
lie st o f th ese uaed p lo tte r s . outpu t dev ices that
let the prog ram draw w ith a p e n . Bul interest
soon grew in the possibility of In teractive th re e -
d im ensional d isplays on s c r e e n s . Joh nson 's
S ketchpad 4 did this en tire ly by pro gram . But
ab nig h t follows d a y, people s e t about putting
MltC
th ese techniques Into h a r d w a r e , c re a tin g devices
* that would automatically show th in g s in three-
d im ensional view s allowing th e vie w e r to
ro ta te vie w s of nonexistent o bjects aa If they
w e r e o n u n seen t u r n ta b le s . ~ T h e ir first p ro du c t was an extrao rdin ary
T h e vie w s we a r e ta lk in g about, now , co
s is t of b r ig h t lines on a d a r k Reid, and so the
"objects" we a r e talking about a r e called "w ire
fram e1' objects they could effectively be made
o f w elded w ire . But now we do not have lo
b u ild them phyaically lo Bee them.
Actually Adage had a trem endous lead in
thia fie ld , but they let it slip for some r e a s o n ,
INTERACTIVE ROTATION
a n d have now lost it to two firms: Evans and
Su th erlan d on the high e n d . Vector General on 3D s c r e e n s a s i d e f r o a t h e i r f u n an d e x c i t e
the low e n d . (But of co u rse th in g s keep chan m e n t a l l o w p e o p l e t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d w o rk w i t h
g in g .) c o u p l e s 3D e t r u c t u r e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o b u i l d them
p h y sically .
The Evans and S u th e rla n d Computer Com
p a n y was founded In 1966 by Ivan Sutherland, The u n d e r s t a n d i n g , h o w e v e r , c o n e s f ro m b e in g
a b l e t o t u r n and i n < p n i i r > t h e s t r u c t u r e on th e
c re a to r of the masterful S ketchpad system , and
s c r e e n . I f you c a n t t u r n I t y o u c a n ' t r e a l l y
David Evans, chairm an of com puter science at p e r c e i v e t h e 3D s t r u c t u r e , b e c a u s e t h e a rr a n g e m e n t
th e U niversity of U tah. (For a time both held
o f l i n e s c o u ld b e a n y t h i n g -
appointments a t U2 at th e same t i n e , bu t now
both h ave left the u n iv e rsity to devote full dme
to th e ir dream factory in Salt Lake C ity .)
piece of h ard w are called the LDS-1, which they
said Innocently stood for Line D rawing System.
(To anybody from Utah, ho w e v e r. LDS means
L atter-D ay-Saint, and d o n 'l you forget it. Evans,
indeed, is a Mormon, b u t I'v e been told it may
h ave been S u th erlan d's se n se of humor that
c hose the acronym .) However, s y s t e m s l i k e t h e Adage an d t h e V ec to r
G e n e r a l and t h e E van s and S u t h e r l a n d d e v i c e s a ll o w
yo u t o t u r n t h i n g s on t h e s c r e e n a s e a s i l y a s I f
It should be pointed out that a special ad t h e y wer e on t u r n t a b l e s b e h i n d a pa n e o f g l a s s .
vantag e o f digital p e rs p e c tiv e calc ula tion la that T h a t ' s how you s e e , you e e e .
view ed coordinates can be read back by the com
p u te r , and s e rv e as new d a la , if you go for T h i s I n t e r a c t i o n i s w h a t makes c o a p u t e r d i s
that sort o f thing. p l a y a u g u r a new e r a f o r m a n k in d , I f w e ' r e l u c k y .
( I t ' s s l s o why we u s e t h e t e r m c o m p u te r d i s p l a y
I n t h i s b o ok , r s t h e r t h a n " c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c * , "
D /Iw ir - s i n e s p e o p le who mske c o a p u t e r s draw w i t h p e n s a r e
a le o doing "conpute r g r a p h ic s " a r e l a t e d a c t i v i t y ,
b u t n o t one t o c h an g e t h e w o r l d . )

Basically a three-dim ensional system of

th is typ e s to r e s th e lines as coo rd inates in threes:
e ndpoints of lin e s in a m ythical three-dim ensional
s p a c e . Each points location in Ihe sp ace is told
by Ihree n um bers (example show ing a house
may be seen on p . ); a line in a space is
r e p re s e n te d in the data s tr u c tu r e by two such
p o in ts , and a code o r something tyin g them to
g e th e r.
UNFORTUNATELY, just to get through the basics,
there is only room to discuss stick-figure
T he Adage Diaplay Is iso m e tric . meaning graphic display here. But curved surfaces
that lines dp not get s h o r te r as ihey get farth er may also be depicted, though usually not inter-
away o r longer as they get c lo s e r . While thia actively. See below, and pp.
ia marvelously im p ressive, most people want
re a l perspective; and it was th is lhat Evans and
Sutherland set sbout to make available in real
lim e, i . e . , In d irect re s p o n s e to the v iew er's
ac tion s.

T he LDS-1, w eighing in at half a million

d o lla rs o r so , buckle d to th e PDP-10, a big
36-bit com pute r from DEC (aee p . ^ O ) . Its
view calculator worked sym bolically (digitally),
a n d thu9 could work lo Ihe h ig h e r precialo n
necessary for tru e persp e c tiv e calc ulation.

Among the ex citin g demonstrations that

T he second p rogram follower in su c h a
d evice behaves much as it d oes in th e 2D sy s te m .
b ut w ith c e rta in add itio n s. Like the 2D system ,
il pro ceed s down its ow n prog ram one step al
a tim e. Like th e 2D sy stem , it find9 in its
p ro g ram the coordinates of a line to diaplay and
c r e a te s electronic signals re p re se n tin g its e n d
p oints. Bul it does not diaplay th e se d irectly,
sinc e theae a r e th ree-dim ensional coordinates.
Instead it rouleB these sig n a ls lo what we may
call a view c a lcu lato r, a p a r tic u la r piece o f h a rd
w are that h as been prim ed with the angle from
w hich you want lo view th e o b je c t. T h is view
c a lc ula tor, automatically an d by m ysterious means
w hich v a ry among machines, p ro d u c e s lhe view,
and it9 signals go lo the s c r e e n .
L et's say we want to disp la y a poin t. The
d is p la y 's program follower p u lls thre e num bers
from ils d isplay list and notes th e code th at says
i l's a spatial point and nol th e end of a lin e .
T h e s e th re e nu m b ers slide on into the view cal
c u la to r, a lread y prim ed w ilh the angle of rota
tion; and th e view calculators fig g ers where on
th e sc re e n that point sho u ld be d is p la y e d . The
coordinates for the sc re e n telling w here the
point goes in lhe d e sire d p ic tu re go to the
Bcreen c o n tro ller, and the point is b rig hten ed .
How a r e these coordinates calculated?
Well, some commercial u n its do it electronically
("in analog") and some do it symbolically ("in
d ig ita l" ). T h e result is th e same.
(If you wanl the equations for th i s , th e y 're
in the Newman and Sproull b o o k .)
Then how does the view calculator handle
a line? Same thing.
The program follower p u lls th re e num bers
from its diaplay list and notes Ihe code lhat says
you can se e altting at an LDS-1 a r e a map of
th e United States you can zoom in o n . bringing
you in to a map of New J e r s e y , then Atlantic
C ity , then a specific inte rse c tio n , all in one
smooth continuous motion. Also a simulated
lan d in g on th e flight d eck of an airc ra ft c a r r ie r
with you flying th e a irp la n e , so you can
go o v e r il, to the sid e , into the d r in k or straight
at the c a r r ie r . In all c ases the ghostly ship
will move, turn and change p ersp e c tiv e on the
sc re e n as if somehow it w e re re a lly th ere.
Several LDS-Is w e re so ld .
Meanwhile a little new firm o f young guys
in Southern California, V ector G eneral, came up
with a line of termin als lik e the Adage line, e x
cept that they could bu ckle to the 16-bll minicom
p u te r of y o u r choice. (In pra c tic e most of them
have been attached to PD P-U s; see p . VL-)
T he Vector General display Is isometric,
a nd makes its calculations in analog , like the
Adage Display. It has been v e ry successful a-
S u th e rla n d
mong both u n iversities an d priv a te corporations.
In addition, a highly in teractiv e and well-
designed language is available for lhe creation
of da ta stru c tu re s rep re se n tin g 3D objects, as
well as for ge n e ra l-p urp o se programm ing and the
creation o f whole e n vironm ents. And it's free
to individuals o r companies thal have Vector
General d isplays attached to P D P - lla . (See
"Coup de GRASS," p.5H3/*)
But wait. Evans and S uth erlan d h as now
d ropped the LDS-1 and given u s - - n o , not LDS-2,
b ut something called T he Picture System also
b uilt onto the PDP-11, bu t th is one w o rk s sym
bolically (d igitally) and in full p ersp e c tiv e . The
p ric e s ta rts at eighty g ra n d .
Since the Pictu re System w orks out of Ihe
PDP-11 core memory, the commands it follows
a r e 16 b its long, since th a t's lh e size of a slot
in PDP-11 co re. But w ait. T h e y 'v e designed
Drawing by Ruth W e ia a BE VISION program,
done a t B e l l L a b o r a t o r i e s , m i d - s i x t i e s .
( W a l t D ia n ay P r o d u c t i o n s . )
T h i s p ro g ra m r e p r e s e n t e d t r u l y cu rv e d
s u r f a c e s I n I t s d a t a s t r u c t u r e , aa
"q u ad ric s u r f a c e s " t h a t I s , Invol
v i n g po wer s o f two I n t h e ma th and
c a l c u l a t e d t h e v i s i b l e l i n e s ta n g e n t t o
t h e ed g ea from t h e v i e w p o i n t , t h u s draw
i n g t h e e d g e a . Removing t h e hidd en
p a r t s o f t h e c u r v e s l a o f c o u r s e one of
t h a g r e a t e s t p r o b le m a . (From Ruth A.
We l a s , ''BE VISIOH ." JAQ1 Apr 6 6, 194-
20 4, p . 2 0 1 . *
Evans
Courtesy
U. o f Utah
The ru le s of p erspective have been u nd e r
stood since the R enaissance. In olden computer
times (up till about 1B65) people u sed to do
three-dim ensional view calcula tion by angle s
relative to a three-dim ensional data s tru c tu re .
*
T hen L arry Roberta at MIT noted lhat th e re was
S . a more appropriate mathematical m ethod, long
m molderlng in obscure te x ts. The idea is this:
If you sdd an e x tra dimensio n lo the d a ta . It's
y e a sie r to p ro g ra m . I t's e a s ie r because it be
z . comes a simple matrix m ultiplication, which has
>T_
no commonaense expla nation b ut la im porta nt to
mathemallclana.
5 SO th al means that to calculate view s of
three-dim ensional objects, th e moat usual way
ie now to add that e x tra dimension. Instead of

i t's a line, so il takes th re e m ore. Then the
view coordinates of both points a r e calculated
and fed lo the screen con tro lle r. The screen
c o n tro ller now he6 two p oints on ita sc re e n
so it dra w s a line between them-
The f i r s t d e v i c e o f t h i s t y p e w as, I t h i n k ,
t h e s o - c a l l e d Kludge ( p r o n . " K l o o j " - - com pute r s la n g
f o r a r i d i c u l o u s m achine, b u t i n t h l a c a s e a p p lie d
a f f e c t i o n a t e l y ) b u i l t a t M IT 'a E l e c t r o n i c Sys ceoa
L a b o r a t o r y i n th e e a r l y s i x t i e s . T h ia d e v ic e was
a o n e - o f - a - k i n d , b u i l t o u t o f DEC c i r c u i t c a r d s and
h o o k in g to a b i g g e r m a ch in e. The ESL K ludge showed
v i v i d l y how good I t was t o have I n s t a n t a n e o u s view
c a l c u l a t i o n u n d e r a u s e r ' s c o n tr o l *
The first of these system s lo be offered
com m ercially, I believe, w as th e "Adage D isplay,"
made by A dage. Inc. of B oston, w hic h u sed Iheir
u n u s u a l Ambilog computer (see p . *f.3> t0 f4* "
o bje c ts on the sc re e n . I v a guely recall thal it
cost about $00,000 with com puter bu l without ac
c e s so rie s .
i
the thing to convert to 36 b i t s , so that coordin
ates a re moved to a p riv a te sto re o r buffer be
tw een the program follower and the display.
T h is means lhe display can zoom and zip around
in th e sc e n e without b o therin g the computer.
z .
y coordinates la called homogeneous co ord in ates.
s Is ju st stirre d In with the r e s t , and out comes
I*. M - h
Another Important feature o f The Picture
System: it will do, not ju s t o rd in a ry perspective,
out such w eird view calculations as wideangle
b a rre l distortion, pincushion distortion and
s im ilar stuff.
having a point in apace whose position la 36-24-
36 (in some sel of th ree-dim ensional coo rd in a te s).
another arb itra ry number is added to make it,
say , 36-24-36-1.
It seems that in Lhe mathematics of multiple
dimensions, it comes out sim pler that w ay. in
deed. from a mathematical point of view the new
improved dimension is ju st like the o th e r th r e e .
For this reason, such an augmented system of
Like homogenised m ilk, th e additional coordinate
y o u r desired view calculaticm. (The formulas
a re to be found In Newman and Sp ro u ll, Princi
ples of Interactive Computer G ra p h ic s. McGraw.
$15, y o u r basic text on th e su b je c t.)
At any ra te the additional coordinate is
often referred to. in c o rre c tly , as th e "homogen
eous coordinate. T h e y 'r e aU homogeneous,
which la why It w orks.

G up GRASS &
Im p u d en t an d p l u c k y T en D a F a n t i was a n a s s i s t -
a n t p r o f e s s o r a t 2 4 . T h i s i n p a r t b e c a u s e h e has
c r e a t e d o r a o f t h e w o r l d s h o t t e s t 3D g r a p h i c s l a n g
u a g e s , w h ic h h e c a l l s GRASS. (He s a y s i t s t a n d s f e r
GRAphics S y m b io s is S y s t e a a l a o , he B a y s, i t T u r n s
You O n .)
T e n ' s GRASS l a n g u a g e i s an e x c e l l e n t b e g i n n e r ' s
c o a p u t e r l a n g u a g e f o r tw o r e a s o n s : f i r s t , i t i s e a s i
ly t a u g h t t o b e g i n n e r s , a n d s e c o n d , i t i a a b o u t t h i n g s
o f i n t e r e s t t o b e g i n n e r s , i . e . , p i c t u r e s and g r a p h i c a l
m a n i p u l a t i o n on s c r e e n s . (But c a v ia re th e t h r e e b e
g i n n e r s ' la n g u a g e s p r e s e n t e d b r i e f l y on p p . 1 6 - 2 5 . )
A p r o t o t y p e f o r t h e s y s t e n was d e v e lo p e d a t O h io
s t a t e , en a p r o j e c t d i r e c t e d b y a r t i s t C h a r l e s C a u r l .
T o o h a d a f r e e h a n d , t h o u g h , and t h e l a n g u a g e d e s i g n
i s h i s t b u t much o f t h e s p e c i f i c c o d in g was d o n e by
G erry t to e r s d o r f , and th e g r a p h ic s a lg o rith m s and r o
t a t i o n w ere p r o g r a m e d b y M a n fr e d K n ea ey e r. In sp ira
t i o n was f u r n i s h e d b y M aynard E . S e n s e n b r e n n e r .
GRASS r u n s on t h e PD P-1 1, a s p l e n d i d m in ic c a n p u te r
(T on s i a shewn o n p . 36 ) a n d i s s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d
f o r th e c o n t r o l o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t i c k - f i g u r e d i s
p l a y s o n t h e V e c t o r G e n e r a l d i s p l a y s y s te m ( s e e p .
DM \ 0 ) . G u t a l o t o f p e o p l e have w r e s t l e d w i t h t h e a e
m a t t e r s an d n o t d o n e a s w e l l - L e t ' s c o n s i d e r :
1. ITS CLEAR SIMPLICITY. Tom b e l i e v e s c o m p u te r s
a r e f o r e v e r y b o d y i h e i e n o t a h i g h p r i e s t b e n t on mak
i n g t h i n g s o b s c u r e ( s e e C y b e r c r u d , " p . 8 ) . T h u s he
made h i s la n g u a g e a s s e n s i b l e , c l e a r and e a s y t o l e a r n
as p o ssib le. Tom l i k e s t o s t r e s s t h e c o n c e p t o f " h a b i t
a b i l i t y * ( a te r m o f W . C . W a tt) , m e aning t h e c o z i n e s s o f a
aye t e a .
2 . ITS GENERALITY. R e f i n i n g a nd c o n d e n s i n g t h e
b ^ s . c id e a s o f a s y s te m i s th e h a r d e s t p a r t o f t h e d e
s i g n . D e F a n ti made s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g d e c i s i o n s .
A. T h e i n t e . - n a l f o rm o f t h e la n g u a g e 1 b
ASCII c o d e ( s e e p . "* ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , y o u
r e a d p r o g ra m s i n t h e i r f i n a l GRASS form -
B. F o r a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s te m s u c h
a s th e V e c to r G e n e r a l , th e main form o f d a t a
s tr u c tu re i s th e th ree -d im e n slo n a 1 o b j e c t a
l i s t o f p o i n t s an d l i n e s i n s p a c e . T h i s i s t h e
form o f d a t a GRASS u s e s f o r m o st p u r p o s e s .
C. I n t h e d e s i g n e f su c h a sy s te m you
w a n t l a r g e r 3D o b j e c t s t o b e b u i l d a b l e o u t o f
s m a lle r o n e s . T h is l i l i e s a rran g in g d a ta
i n t r e e s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e p . 2.*) ) You a l a o
w a n t to b e a b l e t o make t h i n g s do compound mo
t i o n s o n th e s c r e e n f o r e x am p le, sho w in g a n
a i r p l a n e f l y i n g a ro u n d on t h e s c r e e n w i t h i t s
p r o p e l l o r s p i n n i n g ) t h i a to o i m p l i e s a t r e e s t r u c
t u r e . T h e r e a r e s a n e p r o g r a m s e r s who w ould u s e
d i f f e r e n t t r e e s t r u c t u r e s l o r b o th o b j e c t s group
ed t o g e t h e r a n d f o r movements g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r i
Ton u se s e n e .
D. O b j e c t s shown o n T cm 's sy s te m c a n a l s o
a p p e a r t o move e n c o m p l i c a t e d p a t h s th r o u g h t h r e e -
d i m e n s io n a l s p a c e - I n T o m 's s y s t e m , suc h a p a t h i a
m e re ly a n o t h e r o b j e c t . I t seem s o b v io u s when you
sa y i t , y e t t h i s k i n d o f s i n g l e g a n e r a l i t y i s e x
a c t l y w h a t many p r o g ra m m e rs seem t o a v o i d . ( N e te :
t h i s f a c i l i t y i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f B a e c k e r 's p -
c u rv e r e e e p . j u ^ t j ) .
E. I n p u t d e v i c e s a r e c o m p le te l y a r b i t r a r y and
p ro g ra B B A b le. What h a p p e n s o r t h e s c r e e n c a n b e c o n
t r o l l e d b y a n y t h i n g a n y v a r i a b l e ( se e p . \(o ) i n
th e p r o g r a a a i n g la n g u a g e . I n o t h e r w o rd s , D e F a n t i
ha s d e c o u p le d t h e s c r e e n f r a a a n y p a r t i c u l a r form o f
c o n t r o l , a l l o w i n g u s e r p r o g ra m s t o make t h e c o n n e c t
io n b e tw ee n c o n t r o l s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h i s means
t h a t , u s i n g T o n 's la n g u a g e , i t i s c c m p a r a t i v e l y e a s y
t o b u i l d c c n p l e x c u sto m c o n t r o l s f o r a n y f u n c t i o n .
(T hia i s d i s c u s s e d u n d e r " P a n t i e s , " *
F . The la n g u a g e h a s s t r i n g f u n c t i o n s t h a t a l l o w
t e x t h a n d l i n g . S i n c e th e l a n g u a g e may a l s o u s e c o n
v e r s a t i o n a l te r m in a l s , i t i a em in e n tly s u i t e d f o r
*go o d -g u y " i n t e r a c t i v e s y s t e m s f o r n a i v e u s e r s , a s
d e s c rib e d on p p . 1 2 -1 3 .
G- T cm 's l a n g u a g e i s i n t e r p r e t i v e , l i k e TRAC
Langu age ( s e e p . 3 0 ) . T h a t means i t i s slo w * i n te r m s
o f th e num be r e f m a c h in e c y c l e s r e q u i r e d f o r i t t o d e
each o p e r a t i o n . H o w ev er, D e F a n t i h a s a d d e d a * c -
p i l e f e a t u r e t o t h e la n g u a g e , so t h a t f o r l o n g m a cro s
( s e c t i o n s o f p ro g ra m ) t h a t have t o r u n r e p e t i t i v e l y , more
e f f i c i e n t c a a p i l e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e m a cros may be g e n e
rate d .
^ I c o in e d t h e te r m f a n t i c s , f o r t h e a r t and te c h n o l o g y o f
sh o w in g t h i n g s , l o n g b e f o r e I e v e r h e a r d o f T an D e F a n t i ,
a n ) I am n o t a b o u t to c h an g e i t j u s t b e c a u s e h e i s now my
f r i e n d an d t o c B U t a .
H. T he l a n g u a g e i a e x t e n s i b l e , m e a n i n g t h a t t h e
u s e r may c r e a t e new ecmnands i n t h e l a n g u a g e a s p r o g r a m s
T h es e cocx nands, h o w e v e r, may be u s e d l n l a t e r p r o g ra m s
as i f th e y w ere b u i l t i n t o th e language i t s e l f .
I . The s y s te m i s c o n p l e t e l y g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e . Many
g r a p h i c s l a n g u a g e s a r e n o t , b e in g r e s t r i c t e d o n l y t o
t h e i r o r i g i n a l purpose- T h is i s more d i f f i c u l t , b u t o h ,
ao much more w o r t h w h i l e .
3. IT S DEEP g e n e r a l i t y . T h in g s s h o u ld b e v e r s a t i l e ,
and a b l e t o be t i e d t o g e t h e r in many d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h i s l a
w h at we mean b y " g e n e r a l i t y i * and t h i s k in d o f g e n e r a l i t y c an
make a s y s te m v e r y p o w e r f u l . (The te rm i n m a t h e m a t i c s i 8
" ele g an c e.* ) As i s s a i d on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b o o k , c ot -
p l i c a t e d n e s s i s n o t g e n e r a l i t y o r g o o d n e ss o r p o w e r , b u t a
sig n o f th e d e s i g n e r s sh a llo w n e s s.
Anyway, GRASS h a s t h i s k in d o f g e n e r a l i t y . I t has a
g r e a t number o f f a c i l i t i e s , grow ing w e e k ly , and t h e y a l l t i e
t o g e t h e r i n c l e a r a n d p r e d i c t a b l e w ay s, w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n s .
R a th e r t h a n c r e a t e s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n s w h ic h c a n n o t b e t i e d t o
g e t h e r , Young D o c t o r D e F a n t i h a s c h o sen i n s t e a d t o make t h e
s e p a r a t e d e s i r a b l e f u n c t i o n s p a r t o f a s im p le a n d c l e a r l a n
guage. (A n o t e t o y o u e l e g a n t t y p e s : GRASS i s f u l l y r e c u r s i v e .
As a n i c e e x a m p l e , Dan S a n d in ( se e p .S * |& ) w r o t e a p r o g ra m t o
d i s p l a y P e a n o l i n e s t h a t was u n d e r f o r t y GRASS i n s t r u c t i o n s
lo n g , i t i s a l s o a s t o n i s h i n g l y r e v e r s i b l e : you can w atch i t
u n c re a te th e Peano l i n e , s t r a i g h t e n i n g i t s e l f b a c k w a rd .)
I n th e more u s u a l s e n s e , D e F a n t i 's l a n g u a g e i s n o t
th e 'm o s t a d v a n c e d ') t h e r e a r e more p o w e r f u l 3D s y s t e m s
th a n t h e V e c t o r G e n e r a l ( t h e LDS-1, s e e p . J ) * ) , o f f e r s
t r u e p e r s p e c t i v e ) , more e l e g a n t u s e r - l e v e l l a n g u a g e s
(se e TRAC L an g u a g e and APL, O t h e r s i d e ) , t r u e h a l f t o n e
( t h a W a tk in s Box) i y e t h i s a c h ie v e m e n t on c l o s e e x a m i n a
tio n i s e x tra o r d in a r y . Never mind h i s a g e , t h e more e s o -
t e r i c f e a t u r e s o f h i s sy s te m ( f u l l r e c u r s i v e n e s s , e t c . )
o r th e f a c t t h a t h e d o e s n o t seem t o ha v e made e n e m i s
ta k e , w h ic h i s I n f u r i a t i n g . C o n s i d e r o n l y t h i s : TOM DE
FANTI'S 'GRASS' LANGUAGE IS PERHAPS THE ONLY SYSTEM THAT
CAN BE TAUGOT IN A PEW HOURS TO COMPUTER-NAIVE BEGINNERS
THAT PERMITS FULL THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANIMATED INTERACTIVE
GRAPHICS WITH TREE-STRUCTURED DATA.
T m v /M P W M -W i e c t 't&
m ' t 3j>
M u c h o f t o d a y 's i m p e t u s f o r 3D c o m p u t e r
d i s p l a y i s c o m in g f ro m t h e f i e l d of c h e m i s t r y .
U n iv e rs ity c h e m istr y d e p a r tm e n ts a r e b u y in g
e q u ip m e n t lik e t h e E v an s I S u t h e r la n d L D S-1,
I h e A d a g e a n d th e V e c t o r G e n e r a l .
Why?
B ecause c h e m istry i s in c re a s in g ly in v o l
v e d w ith c o m p le x t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s .
C r y s ta ls , lo n g f o ld in g c h a in m o le c u le s , m in u s
c u le fo rc es a c tin g on s t r u c t u r e s w h o s e s h a p e
d e t e r m i n e s t h e o u tc o m e . O r g a n i c m o le c u le s
t h a t i n v o lv e t h o u s a n d s of a t o m s , a n d w h o s e
c o m p le x f o ld e d s t r u c t u r e e x p o s e s o n l y c e r t a i n
k e y f e a t u r e s . A n d so o n .
Tom DeFanti. ShotJs part
o f hemoglobin molecule. T h e V ec to r G e n e r a l d i s p l a y i l l u s t r a t e d
Data structure from h e r e a n d t h e r e o n th e s e p a g e s b e l o n g s to t h e
Richard J. Feldmarm, NIH. D e p a r t m e n t o f C h e m i s t r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f I l lin o i s
at C h i c a g o C i r c l e .
M 3t
i t
C h i c a g o I I 60660.
11 1 ! ' c u r r e n t l y v . U b l . .
PD P-1 1 ow ners even w i t h o u t V e c t o r G e n e r a l d i s p l a y s
a y i n q u i r e o f : T on D e F a n t i , D o c t o r o f A r t s P r o g r a m , UICC,
You may w onder how a young b r o n k l n g buck l i k e D e F a n t i
uj.cc.
h a s m anaged t o de s u c h an e x c e l l e n t j o b , s o e l e g a n t l y , w h ere
s o many ha v e s t i m b l e d a nd f a i l e d ?
- I j u s t le a r n f r o e t h e r p e o p l e 's m is ta k e s ,* h e sa y s
c h e e rily .
P r o f. D e F a n ti
on th e a y e te m .
MISCELUmY:
C o u p l in g h i a s y s te m w i t h t h a t o f Dan S a n d in ( p DMff )
h a s c r e a t e d t h e " C i r c l e G r a p h ic s H a b i t a t , " d e s c r i b e d p ,
I hope I 'm a ro u n d long e n o u g h t o w r i t e t h e GRASS l a n
g u a g e m a n u a l.
( D e F a n t i ' s GRASS i s an i d e a l la n g u a g e f o r s o u t h i n g l i k e
t h e 3D T h i n k e r t o y , d e s c r i b e d on . How ev er, i t d o e s n ' t
have any p r o v is io n f o r th e s t o r a g e o f l a r g e c o p i e s d a ta
S t r u c t u r e s , s o t h e h a r d p a r t w o u ld a c t u a l l y b e w o rk in g o u t a n
a d e q u a te s to r a g e d a ta s t r u c t u r e a n d s t o r a g e m acros w ith in
GRASS'S u s e o f th e DEC f i l e s y s t e m . )
SCREEN CONTROLS
T h e g r e a t t h i n g a b o u t CRT d i s p l a y s i a t h a t th e y c a n b e
used t o c o n tr o l th in g s b ^ m a n ip u la tio n o f p lc tu r e c In s te a d
Of m ovin g b u t t o n s e r l e v e r s , you c a n s e i s e p a r t s o f t h e p i c
t u r e w i t h th e l i g h t - p e n and move some p a r t o f t h s p i c t u r e .
The c o m p u te r , s e n s i n g th e c h o i c e o r a d j u s t m e n t you h a v e m ad s,
can th e n p e rfo rm w hatever o p e r a tio n s you h a v e d ir e c t* d .
V*LV6
T e r .* o jT A r C0*T<S l
T o ut
T he d e a ig n o f s c r e e n c o n t r o l s - - e a s y - t o - u s e , c l e a r and
sim p le c o n t r o l s fo r e v e r y th in g i s one o f th e f r o n t i e r s of
c o n p u te r g ra p h ic s . (S e e " F a n t i c s , " p.J \* fl^ 7j
DIMENSIONAL FLIP
3D s c o p e s a r e a b o u t t h e b e s t w e ' v e g o t s o w h at d o
we d e a b o u t m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l p h e n c n e n a ?
O ne v e r y good s o l u t i o n i s t o sh ew a s e l e c t i o n o f t h r e e
d i m e n s i o n s a t a tim e , and p r o v i d e f e r e a s y f l i p " fr<x o n e
d im e n sio n t o a n o th e r - - s o t h a t i n s t e a d o f lo o k in g a t sc n e -
t h i n g o n dem en sio n s A, B and C y o u a r e l o o k i n g a t i t o n d i
m e n s io n s A, B and X.
F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e y o u 'r e a s o c i o l o g i s t lo o k i n g a t
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f v a r i o u s t r a i t s among a g r o u p e f p e o p l e .
I t ' s a e l e u d o f d o t s I n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s w h a te v e r t h r e e
d i m e n s i o n s y o u r e lo o k i n g a t . S o a e c o u l d b e : a g e , h e i g h t ,
w e i g h t, s a x , e th n ic background, p r e m a r ita l e x p e r ie n c e , ed
u c a tio n .., e tc.
You v ie w t h i s c lo u d o f d o t s , s a y , a c c o r d i n g t o a g e ,
w e i g h t a n d e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d . T h a t means you c a n r e t a t e i t
a ro u n d a n d se e how many p e o p le i n t h e g r o u p a r e w h at-
U s in g d i m e n s i o n a l f l i p , h w e v e r , you c a n c h a n g e t h e
v ie w a s f o l l o w s : r o t a t e th e b o x - f r a m e t i l l i t b e c a e i a
s q u a r e t o y o u r e y e . T hen you h i t t h e c o n t r e l t h a t makes
t h e u n s e e n d im e n s io n " f l i p " t o a n o t h e r d im e n s io n t h a t i n
t e r e s t s y e u . The c lo u d s t i l l l o o k s t h e s a a e u n t i l you
r o t a t e i t , a nd t h e t h i r d d im e n s io n i s now " p r e m a r i t a l e x
p e r i e n c e . * So you can q u i c k l y g e t a v ie w o f how p e c u l a
t i o n s a r e r e a l l y d iv id e d u p . (N o te t o s o c i o l o g i s t * ! t h i s
sa ae o p e r a t i o n , w ith s t r e t c h i n g and c l i j y i n g , p r o v id e s a
v i s u a l te c h n iq u e f o r " p a r t i a l l n g " o p e r a tio n * of th e
L a z a r s f e l d ty p e . )
171
<1-
THE TWISTED SMILE
You c a n make a c h a r a c t e r c h a n g e e x p r e s s i o n a n a
s c o p e b y a s k i n g h i s mouth a t w i s t e d w i r e t h a t c a n be
r o t a t e d b e tw e e n "frow n" and " s m i l e " p o s i t i o n s . T h e
t r i c k i s t h e sh a p e o f th e w i r e .
NOW GUESS WHAT: D e F a n t i ' a GRASS l a n g u a g e i s t h e b e s t l a n
g u a g e I kn ow o f f o r d o i n g a l l t h e a b o v e t h i n g s .
ll
 A u t t e r ' e n o t e . T h e s e a rtic le s w e r e
w ritte n for C o m p u te r D e d a lo n e m a g a z i n e , a n d
re f le c t th e r e s u l t s o f a lot o f p ho n e c a i la th e y
A S e rie s of Review A r tic le s fo r r __ p a id f o r . T h e f ir s t of th e s e a r tic le s w e e p u b
G e n61
e ra l E l e c t r i c . S y ra c u s e ,L
C om puter D ecisions M ag azin e.
synthesis llbo n , h 1 **e r three-dlaenalonal scene
lis h e d In 1071. T h e o th e r s ha v e no t b e n
p re v io u s ly p u b l i s h e d , as the e d ito r s a n d 1
Job ie custom. it * ' U P,18,!' EV* ry w e re n e v e r a b le to g et to g e th e r on q u i te w hai
WI1EHE TO GET IT.
i;::;*;."; th e y w a n te d .
Conputer 3D halftone systems are now available to moviemakers " l l , h ili* -11 in , co u ld run ..
from a variety of sources. It tends to cost a lot of money, but f io 1 1 * " " " ( ' > * < T h i s 1s, to my k n o w le d g e , the o n ly
when compared with normal Hollywood production expenses, it turns e x is ti n g c o lle c tio n and su m m a ry o f c o m p u te r
out not to be ao bad. h a lf-to n e s y s te m s to d a te , an d In som e c a s e s
j Y 1 J 2 0 1 , 1 1 5 /4 5 6 -3 5 5 2 . ( C lv .i
th e a r ti c l e s r e v e a l m ore ab ou t the s y s te m s
SALES OF MACHINES. 1c . p u , i t rd ,r i - i
th a n h a s b e e n p u b lis h e d a n y w h e r e . S u r
" a n S J . \ ! 1" f " r d , O tte r . o r . d .t.ll
M nr. 8 J e n . a n d 8 0 s t r a i g h t CO f l l n w i t h o u t v id e o , p r i s i n g l y , e v e n tw o y e a r s la te r th e y do n o t
Computer Image Corporation, Denver, offers various systems " o r . e ,p e . i v . ; p ro b ab le c o lt, ru th o u nJ. ,
for sale. See p. DM 39. seem out of d a le .
d o lla rs per i ,e . A j.ln , e v e r , jo b 1.
Evans and Sutherland Computer Corporation, Salt Lake City, Contact: Nat C. Myera, president
offers the Matklns Box, a real-time display device ' H o w e v e r, d u e to Ihe e d ito ria l a t y le Of
using the Watkina Method (see next page) and offering C om p u te r D e c i s io n s , a n d my o w n , th l a h a a all
also Gouraud paeudo-curved shading (see p. DM 37). ! r ;! ;;;,:,,,U !n '' u - i ...r ..,.d i come out e x tr e m e ly c o n d e n s e d , and p h r s s e d
It costa about $300,000 and attaches to a PDP-10 *C o m p u t e r I . , e C o r p ., D en v er . d H o U y u .o d , . 1 . . | f . s e r v l o . in b r e e z y a n d h u m o ro u s w ay s no t o r d i n a r i l y
large computer; see p. 40). on th e ir a ac h in es. On o c c a s i o n t h . y h . v . b e e n v l l l l n s c o n s id e r e d a c c e p ta b le for s e r io u s te c h n ic a l
back film-makers, reportedly on a 50-50 baaia. Their r e v ie w s . T h e h o p e Is th a l th e y w ill s u p p l y
president, Lee llarrieon III, l8 . Swell fella. o rie n ta tio n to th e b r o w s e r , d e e p e r I n s i g h t s lo
th e t e c h n l c a ll y - m l n d e d . and f u r t h e r d ir e c ti o n s
fo r them aa w a n ts to p u r s u e .

My t h a n k s to th e p u b lis h e r s o f C o m p u te r
D e c isio n s a n d Ita e d ito r , R obert C. H a a v ln d ,
FIRST ARTICLE for th e ir e n c o u r a g e m e n t, p h o n e m oney a n d
p e rm is sio n to r e p r i n t th is .
General id e a of 3-D halftone.

Polygon Sy ste m s.

There are more ways than one

halftone image
synthesis
bj Theodor H. Nelson
The Nelson Organization
To most people in the compulcr field, "computer
graphics'' means tine drawingsystems and programs
Tor mapmaking, pipe layout, automobile and aircraft
design, or any other acliviiy where a diagram may
help. Using line-drawing programs and equipment,
designers may create line drawings on last-responding
graphic screens, reworking (heir ideas until satisfied;
the system then disgorges polished drawings and speci
fications for the designers real intent, something else
that is to be made o r done. But it is possible for a
picture itselfinstructive, interesting o r pretty to be
the goal, tn that case wc will often wanl pictures lhal
look like things instead of wires. A picture lhal is nol
all black and white we call "halftone."
With much secrecy and a slow start, compuier
halftone systems are now being built all over. The
methods are extremely different from one another;
only the outputs are similar. Some exist in software,
some have already been built into spccial hardware.
These systems have many potential uses for visualiza
tion, animation and new kinds of photography, in
art, scholarship, motion pictures and T V ; for visual
izing worlds lost and imagined, equipment yet unbuilt,
the responsiveness of aircraft. It may not be long
until moviemakers can buy different brands of picture
synthesizer, just as musicians choose today among
Moog, Buchla and ARP music synthesizers. But none
is in production yet, This is an attempt to review the
coming apparatuses of apparilion.
Not only is the field of halftone one of the most
exciting in computing; it is also one of ihe nuttiest and
most secretive. For instance, at one lime a Arm that
was supposedly marketing its halftone system declared
ihe present author persona non grata and not to be
communicated wilh in any way, though information
was freely available to others. I dont think it's
necessarily paranoia," says Rod Rougelot of General
Electric. "A lot of guys started about the same time,
and proceeded in a heads-down manner. It took a
special kind of initiative to head off in lhat direction
wiih no external provocation. All those heavy cals
to produce shaded pictures with computer,!*.
Here are the methods
of the 'polygon school.
from a rm and kit were saying in ihe sixties I could
never do a Mickey Mouse, says Lee Harrison m of
Computer Image, Bui I'm noi that kind o f researcher.
1 talk to the Lord.
The systems" stories art u different u lhe systems
ihemselvs General Electrics system grew out of
cockpil displays for blind (lying. The system of Penn
sylvania Research Associates began wilh terrain and
radar modelling. The system of maci (Mathematical
Applications Group, Inc.) began wilh the siudy of
radiation hazards in battlefield machinery. Two system
families, that of Compuier Image Inc. and my own
Faniasm, were designed from the beginning for movie
making. especially "special eflects" and puppeieering.
The moai poignant tale may be that of L a Harrison,
whose struggling family was warmed through ajJd
winters by the tuba of Iheir analog computer.
Halftone bi two dht nkms
Two-dimensional computer halftone is not new.
Halftone pictures convened from photographs have
often been primed out or line printers, either for fun
(nudes often turn up at big installations), or in <m-
IKCtioo with some scientific problem, such as analyzing
chromosomes. Kenneth C. Knowllon, l l Bell labora
tories, has exemjtcd some well-known photo conver
sions making pictures into huge grids of liny whimsical
symbols having different grey-values.
Various other lyiletnj have allowed users to create
their own original 2-D pictures. But the natural temp
tation is to want the computer really to make ptcnm .
Why not have the computer produce a photographic
picture directly from the 3-D representation of objecu?
Computers don'l do this by nature, any more than
ihey do anything else by nature, so how it may bt
done by computer is very interesting. The problem is
also intersting because of iis intuitive nature. Vision*
of scenes in space are around us constantly, and we
intuitively understand the groinclry o f outlines and
light. As 3-D work progresses large problems are being
overcome. The famed "hidden line problem, for ex
ample, was misleadingly couched, since the problem
is noi finding what lines are hidden, bul wbal Surface*

Computer graphics tha ordinary way 3 D hatftaM Sfta

Tha computer, as penman, draws lines Todays n** procsdure* a n usa th*
Inxn a list stored in cora memory. In a tame dvta to maka a realistic shaded
threedimansiooal system, lhe basic or halftone picture. Th* visible part*
list of 3-D coordinates is converted ol th* objects are ascertained by
to a lilt representing a particular programs or special hardware,
view: the result looks usJng lh* same 3-D coordinates a* hi
line a wire frame. tn* ordinary sytfama. Thet* vtsiM*
parti ar* than shaded eeenrdlng
tn th* appropriate color information.
Th* H ri * of shad Inf -points m aka th*
picture on an caitput d*vfc*.

General Electric will make taovies and videotapes for you wlt*J s ^ t h a * point 'o f
s y ste m . T h ... . . . fro . . , . ! (r..lly b e a u tifu l) J . ' J J.J v ld
the film was to explain to everybody how a proposed spae viewers could under
function. R a t h e r than use d i a g r a m , they enacte_d It in the M .
lye . c id and
stand how the aectiona would be delivered and fit together how *
ao on. For exposition of that kind, nothing beats this kind of
 We musl draw on ibi* undemanding of scenes (o
figure out how 10 make pictures, (or there is no
mathematically elegant or preferable approach. Scene*
are geometrically rich, and thus many different tech
niques may be uaed to extract pictures from them.
These techniques may look al plana/ structures, ipatial
interconnections, relative edges of intersections or
anything else you can define and p n m s . I prefer to
think of compiler halftooe as like trick photography
ol the kind done in Hollywood: a variety of tech
niques can be combined in various ways. As in trick
photography, the number of loudies and enhance
ments that you add generally determines how good
it will look, regardless of what system you begin wilh.
The simplest systems are those lhat depict objects
made of polygons that is. planes wilh straight edges.
We will discuss such systems in the present installment.
The wild polygoa yonder
At least two companies are building image systems
that will behave and respond like onrushing reality.
Such a system, hooked lo cockpit-like controls, can
show a trainee pilot ihe delicate and precipitous results
of what he docs. Realistic action. rather than surface
detail, is crucial.
Tbe techniques of action polygon halftone were
originally developed by General Electric, ol Syracuse,
N.Y.. and are now also under development al Link
Division of Singer Company (makers of the beloved
pilot trainer and its progeny). Basically such sysiems
operate upon the scan-lines that crisscross a television
screen, switching the color of ihe running scan as it
crosses from polygon to polygon.
The action polygon schoolGE and Linktakes
a curious but effective approach to halftone TV: iheir
"environments" are composed entirely o f convex objects
made entirely of convex polygons. To use only convex
objects (no dents) means lhal one object may be in
front of another or vice veraa, but never both. (An
object with apparent indentations, such as an airplane,
has to be made oul of a group of convex objects flying
togethcc.) To use only convex polygons (notchless)
makes il easy for the system to decide, at a given
instant, whether the scan ii crossing the polygon or not.
The edge-box reports summed into the facet boxes,
each of which was set to respond to a particular
combination of left-right, above-helow reports. Al Ihc
instant all the facet's edge boxes replied in the proper
preset combination, ihe facet box signalled lhal its
owd facet was being crossed by the scan-line. When
more lhan one faect-box responded, the one nearest
the viewpoint had its color gated to tbe screen.
Now Rouge lot's group is replacing the old nasa
system by a new nasa system, which works on entirely
different principles, but keeps ihe vector calculator.
The old one could show scenes with up to 240 edges;
tbe new has* system will at least double lhal. GEs new
method is already operational on smaller research fa
cilities. They don'l tell what it is, bul basically it in
volves sorting by distance. Supposedly the sort method
is good enough to make the old edge boxes obsolete.
The Link group claims competitive performance for
iheir system, which will go to black-and-white ihou-
saod-line TV. They say their system is different, better,
and secret.
Movie seta, TV affects: computer haIIton* is
aady lo compel*. (Gary Watkins. Utah)
The method of Gary Watkins is the resuh of a
profound search at ihe University of Utah for rte
method a polygon techniqi* fast enough for real
time enactment, but cheaper than the GE-type systems
aod not subject to the convexity restrictions. They
to have found it
Each video ican of the seeoe results in a "slice"
through surfaces.in tbe tone. The two nearest surfaces
are continuously compared to sec which is clcner, as
if by two rulers. The instant a new surface becomes ihe
nearer one, the system make it the visible o u . The.
nearest (urfatx always shows, down to the precise
instant two surfats cross
C ampus o f F o o l e d U. ( CE)

Wyiie-RooDey: t o o l Ike wuriu

The Wylie-Romney method, disclosed in 1967, was
ihe firsi generally publicized procedure for making
halftone pictures. Indeed, the 1967 publication sig
nalled the explosion of Ihc University of U uh into
the forefront of computing research.
The Wylie-Romney method was actually the joint
work of Chris Wylie. Gordon Romney. David C. Evans
and Alan Erdahl: but much of ihe impetus for ils
development came from Evans, chairman of computer
sciences at Utah, who had long suspected the possibil
ity o f 3-D halfione synthesis.

Instantaneous enactment: halftone animation

|ivs a sanaa of laally being there. (Bod Rouaelol,
General Electric)

This work evolved in part from GE's work in the

fifties with a "ground plane simulator. a system that
would show a correct representation of the ground's
pcnition, dipping and routing, lo the pilot of an air
craft in fog or night. In 1963 the General Electric
group, under Rod Rougelol, worked out for nasa the
design ol an "environment simulator"a device thal
would simulate the appearance and performance of
any equipment. Thb is now called Ihe "old nasa sys
tem It permitted ihe user seated before a color TV
screenlo work controls for an imaginary aircraft or
spacecraft, and see roughly what the pilot of the craft Watkins method: A n
would sec, flying in real time through a breathtaking Halftone for art1* u k i now lha iriiti can cratte instantly sensed through continuous companion
color scene. Films made on Ihis machine have been worlds and photograph lham. (Gordon Romney. of the ckaesl two.
stunning. Imaginary cilics. roller coasters and aerial Utah)
dogfights arc among the visions that can be preen led.
General Electric-! old nasa method is fairly weird SOU A V A I L A B L E ! Mach ine r u n n i n g U a t k i n e
if not mischievous. The earlier "ground plane simu (N o t e : n o r t o u t p u t by
t e c h n i q u e , t h e W a t k i n s B o x, a l l o w s
lator" had shown an edge (ihe horizon) digitally dis v a r i o u s U ta h s y s t e m s
you t o v i e u im a g i n a r y o b j e c t s tn
played on a crt: the system was extended to many a p p e a r on f o l l o w i n g p a g e s . ) c o l o r a n d m a n i p u l a t e t hem i n r e a l t
edges, and the logical analysis of areas between them.
See t o p o f p r e c e d i n g p a g e .

The scenc was represented by a collection of edge

boxes, physically jumpered into a collection of facet
boxes. Each edge box and facet box was loaded with
certain numerical and logic values, representing edges
and facets in the scene, which could change between
frames as required by the action.
In the preprocess for each frame the old Nasa sys
tem used a specially built digital compuier. Ihc "vec
tor calculator." This performed al great speed the
three-part vector calculations necessary to determine
all scene positions, including the positions and slams
of all edges. Each individual e d p generator, loaded
wilh ils own edge position, constantly1 reported whether
the running scan of the picture was to the left or right
of its own edge. It dutifully guarded this edge from
border lo border of the picture.
The Wylic-Romncy method is Ihis: for each picture-
point desired in Ihe final picture, shoot a searching
ray through the scene al a corresponding angle. Find
where this searching ray hits every surface in ils way.
Since ihe locations in space of these hii-points are
easily calculated, figure their distances from the vantage
point. The nearest of Ihe intersections b the visible
one. Look up the color of that surface and shade the
output point accbrdingly.
This may sound inefficient, but il is comparatively
easy to ascertain ill ihe piercing-poinis. since the sur
faces to be hit in a given scanning row can be largely
predicted from Ihe previous row.
John Wamock's method, also from Utah, is unre
lated to the other methods, bul has qualities mathe
maticians like, as well as a certain whimsy.
Consider a square in the picture area. (A t the start
consider the whole picture area.) Now ihen. Test
whether the present square is entirely filled with one
color If so, output a corresponding square all of that
color. If the present square is not all one color, divide
it into four smaller squares. Take another square and
go back to Now then. End the process when each of
ihe squares in ihe broken-down picture has been
completely filled wilh one color or the unsatisfied
squares are loo smaD lo care aboul.
Ih illagi L a t of Ihe great h d f M u r t lm
Suppose lhat we have some data structure represent
ing a three-dimensional object, and a halftone method
lo search oul its visible surfaces. How do we shade the
output points? What do we take into account: how
combine the basic pcys or colon, how blend them
with computations of surface angle, distances from the
vantage point, or anything ehe we can think of?
Tbe answer: any way al all. The combining function
is an aesthetic choice. There are not many areas left
where you can make up a mathematical hodge-podge
and get pleasing or interesting m ulti Computer half
tone is a felicitous exception: you can augment by
adding or multiplying, diminish by subtracting or divid
ing. and yet always come up with an image resembling
something. Anyone who has worked in a darkroom
will recognize lhal this is Like enlarging: playing wilh
parameters won't obliterate the piciure.
There are purists who insist that halftone coloration
should exactly follow the formulas that simulate the
behavior of real light. For some purposes, like pilot
training, this may often be-true. But insisting on mathe
matical accuracy as a general principle is like insbting
oo ultra-high fidelityan aesthetic judgment couched
as a mechanical imperative.
Until now Ihc output hardware was not really ready
for halfione. Five yean ago a computer could usuaDy
create halftone pictures only on a line printer or s
4020 microfilm plotter. Today there are many different
photographic printers, going lo all sizes of film and
paper; one even uses a laser. There are various display
terminals permitting grey-scale and ookx halftone oo
TV screens.
The age of computer image synthesis has begun.
Polygon systems are fast and simple, and will come
to be used in our daily lives for such diverse purposes
as motecul? nudy, the memorization of delivery routes,
and visualization of every kind of layout and doign.
They will be fundamental to our new world of
coamuter display.

COMPUTER OCCISIONS

Warnock's dicing mathod: What can bs mad* aH

ona color is redivided till IU pieces can be.
OU NASA" method: Each sdg* box constantly
reports which aida of Us adga th* scan is on;
each (scat box sum* lha adga report! to sense
when the scan is crossing M.
%
 SECOND ARTICLE.
Surface patterns.
Curvature.
Shadow.
THE PLOT SO FAR.
Various computer methods now make it
possible to create artificial photographs of
three-dimensional objects or scenes represented
in the computer's storage. This is done by
coloring or shading points in an output picture
like the points in the scene that can be sighted
through them from the vantage point. What
the methods really boil down to, though, are
searching processes in the data representation
of the three-dimensional scene.
In an earlier article we have considered
some of the techniques being used to depict
simple scenes-- those made up of polygons.
Now we turn to more elaborate scenes which add
shadows, surface patterns and curvature.
One of the most interesting things about
this branch of computer graphics already seen
in the polygon methods discussed earlier is
the variety of techniques that can be employed.
Moreover, these methods, for all their sophisti
cation, can usually be intuitively understood
as thought they were operations performed on
objects in space. The same continues to be true
for the more complex systems.
M A G N U S K I'S
(d iffe re n t
B a sic
MAGNUSKlS PATTERNED CONSTRUCTIONS
A number of contributions have been made
by individuals working alone. For instance,
Henry Magnuski, at M.I.T., created a program
that repeatedly positions patterned facets in
space to make large constructions.
This program did nol calculate "true"
shadow, basing its shading partly on angle of
surfaces. Neither does it show true curves.
Yet it shows the impressive degree to which
such effects may be approximated. The result
ing beach ball picture is reminiscent of Moorish
architecture.
Si
O F REALITY
VARIOUS NEW TECHNIQUES PERMIT US TO ADD CURVES,
SHADOWS AND SURFACE PATTERNS
TO COMPUTER-GENERATED HALFTONE PICTURES
ENHANCED POLYGON SYSTEMS
In the methods discussed so far, we looked
at several computer techniques for photograph
ically depicting scenes and objects made up of
polygons planar facets-- in a represented
three-dimensional Beene. Imaginary houses of
cards, cardboard airplanes and triangular scen
ery take on a compelling vividness when depicted
by the computer. And for visualizing such
things as architectural arrangements, such
systems promise to be of increasing practical
value.
Those of us interested in the artistic
aspects of computer halftone images want more.
This article looks at some ways to add the
appearance of curvature and surface pattern
lo computer-synthesized images.
C O N ST RU C TIO N S O F R E P E A T E D PA TTERNS
p e rs p e c tiv e c a lc u la tio n s )
\ l A /
tria n g le p a tte rn . is
in
at
edges-- goes to the picture output device.
s titc h e d to g e th e r
a d ja c e n t p o sitio n s
a p p ro p ria te a n g le s.
e d g e s , check fo r sh ad o w -ed g es as w e ll.
BOUKNIGHT AND KELLEY:
PICKING THROUGH A CAT'S CRADLE
The method of Bouknight and Kelley, at
the University of Illinois, permits the addition
of shadow to polygon pictures. Their method
uses an intricate system of scanning sweeps
across the 6cene, analyzing the successive edge-
crossings. For each output line, a list of the
edges in the scene is ordered according to which
will be next encountered. To make a specific
output line of shaded points, we step through
successive positions of the scan-line, until an
an edge is crossed. With each edge we cross,
we enter or leave at least one facet. Of all
the current facets we are in after a given edge-
crossing, the system finds out the nearest one,
the visible one, by comparing distances. The
coloration of this facet is then fed out to the
picture, until the next edge-crossing.
Bouknight and Kelley expand their method
to show shadows by an additional step. They
create a new list of edges to be encountered,
this one relative to scans from the light source.
Then, during the regular output picture scan,
they look to this latter data to see about shadow.
As soon as they know two consecutive edgea
of a visible object in the picture, they are able
to search the ahadow-edge list to see if any
shadow-edges impinge between them. The final
list of edges-- visible facet edges and shadow
B O U K N IG H T -K E L LE Y METHOD
A ) -_-<
C o n s id e r th e s e r i e s o f e d g e s w h o se
p r o j e c t i o n s c r o s s th e c u r r e n t s c a n - l i n e .
E ach tim e th e s c a n - l i n e c r o s s e s an e d g e ,
f in d o u t w hat f a c e ts a re c u rre n tly p ie rc e d
by a s i g h t - l i n e fro m th e v ie w p o in t. The
n e a r e s t o f th e s e f a c e ts Is th e v i s i b l e one.
To a d d s h a d o w , u s e an e x t r a l i s t o f
th e s c e n e 's e d g e s r e l a t i v e to th e l i g h t
r a t h e r th a n th e c am e ra . B e tw e e n v ie w e d
DON LEE FILLS IN THE GAPS I 3 r
D on L e e , a t t h e U n i v e r s i ty of I l l i n o i s ,
p r o d u c e d h i s f in e - to n e d p i c t u r e s of s p h e r e s in
1966 s im p ly b e c a u s e som eone b e t him a q u a r t e r
h e c o u l d n 't p r o g r a m th e m etho d h e 'd s u g g e s t e d
i n t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s . He a lm o s t m a d e i t . He
m a d e h i s p i c t u r e s of s p h e r e s a n d p o l y g o n s b y
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s , th e n c h e c k i n g for
o v e r l a p a n d f il li n g in w ith g r e y s a c c o r d i n g to
v i e w in g a n g l e . His p r o g ra m w o r k s o n l y in
s p e c i a l c a s e s , b u t is i n t e r e s t i n g fo r i t s h i s t o r ic a l
p o s itio n ; i t w a s o n e of th e e a r l ie s t h a lf - to n e
c u rv a tu r e s y s te m s.

SIMPLEX CURVATURE SYSTEMS: MAHL & MAGI

A f u n d a m e n ta l t y p e of s y s te m w e m ay c a ll
t h e " s im p le x " s y s te m w a s e x e m p lified in t h e
p r e v i o u s a rt i c l e b y t h e W ylie-R o m ney p r o g r a m .
A s im p le x t e c h n i q u e s im p l y p r o je c ts s im u la te d
r a y s to w a rd t h e s c e n e fro m th e v a n ta g e p o in t
t il l th e y h i t t h e r e p r e s e n t e d o b j e c t s , a n d f ills
c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o s it i o n s on th e o u t p u t p i c t u r e
w ith t h e c o lo r s e n c o u n t e r e d on th e f r o n t s u r f a c e s
of o b je c ts in th e s c e n e .

T h e sa m e p r i n c i p l e e x te n d s n a t u r a l l y to
s c e n e s w ith c u r v e d a n d o t h e r w i s e e m b e llis h e d
o b jec ts.

R o b e r t M a h l, a t t h e U n iv e rs ity of U ta h ,
h a s r e c e n t ly r e p o r t e d h i s r e s u l t s w ith s im p l e x
m e th o d s u s in g q u a d r i c s u r f a c e s th o s e c u r v e d
HAVE A BALL WITH DON LEE. s u r f a c e s g e n e r a t e d b y m ath e m a tic a l p o w e r s o f
tw o . H is p i c t u r e s - - l i k e th e c u p a n d s a u c e r
s h o w n h e r e h a v e a p l e a s i n g 1920s B a u h a u s -
l i k e q u a lity .

O n e p ro b le m w ith th is m ethod i s th a t
Then fills in c o m p u ta tio n a l c o m p le x ity i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y a s
curvaceous t h e s c e n e s g ro w m ore com p le x ; t h e m o re s u r f a c e s
shading. a n d p i e r c i n g - p o i n t s , t h e m o re t im e -c o n s u m in g
( a n d e x p e n s i v e ) i t b e c o m e s to m ake t h e p i c t u r e .

His program first works out

the general outlines.

MAHL'S SIMPLEX METHOD

Calculate all intersections of sighting ray

with objects in scene; calculate which
is nearer; shade it according to angle.

\lh
 G e k tR tf J liP riltftf:* ^TH O D , te -0 O r \|r< - |F ie t> y M |V & | s y jp t^

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a s J . j H CP I o n -J. W 5vr^ ^ , | s

I t s e e m s , h o w e v e r , that M a h l's w o r k m ay
o n ly b e a r e d is c o v e r y of w hal o n e o r g a n iz a tio n
w o r k e d o u t e a r l i e r a n d is b e in g s e c r e ti v e a b o u t.
A firm d e l ig h tf u lly c a lle d MAGI (M athem atical
A p p lic a tio n s G r o u p , I n c . ) of E lm s fo rd , N . Y . , HAGI p r o g r a m w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d
h a s e x te n d e d th e sa m e id e a m ore e l a b o r a te ly . fo r stu d y of r a d ia tio n h a z a rd s In s id e
T h e y h a p p e n e d in to th e halftone g am e th r o u g h m i l i t a r y a rm o r; th e p s e u d o -p h o to g ra p h ic
a m ilita r y c o n t r a c t. te c h n i q u e s w ere a s id e e f f e c t o f th e
a p p ro a ch ch09en. Who k n o w : , t h e s e
MAGI's s y s te m , now th o ro u g h ly d e v e lo p e d ta n & s may b e t h e o n e s s t u d i e d .
u n d e r R o b e r t G o ld s te in , b e g a n i n 1965 in a s tu d y
of r a d i a t io n h a z a r d s i n b a ttle fie ld e q u ip m e n t.
T h e y w r o te a p r o g r a m to sim u la te p a th s o f r a d ia -
tio n , s a y , th a t m igh t r e a c h a la n k d r i v e r u n d e r
v a r o u s d is a g r e e a b l e c ir c u m s ta n c e s . H a v in g
w r itt e n a p r o g r a m th a l w ould a s c e r ta i n th e s u s
c e p tib ility to r a d ia tio n of b a ttle fie ld m a c h i n e r y ,
th e y n o te d th a t t h e s a m e p ro g r a m co u ld be
a d a p te d to m a k in g p h o to g r a p h s . T h e p ro g a m
s im u la te d r a d ia tio n ; lig h t is ra d ia tio n ; ip so
w r
fa c to , p i c t u r e s . S u b sta n tia lly th e sam e p ro g r a m
w o u ld m ak e p h o to g r a p h - l ik e im a g e s , b y tr e a t in g
th e o b je c ts a s o p a q u e , a n d r e f le c t in g d if f e r e n t
s h a d e s a c c o r d i n g to c o lo r an d a n g le of v ie w .

T h e r e s u l t i n g s y ste m m ak es n ic e p i c t u r e s
of o b je c ts c om p ose d o f p la n e s a n d q u a d r i c s u r MAGI t e c h n i q u e s w e r e u s e d t o stu d y
fa c e s; a n d i n c l u d e s , a s w ill b e s e e n from th e a l t e r n a t i v e w ays o f l i g h t i n g m in e s.
r a c i n g c a r a n d c h a i r , co lo red s u r f a c e d e s i g n s ,
s h a d o w s a n d s p e c tr a l re fle c tio n s . Nol on ly do e s
MAGI's s o f tw a r e fo r th is p r o c e s s p r o d u c e d e li
c a te ly s h a d e d p ic tu r e s ; if the v i r t u a l p i c t u r e -
p la n e is m o v e d u n til it in t e r s e c ts the s u b je c t,
it p r o d u c e s a c r o s s - s e c ti o n .

MAGI r u n s t h is p ro g ra m re m o te ly in
F o r tr a n o n a b i g c o m p u te r - - b u t th e y h a v e t h e ir
ow n m in ic o m p u te r s e tu p for p h o to g r a p h in g the
r e s u l t s a s c o lo r m o v ie s. T h e y now offe r u s e of
Ihis s y s te m co m m e rc ia lly fo r m a k in g m o v ies o r
s tills .

SYNTHEVISION SETUP u s e s r e m o t e t i m e - s h a r i n g c o m p u t e r
ru n n in g b ig s e c r e t F o r t r a n p ro g ram and c o n t a i n i n g
e n tir e d a ta s tr u c tu r e of th re e -d im e n sio n a l sc e n e s.
M in i c o m p u t e r p h o t o g r a p h i c s e t u p I s on p r e m i s e s a t
C o m p u t e r V i s u a l s , I n c . , MACI s u b s i d i a r y m a r k e t i n g
th e S y n th e v ls io n s e r v i c e .
E n l a r g e m e n t f r o m MAGI f i l m . I hope
th e r e p r o d u c t i o n show s t h e c o n c e n t r i c
r i n g s , c a l l e d H ach b a u d s , t h a t d i v i d e
a r e a s o f s h a d i n g ; K n o w lto n a n d Harm on
( c i t a t i o n p . DM 1 0 ) a d v i s e o n p s e u d o
random t e c h n i q u e s f o r c o r r e c t i n g t h i s .

L o c a l s e t u p u s e s ilo v a m in i c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l l i n g b o th
CRT d i s p l a y a n d c a m e r a . In fo rm e d g u e s s w o u ld s u g
g e s t th a t tim e - s h a rin g sy stem does n o t sen d a l l
su c c e ssiv e p o in ts of o u tp u t lin e , but d iffe re n c e
and t r a n s i t i o n v a l u e s ; Nova p ro g ra m w o u ld th e n i n ROUNDUP
te r p o l a te g r a d a tio n s in r e l a t i v e l y q u ie t se ctio n s
of th e s c a n - l i n e . T h e s e ha v e b e e n so m e o f th e h ig h lig h ts
of th e h alftone game to d a te . T h e m e tho d s d e s
M A G I's p r e c i s e s y s t e m I s s e c r e t . H o w ev e r, t h e o n ly c r ib e d so f a r a r e m ainly s o f tw a r e - o r i e n t e d , a n d
r e a l q u e s t i o n s b o l l down t o : f o r m s o f s u r f a c e r e p fo r th e most p a r t w ork most e ffic ie n tly a s p r o
r e s e n t a t i o n ; a y s t e m s o f s c e n e s o r t i n g ; a n d m e th o d
g r a m s . In the n e* t a r tic le w e w ill lo o k a t som e
of sc en e s c a n n in g to p ro d u ce o u tp u t s c a n .
An e a r l y MAGI c h a r a c t e r o u tla n d is h new form s of e q u ip m e n t, u n d e r c o n
N o te t h a t o n e o f t h e m o st i m p r e s s i v e t h i n g s a b o u t s tr u c tio n o r p ro p o s e d , fo r d e d ic a te d p r o d u c tio n
MAGI w o r k , a t l e a s t f o r s o p h i s t i c a t e s , i s t h e d e o f 3-D' h alftone p ic tu r e s .
g r e e o f a r t i s t i c c o n t r o l t h a t seem s to h a v e been
r e a liz e d In t h e i r in p u t and r e v is io n s y s te m s . It
seem s th e y o f f e r e x c e l l e n t c o n t r o l o v e r m o ti o n and
c o l o r , a n d , o f c o u r s e , r e v i s i o n o f th e a c t i o n in
a sc en e t i l l th e m aker ie s a tis f ie d .

P opular S c ie n c e . I th in k i t w as, had a spread on

S t. S y n t h e v ls io n in f a l l o f 73.
T H IR D A R T I C L E . S p e c ia liz e d h a r d w a r e s y s te m s .

SP E C IA L EQ U IPM E N T IS NOW B EIN G B U IL T

F O R M A K ING "R E A L IS T IC " H A L FT O N E
P IC T U R E S BY C O M PU TE R . T H IS A R T IC L E
C O V E R S SO M E O F THE MORE U N U SU A L
H A L F T O N E HARDWARE SY STEM S NOW IN
E X IS T E N C E O R BEING PLA N N ED .

H A ty o n V fr
or t h c A t n ? T R \e s R e s u l t s o f G o u r a u d 's s w e l l s m o o t h i n g t e c h n i q u e . M m e. G o u ra u d p o s e d
f o r th e d a f a s t r u c t u r e o n t h e l e f t , a s y s t e m o f i n t e r c o n n e c t e d .flat p o l y g o n s .
T h e G o u ra u d p r o c e s s (s e e b o x b e lo w ) c r e a te d th e sm o o th -lo o k in g face
fr o m i t b y a n e x t r e m e l y s im p l e p r o c e s s . (N o te t h a t t h e p o w e r o f t h e
t e c h n i q u e i s i n t h e u s e o f a s im p le p o l y g o n d a t a s t r u c t u r e , r a t h e r t h a n
t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t t r u l y - c u r v e d s u r f a c e s u s e d , e . g . , b y M A G I.)
(N o te a l s o t h a t t h e e d g e s r e m a in j a g g e d . )

HAKJTiHe* h'com'-
In tw o p r e v i o u s a r tic le s w e h a v e s u m m a r
iz e d so m e o f th e im p o rta n t b a s ic te c h n iq u e s i n
c o m p u te r h a lfto n e -- th e artific ia l c o n stru c tio n b y
c o m p u t e r o f p h o t o g r a p h i c p i c t u r e s o f 3 -D s c e n e s ,
s c e n e s w h ic h a r e r e p r e s e n t e d w ith in th e c o m p u te r
a s c o lo r e d o r s h a d e d s u r f a c e s p la c e d in a c o o r
d in a te s y s te m of th r e e d im e n sio n s.
T h e t e c h n i q u e s w e h a v e lo o k e d a t w e r e
a ll i n t u i t i v e l y " s p a t i a l " i n c h a r a c t e r , h a v i n g to
do w ith th e a n a ly s is of s ig h t- lin e s a n d r e l a t iv e
e d g e p o s i t i o n s , a n d s u i t e d to i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i n
c o m p u te r s o f tw a r e . N o w w e t u r n to s o m e m o r e
a d v an ced a n d p e c u lia r te c h n iq u e s a n d eq u ip m e n t
i n t e n d e d to m a k e 3 -D c o m p u t e r h a l f t o n e f a s t e r
to u s e , o r m o re r e a l i s t i c , o r e a s i e r to w o r k w ith ,
TH E W ATKINS BOX
o r cheaper. T h e s e s y s t e m s r e p r e s e n t a c o m in g
g e n e r a t i o n d f h a l f t o n e h a r d w a r e .
T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U ta h i s n o w b u i l d i n g
w h a t w i l b e f o r s o m e tim e t h e w o r l d ' s moat
s p e c t a c u l a r i n te r a c tiv e c o m p u te r d i s p l a y , th e
W a tk in s B o x . T h i s d e v i c e , i n t e r f a c i n g b e t w e e n
a c o m p u t e r a n d a t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n , w i ll c a r r y
o u t t h e W a t k in s a l g o r i t h m ( d e s c r i b e d i n th e
f i r s t a r t i c l e o f t h i s s e r i e s ) i n r e a l tim e : r i p p i n g
t h r o u g h a p r e d i g e s t e d l i s t o f f a c e t in f o r m a t i o n ,
t h e W a tk in s B o x w i ll c r e a t e o n t h e s c r e e n a n
im a g e o f a n o p a q u e o b j e c t w h i c h t h e u a e r c a n
ro ta te o r s e e m an ip u late d b y p ro g r a m .

T h e W a tk in s B o x c a n o p e r a t e i n tw o m o d e s t
n o rm a l m o d e , i n w h ic h th e o b je c t a p p e a r s fa c e te d ,
a n d G o u r a u d m o d e , i n w h i c h i l a p p e a r s to b e
c u rv e d o v e r (see m a sk s, n e a rb y ).

T h e G o u ra u d a lg o rith m , d e v e lo p e d b y a
g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t o f th a t n a m e , i s a r i d i c u l o u s l y
s im p le t e c h n iq u e w h ic h m a r r ie s p e r f e c t l y to th e
W a tk in s m e t h o d . I n s t e a d of s h a d i n g t h e f a c e ts
u n ifo rm ly , th is te c h n iq u e c a lc u la te s a s h a d e of
g r a y f o r e a c h p o i n t. In e ffe c t t h e m e th o d I n t e r
p o l a t e s t h e s h a d e of t h e p o i n t f r o m t h o s e a r o u n d
i t , a c ro s s facet b o u n d a rie s . In a c t u a l p r o c e d
u r e , th e G o u r a u d m eth o d s h a d e s a p o in t by
l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n b e t w e e n tw o e d g e - c o l o r a ;
t h e c o l o r o f t h e l a s t e d g e a n d t h e n e x t e d g e to
b e e n c o u n t e r e d o n th e p r e s e n t s c a n - l i n e .
( T h e s e s h a d e s a r e in t u r n f o u n d b y l i n e a r i n t e r
p o l a t io n b e t w e e n t h e i r e n d p o i n t s . )

I s u g g e ste d t h i s co v er It w ill be n o te d t h a t G o u r a u d 's m e th o d

fo r th is a r tic le . The does n o t c u r v e th e e d g e s . B u t c o n s i d e r i n g i ts
f o l k s a t C o m p u te r P e e l s i o n s s im p lic ity as a sm a ll a d d it io n to t h e W a tk in s b o x .
r e a c te d w ith p u z z le m e n t
t h a t 's n o g r e a t s a c rific e .
i f n o t d is m a y . " T h le c o v e r
d o e s n 't h a v e p r a c t l c a l
a p p l i c a t io n s f o r th e N a t u r a l l y , th e W a tk in s B ox w il l n o t r e a c h
a v e ra g e u s e r ." I th in k th e p r i v a t e ho m e fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s ; c u r r e n t
som eone s a i d . l i k e l y p r i c e i s i n 6 ix f i g u r e s . B u t t h a t 's n o w .

*=>
c y rv a d e ^ ifr s y tf* K h ft{ ui0rk M ' ' J '

* f r e n c h i*'. * ?

G O U R A U D 'S T W IS T a d d s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f
c u r v a t u r e to a f a c e t e d o b j e c t s h o w n o p a q u e l y
p l^ r{ _ fw k t."
b y t h e W a tk i n s m e t h o d ( d e s c r i b e d i n f i r s t
a rtic le ). P
I n s t e a d o f Bhading e a c h p o i n t w i t h i n a f a c e t
w ith th e sam e c o lo r, in te rp o la te b e tw e e n th e
v e r t e x - c o l o r s a c c o r d i n g to ho w f a r d o w n t h e
e d g e s y o u v e g o tte n . N o te t h a t t h e j a g g e d
e d g e s a re re ta in e d .

GwW i spec ia l w is r
}?&
f m i n n or n o c i to ctm m

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PRA'S WORLD-VIBW

Roge r Boye ll. of Pe nn sylvania Re search s e t a SIB w > a w f i a i M tf aaa. to a a r f M

A sso ci at es, P h il ad e lp h ia , likes to r ef er lo (he
co m pa ny 's main I n ter es t mi "modelling Ihe p h y s
ical w o rl d ." T h u s h e an d his ass oci ate s have
de vel oped systerna for c a r to gr ap hy , la ndscape
mo del lin g, pip e d e s ig n , and simulation of com
p le x r a d a r sy sie ms .
will Or M r i (M e (aa C l t .
A r a d a r simu lat or Ihey a re pu tt i n g to
g e t h e r for th e Navy will show Ihe re s u l ts of any
p o ss ib le r a d a r syst em moving o v e r an y poaaible ad Ojrtag H T . m U c a a t > 1 CWTb
te r r a i n . A pilot o r na v ig at or t r a i n e e , In a slm- 111 b . Artrwm trj m i o a a > i r i y r n y
mu la ie d c ock pi t, will aee the mi ss io n' s c ha ngi ng
r a d a r p ic tu r e aa he ch an ge s tha p la n e s co u rs e M A r l w +J a ---- - - I i l n w
o r th e r a d a r ' s tu n in g . The r a d a r p ic tu r e , a p
p e a r in g on a s c r e e n an d chang ing In r eal time,
will look Ju st the way th s r ad a r wo uld look en
a re a l m is si o n - - Qylng In pe rsp e ct iv e among
m ou nta ins o r v a ll e y s , h ig h o r low . at an y b e a r The i t a n m M w a a q M ID ha
i n g an d s p e e d , a nd vie wed th ro u g h an y typ e of (h | p - | . K* herd t b M Baa a a < a U l k a oa
radar.
.I t" .
^ I f>
r~

T irr^ 1 ------; ___J

r^ --o -f
TV ~ A ,J

An o u t f i t c a l l
[h ay hav a a re
th a t w i l l knoc . . a l p a o p la o u t a f th a
b a l l p a r k - - e s p e c i a l l y th a CE h a r d v a r a aad
t h e Evana and S u t h e r l a n d W a ik ln i l o a ( e a r l i e r ) .

Boy ell's ap pr o a ch la to tr eat ea c h compo

ne nt of th e p ic to r ia l /r a d a r simulation as a
s e pa rat e pro blem , lo be ha ndled In different
w a y s , and ble nd ed In a final b u f fe r , a core
memory which la rea d out to te lev ision . Seps -
r a te mech an isms su p p ly components of s h s d o w ,
sp e c u la r r ef le ct io n. coloration and rand omi zin g
eff ects. T he core buffe r co nti nuously re fre sh e s
Tha otw p i l e i i r a l a a r . 1 1 1 a . i l a a t a |
th e sc ann ed CRT dla pl a y . and d ip In r a a p a . e e t a t h a i t a l f o l a ; aa
a l a | | | ( | C i t s , w ith o p i l c a 1 - f r a a l l h a l
Boyell ha s pu t Ihe same te ch n iq u es lo lo r u a lh a a y e a a I b I I b I I t a ad e n a c t e d
w ork m a kin g simulated halfione p ic tu r e s of the I th a a ia a a , th e p il o t n i l a ree-
moon (eee c u t ) . Both the r a d a r a n d moon s y s E v i d e n t l y th e y hav a In a ln d th a ua a n(
tems u s e Ihe same typ e of halftone Image sy n th e
s i s , e v e n tho ugh supe rficially the y aeem qu ite d o if I g ht l o t a l t h , a ed who ................ v l t c h e e T
d if fe re nt . But r a d a r Is rad ia tio n, ju at lik e li g h t, d ln e n a 1 o n a 1 a c e n e a o r o b j e c t a . T e rrific .
a n d Boyell'a te ch ni qu es of th r ee -d im en sio nal
(M o te : c o a p a r e th a c l a l a of 1 4 ,0 0 0 e d ie a
mo de lling a n d a ea rc h app ly equal ly well to d e on e $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 s y a t e a w ith t h e 2000 ( ? ) edgaa
ple tio n by refle cte d v isible light I . e . , half a llo w e d by che o l d HAS A a y a t e a b u i l t by CE,
tone Imagea. o r t h a V . t k l n t Box 1 d o a ' t know how aany
e d p .e s - - a t $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 f r o a Evana and S u t h e r l a n d .

Tha ayate a m il d ln a m v b a r a t dlf-

ferwnl t m l a u One of I tM a w n l r a la rge
array of LAI r i f i jOng B o d u la (Ita d M C b a r te u d

under an unuaual Monitor r v n c la f a a ( e n s n l -

purpoae m o n i t o r Tha c tte cke fta ard l o m
Machine to U a a p a l e pread e f a u rfao . dSU .
It Is a tagWal e M l y . a a rr a y I M rag Bn aa
I d o n 't ex p ec t you to belie ve th i s , be ca u se
nol ev en my pa te n t at torney d o e s, b u l Ihe system
I call Panta sm Is Intende d to make p ic tu r e s that
paaa th e T u r in g -l e a l: you w on't b e able to tell
them from r e a l p h o to gr ap h s . Panta sm la Inten epraedeagtad In ll. TM k of Ha trace aa a
d e d to allow th e u s e r to make re a li st ic , H ierony radto-cenooU ed fir0y i"H
mus Bo sc h-l ik e ph ot og ra ph s s n d movie s, with ch eck erb oard. Ualag thia a a d var t s ^
cet'a-credla Us a r w t a r a b s a d w t t e g ^ B -
rea l- lo o k in g peo ple (and s c e n e ry . Imaginary
alry e f UM a r a a d od v ta aa s n i Mifl a .
c h a r a c t e r s , m o n st er s, e t c . ) In s c e n e s of a r b i
tr a r y c om ple xit y. It la exp ected lh at 1675 eco
nomics will make It s con stru ctio n fea sible.
ana!ycaUy. A r * M r d hm
alao baan M m I la t t s | H fcr w* * l y y a
Fantasm I or ig in al ly conce ived as a method t i greptaic
of ma kin g r ea lis ti c photo gr aph s a nd movie s, not
knowing at the time th al th is was Im possible, Aa f a r a I to r e h a a A l e k ta atm . P a r
b u t feel ing ll could be done aime ho w If the
prob lem w er e br o ke n down suf fi cien tly. At
times 11 was not c lea r which of us would be m T k b I t a . b j r r t a lafea aa t a g a s R
br o k e n down f l r a t . 1 o r U. * . a t aa km>g aa (ha M r m m * as ^ y h r .
to nil IB o t a p m Vtoaal M d k . * a ^ . f d k c -
II o c c u r re d lo me sometime In 1960-1 lhal
co m p u te r- in te rp o l at e d . Disne y-t yp e carto on ing loltad to lha pradactkM la ^ k H ill * M f
methods w oul d be fea alble . A fter some thought BartaWy M k a k . *Te U a d Be tta p *
I rea liz ed lh at pse ud o -p ho to gr a p h y would b e
poa ai ble , a n d dro p p ed the ca rt o o n in g Idea . The I H ll a i r . i l l a a i t a m ^
s tr a n g e b e h a v io r of people whom I told aboul
thi s led me to in c re as in g s e cr ec y .
^ o a t p t a h a d a l A will IWw i r ^ a ^ M
T h e g e n e r a l goal waa to ma ke a system tte t e w iknald ataa he ta rflil t e
t h a l co uld do rea lis ti c movies wit ho ut sc en e ry
o r a ct o r a , an d make p ic tu res in d is tin g u is h a b le f^VlTW\ Utf-PWIY .... gr^A y aad a i m l 11
from r e a l photo g r a p h s of r eal s c e n e ry an d
a c to r s . ("Whal do you mean, In di st in gu is h ab le
from p h o to g r a p h s ? people keep a s k in g . What
. .. .
do tha y mean w ha t do I mean?) T h e su rfa ces
a re to be pu l In b y " s c u l p to rs ," an imated b y
" p u p p e t e e r s , " an d phot og rap he d b y a " d ir e c to r . "
T h e obje ct ive Is for moviemaking to be un d e r
10 . s y . t . a .
( t h r o u g h D -t o -A

a round th a
1 1
. t o r ) to l o t a r r o g a t l B i e l f *
d a - a rra y p a ra lle l f.a * J t e .
l r e u l t r y w h ic h e t a a r e a a I M u l r l a g a l l
f 0, , r . t l o a l a e e p l r l c a l
. i i o w l a g * l o l i a a a o a q u a r l e e e f ve
array
liftJ i* *
j /
rf \
J
a /
j -J
ihe ut te r Im aginative control of Ihe c rea ti v e u s e r. ha a p a r t i t l e l o g i c . I l M i M . llo v f a . l t l p l e U - t J
aurfacea. Feedback . t e e . r l a * ^ '
th r o u g h a r r a y . U , , t.c b o lq u e a aaaage **'
a re a o a l o i and c o o t i V (,u r | a e . a of o c t . l t . d v o l . . e a b f a e ) .
v i s i b i l i t y uab r a l l a a l ...r b
I am indebted to Prof. Charles Strauss ................ -
for the formaliaation of my tmoothing-
funation.

work u n da rw ay - ^ p a r a s . t . r OccaIelee
S0.K A .Y . ' " . S ' . I k ! . " ' ' ...

by U s C - p r o e e e s l o B

II
FOURTH ARTICLE.
System s o f C o m pute r Image C o rporati on.
SO FAR WE HAVE SUMMARIZED AND DISTINGUISHED AMONG
THE MAJOR TECHNIQUES FOR COMPUTER SYNTHESIS OF IMAGES
FROM DIGITALLY STORED REPRESENTATIONS OF SCENES.
WE NOW TAKE THE WRAPS FROM A DIFFERENT BUT RELATED
SET OF TECHNIQUES THE SYSTEMS OF
COMPUTER IMAGE CORPORATION .
Lee Harrison III got Die Idee for what la
now Computer Image Corporation In 1959. A l
ready having an art d e g r ee , he went on for a
degree in electrical e n gin ee rin g, end through
lon g lean years put together the technical basics
around which C l's system s are now built. Com
puter Image Corporation la now a goin g c on cern ,
and output from their ayatem s. especially Scan-
imate, la now w idely v is ib le on tele visio n .
Compuier Image Corporation seem s lo be
the first Arm to be commercially su ccessfu l In
the halftone field. Whether they should be
Included w ith the others Is arguable, how ever,
Their ayatems are nol w idely understood, and
the relation of these syatem s to the Other sy stem s
and programs describ ed In these articles Is
problem atical. Among the Tew who understand
their techn iqu es, some argue that they do not
syn th eslte images al all, bul ralhar twist p re
existing pictures with a sort of Moog sy n th esiser ,
and that their analog techniques are really Just
compound o scillators rather than true computing.
I think that this view Is w rong, at leaat as
regards Ihelr moat ambitious system , and that
Cl'a techniques de se rv e review . All the world
la not digita l. Cl system s do Dll up areas with
g rey-seals (and other) p ictures, end their s y s
tems Involve three-dim ensional coordinates,
occultaikm and coloration; thus I think ll ap
propriate lo discuaa them h ere.
The followin g d iscu ss Ton Is tha f ir s t, I
believe, to lift the vail o l secrecy thal haa hith
erto confounded oh serv e rs of this company's
work. In the Ught o f the extrem e sophistication
with which they have pursued extremely stran ge
techniques, they should benefit from the wider
understandin g. (Note lhal this m aterial, which
haa been assembled from various sou rces and
careful TV w atching, Is partly conjectural.)
Computer Image's system s represenl an
apparently unprom isin g approach brilliantly
followed through.
AU o f C l 's sy ste m s a re a stra n g e com bin
ation of c lo se d - c irc u it TV an d analog components
oul of a music sy n th e siz er: osc illa tors, p o te n
tiometers . in te rco n n ecti o n n el w ork s , T h e ba aj c
mechanisms are the same for all, bul th e y are
c arried to d if feren t lo gic al e x tre m e s , with dif
fe r in g a cc o u tre m e n ts, in the four syste m s.
They all seem lo be b a sed on ihe e x tra o rd in ary
Anlmac I I, nol y e l Implemented; it would seem
lhal for b u sin e ss rea so n s lh e company de cid e d
lo raise money p ro m oting sim p le r s y s te m s , so
lls brea d and b u tle r now c o n sis ts o f two le ss
ambitious ay stem s, Scanlmale and Anlmac I;
both of which might be p u z zli n g i f nol re c o g
nise d aa p a rts of a more eleg a nt whole- It
would seem they w ere d e sig n ed b a c k w a r d s as
spinoffs from Anlmac II, as waa CAESAR, th e ir
more recent 2-D a y ste m .
The extraordinary ramifications and
varieties of this sy stem , with all Its electronic
add-on and composite m ethods, stagger the most
jaded technical ImaginaUon.
At Uie heart of tha C( system s Is the prin
ciple of fillin g areas of a CRT screen with an
oscillating trace. Thia Is a principle common
to both Llssajous figures and television; but
Compuier Image haa elaborated ft p ecu liarly .
By variations they paint twlated television Im ages,
wiggle eectiona of superim posed dra w in gs, create
moving filigree effects, and hope to animate
whole groups of opaque electronic puppets In
3-apace.
Consider an oscillatin g trace on an o sc illo
scope. This la a two-dim ensional o scillation,
having two sig n a ls, x and y . Bul a three-dim
ensional oscillation is also possible; any third
sig n al, z , can be Interpreted as a third dimen-
alon, meaning that a "point of light" is w hirling
out some pattern In a three-dim ensional sp ace
an o sd llo ta n k , so to sp eak . Let us call this
point moving In three dim ensions a "space trace."
Now to view thla trace we need to c u l It
down to two dim ensions. By ignoring one of
the traces we can view the osd llotank in certain
fixed waya; but by c re stin g a "view c alcu lator,
a box performing certain p erspective transfor
mations on the three sign als of lha sp ace trace,
we may obtain a view of the osdllotank from a
movable vantage point. This is an E-y view
which we may pul on an ordin ary o sd llo scop e.
Let us now add one more sign a l, b (for
b rig h tn ess). T h is Is the brigh tn ess Bignal fam
iliar In television:
Brightness of the spot Is thus independent
of the movement of the space trace. For exam ple,
the apace trace could describ e s helical path , a
sort of tornado motion, and we could time Its
spinning to phase w ith a TV slg n sl. If we now
brighten the space trace only with the bright
ness signal o f a TV pick up , w e now will se e
On our view of the osclliotank) what would look
like a TV picture curled around itse lf in sp ace.
The different Cl system s are bulll around
this effect.
Output from all these sign als Is ordinarily
picked up by another v id lc o n , which sta bilizes
it by converting it Into conventional television
A last Cl te c h n iq u e , te chnically minor b u l
rem a rkable in effect, p e rm its th is blockin g and
shadow ing among se p a r a te obje cts. T his Is the
use or a sto ra g e CRT tu b e on whic h e v e r y frame
Is painted (from th e vie w p o in t o r from the Ught
CAESAR S y s t e m . C h a r a c te r ! are Source). T h e p ic tu r e is p a lm e d on the S t o n g e
na d e t o move j a w s a n d l i p s by C H T, nearest th in g s f ir s t; and th e r e tu r n atgnal
S c a n t B i t e ' t w i r l , by now f a m i l i a r J o in tin g te c h n iq u e s im ila r te from the sc re en te lls w h e t h e r th e sp a c e tr a c e is
t o noaC TV w a t c h e r s . S c a n im a te i s A n In a c I I ( b e l o w ) , b u t i n a u c h c r o ssin g an a rea a lre a d y p a in te d d u r in g the
e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d on ''T h e E l e c t r i c a way a s t o m a t t e o v e r draw n f rame. T he tu b e 's outp ut sig n a l th e n effectively
a r t w o r k - - m e a n t im e w i g g l i n g
o t h e r d raw n a rtw o r k th r o u g h c onstitutes a silh o u ette. T h la d u e in dic ate s that
th e apac e tr ac e should nol be v is ible ; and he nce
c a n M a n ip u la tio n .
is uaed to cul off b r ig h tn e s s w hile the tr a c e la
w ithin th e a lr e ady-fille d a r e a . T his ga te s
betw een two de sir ed o b je c ts o r p i c t u r e s , fo re
ground and ba ck g ro u n d . If ope ra le d from Ihe
point of view of the l i g h t . ll ga tes shadow: the
s ig na l Is used to c ontrol th e rela tive brig h tn e ss
WHiuif6- oMiVettt Sf CMurei( Cs*pof<TM*i. of the shadowed and unsh a d o w e d fea tu res o f a
puppet In 3-Spa ce.
A fasc in ating v a r ie ty of embel lishments
1 '* ^ . * ^ le c lw ,-s M j has be en put into th e se s y s te m s by C l's in g e n
ious e n g in e e rs . Coloration of th e final video
signal Is added by g a tin g c olo r le vels u n d e r
con trol of the b r ig h tn e ss s i g n a l , perm ittin g p ic
tures with se v e r a l g r e y - l e v e l s to be tran sfo rmed
10 up lo four rainbow h u e s . Se pa ra te sha pes
de scrib e d by th e sp a ce I rs c e may be indepen
d e ntly moved and Jointed a t th e same time:
H arris on poin te dly c all s s u c h se p arate sh sp e s
" b o n e s ." D arkening a t ih e ba ck sid e of a sp un
s h a p e , o r b r ig h te n in g a t e d g e s of a painted p o r
tio n , and b r ig h te n in g in prop o rtio n lo c u r l, are
all str a n g e capa bilities o f I h ls machine, Lip-
s y n c h ro n ize d mouthlike motion can be im parted
g i v e s u s a w in d o w I n t o a p e c u l i a r s o r t o f w o r l d : to a n y p a r t o f th e sh a p e s p u n by th e sp a c e tr ac e
a w o r l d I n w h i c h lu m i n o u s s h a p e s c a n u n d u l a t e and (w he th e r o r nol a mouth i s pa ln le d on I t) , b y sn
s p in on I n v i s i b l e s p i n d l e s (S c a n im a te ) , o r w ig g le audio dete cto r fee din g d ir e c ily to th e c irc u itry
a s s e p a r a t e b o n e s (CAESAR. from a live m ike. A nd th e lim bs of Cls ghostly
f ig u res can be made to s w in g b y connection o f
T u b e l i k e s h a p e s may b e r o t a t e d a n d s h a p e d I n s e n so rs to th e a nim a to rs th e m se lv e s in a living
3D ( A n l m a c ) , a n d p u p p e t s n a y e v e n t u a l l y b e r o l l e d p a n to g ra p h ,
l i k e c i g a r e t t e a (A n im ac I I ) , w h ic h may t h e n be
p a i n t e d f ro m a TV p i c k u p on t h e s i d e n e a r e s t th e SCANIMATE i s a p o p u la r de vic e now widely
v ie w p o in t. use d (at C l's s tu d io s) f o r th e m akin g of TV com
m e rc ia ls and s ta lio n - b r e a k emble ms. T h is Is
By u s i n g a s t o r a g e t u b e and s p i n n i n g t h e t r a c e ih e ir sim ple st sy ste m , u s e d for th e conversion
c l o s e t o g e t h e r , l i k e c o t t o n c a n d y , and c u t t i n g o f f and discombobulaiion of H at a rtw o r k . In Scani-
t h e p a i n t i n g s i g n a l w h ile th e t r a c e i s w i t h i n th e mate, the sp a c e tr a c e i s co n tro lled by ha nd -
a r e a a l r e a d y f i l l e d , we g e t e l e c t r o n i c m a s k i n g : opera te d pote ntiom e te rs. T w o se p arate osc illa to r
i.h i c h b l e n d s a n i m a t e d d r a w i n g s I n 2D (CAESAR)
se ttin g s a re a v ailab le , s o tha t th e sp ace trac e
c sn have two se parate o sc illa tion p atterns,
r i a s k i n g a n o n n 3D p u p p e t s (A nlm ac I I ) .
s p in n in g oul two e n tir e ly d ifferen t vir tu a l shapea
in 3 -spac e. A h s n d - th r o tllc ease s from one
o scilla to r se ttin g lo th e o l h e r . T h is perm its an
image to be moved, s h r u n k o r e n la r g e d , o r
flip ped: to go from w h ir lin g a ro u n d lo a so rt of
hula; and many more e ff e c ts. T he pic tu re
painted on it may be sc n to r o ll on in vis ib le
a r e r a p i d l y spun i n t h r e e d im e n s io n s sp in d l e s , bloom into fo u n ta in s, or undula te aa
t h a t l a . v a r y i n g v o l t a g e s M, y p e n n a n ts- - all by m o dula ting lh e brig h tn e ss of
and I . T he r e s u l t i n g " t u b e s '* and
the f ly in g spol a s it tr a c e s its unseen s ha p e.
p a c tlv e c a lc u la tio n . T he c i r c u i t r y T h is s h a p e . In tu r n , c a n move betw een its two
p e rm its th e se shapea to f le a a t form s un d e r control of th e Ihro ttle.
J o i n t s , w a v e , a n d go t h r o u g h o t h e r Animac I (usually c a ll e d Anlmac) p ro v id es
changes. g r e a ie r flexibilit y In c o n tro l lin g Ihe apac e trac e.
T he sy s te m 's oscilla tions a r e controlle d b y an
IN SCANIMATE: z i g z a g a n d in p u t v idioon. w hic h a r t i s t s may q uic kly modify
c u rlin g shapes d e fin e a
m o v in g s c r o l l on w h ic h an with pa stel cheek at ih e p ic k u p . Ghostly lo b u
im a g e i s p a i n t e d . la r le tte rin g , sw arm in g p e n d u lu m - p a tt e m s and
jig g lin g tlllgTeea a re am ong th e possible doodlea.
IN CAESAR: c u r l i n g S h a p e s a r e
tre a te d 2 -d Io e n aIo n ally , CAESAR, th e ir n e w e s t sy ste m , i s orie nted
as b lo c k in g c o n t r o l s f e r to w a rd Yogi B e a r - iy p c a n im a tio n . T he a r ti s t's
a rtw o rk . c arto ons a re automatically s upe rim posed o n a
b a ck g r o u n d o r e ach o t h e r . T h e y may b e moved,
IN ANIHAC 1 1 : p u p p e t s w i l l be and made to w ig gle u n d e r r ea l-tim e c ontrol by
s c u l p t e d much l i k e r o l l i n g
a c ig a re tte . the u s e r .
But It 1b lo A nlm ac II lh a t Ihese c u rio sitie s
le ad. What H arris on c a ll s th e "Snow White
x / , Capability " of Animac II w ill pe rm it th e scu lp tu re
of full humanoid p u p p e ts , w ith p e rh a p s th irty
a rticula te d " b o n e s," op a q u e to one a noth er and
c a s tin g s h a d o w a , c o lo re d , m ovin g and ta lk in g.
M e s s r s . R u tt and E t r s , a r e o f f e r i n g i
n a c h i n e s i m i l a r t o S c a n i m a t e b u t ouch
T h e o n l y p i c t u r e I ve b e e n a b l e t o
f i n d t h a t r e l a t e s t o t h e 3D s c u l p t u r i n g o f
A n l a a c I I l a t h i s f r a a e , b lo w n up f r o m a
s h o r t 1 6 mm s e q u e n c e . The f i g u r e i a s c u l p
t u r e d fro m o s c i l l a t i o n s In t h r e e v a r i a b l e s ,
m o d u la te d t o r e p r e s e n t t h l a f i g u r e o f t h l r -
a re c le a rly v isib le In th e f i l e ; th e f i g u r e
1 1 1a n o t a a f i n e l y d e t a i l e d t h e I n n e r
s c r e e n r u n e a t 52 5 l i n e s r a t h e r t h a n
700 b u t I t c o a t , som e $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 I n s t e a d
o f $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 .
at
WHAT ABOUT REAL THREE-DIMENSIONAL
DISPLAY?
In s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n s t o r i e s you h e a r about
how o b je c ts a r e m ade to a p p e a r as if t h e y r e
s t a n d i n g in t h e m id d le o f t h e ro o m . F o r i n s t a n c e ,
1 b e l i e v e lhal i n H e in l e in s S t r a n g e r i n a S tr a n g e
L a n d th e y w a tc h e d a " t a n k " i n w h ich t h i n g s
appeared.
Well, a lo t of p e o p le h a v e th o u g h t ab o u t
t h i s , a n d i t 's n o t so e a s y a s y o u m ight t h i n k .
One i n t e r e s t i n g s c h e m e u s e d a s o r t of
t r a n s l u c e n t p r o p e l l o r , s p i n n i n g r a t h e r f a s t , on
w h i c h c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d im a g e s w e r e p r o
j e c t e d from b e l o w . It w a a d o n e b y t h e d o t t in g
m e th o d , so t h a t a b r i g h t d o t o f lig h t w o u ld a p
p e a r h i g h o r low i n s p a c e d e p e n d i n g on w h e
t h e r i t w a s p r o j e c t e d on a re l a t i v e l y h i g h o r low
p o in t on th e p r o p e l l o r .
G O ltf G - H K J t h
\c jr j
T his w as in te re s tin g but had num erous
d i s a d v a n t a g e s - - n o t t h e l e a s t of w h ich w a s the
d a n g e r of th e t h i n g f l y i n g a p a r t . (T ran slu ce n t
m a te r ia ls lend not to b e a s s t r o n g a s , s a y ,
m e t a l .) A n o t h e r b a s i c p r o b l e m , t h o u g h , w a s
t h e fact that a n y g i v e n p o i n t i n th e s p a c e could
o n ly b e d is p l a y e d at a g i v e n t i m e , w h e n the
p r o p e l l o r s h e i g h t i n t h a t re g i o n was j u s t r i g h t ,
an d thal m eant th at a t t h a t g i v e n i n s t a n t y o u
c o u l d n t d i s p l a y a n y o f t h e o t h e r p o in ts th at
c o u ld only b e d i s p l a y e d at t h a t i n s t a n t . A co n
s i d e r a b l e d i s a d v a n ta g e .
P ro b a b ly the m ost a s t o n i s h i n g 3D d i s p l a y
is S u t h e r l a n d 's I n c r e d i b l e H elm et. T h i s c o n s i s t s
of a helm et w i t h tw o d i n k y CRTs m o u n ted on i t ,
e a ch b e i n g d r i v e n i n r e a l tim e b y a p e r s p e c t i v e
s y s te m (s u c h a s t h e L D S -1) an d s e t u p w ith
p r i s m s to the w e a r e r 's e y e s . T h r o u g h th e p r i s m s
th e w e a r e r c a n eee t h e r e a l w o r ld in fr o n t of h im .
R eflected in t h e p r i s m s , h o w e v e r , a n d th u s m ix ed
into th e v iew o f th e r e a l w o r l d , is t h e g lo w in g
w i re -fr a m e b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t o him i n p e r s p e c
t iv e , an d w it h it s s e p a r a t e v ie w s m e r g in g into
an a p p a r e n t o b je c t in f r o n t of h i m . B ut h e n e e d
not s t a n d still: as h e m o v e s , th e h e l m e t 's c h a n
g in g p o s ition i s m o n ito r e d b y the p r o g r a m , and
th e d is p lay s y s t e m c h a n g e s th e v ie w s a c c o r d in g l y
m e a n in g he c a n w a lk a r o u n d a n d t h r o u g h a d i s
p l a y e d o b j e c t. T h e i l l u s i o n , a n d th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s ,
a r e fa ntastic: i m a g i n a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e , e x p l a n a t i o n s
a n d d ia g r a m s of t h i n g s in th e ro om , p o e t r y th at
c h a n g e s a s y o u w a lk t h r o u g h i t , . . . w e ll , yo u
w o r k on i t . Not a v a i la b l e com m ercially.
T h e r e w a s a lot to b e s a i d fo r te n t s . They
c o u ld b e m ade b y t a i l o r s , r a t h e r t h a n c o n s t r u c
tion g a n g s ; they could b e t r a n s p o r t e d a n d stored
flat. T h e i r s u rf a c e -to -v o lu m e ra t io s c o u l d n 't be
b e a t.
N oting t h i s , an a r c h ite c t nam ed Ron R esch
s a id to him self: w hat ab o u t m ak in g l a r g e - s c a l e
f olda ble s t r u c t u r e s , lik eu n to g e o d e s ic dom es,
th at c o u _ i d b e sim ply m a n u f a c tu re d in s h e e t
form an d c r e a s e d at the f a c to ry , t h e n b olted and
c a b l e d an d s t r u t t e d in t h e field?
R e 6 ch h a s now for y e a r s b e e n e x p e r i
m e n tin g with com plex folded s t r u c t u r e s .
T h e r e ' s only one tr o u b l e . If y o u 'v e
m e s s e d w ilh p a p e r a i r p la n e s yo u know that
fo ld in g is an in a c c u ra t e p r o c e s s , a n d so the
p r o s p e c t of d i s c o v e r i n g com plex g eo m e tric s t r u c
t u r e s b y th e h a n d - fo ld in g of p a p e r i s r a t h e r
slim .
R e c o g n iz in g t h is , R e s c h h a s c o n tr iv e d to
w o r k at a c o m p u te r d i s p l a y . His w o r k the
s e a r c h f o r g r e a t folding s t r u c t u r e s is o n e of
t h e f i r s t p ra c t i c a l u s e s of halftone polygon
c o m p u te r g r a p h i c s . He i s , n a t u r a l l y , at the
U n i v e r s it y of Utah.
Lou K atz, o f NYU, p u t o l d -fa fl h i o n e d e t e r e o p -
t i c o n s up t o t h e CRT, and d i s p l a y e d two s e p a r a t e
viewe t o t h e two e y e s . Works f i n e , even w ith
iso m etric d is p la y .
Bob S p in r a d of X e ro x D a ta S y s te m s h a s a
p a te n t on d i s p l a y i n g 3D fr om a c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h
a n o r d i n a r y co lo r T V . A s s u m i n g y o u 'r e u s i n g
som e s t a n d a r d w ay o f r e f r e s h i n g th e TV d e s
c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e - - th e im a g e f o r o n e e y e i s d i s
p l a y e d in g T e en, t h e o t h e r i n r e d , a n d y o u lo ok
t h r o u g h r e d an d fcreen g l a s s e s . T h e w o n d e r s o f
m o d e m s c i e n c e . S p in r a d c h u c k l e s o v e r I t him
s e lf.
A n o th e r s ch e m e g lu e d s i l v e r M y la r to the
fr o n t of a l o u d s p e a k e r , th e n p l a y e d a soft hum
t h r o u g h th e lo u d s p e a k e r lo p u l s e t h e M y lar b a c k
a n d fo r th . Then y o u u s e d t h s t as a m i r r o r to
look at w hat was g o i n g on th e C R T -- w h ic h was
s h o w i n g a lot o f p o in ts at o d d p l a c e s th at would
a p p e a r to b e i n s p a c e . U n f o rtu n a te ly t h ia was
h a r d t o c o o r d i n a t e , a n d , l i k e t h e p ro p e llo r#
o fte n r e q u i r e d you to p u t d o ts in s e v e r a l p l a c e s
at o n c e , w h ich d o n 't w o r k .
F o r a w hile y o u c o u ld g e t m ay b e y o u
s t i ll c a n a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o m p u t e r o u tp u t
d e v i c e . H e re s w ha t it d id : it c r e a te d o b je c ts
s h o w i n g da ta s t r u c t u r e s t h a t h a d t h r e e v a r i a b l e s .
(It d i d n t m ake w i r e - f r a m e o b j e c ts o r t h e l i k e . )
A utom atically e j e c tin g w i r e t h r o u g h a styrofoa m
b l o c k , an d s n i p p i n g th e d o n e o n e s , it c r e a te d
l ittle m o u n tain s s h o w i n g t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d a t a .
V e ry c u t e . S in ce m any p e o p le h a v e p ro b le m s
w ith m ountainous c o m p u t e r d a t a , it p r o b a b l y
s h o u ld h a v e c a u g h t o n .
T h e n a lot o f peo p le m um ble th e w o r d
" h o l o g r a p h y , as i f that is g o i n g to s e t t l e s o m e
t h i n g . While ho lo g ra m s a r e t e r r i f i c a n d r e m a r k
a b l e . an d h av e b e e n p r o d u c e d o n c o m p u t e r s ,
m ak in g them is not a p r o c e s s t h a t c a n b e c a r r i e d
o u t d e c e n d y on s e q u e n tia l m a c h in e s let alone
m ak in g them in r e a l tim e . So i f a so lu tio n to
i n t e r a c t i v e th re e -d i m e n s i o n a l c o m p u t e r d i s p l a y
i s g o in g to come t h r o u g h h o l o g r a p h y , it m ea ns
a w hole new b atc h o f t e c h n o lo g y w ill h a v e to b e
in v en ted .
My fr ie n d A n d r e w J . S i n g e r , w ho com es
a n d goes in the c o m p u te r field a n d is o n e of
th e five o r s ix s m a rt e s t p eo p le 1 e v e r m e t, s a y s
h e k n o w s how to b u i l d a d i s p l a y t a n k , a n d I
be lie v e h im . He e x p l a in e d it q u i c k l y to me o n c e
a n d I a s k e d him to t e ll it a g a i n , b u t he j u s t s a i d
s a d l y , "W hat's t h e u s e - - t h e r e a r e eo m any
g r e a t t h in g s that c o u ld b e d o n e . . . "
FOUR DIMENSIONS, EGAD
So m uch fo r t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . N ow , so m e
r e a d e r s a r e b o u n d to a s k , "What ab o u t f o u r d i m
e n s i o n s ? " b e c a u s e th e y a r e s c i e n c e - fi c t i o n fa n s
o r t r o u b l e m a k e r s o r m ath em a tic ia n s o r s o m e t h i n g .
J u s t as we c a n m ake a tw o -d im e n s io n a l
p i c t u r e of a th re e -d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t, it i s p o s
s i b l e , d e a r r e a d e r , to make a t w o -d im e n s io n a l
p i c t u r e o f a fo u r -d im e n s io n a l o b je c t.
What ia a f o u r -d im e n s io n a l object?
Why, any o b jec t th at h a s fo u r d i m e n s i o n s ,
(th a n k s a l o t , you s a y ) , o r e v e n f o u r m e a s u r a b l e
q u a l i t i e s , s u c h as h e i g h t , w e ig h t , a g e a n d g r a d e
p o int a v e r a g e . Well, l e t s not g e t into t h a t , b u t
it t u r n s o u t that v ie w s of Buch m u ltid im e n s io n a l
s t r u c t u r e s may b e o b tain ed b y th e s am e h o m o g e n
e o u s m atrix tec h n iq u e ^ a l r e a d y m en tio n ed for
r e g u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s . R ule o f t h u m b :
h o w e v e r many d im ensions y o u r d a t a h a s o r i g i n a l l y ,
y o u a d d one more d im e n s io n , h o m o gene ous w it h
th e r e s t , an d th e r e e x is t fo r m u la s ( s o r r y . I d o n t
h a v e them ) for view ca lcu latio n .
(Note, o f c o u r s e , th at w h ile a t w o - d i m e n
sional view ia a p i c t u r e , a t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l
view i s a th re e -d im e n s io n a l o b j e c t - - y o u 'l l h a v e
to view it on an i n te ra c tiv e 3D c o m p u i e r d i s p l a y
o f som e k i n d . )
 DM 41

* 0 * s G f l T H |9 |$ i n i r

TV
,
From v id e o ta p e
"The Hydrogen Atom
A c c o rd in g t o
Quantum M ech a n ics "
by T . J . O 'D o n n e ll
fctsEj^i---
( V tc f a r fr lttV il I h P )
& D avid P a r r i s h .

i# -n

It is u s u a l i y hard to com bi ne things:

e s p e c i a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d technical things.
U s u a l l y it takes infinite r e c o n s i de ra t io ns ,
fi n agling, m o di fi c a t i o n , intertwingling.

Th e C i rc l e G r a p hi c s Habitat, howe v er ,
is s o m e th in g el s e again. It results from
fJHMl
two intricate, i n d ep en de n t t e c hn ol og ic a l ( h t fk o fr)
deve lo p me nt s, each an intricate s y s t e m c a r e ------o r e k j z c p j* j.c .
fully cra ft ed by an e x ce pt i o n a l l y t a l e n t e d
pers o n, com in g t o g e t h e r like two h a n d s clap-
ing. Like ham and eggs, like m an and woman,
Sa nd i n' s Image Proc es s or and D e F a n t i ' s GRASS
lang u ag e con jo in d i r ec t ly and i n te r a c t p e r
fe c tl y as if they h ad been made for eac h
other, w h i c h they wer e not.

Dan S a n d i n 5 Image P r o ce ss or (see p . ^ M i

is a system of c i r c ui t boxes that a l l o w
v i d e o images to b e dynam ic a ll y col or ed , m a t
ted, d i s s o l v e d and p al pitated; Tom D eF a n t i ' s
language (see "C ou p de GRASS, p.J>^*3l) p e r
mits the rapid cr eation, vi ew i n g a n d m a n i p
ul at i on o f t h r e e - di me ns i on al o bjects on the
s cr e e n of a p a r t i c u l a r comp ut er setup.

To combine them, you just po i n t Dan's

s y s t e m at Tom's system. F ro m v i d e o t a p e j
" The N u m b e r C r u n c h e r t
L e t s say t h a t on the sc re en o f Tom's b y TDF & DJS.
sy s t e m we are v i e w i n g an anim at e d bird,
flap p in g its wings. Si nc e it's b e i n g shown
on a three -d im en s io na l re fr e sh ed line d is p l a y
(see pp..VirtXl>*\)0) , it appears onl y as w h i t e
lines on a da rk screen.

Dan me re ly p oi n t s a T V camera at Tom's

screen, and runs the T V signal into h is I m From v i d e o t a p e 3
age Processor. Now, in the Image P r o ce ss or , " The S p i r a l T a p e > "
h e gives it the m a g i c o f color. Different b y DJS a n d TDF.
colors, i n t er pl a yi ng w it h g ra dations an d
subtlety.

From the Image Processor, the f i n i s h e d

signal goes out to videotape re corders.

What then h a v e we overall? One o f the

wo r l d ' s mo st fle xi b le facilities for the
rapid pro d uc ti on of e du cational video ta pe s .

To expl a in something, you c re a t e a

t hr ee -d im e ns io na l s t ic k -f ig ur e " m o de l" o f it,
u s i n g DeFanti's GRASS language. T h e n you
ma k e a vide o ta pe of it, showing rot at io ns or
other manip u la ti on s, usi ng the Image P r o c e s
sor to give it color.
Ujp -d
DeFanti and Sa n d i n have spent m u c h of
the ac ad em ic yea r '73-4 getting the kin ks out
of this procedure. (Many of the di ff ic u l t i e s
s te m from the u n r e l i a b i l i t y of v i d e o t a p e r e
corders.) Stills f r o m some of the f i r s t w o r k VctV
are shown here.
s 4 -V

TV
B I B LI O GR AP HY

T h o m a s A. DeFanti, Daniel J. S a nd i n an d
Theo do r H. Nelson, "Co m pu te r G r a p h i c s as
a W ay of L if e . " To be p r e s e n t e d at U.
of C o l o ra d o c o m p u te r graphics conf er en ce ,
Ju l y 1974; to appear in p r o c e e d i n g s p u r SdU >h .
port ed l y to b e cal le d Com p ut er s an d G r a p h i c s .
fcfw rf;
1*,
J>W
* T*syoc o r T H o u w i r
Uneducated people typically think of
education as the learning of a lot of facts
and skills. While facts and skills certainly
have their merits, "higher education" is also
largely concerned with tying ideas together,
and especially alternative structures of such
tying-together: with showing you the vast un
certainties of things.
A wonderful Japanese film of the fifties
was called Rasho-M o n . It depicted a specific
event-- a rape-- as told by five different
people. As the audience watches the five se
parate stories, they must try to judge what
really happened.
The Rasho-Mon Principle: everything is
like that. The complete truth about soaething
is never known.
Nobody tells the complete truth, though
some try. Nobody knows the complete truth.
Nowhere may we find printed the complete truth.
There are only different views, assertions,
supposed facts that support one view or another
but are disputed by disbelievers in the particu
lar views; and so on. There are "agreed-on
facts," but their meaning is often in doubt.
The great compromise of the western world
is that we go by the rule: assume that we never
know the final truth about anything. There are
continuing Issues, Mysteries, Continuing Dia
logues. What about flying saucers, "why Rome
fell," was there a Passover Plot, and Did Roose
velt know Pearl Harbor would be attacked?
Outsiders find the intellectual world pom
pous, vague in its undecided issues, stuffy in
its quotes and citations. But in a way these
are the sounds of battle. The clash of theories
is what many find exhilarating about the intel
lectual world. The Scholarly Arena is simply
a Circus Maximus in which these battles are sche
duled.
Many people think "science" is free from
all this. These are people who do not know much
about science. More and more is scientifically
known, true; but it is repeatedly discovered that
some scientific "knowledge" is untrue, and this
problem is built into the system. The important
thing about science is not that everything will
be known, or that everything unanimously believ
ed by scientists is necessarily true, but that
science contains a system for seeking untruth
and purging it.
This is the great tradition of western
civilization. The Western World is, in an
important sense, a continuing dialogue among
people who have thought different things.
"Scholarship" is the tradition of trying to
improve, collate and resolve uncertainties.
The fundamental ground rules are that no issue
is ever closed, no interconnection is impossible.
It all comes down to what is written, because
the thoughts and minds themselves, of course, do
not last. (The apparatus of citation and foot
note are simply a combination of hat-tipping,
go-look-if-you-dont-believe-me, and you-might-
want-to-read-this-yourself.)
"Knowledge," then-- and indeed most of our
civilization and what remains of those previous--
is a vasty cross-tangle of ideas and evidential
materials, not a pyramid of truth. So that pre
serving its structure, and improving its accessi
bility, is important to us all.
Which is one reasc i we need hypertexts and
thinkertoys.
| Kouicit; j
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flo w ID l M \I M 'fflflK ffr '
* *** ** 1 c an t a l l , th e e e a r e t h a t e d n i o i M e
by b r i g h t p a o p la who u n t e a l e a r n s o e e t h t a g o t h e r
by t a k i n g c o u r s e s I n i t . I t a t h a way P h . D . ' p i c k ^
a e c m d f l e l d r i t ' s t h a way j o u r n a l i s t s a a l ------
o p e r a t e ) I t bxlrvj* th a 9 n a r a l u n d e r s t a n d in g s o f a f i e l d
t h a t c h i l d r e n o f i n e n t p a o p la Id t h a t f i e l d g a t a a a
b i r t h r i g h t ) i t t h a way Anybody c an l a m * n r t M o g , i f
h a h a a t h e n e rv e .
1- DECIDE WHAT YOU WOT TO LEABI. But yo u c a n ' t
k n o t e x a c t l y , b e c a u s e o f c o u r e e you d o n t a u c tly
h w a n y ( l a i d l a a t r u c t u r e d u n t i l yo u know a l l a b o u t I t .
MiT
2. READ EVERYTHING TOU C M * e s p e c i a l l y w h a t yo u
a n j o y , t i n e a t h a t way y ou c a n r u ^ e e r e ot I t (u t i.
3. GJlkB FOB OfSIQfTS. R t ^ i r d U i a o f [11 **** o t h e r s
t r y i n g t o a a k e , whan y o u r e c o g n i s e a n I n s i g h t t h a t h a e
w a n in g f o r y m , s a k e i t y o u r own. I t M y h a v * e o d e w i t h
th * a hapa o f e o l e c u l a a , o r t h a p e r s o n a l i t y o f a s p e c i f i c
^ a r a r , o r t h a q u i r k * o f a G r e a t Han i n tiw F i e l d . Ztm
i ^ o r t e n c e l a n o t how c a n t r a l i t i a , b u t tow c l e a r a n d i n
t e r e s t i n g and a a a o r a b l a t o y o u . i t . T h an go f o r
a n o th e r .
4. TIE INSIGHTS TO OTH Bt. Soon y ou w i l l h a v e y o u r
wh a t r i n g of in s i g h t* in a f i e l d , l i k e th a s t r i n g o f l i g h t *
a ro u n d a C h r l s A a s t r e e .
5. COKZWTRATE ON HAfiAZIHES, MOT BOOKS. H a g a a l n e e
h av* f a r e a r e i n s i g h t * p a r in c h e f t a z t , and c a n b a n t d
su c h f a s t e r . B ut whan a bo ok r a a l l y s p e a k s t o y o u , l a v i s h
6
a tte n tio n o n jt.
. riHD JOUR C m SPECIAL TOPICS, Mm PuftSUS THEH.
7. GO TO COWVENTICMS. P o r i m raaaon, c o n v e n tlm e a r a
a s p l e n d i d e o n e a n t r a t a d way t o l e a r n t h i n g s ) t a l k i n g t o p w ^ l e
h e l p s . D o n 't t h i n k you h a v e t o b a a nybody s p e c i a l t o g o t o a
c o n v e n ti o n ! j u a t p lu n k down y o u r man * y . B u t y o u h a v a t e h a v a
a h a n d l e . C a l l i n g y o u r e e l f a C o n s u l t a n t i* g o o d t 'S t u d e n t * i a
p e r f e c t l y h o n o r a b le .
e . 'FIND YOUR HAN.* S o M w h e re i n t h e w o rl d i a s f e c i r M
who w i l l answ er y o u r q u a a t i o n a e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y w e l l . I f you
f i n d h i * , dog h i > . He a a y b e a j a n i t o r o r a t e e n a g e k i d r n o
a tta r. F o llo w h i * w ith y o u r b e g g i n g - b m l , i f t h a t ' * w h a t h a
w a n t a . o t ta k e h i * to e x p e n s i v e r e s t a u r a n t s , o r a f a a t e v e r .
9. KEEP 1KPBOVIMG YOUR gUESTlOHS. P r o b a b ly i n y o u r
head th e re a re q u a a tio n a t h a t d o n 't se e* to l i n a up w ith
w h a t y o u 'r e h e a r i n g . D o n 't a s s t a * t h a t - y o u d o n ' t u n d e r e t e e d i
k e e p M lj u a ti n g t h e q u a a t i o n a t i l l y n c a n g a t a n a n sw e r t h a t
r e l a t e s t o w hat y o u w a n ta d .
1 0. YOUR FIELD IS BOWDED WERE YOU MMT IT TO BB.
J u a t becauae o th e r a group and a ta r e o ty p e th in g * in c o n v e n ti o n
a l ways d o e s n o t * e a n th e y a r e n e c e a e a r l l y r i g h t . In te lle c tu a l
e u b j e c t a a r e c o n n e c te d e v e r y w hlcb w syj y o u r f i e l d l a w h e t y o u
th in k I t i s . (A g a in , t h i a l a <n* o f t h * . t h in g * t h a t w i l l g i v e
y o u i n a l g h t a and k e e p y ou a c t i v a t e d ) b u t i t w i l l g e t y o u i n t o
t r o u b l e i f you t r y t o g o f o r d e g r e e s . )
T h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n s . T h ia d o e s n ' t g i v e y o u l a b e x
p e r i e n c e , and y ou w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y h a v e t o be m a k in g o p f e r
g a p s . B ut t o r a l e r t n a a e a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o u e e h i e e l n d ,
g i v e e e tlw a a n w t t t 'a l e a r n e d t h i s w ay, r a t h e r t h a n b e e n
b lin k e r e d a r t c lic h e d t o d e a th w ith in th e e d u c a tio n a l e y * t* a .
BIBLIOQtAPW
w ila a r S h lra a, c h ild r e n o f th e A t e .
S c i a n c e - F l c t i c n a b o u t w h a t a s c h o o l c o u ld b e l i k e w h e r e
k i d s r a a l l y u s e d t h e i r K i n d s . I ' v e a lw a y s b e e n e u r e I t
waa p o a a i b l e t th a R . E . S . l . S . T . O . R . S . (a e e p . S7>
SPORiOOJ
J to f o W iS OF
MS
m s -
"ON W W G -,"
^ ^ fa c e ts
b e i n g a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f s a n e v e r y C o m p le x H a t t e r s
w h i c h N obody Seem s t o U n d e r s t a n d ; a n d w h o se
G e n e r a l i t y o f R e l e v a n c e may b e G r a d u a l l y A p p r e h e n d e d .
( E v e n t u a l l y I h o p e t o d e v e l o p a 9 o n e v h a t m ore f o r m a l
t r e a t m e n t o f " i d e a s , " ae d i s t i n c t f r a i p r o p o s i t i o n e ,
se n ten c e k e rn e ls , e tc . B u t t h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y n o room
fo r th a t he re . ( L o g i c i a n s ; sh o w me t h e t r u t h - t a b l e o f
" B U T .")
The p r o c e e s o f w r i t i n g i s p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d i n n s t q u a r t e r s -
Many w o r k i n g w r i t e r s d e s p a i r o f b e i n g " s y s t e m a t i c , " g e t t i n g
th in g s done a s b e e t th e y c a n . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , p e o p l e w ho t h i n k
t h e y m ig h t b e a b l e t o c o n t r i b u t e - - p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s y m b o lic l o g i
c i a n s a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t s b e i n g i n m e r e e d i n t h e i r own
f o r m a l i s m s , s i m p l y d o n ' t s e e w h a t ' s g o i n g On a t l e a s t , w hen I v e
t r i e d t o t a l k t o th e m .
w r i t i n g i e n o t s im p le . As w i t h v i s i o n o r s p e e c h o r r i d i n g a
b i c y c l e , a n i m n e n s e l y c o m p le x p r o c e s s i s b e i n g u n c o n s c i o u s l y p u r
sued.
S a n e p e o p l e t h i n k y o u make a n o u t l i n e a n d f o l l o w i t , f i l l i n g
o u t th e d e t a i l s o f th e o u t l i n e u n t i l t h e p i e c e i s f i n i s h e d . T h is
i s a b su rd . ( T r u e , so m e p e o p l e c a n d o t h i s , b u t t h a t i s s i m p l y a
s h o r t c u t t i n g o f th e r e a l p r o c e s s .) B a s i c a l l y w r i t i n g i s 4
THE TRY-AND-TRY-AGAIN INTERPLAY o f PARTS AND DETAILS a g a i n s t
OVERALL AND UNIFYING IDEAS WHICH KEEP CHANGING.
I n f a c t a num ber o f th in g s a re h a p p e n in g , o f t e n s im u lta n e o u s ly .
We c a n s e p a r a t e th e m i n t o t h r e e :
1. P r o v i s i o n a l d ev elo p m en t o f i d e a s and p o i n t j r
A) f o r m i n g o v e r a l l o r g a n i z i n g i d e a s , B) s e l e c t i n g t e n
t a t i v e p o i n t s ; C) i n d u c t i v e l y f i n d i n g o v e r a l l o r g a n i z a
t i o n among th e m ; D) f i n d i n g r e l a t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t b e t w e e n
p o in ts.
2 . C o m p le x s i f t i n g a n d a d j u s t m e n t a m ong c o l l e c t i o n s o f p o i n t s ,
o v e r a ll id e a s .
3. F i n e s p l i c i n g w i t h i n d e v e lo p e d s e q u e n c e s .
A) t r a n s i t i o n a n d j u x t a p o s i t i o n m a n a g e m e n t s , B) c r o a s -
c i t a t i o n s , C) s m o o t h i n g .
R e g r e t t a b l y , t h e r e ' s n o room o r t i m e t o p u r s u e t h i s h e r e .
( T h e a r t i c l e I h a d i n t e n d e d t o w r i t e w o u ld t a k e a w h o l e s p r e a d . )
F o r p e o p l e who r e a l l y c a r e a b o u t t h e m a t t e r , I w i l l make some
p o i n t s i n v e r y a b b r e v i a t e d fo rm .
The i n t e r e s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s i n w r i tte n m a te r ia l in c lu d e :
* P o in tB " p i e c e s , s e n te n c e s , p h r a s e s , e x am ples, p l o t e v e n ts ,
and e x p o sito ry " p o in ts ."
O r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s ( w h i c h we w i l l c a l l h e r e
a r c h e s ) fL n al i r o n i e s , t h i n g s to b e le d up t o , th em es,
p l o t s , co n ce p ts, p r in c i p le s , e x p o s ito ry s t r u c tu r e s , o r
g a n iz in g t i t l e s , o v e rc o n ce p ts. T h e s e may b e e i t h e r l o c a l
o r g l o b a l , o v e r th e e n t i r e w o rk . ( N o t e ; a r c h e s may n o t
be h e i r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i v e t o one a n o th e r .)
Now, we may t h i n k o f p o i n t s a n d a r c h e s a s I n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s
w h ic h hav e i n d i v i d u a l r e l a t i o n s t o one a n o t h e r . B e tw e e n tw o p o i n t s
t h e r q may b e a g o o d t r a n s i t i o n ; a s p e c i f i c p o i n t may l i n k w e l l t o a
s p e c if ic a rc h .
The p r o b le m i n w r i t i n g , t h e n , i s t h a t o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e s y o u
c h o o s e ( s y s t e m s o f a r c h e s ) may n o t l i n k w e l l t o t h e p o i n t s t h a t
h a v e t o b e i n c l u d e d among th e m ; a n d t h a t t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n p o i n t s
d o n ' t w o rk o u t t h e way y o u w a n t th e m t o . G ood t r a n s i t i o n s c a n t b e
w o rk e d o u t f o r t h e se g u en c e o f p o i n t s y o u w a n t t o m ak e, o r , a l t e r
n a t i v e l y , t h e r e a r e t o o ma ny g o o d t r a n s i t i o n s w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c
S t r u c t u r e o f p o i n t s , a n d p i c k i n g among th e m i n v o l v e s d i f f i c u l t
c h o i c e s - - e s p e c i a l l y w hen y o u h a v e t o d e v i s e a p p r o p r i a t e a r c h e s o n
t h e - b a s is o f th e f i n a l sequence o f p o in ts .
T h e r e a r e a num ber o f o t h e r im p o r ta n t s t r u c t u r e s i n w r i t t e n
m a te ria l. They in c lu d e a c c o rd a n c e s , j u x t a p o s i t i o n s , c ro B B - c it a ti o n s ,
c o n n o t a t i o n s , n u a n c e s and rh y th m s.
T h e o n l y o n e s we w i l l d i s c u s s h e r e a r e a c c o r d a n c e s .
T h e t e r m " a c c o r d a n c e ,* a e I s h a l l u s e i t h e r e , i s s i a q j l y a
v a g u e l y f o r m a l w ay o f t a l k i n g a b o u t w h e t h e r t h i n g s m a tc h o r f i t
to g e th e r. Two i t e m s a r e i n a c c o r d i f t h e y m a t c h or f i t w e l l , o r i n
d i s c o r d i f th e y m a tc h o r f i t b a d ly . T hus a g o o d t r a n s i t i o n b etw een
p o i n t s ( a s H n tio n e d e a r l y ) r e p r e s e n t s a n a c c o r d , and a good l i n k
b etw ee n a p o i n t an d an a rc h i s a l s o an a c c o rd .
Now, i t h a p p e n s t h a t a g r e a t d e a l o f w r i t i n g i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
n o te s to th e r e a d e r a b o u t a c c o rd a n ce s in th e m a t e r i a l . In f a c t ,
q u i t e a few w o r d s a r e e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h s u b t l y p o i n t i n g o u t
t o th e r e a d e r t h e a c c o rd s and d is c o r d s w i t h i n t h e e x p o s i t o r y s t r u c t u r e
o f w hat he i s r e a d in g . We may c a l l t h e s e a c c o r d a n c e - c o n n e c t i v e s o r
acc o rd a n ce -n o tee .
Two o f t h e m o s t b a s i c te rm s a r e I m ie e d a n d b u t .
T he w ord I n d e e d h a s a n i n t e r e s t i n g f u n c t i o n .
T he w o rd i n d e e d ( i n I t s m a in u s e , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e )
i n d i c a t e s an a c c o rd b e tw ee n w h a t h a s j u s t b e e n s a i d a nd w h at i s t o
fo llo w . I n o t h e r w o rd s , i t f u n c t i o n s a s a p o s i t i v e t r a n s i t i o n , iic p e -
tu s o r gas p e d a l, in d ic a tin g a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e flo w i n th e d i r e c t i o n
a lre a d y In d ic a te d . S o do t h e w o rd s t h u s , t h e n , t h e r e f o r e , m o r e o v e r , s o
and fu rt h e r m o r e . T h ese a r e i n f i x a c c o r d s , t h a t i s , n o te s o f a cc o rd
t h a t g o b e t w e e n tw o i t e m s . We a l s o s e e p r e f i x a c c o r d s , s u c h a s
s i n c e , in a s m u c h a s , i n s o f a r a s ; t h e s e h a v e t o b e fo llo w e d by
tw o c l a u s e s , t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e f i r s t .
T he w o rd b u t i s e x a c t l y t h e a p p o s i t e . I t In d ic a te s a d isc o rd or
c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n , a n e g a ti v e t r a n s i t i o n , " b ra k e s " i n t h e flo w . O th e r
such i n f i x d is c o r d s in c lu d e n e v e r th e l e s s , d e s p i t e t h l a , o n th e o th e r
h and , even s o , and " A c tu a lly , . . . " S im ila rly , th e re a re p re fix d is
c o r d s : w h i l e , d e s p l t e , th o u g h . . . , n o t w i t h a t a n d j n g
I f in d t h i s t o p i c o f in q u iry v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g . T hese s o r t s o f
te rm s have b e e n u s e d s i n c e tim e in rn em o rial b y w r i t e r s a d j u s t i n g t h e i r
tra n s itio n s for sm ooth f lo w ( n o te s u c h a n t i q u e y v a r i a n t s a s h a p l y ,
h e w b e l t , w i t h a l , fo ra sm u c h a n d h o w so a e v e r ) , b u t t h e im p o r ta n c e and
s tr u c t u r e o f th ia s e r v i c e has n o t, I th in k , b e en g e n e r a lly u n d ersto o d .
(N o te a l s o t h a t t h e r e a r e m o r e i n t r i c a t e a c c o r d a n c e - c o n n e c t i v e e :
I wish we could go here into the structure of In at least,
. . i f n o t . . . , . . . o t h e r w i s e . . . , A nyw ay. . > an dJ N o w .. . . )1
(N ote: t h e t r y - a n d - t r y - a g a i n r e v i s i o n a n d r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n p r o c e e s ,
t i n k e r i n g w i t h s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , i 9 a u n i v e r s a l com ponent
o f th e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s i n e v e r y t h i n g f r a n m o v ie e d i t i n g t o m achine
d e s i g n . T h e r e o u g h t t o b e a name f o r i t . I c a n 't th in k o f a s a t i s f a c
t o r y o n e , a l t h o u g h I w o u ld commend t o y o u r a t t e n t i o n g r a n d e e l g n i n g ,
p i e c e - w h o l e d i d d l e w o r k , g r a n d f u d d l i n g , m e t a - m o g r l f i c a t i o n , and
t h a t m ost e x a lt e d p o s s i b i l i t y , ta g n e b u lo p s is ( th e v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f
s t r u c t u r e i n c l o u d s ) .)
THe HWT*6e
T he p a s t i s l i k e t h e r e c e d i n g v i e w o u t t h e b a c k
o f a n a u t o m o b i l e : Che m o s t r e c e n t i s m o re c o n s p i c u o u s ,
a n d e v e r y t h i n g seems e v e n t u a l l y t o b e l o s t .
We know we c h o u l d s a v e t h i n g s , b u t w h a t t T h o s e
w i t h t h e j o b o f Baving t h i n g s t h e l i b r a r i e s a n d mu
s e u m s s a v e s o ma ny o f t h e w r o n g t h i n g s , t h e f a s h i o n a b l e
a n d e x p e n s i v e an d h i g h - t o n e d t h i n g s e s t e e m e d b y a g i v e n
t i m e , an d m o s t o f t h e r e s t s l i p s p a s t . Each g e n e r a t i o n
seem s t o r i d i c u l e t h e t h i n g s h e l d in e stee m by tim e * b e
f o r e , b u t o f c o u r s e t h i s c a n n e v e r be a g u id e t o w hat
sh o u ld be saved. And t h e r e i e s o much t o s a v e : m u s i c ,
w r i tin g , s in k in g V enice, v a n is h in g s p e c ie s .
B u t why s h o u l d t h i n g s b e s a v e d ? E verything i s
d e ep ly in te rtw ln g le d . We s a v e f o r k n o w l e d g e an d n o s
t a l g i a , b u t w h a t we t h o u g h t w a s k n o w l e d g e o f t e n t u r n s
t o n o s t a l g i a , an d n o s t a l g i a o f t e n b r i n g s us d e e p e r i n
s i g h t s t h a t c u t a c r o s s o u r l i v e s an d v e r y s e l v e s . *
C o m p u t e r s o f f e r a n i n t e r e s t i n g d a y d r e a m : t h a t we
may b e a b l e t o S t o r e t h i n g s d i g i t a l l y i n s t e a d o f
p h y sically . In o th e r w ords, t u r n th e l i b r a r i e s to d i g i
t a l s t o r a g e ( s e e H y p e r t e x t s , |/.,' ,<1+-); d i g i t i z e p a i n t i n g s
and p h o to g rap h s ( s e e " P i c t u r e P r o c e s s i n g * p l o ); even
d i g i t i z e th e g e n e tic codes of a n im a ls , so th a t s p e c ie s
c a n b e r e s t o r e d a t f u t u r e d a t e s ( s e e " T h e M i t l e s t Com
p u t e r , " p . (rO ).
D i g i t a l s to r a g e p o s s e s s e s s e v e r a l s p e c ia l a d v an ta g es.
D i g i t a l l y s t o r e d m a t e r i a l s may b e c o p i e d by a u t o m a t i c
m esas; c o r r e c ti v e m easures a r e p o s s ib l e , to p re v e n t e r r o r s
from c r e e p in g i n i . e . , "no d e t e r i o r a t i o n In p r i n c i p l e ;
a n d t h e y c o u l d b e k e p t I n v a r i o u s p l a c e s , l e s s e n i n g ma n
k i n d ' s d e p e n d e n c e on i t s e g g s b e i n g a l l i n o n e b a s k e t ( l i k e
t h e L ib r a r y a t A le x a n d r ia , whose b u rn in g d u rin g th e occupa
t i o n o f J u l i u s C a e s a r w as o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t l o s s e s i n
hum an h i s t o r y ) .
B u t t h i s w o u ld o f c o u r s e r e q u i r e f a r mor e c o m p a c t
a n d r e l i a b l e fo rm s o f d i g i t a l s t o r a g e th a n e x i s t r i g h t now .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , we b e t t e r s t a r t t h i n k i n g a b o u t I t .
T h o s e who f e a r a c o m i n g h o l o c a u s t ( s e e p . Wt ) h a d b e s t t h i n k
a b o u t p u l l i n g som e p a r t o f m a n k i n d t h r o u g h , w i t h some p a r t o f
w hat he used to have.
S e e T . H . N e l s o n , T h e S n u n k l n g o f t h H e a r t : On t h e
P s y c h o l o g y of. P u n a a n d P r e t e r l s m C a r r o l l and O t h e r s .
I 9 6 0 , u n l e s s a d e c e n t w r i t i n g s y s t e m co me s a l o n g .
 rCJ^riO^L iVJTCItf---
(W P E ^ E D T ft:
In r e c e n t y e a r s a v e ry b a s i c c h a n g e h as o c c u r r c d in
p r e s e n t a t i o n a l sy stem s o f a l l k in d s . We may s u m m a r i z e i t
u n d e r t h e n am e b r a n c h i n g , s l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e many v a r i a n t s .
E s s e n t i a l l y , t o d a y 's sy stem s f o r p r e s e n t i n g p i c t u r e s , t e x t s
an d w h a tn o t c a n b r i n g you d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s a u t o m a t i c a l l y
d e p e n d in g on w h a t y o u d o . S e l e c t i o n o f t h i s ty p e i s g e n e r
a lly c a lle d b ra n ch in g . (I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h e g e n e r i c term
h y p e rm e d ia f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m ed ia w h ic h p e r fo rm i n t h i s
( a n d o t h e r ) m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l w a y s .)
A num ber o f b ra n c h in g m ed ia e x i s t o r a r e p o s s i b l e .
B ran ch in g m o v ies or h y p erfilm s (se e n earby).
B ran c h in g te x ts or h y p e rte x ts (se e n earby).
B ran ch in g au d io , m u sic, e t c .
B ra n c h in g slid e -sh o w s.
W ish we c o u l d g et in to som e o f t h a t s t u f f h e r e .
The idea of branching movies is quite exciting.
The possibility of it is another thing entirely.
The only system I know of that worked was at the
1967 Montreal World's Fair (Expo 67). At the Czech
Pavilion you will recall that before the crackdown
they had quite a yeasty culture going in Czechoslovakia
there were some terrific fantic systems going. One was
a wall of cubes with slide projectors inside (that roll
ed toward you and back as they changed their pictures).
And then the Movie.
The Czechoslovakian Branching Movie I forget its
real name-- had the audience vote on what was to happen
next at a number of different junctures. What should
she do now, what will he do next. etc. And lo and behold!
after they had voted, the lights vent down, and that's
what would happen next. People agreed that this gave
the movie a special immediacy.
I never saw the movie-- I waited in line several
hours but the line was too long to get into the last show
ing. So instead I went backstage and talked to Radusz Cin-
cera, who worked out the systen. It turns out that it
didn't work quite the way people supposed. A lot of people
thought that "all the possibilities" had been filmed in ad
vance. Actually, there were always only two possibilities,
and no matter what the audience had chosen, somehow the film
wa6 plotted to come down to the same next choice anyway:
In the actual setup, they simply had two projectors
running side by side, with Film A and Film B, and the
projectionist would drop an opaque slide in front of
whichever wasn't chosen. But Cincera said that aud
iences almost always chose the same alternatives anyway,
so half the movie was hardly ever used...
In the early sixties a movie was making the rounds
in which audiences were supposedly allowed to vote on the
ending "Hr. Sardonicus, I believe it was called. From
the ads it seemed that audiences would be polled as to
which last reel to show. Whether the villain was to get
his comeuppance, or whatever.
Then there was that Panacolor cartridge projector,
mentioned elsewhere, which would have allowed choices by
the user
More recently there's the CMX system, also mentioned
elsewhere. This is a setup, being jointly marketed by
CBS and Memorex, for computer-controlled movie editing.
But actually it could also be used as a branching movie sy
stem. Essentially the movie itself is stored frame-by-
frame (ae video) on big disks, made by Memorexi and, under
computer control, the output can be switched rapidly among
the frames, effectively showing the stored movies. (To my
knowledge, the video networks haven't yet recognized Uie
possibilities of this.)
The only trouble is, i t s extremely expensive (half a
million?), it has an exact storage capacity limited by the
number of disk tracks (presumably one track per frame)
perhaps five minutes total one one big unit, but you can
buy more-- and it can only give its full performance to
one viewer at a time.) (Or ts f k e _ l * v e - )
It may be that the irost practical branching movie
system would be a cartridge movie viewer and a big stack of
cartridges. When you make your choice, change the cart
ridge. But of course that's not as much fun as having it
happen automatically.
REALITY IS OBSOLETE
The Idea t h a t o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y i s pe r c e iv e d by ou r s e n s e s ,
i s an o b s o le te con c ep t. Old tr uism s l i k e s ee in g i s b e l i e v i n g - ,
become much l e s s b e l i e v a b l e as we become more aware t h a t , th e
b i o l o g ic a l machinery o f l i f e I t s e l f , tra nsf orm s images o f th e
p ny si ca l world b ef o re we a r e made consci ous of them. These
o i o l o g ic a l mechanisms sh a r e many s i m i l a r i t i e s in p r i n c i p l e and
n a p p l i c a t i o n , to o t h e r mechanisms observed in t h e n a t u r a l
environment and th os e Inv ent ed f o r our own use. S inc e we a r e
becoming more aware o f th e n a tu r e o f pe r c e p ti o n and tb o se
mechanisms in v ol ve d, now i s the time t o g ain c o n t r o l ' o f o u r
s e lv e s and sh a r e more d i s c r e t i o n In the o p e r a t f w r o f ou r own
B io log ic al machinery. We have e nt e re d the age o f h y p e r - r e a l i t y .
Day-to-day l i v i n g pro vide s only a l i m i t e d v a r i e t y o f
physica l s t im u lu s , and l i t t l e i n c e n ti v e t o m an ip u la te th e
p hy si o lo g ic al and ps yc ho lo gi ca l p ro c es si ng in v o lv e d . Han's
h i s t o r i c a l preo cc up ati on wit h the need t o m ain ta in c o n s t a n t
images o f th e p hy si ca l w or ld, i s a product o f h i s extrem e
o r i e n t a t i o n toward p hy si ca l s u rv iv a l In a h o s t i l e env ir o n m e n t.
The c u r r e n t evo lv in g s o c i e t y o f l e i s u r e o r i e n t a t i o n s removes
t h i s need fo r c o n s ta n t images and th ereby enhances t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s
f o r a more complete use o f the sensory ap p a ra tu s and th o se r e
l a t e d b ra in f u n c t io n s . Many have turned t o drugs o r m e d i t a t i o n .
More s p e c i f i c a l l y I t Is proposed h e r e , t h a t modern co r m u n lc a ti o n s
technology be employed as a v e h ic le of d e p a r tu r e " from t h i s need
f o r c o n s ta n t images, to b ri n g about a more complete u s e o f t h e
human technology i t s e l f . H y p e r - r e a li ty i s the employment o f
tech nology o t h e r than th e b io l o g ic a l machinery, when used t o
a f f e c t the performance of th e b io l o g ic a l machinery beyond i t s
own l i m i t a t i o n s . This i s almost l i k e making a d ju st m e n ts on a
t e l e v i s i o n s e t , e xc ep t you a r e w h a t's plugged 1n, and t h e con
t r o l s a r e o u t s i d e your body, being p a r t o f w ha tever te c hnology
Is In t e r f a c e d t o the body i t s e l f . As p a r t o f such a man-
machine i n t e r f a c e you could extend your own mental p r o c e s s e s ,
o r i f you should choose, you could j u s t d id d le w it h t h e d i a l s .
H y p e r - r e a li ty i s an o p p o r tu n it y t o enhance the v a r i o u s q u a l i t i e s
of th e human e x p e ri e n c e . R e a li ty i s o b s o l e t e .
How Uaahepres8 (see p. DM 6)
A
COPYRIGHT 1973 AUOITAC, LTD.
! G F K ttC -
Now, i n o u r t i m e , we a r e t u r n i n g G u t e n b e r g
around. The t e c h n o l o g y o f m o v a b le t y p e c r e a t e d
c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s and p r a c t i c e s aro u n d t h e w r i t
te n w ord. Now t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f c o m p u t e r s c r e e n
d i s p l a y s make p o s s i b l e a l m o s t a n y s t r u c t u r e s a n d
p r a c t i c e s you can im ag in e f o r th e w r i t t e n w o rd .
So now w h a t?
F o r new f o r m s o f w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n am
o n g p e o p l e who know e a c h o t h e r , ju m p t o " E n g e l -
b a r t " p iec e., n e a rb y .
To l e a r n a b o u t new f o r m s o f m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l
d o c u m e n ts f o r c o m p u t e r s c r e e n s , ju m p t o " H y p e r
te x ts
Or j u s t fe el fre e to b ro w se.
W TW r
By " h y p e r t e x t " I m ea n n o n - s e q u e n t i a l (T h e a s t u t e r e a d e r , a n d a n y b o d y w h o ' s g o t t e n
to t h i s p o i n t m ust b e , w i l l h a v e n o t i c e d t h a t
w ritin g .
t h i s b o o k i s i n '' m a g a z i n e 1' l a y o u t , o r g a o i z e d
O r d i n a r y w r i t i n g i s s e q u e n t i a l f o r tw o v i s u a l l y by id e a s and m e a n in g s , f o r t h a t p r e
c is e reason. I w ill be in te re s te d to h e a r
re aso n s. F i r s t , i t g re w o u t o f s p e e c h a n d
s p e e c h - m a k in g , w h ich hav e t o be s e q u e n t i a l ; w h e th e r t h a t h as w o rk e d .)
and s e c o n d , b e c a u s e b oo ks a r e n o t c o n v e n ie n t
to re a d e x c e p t in a seq u e n ce . And t h e p i t y o f i t i s t h a t ( l i k e t h e m a n
i n t h e F r e n c h p l a y who w a s s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n
But th e s tr u c tu r e s o f id ea s are n o t s e t h a t he had bee n " s p e a k in g p r o s e a l l h i s l i f e
q u en tial": T hey t i e t o g e t h e r e v e r y w hichw ay. a n d n e v e r known i t " ) , w e ' v e b e e n s p e a k i n g
And w h e n we w r i t e , we a r e a l w a y s t r y i n g t o h y p e rte x t a l l our l i v e s and n e v e r know n i t .
t i e t h i n g s t o g e t h e r i n n o n - s e q u e n t i a l ways
(see p . l ^ H t ) . The f o o t n o t e i s a b r e a k fro m Now, many w r i t e r s h a v e t r i e d t o b r e a k
s e q u e n c e ; b u t i t c a n n o t r e a l l y be e x te n d e d away f r o a s e q u e n c e . I t h i n k o f N a b o k o v 's
(th o u g h som e, l i k e W ill C uppy, h av e to y ed P a le F i r e , o f T r is tr a m Shandy and a n o d d n o v e l
w ith th e te c h n iq u e ). o T T a r a r o C o r ta z a r c a l l e d r f o p s c o t c h . a a d e up
o f s e c tio n s e n d in g w ith n u a b e rs t e l l i n g y o u
I have run in to p erh ap s a w h e re you ca n b r a n c h t o . T here a r e a a n y a o r e ;
who u n d e r s t o o d t h i s i n s t a n t l y w he n I t a l k e d and l a r g e b o o k s g e n e r a l l y u s e a a n y t r i c k s t o
t o th e m a b o u t i t . M o s t p e o p l e , h o " ' v >1 a ^ e g e t around th e p r o b l e a o f in d e x in g a n d r e v i e w
m o re b e m u s e d , t h i n k i n g I m t r y i n g o so o h- in g w hat has and h a s n ' t b e e n s a i d o r d o n e a l
so m eth in g te c h n ic a l o r is. ready.
ira i I t s n o t p o i n t le s s a t a l l : th e p o in t i ,
w r i t e r s do b e t t e r i f th e y d o n 't hav e t o i t e H o w e v e r , i n a y v i e w , a new d a y i s d a w n i n g .
C o ap u ter s to r a g e and s c r e e n d i s p l a y a e a n t h a t
i n s e q u e n c e ( b u t may c r e a t e ^ ' f r e a d e r s we no l o n g e r h a v e t o h a v e t h i n g s i n s e q u e n c e ;
t u r e s , b ra n ch e s and alternatives). a n d re a d e r
do b e t t e r i f th e y d o n t h a v e t o re a d i n seq to ta lly a r b itr a ry s t r u c tu r e s a re p o s s i b l e , and
uence b u t may e s t a b l i s h i m p r e s s i o n s , j P I th in k t h a t a f t e r w e 'v e t r i e d t h e a e n o u g h
p e o p l e w i l l s e e how d e s i r a b l e t h e y a r e .
TYPES OF HYPERTEXT
Lets assume that you have a high-power
display-- and storage displays won1t do, be
cause you have to see things move in order
to understand where they come from and what
they mean. (Especially text.) So it has to
be a refreshed CRT.
Basic or chunk style hypertext offers
choices, eTther as footnote-markeTs (like
asterisks) or labels at the end of a chunk.
Whatever you point at then cwtnes to the screen.
CAN IT BE D O N E ?
I dunno,
Licklider, one of computerdoms Great Men,
estimated in 1965 that to handle all text by
computer, and bring it out to screens, would
cost no more than what we pay for all text
handling now. (But of course there is the
problem of what to do with the people whose
lives are built around paper; that cant be
taken up here.)

Collateral hypertext means compound an
no tarTons- oFyaraiTel- text (see p.J^yt-).
Stretchtext changes continuously. This
requires very unusual techniques (see p-_5*2_l? )
but exemplifies how "continuous hypertext might
work.
The people who make big computers say
that to get the big disk storage to hold great
amounts of text, you have to get their biggest
computers. Which is a laugh and a half. One
IBM-style computer person pompously told me
that for large-scale text handling the only C V W f T tH S -
appropriate machine was an IBM 360/67 (a shame

Ideally, chunk and continuous and collateral

hypertext could all be combined (and in turn col
laterally linked; see "Thinkertoys," p.J^S^-)*
A "fresh" or "specific" hypertext-- I don't
have a better term at the moment-- would consist
of material especially written for some purpose.
An anthological hypertext, however, would consist
of materials brought together from all over, like
an anthological book.
A grand hypertext, then, folks, would be
a hypertext consisting of "everything" written
about a subject, or vaguely relevant to it,
tied together by editors (and NOT by "prog
rammers," dammit), in which you may read in
all the directions you wish to pursue. TKere
can be alternative pathways Tor people who
think different ways. People who have to
have one thing explained to them at a time--
many have insisted to me that this is normal,
although I contend that it is a pathological
condition-- may have that; others, learning
like true human beings, may gather and sift im
pressions until the ideas become clear.
And then, of course, you see the real
dream.
The real dream is for "everything" to be
in the hypertext.
.Everything you read, you read from the
screen (and can always get back to right away) ;
everything you write, you write at the screen
(and can cross-link to whatever you read; see
Canons, p. b^lfl ).
fully large computer). fSuch people seem not
to understand about minicomputers or the po
IS le & ix IM T O W H & e fi.
tential of minicomputer networks-- using, of
course, big disks. In an important sense there are
no "subjects" at all; there is only
There are of course questions of relia all knowledge, since the cross-
connections among the myriad topics
bility, of "big brother" (see Canons, p. ),
of this world simply cannot be
and so on. But I think these, matters can be divided up neatly .
handled.
Hypertext at last offers the possibility
The key is that people will pay for it. of representing and exploring it all
I am sure that if we can bring the cost down
without carving it up destructively.
to two dollars an hour-- one for the local
machine (more than a "terminal"), one for the
material (including storage, transmission and
copyrights)-- theres a big, big market. (And
that's what the Xanadu network is about; see
p. DM57.) My assumption is that the way to do
this is not through big business (since all Arthur C. Clarke wrote a book entitled
these corporations can see is other corpora The Lost Worlds of 2001 (Signet, 1972),
tions); not through government (hypertext is about the variants and alternatives of
not committee-oriented, but individualistic-- that story that did not find their way
and grants can only be gotten through sesqui to the screen.
pedalian and obfuscatory pompizzazz); but
through the byways of the private enterprise In a hypertext version, we could look
system. I think the same spirit that gave us at them all in context, in collateral
McDonald's and kandy kolor hot rod accessories views, and see the related variants--
may pull us through here. (See Xanadu Network, with annotations.
p- > \ S 7 - )
Obviously, putting man's entire heritage
into a hypertext is going to take awhile. But
it can and should be done.
BI B L I O G R A P H Y
Mortimer J. Adler, the an who reduced all of
Western Culture to a few Great Books plus an Index
T h e o d o r 11. Nels o n , "The H y p e r t e x t . " Proc.
under his own categories, has now Addled the
Uorld Documentation Federation, 1965.
Encyclopedia Brltannica.

Paper moulders. Microfilm is inconvenient.
In the best libraries it takes at least min-'
utes to get a particular thing. But as to
linking them together-- footnoting Aeschylus
with Marcus Aurelius, linking genetic data'
to 15th-century accounts of Indian tribes--
well, you can only do it on paper by writing
something new that ties them together. Isnt
that ridiculous? When you could do it all
electronically in seconds?
Now that we have all these wonderful de
vices, it should be the goal of society to put
them in the service of truth and learning.
And this is the way I propose. Not through
obscure forms of "information retrieval;" not
through newly oppressive forms of "computer-
assisted instruction;" and not through a pur
ported science of "artifical intelligence"
that will create new personalisms to irk us.
All these obstructive oddities, I think, have
developed as separate ideals because of the
grand preposterosity of Professionalism that
has created a world-wide cult of mutual incom
prehensibility and disconnected special goals.
Now we need to get everybody together again.
We want to go back to the roots of our civil
ization-- the ability, which we once had, for
everybody who could read to be able to read
everything. We must once again become a com
munity of common access to a shared heritage.
Since 1965 be has been creating Brltannlca 3,
the venturesome and innovative new version, n ow o n
sale for about half a thou.
COULDN'T HAVE HYPERTEXT NOVELS, YOU SAY?
Consider the hypertext character o'
Trietram Shandy, by Sterne.
Spoon River Anthology, by Masters.
Hopscotch, by Cortazar.
Pale Fire, by Nabokov.
Remembrance of Things Past, by Proust.
And, surprisingly, hypertext actually
FIGURES IN Giles Goat-Boy, by Barth.
Bri tannlca ^ Is basically a 3 level hypertext,
made to fit on printed pages by the strictures of
Adler's editing (according to Newsweek, some 200
authors withdrew their work rather than submit to
the kind of restrictions he was Imposing).
The Idea may be basically good, even though
the sesqulpaedallan titles may Impaed the raeder.
T HE B U R N I N G BUSH

This was of course what Vannevar flush
said in 1945 (see , in an article every
body cites but nobody reads.
The hypertext solution in many ways ob
viates some of these other approaches, and in
addition retains and puts back together the
great traditions of literature and scholarship,
traditions based on the fact that dividing
things up arbitrarily just generally doesn't
work.
EVERYTHING IS DEEPLY INTERTWINGLED.
(The only way in which my views differ
with those of Engelbart and Pask, I think is
in the matter of structure and hierarchy.
Both men generally assume that whatever
natural hierarchy may exist in particular
subjects needs to be accentuated; I hold that
all structures must be treated as totally ar
bitrary, and any hierarchies we find are inter
esting accidents.)
GLINDA'S HAG 1C BOOK
GTlnda the Good, gentle sorceress of the
southern quadrant of the land of 0z not the
flaphead portrayed by Billie Burke In the
Goldwynlzed film has a Magic Book tn which
Everything That Happens Is written.
The question, of course, Is how It's
chosen.
You can only watch news tickers for a
short time before getting very bored.
In fact hypertexts were foreseen very
clearly in 1945 by Vannevar Bush, Roosevelts
science advisor. When the war was in the bag,
he published a little article on various groovy
things that had become possible by that time.
"As We May Think" (Atlantic Monthly, July,
1945) is most notable for its clear description
of various hypertext techniques-- that is, link
ages between documents which may be brought rap
idly to the screen according to their linkages.
(So what if he thought they'd be on microfilm.)
How characteristic of Professionalism.
Bush's article has been taken as the starting
point for the field of Information Retrieval
(see p. ) f but its actual contents have been
ignored by acclamation. Information Retrieval
folk have mostly done very different things, yet
thought they were in the tradition.
Now people are "rediscovering" the article.
If there's another edition of this book I hope
I can run it in entirety.

J)WXr CHfiOW AHj)
*TH A U f i W l W o M
t>F (K )T E U -C 6T
Douglas Engelbart is a saintly man at
Stanford Research Institute whose dream has
been to make people smarter and bring them
together. His system, on which millions of
dollars have been spent, is a wonder and a
glory.
He began as an engineer of CRTs (aee
"Lightning in a Bottle," p.DM6); but his
driving thought was, quite correctly, that
these remarkable objects could be used to
expand man's mind and Improve each shining
hour.
Doug Engelbarts vision has never been
restricted to narrow technical issues. From
the beginning his concern was not merely to
plank people down at display consoles, but
ln the most profound sense to expand man's
mind. "The Augmentation of Human Intellect,"
he calls it, b y which he means making minds
work better by giving them better tools to
work with.
An obvious example is writing: before
people could write things down, men could
only learn what they experienced or were
told by others ln person; writing changed
all that. Within the computer-screen fra
ternity, the next step is obvious; screens
can double and redouble our Intellectual
capacities. But this is not obvious to every
body. Engelbart, patiently instructing those
outside, came up with a beautiful example.
To show what he meant by the Augmentation of
Intellect, Engelbart tied a pencil to a_ brick.
Then he actually made someone write with It.
The result, which was of course dreadful, En
gelbart solemnly put into a published report.
Not yet being able to demonstrate the aug
mentation of Intellect, since he had as yet
no system to show off, he had masterfully de
monstrated the disaugmentation of intellect:
what happens if you make man's tool9 for work
ing out his thoughts worse instead of better.
As this poor guy was with his brlckifled pen
cil, explained Engelbart, so are we all among
our bothersome*inflexible systems of paper.
Starting small, Engelbart programmed up
a small version of what most fans call "The
Engelbart System" some ten years ago. One
version has it that when it came to looking
for grants, management thought he acted too
kooky, and so assigned a Front Man to make
the presentation. But, as the story goe6,
the man from ARPA (see "Military...", p.
pointed at Engelbart and said, "We want to
back h im."
A small but dedicated group at SRI haa
built up a system from scratch. First they
used little CDC 1700 minicomputers; then,
various grants later, they were able to set
up their own PDP-10, in which the system now
resides, and from which it reaches out ac
ross the country.
Doug calls his system NLS, or "oN-Line
System." Basically it is a highly responsive,
deeply-structured text system, feeding out to
display terminals. From a terminal you may
read anything you or others have written, and
write with as-yet-unmatched flexibility.
The display terminals are all over. The
project has gone national, though at great ex
pense: through the ARPA net of computers, you
can in principle become a user of NLS for
something like $50,000 a year.
THE "KNOWLEDGE WORKSHOP
For a lucky fifty or so people, Engelbart's
system is Home. Wherever they are at Stan
ford Research Institute or far away on the
ARPAnet- a whole world of secretarial and
communication services is at their fingertips.
The user has but to call up through his dis
play terminal and log on. At that point all
his written files, and numerous files shared
among the users, are at his fingertips. He
may read, write, annotate the cross-link.
(Engelbart's system has provision for col
lateral structuring: see "Thinkertoys," [X*r2_.)
He may send messages to others in the Workshop.
He may open certain of his files to other
people, and read those that have been opened
to him.
This all has a certain vagueness if you
do not understand how bound you are today by
paper the problems of finding it, sorting
it, looking things up. (If you write, that
Is, write a lot, you know all too veil how
Intractable is paper, what a damned nuisance.)
With a system like Engelbert's, now, whatever
is written i6 Instantly there. Whatever you
want to look up is Instantly there, simultan
eously Interconnected to everything else it
should be connected to source materials,
footnotes, comments and so on. A document is
completed the moment it is written; no human
being has to retype it. (It need not be typed
on paper at all, if it's just for the workshop
members: a printout is only needed if it has
to go to someone outside tbe system.)
In many ways, Engelbart's system is a pro
totype for the world of the future, I hope.
ALL HANDLING OF PAPER IS ELIMINATED. Whatever
you write, you write on the screens with key
board and pointer. (No more backs of envelopes,
yellow pads, file cards, typewriters.) What
ever you transmit to fellow users of the system
you simply 'release' no physical paper changes
hands.
The group has also worked out some remark
able techniques for collaborative endeavor.
Two people say, one ln California and one in
New York can work together through their
screens, plus a phone link; it's as if they
were side-by-side at a magic table. Each sees
on his screen whst the other sees; each controls
a moving dot (or "cursor") that shows where he's
pointing. The effect Is somewhere between a
blackboard and a desk; both may call up docu
ments, point things out in them, change them,
and anything else two people might do when work
ing on something together.
E n g e lb a r t m e e ts u i t n b
fa r aw ay, a s o th e r s w a tc h .
Basically the system is a large-scale setup
for the storage, bringing forth, viewing and
revision of documents and connections among them.
The documents are Btored (of course) in
alphabetical codes. Connections among them,
or other relations within them, are signalled
by the presence of other codes within them;
these are ordinarily not displayed, however,
except as directed by a particular display
program and display programs can of course
vary.
There are various programs for display,
ln large part depending on what sort of
screen system the individual user has.
(NLS is used with everything from hlgh-reso-
lutlon line-drawing screens converted to 1000-
llne television, down to inexpensive Delta
Data terminals a brand, incidentally, that
allows text motion, which most don't^ Engel
bart's system is extremely general, allowing
the creation of files having all kinds of
structures, and display programs in all kinds
of styles. (I hope that this side of the pre
sent book conveys a sense of how mahy styles
that can be.) However, most users are devoted
to certain standardized styles of working that
have been well worked out and permit the easy
sharing of material and of operating practices.
Here, for instance, is standard screen layout:
Two separate panels of text appear, and links
may be shown on them. (Thus it's a thinkertoy-
see p. .) Two little windows at the top re
mind you of what you're seeing and what you're
asking for. We can't get into the rest of it
here
THE COMMAND LANGUAGE
NLS has a comnand language which all
users must learn. While It Is a stream
lined and straightforward coimnand language,
nevertheless It requires the user to type
in a specific sequence of alphabetical
characters every time he wants something
done. (This Is acceptable to computer-
oriented people; 1 suspect It would not
be satisfactory, say, for philosophers
and novelists. For designs oriented to
such users, see JOT (p?*5t> ) and Carmodys
System, nearby. Parallel Textface (p?*93)
and Th3 (p.VtfV).)
Incidentally, NLS users may also employ
a cute little keyboard, something like a
kalimba, that allows you to type with one
hand. You simply type the six significant
ASCII bits (see chart p. % jg ) ln one "chooP
it sounds hard but is easy to learn.
Sample conmands: I (insert), D (delete),
M (move or rearrange). Then you point with
the mouse.
MOUSE?
The Engelbart Folks have built a pointing
device, for telling the system where you're
pointing on the screen, that is considerably
faster and handler than a lightpen. (Unfor
tunately, I don't believe it's conanerdaily
available.) It's called The Mouse.
The Engelbart Mouse is a little box with
hidden wheels underneath and a cable to the
terainal. As you roll It, the wheel's turns
are signalled to the computer and the comput
er moves the cursor on the screen. It's faat
and accurate, and In fact beats a lightpen
hands down in working speed.
Through the comnand language, NLS allows
users to create programa that respond ln all
sorts of ways; thua tbe fact that certain text-
handling styles are atandard (as in above il
lustration of screen layout) results more from
tradition than necessity.
 w MSiC
H y p e r te x t i s n o n - s e q u e n t i a l w r i t i n g . I t s n o good t o u s ,
rfh a t he d o e s , th e n , i s p r e p a r e g iv e n
f i e l d s o f le a r n in g so th a t th e y c an b e s tu d ie d
by s t u d e n t s u s i n g a b s t r a c t i v e , m e t h o d s , w i t h o u t
t h o u g h , u n l e s s we c a n go i n s t a n t l y in a c h o ic e o f d i r e c t i o n s g u id a n ce .
from a g i v e n p o i n t .
T h i s preparation ba si ca ll y ha s two steps.
T hia o f c o u r s e c a n o n ly mean on c o o p u te r d i s p l a y s c r e e n s . First he sets up the whole field. This is
done in collaboration wi t h a "s ubject matter
E n g e l b a r t ' s s y s t e m , now, was m a in ly d e s ig n e d f o r p e o p le who expert," who names the import an t topics in
w anted t o immerse th e m s e lv e s i n i t and l e a r n i t s c o n v e n t i o n s . the field and states what interconnections
I n d e e d , i t m ig h t be s a i d t o have be en d e s ig n e d f o r a c o m iu n lty they have. The result is a c o mp le x graph
o f p e o p le i n c l o s e c o n t a c t , a s o r t o f sy ste m o f b l a c k b o a r d s and Structure (see p. jj, ) whi ch Pask calls a
c o lla b o ra tiv e t a lk in g p a p ers. co nversational d o m a i n . It co me s out to huge
diagrams of labels and lines b e t w e e n them.
A more e l e m e n t a l s y s te m , w i t h a d i f f e r e n t s l a n t , w as p u t
t o g e t h e r a t Brcwn U. on IBM e q u l f n e n t . W e 'l l r e f e r t o i t h e r e T h e n Pask p rocesses this structure to
a s "Cannody' a S y s te m ," a f t e r t h e young prograjm eer whose name make a more usable map of the field that he
came f i r s t On t h e w r i t e u p . calls an entailment s t r u c t u r e . T he processing
basically involves removing "cycles'* in the
Cansody's system runs on an IBM 360 with 2250 display, graph, thus making the s tr uc tu re hierarchical
while the 2250 is a fine piece of equlpaent, the quirks of the in a sl ightly artificial w a y justified by what
360's operating systAB ( s e e p. VS" ) often delay the user by the subject-matter-expert has s aid is the
making him wait, e . g . , for soaeone elss's cards to get punched st ru ct u re of the field.
before it responds to his more lwedlate usast this is like
making ice-akaters wait for oxcarts. (This p rocessing is c a rr ie d o ut b y a pro
gram called EXTEND.)
Anyway, th e e y ete m e s s e n t i a l l y im poses i
t h e m a t e r i a l i i t may c o n s i s t o f t e x t se g m en ts o f a n y l e n g t h Th e resulting E ntailment St ru cture is
a nd t i e s and l i n k s b e tw e e n them. An a s t e r i s k a p p e a r i n g any then p r es en te d to the student as a great map
w here in one p i e c e o f t e x t s i g n a l s a p o s s i b l e ju m p , b u t t h e of the field wh i c h he may explore.
r e a d e r d o e s n ' t n e c e e s a r i l y knew w here t c j s a p p i n g t h e a s t e r i s k
w i t h th a l i g h t p e n t a k e s yo u t h e r e , h o w eve r. Pask intends that the student's explor
ations, w il l consist o f testing analogies, or
w hat Pask calls m or ph i s m s , to find the exact
st ructures of knowledge he is sup po se d to
be acquiring. This knowledge will be in the
Form of i s om or ph is ms . or exact analogies, i.e.
laws .

P a s k s overall system, exam pl es of which

he has running in his laboratory in England,
The sa ne a p p a r e n t l y l a t r u e o f Che d a ta he calls CASTE (Course A s se m b l y S ystea and
stru c tu re . I ua ed t o b e somewhat d i s t u r b e d Tutorial Environment). A further development,
a t t h e way E n g e l b a r t ' a t e a t s y s t e a s s e n t o which is to be put on a P D P - 11/45 computer
he r l g o r o u a l y h i e r a r c h i c a l - This In f a c t la (see p. T t and p. Mi. ) at the Br ooklyn C hi l
t h e c a a e , l n t h e a e n s e t h a t h a v in g m u l t i p l e d r e n s Museum, is called THOUGIIT-STICKER.
d i s c r e t e l e v e l s l e b u i l t de ep I n t o t h e s y s te m . This p r o g r a m is intended to a ll o w the d emo n
B ut I t t u r n s o u t t o b e h a r m l e s s . The s t o r e d s t r a t io n and testing of analogies directly,
t e a t I s d i v i d e d by t h e s t o r a g e te c h n i q u e s I n by children.
t o a i l t l p l e l e v e l s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a H arv ard
ou tlin e. T hin k o f I t a s so m e th in g l i k e t h i s :

1. HIERARCHICAL FOBMAT
A. STORAGE
B. DISPLAY
C. LANGUAGE

But l e t ' s e xpa nd t h i s e x a a p l e a l i t t l e : T h is I s s t a r k a nd s i m p l e . I t c o u ld a l s o g e t you good

a nd l o s t . How ever, a s im p le t e c h n i q u e took c a r e o f t h a t :
1. HIERARCHICAL FORMAT e v e r ^ i a e t h e u s e r ju m ped, th e a d d r e s s o f h i s p r e v i o u s
A. STORAGE l o c a t i o n was sa v e d on a S t a c k [ s e e "The Magic o f t h e S t a c k , "
A l. E v e r y t h i n g l n KLS i s s t o r e d p . t T-) - The u s e r a l s o had a RETURN b u tto n - , when h e w anted
w ith h i e r a r c h i c a l codes. to go b a c k t o w here he h a d l a s t jumped fro m , th e e y ete m
A2. T h e i r e f f e e t d e p e n d s on t h e w ould pop th e l a s t a d d r e s s o f f th e t o p o f th e e t a c k , and
d isplay. ta k e him t h e r e . ( T h i s f e a t u r e was a d a p te d fro m my 1967
B . DISPLAY S t r e t c h t e x t p a p e r , a n d t u r n e d o u t t o work o u t q u i t e w e l l PASK AND HYPERTEXT
B l . The h i e r a r c h i c a l c o d e s o f in p ra c tic e .)
NLS ha v e no c o n s e q u e n c e s l n G o r d o n P a s k s w or k is remar ka bl y similar
p a rticu la r. The sy s te m a l s o had handy f e a t u r e s f o r l i g h t - p e n t e x t to my o w n stuff on hypertext.
B2. The h i e r a r c h i c a l c o d e s f o r e d i t i n g , and v a r i o u s n i c e p r i n t o u t t e c h n i q u e s . A l l t o l d ,
KLS c a n s p l a y t h e m a t e r i a l i t waa a c l e a n and p o w e r f u l d e s i g n . W hile i t la c k e d h i g h e r - Es s entially Pask is r educing a field to
out in to a v a rie ty of d is l e v e l v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , l i k e E n g e l b a r t's d i s p l a y o f an ex tr emely formal structure o f relations
play a rrange m e nts. L e v e ls (see " o u t l i n e " i n E n g e l b a r t a r t i c l e ) o r c o l l a t e r a l which n a y then be studied by the student, at
B2A. Th ey ca n b e d i s p l a y e d d i s p l a y ( s e e " T h l n k e r t o y a , " p.D \r2 ), i t was i n some w ays s u i t e d the s tu dent's init ia ti ve .
l n o u t l i n e form. f o r n a iv e u s e r s i t h a t i s , i t was e v e n t u a l l y f a i r l y s a f e t o u s e ,
B2B. Th ey c a n be d i s p l a y e d and c o u ld i n l a r g e p a r t be ta u g h t t o r a n k b e g i n n e r s i n a c o u p le (What I don't quite under st an d is how the
l n n o n a a l t e n t form . o f h o u r s p r o v id e d t h e y d i d n ' t ha ve t o know a b o u t JCL c a r d s . analogies are to be explored and tested.)
B2C. T h e a e d r a t t e d numb ers
can even be made t o I t i e l e f t f o r t h e r e a d e r to f i g u r e o u t i n t e r e s t i n g u s e s Anyway, a principal point is that the
d isappear. fo r i t . Haw would y o u do c o l l a t e r a l s t r u c t u r e s ? How c o u ld student is in control and may u se his initia
C . LANGUAGE you e i g n a l t o a r e a d e r whic h o f s e v e r a l p i e c e s o f t e x t a jump tive dy namically; the subject is no t a rt if i
C l . The conmand l a n g u a g e d e t e r was t o 7 ci ally p r oc es se d into a presenta ti on al se
m in e s w h at t h e d i s p l a y shows quence. Moreover, the arbitrary interconnec
o f th e h ie ra r c h ic a l s t r u c t u r e . (At l e a s t one r e a l h y p e r t e x t was a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n on t h i s tions o f the subject, which are no r e s p e c t e r s ,
C2. What I s shown c an b e d e t e r s y s te a . I t tie d to g e th e r a l o t o f p a te n ts f o r m u lt ila y e r e le c of the p r in te d page, are re cognized as the
mined by a p ro gra m l n Che t r o d e s . R e a d e r s a g r e e d t h a t t h e y c o u ld l e a r n more frcxn i t a b o u t fundamental structures the stud en t must deal
conmand l a n g u a g e . (F or I n m u l t i l a y e r e l e c t r o d e s t h a n th e y had im a gin e d w a n t in g t o know.) with and come to understand. O n all these
s t a n c e , "how many l e v e l s points Pask and 1 are in total agreement..
BIBLIOGHAPHY
d ovn " l c l a b e i n g sh o w n ) .
C2A. T h i s I s f o u r l e v e l s Indeed, his explorable system s- - (I don't
S te v e n Ca rmody, W a l t e r G r o s s , T heodor H- N e l s o n , D avid R ic s know if they w ill be what I e ls ewhere call
down. (Th e e a r l i e r
and A n d rie s van Dam, 'A H y p e r te x t E d i t i n g S y s tem f o r t h e h y p e T g r a m s or r e s p o n d i n g resources)-* w il l be
ex ample w a s n ' t . )
C3 . The d i s p l a y f o r n a c a l l d e 3 6 0 ." I n Faim an a n d N i e v e r g e l t l e d s . ) . P e r t i n e n t C o n c ep ts f a s c i n a t i n g , fun and t e r r i f i c a l l y e d u c a t i o n a l .
pe nd s on whac d i s p l a y p r o i n Com puter G r a p h i c s (U. 1 1 1 . P r e s s ' 6 9 ) , 2 9 1 - 3 3 0 . Beca us e he is.
N ote : Mr. G ross now g o e s b y th e name o f L ig h t n i n g C l e a r w a t e r .
g r a a you u s e , l n t h e HLS

gotpoit
c o s a a n d la n g u a g e . N ow it turns out that this exac tl y c o m
p lements the notion of h yp ertext as I have been
T h a t ' s enough o f t h a t . 1 c a n 't h e lp r e p r o m u lg at in g it lo these m any years.
m a rk i n g t h a t I s t i l l d o n ' c l i k e t h a t s o r t o f
s t r u c t u r i n g , b u t I t l a de ep l n NLS, an d i f H y pe rtent is non-sequential text. If we
you d o n ' t l i k e I t s l t h e r ( p o o r d e p r i v e d lu c k y write a h yp ertext on something, it will be
u s e r o f NLS) you can p r o g r a a i t t o d i s a p p e a r , most ap pr opriate iF~we give it the general
so i t ' s h a r d l y l n y o u r way. i nterconnective structure of th e field. In
T h ia c o n t i n u e s th e r e m a r k s on G o rdon P a e k o th er w or ds , the interconnective structures
begun on p .
BY THE BEARD OP THE PROPHET! c hosen f or the textual parts are likely to have
the same connective structure (in general) as
E n g e l b a r t l n German means A n g e l b e a r d ; Doug I will n pw try to d escribe Pask's w ork Pask's Entailment Structure.
as he has e xp la in e d it to me. Perhaps this
E n g e l b a r t I s In dee d on t h e s i d e o f t h e a n g e l s .
will be of some h el p to those w h o may have For another kind of h ypertext, the antho-
I n b u i l d i n g h i s m i g h t y sy st e m he p o i n t s a new
been mystified or dumfounded by contact w i t h logical hy pe rtext built up of lots of other
way f o r h u m a n it y . The s o o n e r t h e b e t t e r . Any
this fabulous man.
h is t o r y o f th e tw e n tie th century w i l l c e r ta i n ly writings, it is also reasonable to expect the
h o l d him h i g h . Few g r e a t men a r e a l s o su c h conn ec ti ve structures to c l us te r to the same
Gordon P a s k s concern is ab st raction and
n i c e g uy s. general form as Pask's e ntailment structure.
h ow concepts are formed, wheth er in a creature
of nature or a r o b o t or a computer program.
BIBLIOGRAPHY In o t h e r words, the very s am e field of
Ab st raction is of i n terest p r imordially (as life
knowledge Pask is out to represent as an ex-
evolved thinking capacity), p sy c ho genetically
D ougla s C. E n g e l b a r t , R i c h a r d W. Watson & James p l o r a b l e , formalized whole, I am ou t to repre
(as the mind acq ui re s new facilities, d es cr ib ed
C. N o r t o n , "T he Augmented Knowledge W ork sh o p ." sent as an explotable informalized whole, with
m os t pecu li ar ly b y Piaget), and epistemological-
P r o c NCC 73 , 9 - 2 1 . anecdotes, jokes, cartoons, en richment mater
ly (how do we know ? Like, how do we k n o w , man?),
ials, a n d anything else people m ig h t dig.
and meth od ol og ic a ll y (how c an we most e ff ec tively
C h a r l e s U. I r b y , " D i s p l a y T e c h n iq u e s f o r I n t e r find out Diore?) .
a c t i v e T e x t M a n i p u l a t i o n . " P r o c NCC 7 4 , In still other words, l e t s h a ve both
2 47 - 2 5 5 . and call it a party.
ilis interest, then, is in teaching by
a llowing s tudents to d iscover exact relations
in a specific s u bj e ct matter by the v ery p r o
cess of abs tr ac ti o n that is of s o much interest. Hou o a n 't re a d t h e s c r e e n h a re .
I t s a y s : COGITO ERGO SUH
Ths A u g m e n ta tio n o f I n t e L i e c t . I n fa m o u s Ape S e q u en c e fr o m my a l i d s - a h o u .

A c tu a lly i t needs I t r e a l l y n e e d s t h e rm isio.

t h e '2 0 0 1 ' m u s ic .

fEELCJ>'EFFECT SVSTet\$
THE MCW FRpKTICJt
F A N T It t
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THtts PfWMOuilT,
KorA^v UCM^lCAU JPGCWtV
Ah, Love I could yoa and I with H im c<uupiie
T o grasp this terry Scheme of Thing* entire.
Would not we s h a tte il to biuand then
Re-mould il n e a r s to the Heart 's Desire I
Eduard Fitzgerald.
A lm o st e v e r y o n e seem s to a g r e e t h a t Mankin d (who?)
I s on t h e b r i n k o f a r e v o l u t i o n I n t h e v a y I n f o r m a t i o n
l a h a n d l e d , an d t h a t t h i a r e v o l u t i o n l a t o come f r o a
some s o r t o f m e rg i n g o f e l e c t r o n i c s c r e e n p r e s e n t a t i o n
and a u d i o - v i s u a l te c h n o l o g y w i t h b r a n c h i n g , i n t e r a c t i v e
c o m p u te r s y s t e m s . (T h e n a iv e t h i n k " t h e " m e r g i n g i s
i n e v i t a b l e , a a i f " t h e " m e rg in g m e a n t a n y t h i n g c l e a r .
I used to th in k t h a t t o o . )
P r o f e s s i o n a l p e o p l e seem t o t h i n k t h i s m e r g i n g w i l l
b e an i n t r i c a t e m i n g l i n g o f t e c h n i c a l s p e c i a l t i e s , t h a t
o u r new s y s t e m s w i l l r e q u i r e v o r k b y a l l k i n d s o f c om m it
t e e s an d c o n s u l t a n t s ( a d d in g and a d j u a t l n g ) u n t i l t h e Re
s u l t s e i t h e r s p e c i f i c p r o d u c t i o n s o r o v e r a l l Syste m s-
a re f i n i s h e d . Then we w i l l h a v e t o L e a r n t o U se Them.
More c o n s u l t i n g f e e s .
I t h i n k t h i s i s a d e l u s i o n and a c o n -g a m e . L th in k
t h a t when t h e r e a l m e d ia o f th e f u t u r e a r r i v e , t h e s m a l l
e s t c h i l d w i l l know i t r i g h t away (and p e r h a p s f i r s t ) .
T h a t , i n d e e d , s h o u l d and w i l l be t h e c r i t e r i o n . When you
c a n ' t t e a r a t e e n y k i d away from t h e c o m p u te r s c r e e n ,
w e ' l l h ave g o t t e n t h e r e .
We a r e a p p r o a c h i n g a s c r e e n a p o c a l y p s e . T he a u t h o r ' s
b a s i c v ie w i s t h a t RESPONSIVE COMPUTER DISPLAY SYSTEMS
CAN, SHOULD AND WILL RESTRUCTURE AND LIGHT UP THE MENTAL
LIFE OF MANKIND. ( F o r a more c o n v e n t i o n a l o u t l o o k , a e e
bo* n e a r b y , " A n o t h e r V i e w p o i n t . )
I b e l i e v e c o m p u te r s c r e e n s c a n make p e o p l e h a p p i e r ,
s m a r t e r , and b e t t e r a b l e t o c o p e w i t h t h e c o p i o u s p r o b
le ms o f to m o r r o w . B u t o n l y i f we do r i g h t , r i g h t now.
The c o m p u t e r ' s c a p a b i l i t y f o r b r a n c h i n g among
e v e n ts, c o n tr o l lin g e x te r io r d e v ic e s, c o n tro llin g
o u t s i d e e v e n t s , and m e d i a t i n g I n a l l o t h e r e v e n t s ,
makes p o s s i b l e a new e r a o f m e d ia .
U n t i l now , t h e m e c h a n ic a l p r o p e r t i e s o f e x t e r
n a l o b j e c t s d e t e r m i n e d what t h e y w e r e to u s a n d how
we u se d th em . B u t h e n c e f o r t h t h i s i s a r b i t r a r y .
The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h a t a r b i t r a r i n e s s , and r e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n among b r o a d e r and more g e n e r a l a l t e r
n a t i v e s , a w a its u s . A l l th e p r e v io u s u n i t s and
m e ch a n is m s o f l e a r n i n g , s c h o l a r s h i p , a r t s , t r a n s a c
t i o n an d c o n f i r m a t i o n , and even s e l f - r e m i n d e r , w ere
b a sed I n v a r i o u s w ays upon p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s t h e
p r o p e r tie s of p a p e r, carbon p aper, f i l e s , books
and b o o k s h e l v e s . To r e a d from p a p e r you m u s t move
th e p h y s ic a l o b je c t i n f r o n t o f you. I ts c o n ten ts
c a n n o t be made t o s l i d e , f o l d , s h r i n k , become t r a n s
p a re n t, o r g e t la rg e r .
But a l l t h i s i s now c h a n g in g , and s u d d e n l y . The
c o m p u te r d i s p l a y s c r e e n d o e s a l l t h e s e t h i n g s i f d e s i r e d ,
t o t h e same m a r k i n g s we h a v e p r e v i o u s l y h a n d l e d on p a p e r .
The c o m p u te r d i s p l a y s c r e e n i s g o i n g t o become u n i v e r s a l
v e r y f a s t ; t h i s i s g u a r a n t e e d by t h e s u d d e n l y r i s i n g
cost o f paper. And we w i l l u se them f o r e v e r y t h i n g .
T h is a l r e a d y h a p p e n s w h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e r e s p o n d i n g com
p u te r sc re en sy ste m s. ( I h a v e a f r i e n d w i t h tw o CRTs on
h i s d e s k ; o n e f o r t h e n o r m a l f lo w o f w o rk , and o n e t o
h a n d le i n t e r r u p t i o n s an d s i d e e x c u r s i o n s . ) A l o t o f
f o r e s t s w i l l be sa v e d .
Now, t h e r e a r e many p e o p le who d o n ' t l i k e t h i s i d e a ,
and h u f f a b o u t v a r i o u s a p p a r e n t d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e
screen . But we c an im p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e u n t i l a l m o s t
everyone i s s a t i s f i e d . F o r th o s e who s a y t h e s c r e e n s a r e
" t o o s m a l l , " we c a n Im p rove r e l i a b i l i t y and b a c k u p , and
o f f e r s c r e e n s e v e r y w h e r e ( s o t h a t m a t e r i a l n e e d n o t be
p h y s i c a l l y c a r r i e d b e tw e e n th e m ).
T h e e x h i l a r a t i o n and e x c i t e m e n t o f t h e c o m in g tim e
i s h a r d Co c o n v e y on p a p e r . Our s c r e e n d i s p l a y s w i l l be
a l i v e w ith a n im a tio n i n t h e i r s e p a r a t e segm ents of a c t i v
i t y , and w i l l resp o n d t o o u r a c ti o n s as i f a l i v e p h y s ic
a lly to o .
T h e q u e s t i o n I s , th e n : HOW WILL WE USE THEH? T hus
th e d e s i g n o f s c r e e n p e rf o rm a n c e s sn d e n v i r o n m e n t s , snd
o f t r a n s a c t i o n and tra n s m is s io n s y ste m s, i s o f t h e h ig h
e st p rio rity .
TILE FRENCH HAVE A WORD FOR IT
I n F r e n c h th e y use the te r m V I nf or ma ti qu e
to mea n, a pp r o x i m a t e l y , the p r e s e n t a t i o n of in
fo rm a t i o n t o p e o p l e b y automatic e q ui pm en t.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y the En glish equi va le nt ,
i n f o r m a t i c s , ha s b ee n preempted. T h e r e is a
com pu te r p r o g r a m m i n g firm ca ll ed Inform at ic s,
Inc., an d w h e n I w r o t e them abou t this in tjj6 .
ear ly sixti es they said they did not w a n t their
name to be c o m e a ge n e r i c term. T r a d e m a r k law
s u p p or ts t h e m i n this to a c e r ta in exten t.
(Others, l ike Wa l l y Feurzeig, want that to be
the w o r d r eg ar dl es s. ) But in the m e a nt im e
I off er up the t erm f a n t i c s , w h i c h is more
g en er al anyhow.
MEDIA
t o - . . - < tll our - i . .
JlS.5 n T tbing l bbi' >u*. ;>,!!?
i? !; r in * rid , *1* ' * .
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8 , Many ,:e l *1>* o r p u f f y , *11
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of our tt >d 11th*
id e as th a t
i n p r e v i o u s e r a s w ere co nv ey e d by r i t u a l s , p u b l i c g a t h e r
i n g s , d e c r e e s . p a ra d e s, be havior in p u b l i c , e r tr o u p -
S l r i ? 11? t u f l l y e v e tT c u l t u r e I s a w o r l d o f lm a g s s . The
c h i e f t a i n I n h i a p s l a n q u l n , t h e sha man w i t h h i s f e a t h e r s
a nd r a t t l e , a r e t e l l i n g ua so m e th in g a b o u t th e m se lv e s sn d
a b o u t t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e s o c i e t y an d p o s i t i o n o f t b e
in d iv id u a ls in i t .
Now t h e m e d ia , w i t h a l l t h e i r q u i r k s , p e r f o r m t h a
same f u n c t i o n . And i f we do n o t l i k e t h e way some t h i n e ,
a r e t r e a t e d by t h e m e d ia , i n p a r t t h i s s t e m s f r o * n o t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g how t h e y w o rk . " M e d i a , " o r s t r u c t u r e d t r a n s
m i s s i o n m e ch a ni sm s , c an n o t h e l p b e i n g p e r s o n a l i s e d by
t h o s e who ru n them. ( L i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . ) The p ro ble m
i e t o u n d e r s t a n d how me dia w or k, an d t h u s b a l a n c e o u r u n -
d e r s t a n d i n g of th e t h i n g s t h a t me di a m i e r e p r e s e n t .
THOUGHTS ABOUT MEDIA:
1. ANYTHING CAN BE SAID IN ANY MEDIUM.
A n y th in g ca n be s a i d i n a n y me dium .an d I n s p i r a t i o n
c o u n t s much more th a n s c i e n c e . But t h e t e c h n i q u e s wh ic h
a r e us e d t o co nv ey so m e th in g can b e q u i t , u n p r e d i c t a b l e .
Voice of Little Girl:
"Santa, a r e you more im portant th an Cod?"
A nnouncer, plo nkingly;
"Your a n s w e r i s . . ."
(A fter How To Be A D epartm ent S to re Santa C la u a ,
produced by th e auth o r for CBS Laboratories
and the AVS-10 In struction al d evice.
O riginal slide, s t a r r in g Michelle D ellinger and /
H enry S h r a d y . unfortunately m lelaid.)
2. TBANSPOSABILITY
T h e r e h a a a lw ay s b e e n , b u t now I s n e w ly , a
UNITY OF MEDIA OPTIONS. You c a n g e t y o u r n e s s a g e
a c r o s s i n a p la y . t r s c t , a b r o a d s id e , a te x tb o o k ,
a w a l k in g s s n d w l c h - b o i r d , a r a d i o p r o g ra m , a c w l c
book o r f u m e t t l , a m o v ie , a s l l d e - s h o w , a c a s s e t t e
f o r t h e A u diScan o r t h e AVS-IO, o r i v m a h y p e r t e x t
(sea p .j) M U .
( B ut t r a n s p o s i n g c a n r a r e l y p r e . e r v e c < * p l e t e l y
t h e c h a r a c t e r o r q u a l i t y o f th e o r i g i n a l . )
3. BIG AND SHALL APPROACHES
What few p e o p le r e a l i z e i s t h a t b i g p i c t u r e s can
be conv eye d I n j r p o w e r f u l ways t h a n t h e y know. Ths
r e a s o n t h e y d o n ' t know i t i s t h a t t h e y e e e t h e c o n t e n t
i n t h e m e d l s , and n o t how t h e c o n t e n t I s b e in g g o t t e n
a c r o s s t o th e m t h a t in f a c t t h e y h a v e be en g i v e n v e r y
b i g p i c t u r e s in d e e d , b u t d o n t know i t . ( I ta k e t h i s
p o i n t t o be t h e N i c k e l - I r o n C ore o f M c U h a n ls m .)
P e o p le who want t o t e a c h in te rm s o f b u i l d i n g up
from t h e s m a l l t o t h e l a r g e , and o t h e r s who ( l i k e t h .
a u t h o r ) l i k e t o p r e s e n t s w h o le p i c t u r e f i r s t , th e n
f i l l i n t h e g a p s , a r e t a k i n g two v a l i d a p p r o a c h e s .
(We may c a l l t h e s e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e B ig P i c t u r e a p
p r o a c h s n d t h e P iec em ea l a p p r o a c h .) B ig p i c t u r e s a r e
J u a t s s memorable a s p i c k y - p i e c e s i f th e y have s t r o n g
I n s i g h t s a t t h e i r m a jo r i n t e r s e c t i o n s .
A. THE WORD-PICTURE CONTINUUM
T he a r t s o f w r i t i n g and d i a g r a m i n g a r e b s s l e s l l y
a c o n tin u u m . I n b o th c a a e s t h e m e n ta l im ages and c o g n i
t i v e s t r u c t u r e s p r o d u c e d a r e a m e rge r o f w hat i s t a r
o r r e c e i v e d . Words a r e s lo w and t r i c k y f o r p r e s e n t i n g
a l o t o f c o n n e c t i o n s j d ia g ra m s do t h l a w e l l . B ut d i a
gram s g i v e s p o o r f e e l f o r t h i n g s and w ords d o t h i s
s p l e n d i d l y . T he w r i t e r p r e s e n t s e x s c t s t a t e m e n t s , in
a n a c c o r d - s t r u c t u r e o f b u t s and l n d e e d e , molded i n a
s t r u c t u r e o f c o n n o t s t l o n s h a v in g ( i f t h e w r i t e r i s
good) e x a c t im p r e c l e e n e s s . T h is i s h a r d l y s t a r t l i n g :
y o u ' r e a lw a y s s e l e c t i n g w hat t o s a y , and t h e u s . o f
v a g u e w o rd s ( o r t h e u se o f p r e c i s . - m o u n d i n g w ords v a
g u e ly ) i s sim p ly s f l a g r a n t form o f o m i s s i o n , tc d la -
L a m s t o o , th e c h o l e e o f w het to l s s v e in sn d o u t , how
t o r e p r e s e n t o v srw ee n ln g c o n d i t i o n . a n d f o r c e s * "**-
l a r v d e t s i l s , a r e h ig h ly c o n n o ta tiv e . ( G r e a t d ia g r a n a
a r 7 t o be in t h e S c i e n t i f i c A m e ric an and o l d . r
I s s u e s o f TIME m a g a r i n e .)
T h is w o r d - p l c t u r e contin u u m i s J u s t s p s r t of t h .
b r o a d e r c o n tin u u m , whic h I c a l l F a n t l c s .
AHOTH^VlQUDiMf J o h n B. M a c d o n a ld
R esearch L e a d e r
[(re- mi C o a p u te r A p p l i c a t i o n s : G raphl
W estern E l e c t r i c Company
E n g in e e r in g R e s e a r c h C e n t e r
PROBLEMS. PERILS. AHD PROMISES CP COMPETES GRAPH!;
I would begin w ith bow d e f i n i t i o n s w hich may be
obvious but b e a r r e p e a t in g .
1. Engineering Is tte application of science for
2,
(*) profit,
Com puter c r a p h l c e d o e s n o t make p o s s i b l e
e s n o n l y im p r o v e t h e t h r o u g h p u t o r a n e i l s t l n g
3-
procees,
A s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p u te r g r a p h i c s
I s when o v e r a p e r i o d o f f i v e y e a r s t h e c o s t
s s v i n g s fro m i m p r o v e d p r o c e s s t h r o u g h p u t e x
c e e d th e c o s t s o f h a r d w a r e , s o f t w a r e , m a i n
te n a n c e and i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o a n e i l s t l n g p r o c e s s
f lo w .
FANTICS
By " f a n t l c s " I mean t h a a r t a n d s c i e n c e o f g e t t i n g
l d e s s a c r o a s , b o th e m o t i o n a l l y a n d c o g n i t i v e l y . "F reaen ts-
t i o n 11 c o u ld be a g e n e r a l w ord f o r i t . Tha c h a r a c t e r o f
w hat g e t s a c r o s s i s a lw ay a d u a l : b o t h t b e e x p l i c i t s t r u c -
tu r e ^ a n d f e e l l n g a t h a t go w i t h th e m . T h e s e tw o a s p e c t s ,
e x a c t n e s s and c o n n o t a t i o n , a r e a n i n s e p a r a b l e w h o l e ; w h a t
i s conveye d g e n e r a l l y haa b o t h . The r e a d e r o r v ie w e r a l
w ays g e t s f e e l i n g s s l o n g w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n , e v e n w hen t h e
c r e a t o r s o f th e i n f o r m a t i o n t h i n k t h a t i t a " c o n t e n t " i a
i c h a o re r e e t r l c t e d . A b e a u t i f u l exam ple: p o n d e ro u s
" t e c h n i c a l " m s n n s l s w hic h c a r r y B i c h m ore c o n n o t a t i v e l y
th a n t h e a u t h o r r e a l l t e e . Suc h v o l u m e , may c o n v e y t o
s a e r . s d . r . an ( i n t e n d e d ) I m p r e s s l o o o f c i ^ e t e n c e , t o
o t h . r e a sen se o f t h e a u t h o r s ' o b tu s e n a s s and n o n - I m a g i n a
tio n - E x p lic it d e c le rs tiv e s tr u c tu r e s n e v e r th e l e s s h a v e
c o n n o ts tlv e f i e l d s ; p e o p le r e c e i v e n o t o n ly c o g n i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e s , but im p re s s io n s , f e e l i n g e sn d s e n s e s o f t h i n g s .
F s n t i c s i s th u s c o n c e r n e d v l t h b o t h t h e a r t s o f e f
f e c t w r i t i n g , t h e a t e r a nd ao ona n d t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d
m echanis m s o f t h o u g h t , i n c l u d i n g t h e v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s o f
th e s c h o ls rly e vent ( s r t l c l e , bo o k , l e c t u r e , d e b s t e s n d
c l s s s ) . T hes e a r e a l l a f u n d a m e n t a l l y I n s e p a r a b l e w h o l e ,
and t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d p e o p l e who t h i n k t h a t e y e t o s a t o
I n t e r a c t w i t h p e o p l e , o r t e e c h , o r b r i n g up i n f o r m a t i o n ,
c an f u n c t i o n on some " t e c h n i c a l " b a s l e w i t h n o t i e - i n s
t o h m a n f e e l i n g s , p s y c h o lo g y , o r th e l a r g e r e o c l a l a t r u e -
t u r e a re k id d in g t h o a . l v e s . n d / o r e v e r y o n e e l s e . Sys-
tema f o r " t e a c h i n g by c o m p u t e r , " i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l , '*
and ao o n , ha v e t o be g o v e rn e d i n t h e i r d e s i g n b y l a r g e r
p r i n c i p l e , t h a n m o st o f t h e a e p e o p l e a r e w i l l i n g t o d e a l
w i t h : th e c o n v ey a n ce o f i m a g e . , I m p r e s s i o n s a n d i d e a s .
T h la l a what w r i t e r s and e d i t o r s , m o v l e - m a k e r s a n d l e c t u r
e r s , r a d i o a n n o u n c e ra and l a y o u t p e o p l e a n d a d v e r t i s i n g
p e o p l e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h ; and u n f o r t u n a t e l y c o m p u t e r
p e o p le te n d n o t t o u n d e r s t a n d i t f o r b e a n s .
In f s n t i c s s s a w h o le , t h e n we a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h :
1. T he a r t a n d s c i e n c e o f p r e s e n t s t l o n . Thus i t na
t u r a l l y I n c lu d e s
2. T e c h n iq u e s o f p r e s e n t a t i o n : w r i t i n g , s t s g e d i r
e c t i o n , m ovie m a king, m s g s z ln e l a y o u t , s o u n d o v e r l s y ,
e t c . and o f c o u r s e
3 . M edls th e m s e l v e s , t h e i r i Lalyaia an d d e s i g n ;
and u l t i m a t e l y
4 . Tha d e a ig n o f s y a ts m s f o r p r a a e n t a t l o n . T h i s
w i l l o f c o u r s e i n v o l v e c o m p u te rs h . r . s f t . r , b o t h c o n c e p t
u a l l y snd t . c h n l c s l l y ; s i n c e i t o b v i o u s l y I n c l u d e s , f o r t h e
f u t u r e , b r a n c h in g an d i n t r i c a t e l y i n t e r a c t i v e s y s t a a e n
a c t e d by p r o g r s B s b l s m e c h a n ism s , i . a . c a s p u t a r e . Thus
e n p u t e r d is p l a y , d a ta s t r u c t u r e , (a n d , to a n e x t e n t ,
p rogram m ing la n g u a g e a and t e c h n i q u e . ) a r e a l l a p e r t .
F a n t i c . M i .t a l . o ln c lu d .
5 . P s y c h o lo g i c a l a f f e c t a n d l ^ > a c t o f v a r i o u s p r e s e n
t a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e b u t n o t p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a l a e e t h e t l c a ,
a e o f h a ik u o r m a l c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . W here d i r e c t l y r e l e -
6
v sn t f a n t l c s s l s o in c lu d e s
. S o c io lo g ic a l t l . - i n a a . p e c i a l l y a u p p o rtl v e and
d y . f u n c t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e e , . u e h a s t i e l n a w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l
e t r u c t u r e ; s p o n s o r s h ip and c o M o r c l a l a ; w h a t w o r k s i n a c h o a l s
and why. Most p r o f o u n d l y o f s l l , h o w e v e r, f a n t l c e m i s t d e a l
w ith p sy c h o lo g ic a l c o n a tru c ts u se d t o o r g s n l e e th in g s -.
7 . Tha p a r t a , c o n c e p t u a l t h r e a d s , u n i f y i n g c o n c e p t s
and w h a tn o t t h a t we c r e a t e t o make a a p e c t e o f t h a w o r l d u n
d e r s t a n d a b l e . We p u t t h e a i n t o e v e r y t h i n g , b u t s t a n d a r d
i z e t h a i n madia .
F o r exam ple, t a k a r a d i o . G iv e n i n r a d i o t h a t e c h
n o l o g i c a l fu nd am e n t i s m s r a ly t h e c o n t i n u o u s t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f s o u n d . P u t i n t o i t ha ve b e e n t h e " p r o g r a m , " t h e a e r
i a l (and th u a th e e p l s o d s ) , t h e a n n o u n c e r , t h e t h e ^ ona
and th * m u s i c a l b i l d s e c o n v e n t i o n s w h ic h a r e u s e f u l p r e -
se n tstio n s lly .
The a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f a u ch m e n t a l c o n s t r u c t s s t o u l d
be c l e a r . T h e i r u s e f u l n e s s i n m e n t s l o r g a n I c a t 1cm p e r h a p s
i s n o t.
L e t 's tsk a a e u rp tls e u a ^ i l a , n o th in g e l e c t r o n i c
about I t.
Kany " h ig b v a y e " a r e w h o lly f l c t i t l o u a a t l e a a t t o
b e g in w i t h . L e t ' s s a y t h a t a t o u t s 37 l a c r e a t e d a c r o e e
t h e a t s t e : t h a t n i a b e r i s m e r e ly a s e r i e s o f s i g n s t h a t
u s e r s c an r e f e r t o a s th e y lo o k a t t h e i r maps a n d t r a v e l
a lo n g .
Bowever, a s tim e g o e a b y , * l o u t e 3 7 " ta k e n o n a c e r
ta i n r e a l i t y a s a c o n ce p tu al e n t i t y : p e o p le t h i n k o f i t
aa a t h i n s . P e ^ l e sa y " J u a t t a k e 3 7 s t r a i g h t o u t "
(th o u g h I t may tw la t and t u r n ) ; g r o u p s l i k e s R o u t e 3 7
( tar c h a n t s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , o r e v e n s C i t i s a n a t o S a v e S c e n i c
. 3 7 , may s p r i n g op.
What waa o r i g i n a l l y s l a * l y s n o m in a l c o n s t r u c t , t h a n ,
b e c o u s q u i t e r e a l a s p e o p le o r g a n i s e t h e i r l i v m a a r o u n d
it.
T h la a l l a a M a r b i t r a r y h o t n e c e s s a r y i n b o t h h i g h
ways sn d r s d l o . What, th a n , d o e s i t h a v e t o d o v l t h t h s
new e l e c t r o n i c a e d la T
 Slaply thle: till now the structures of tudla somehow
sprang naturally from the nature of things. Now they don't
anymore. Radio, books and movies have a natural Inner dy
namic of their own, leading co aueh constructs. While
this may prove to be eo for coaputer aadl as wall ( as 1
argued In "Getting It Out of Our Systen," cited p.fatf),
Chen again it aay not. In other words, WE MUST ACKNOWLEDGE
THAT WE ARE INVENT IMG PRESENTATIONAL TECHNIQUES IN THE NEW
MEDIA, not merely transporting or transposing particular
things Into thea because they eeen right. The psychologi
cal constructs of man-machine systems may turn out to ba
largely arbitrary. Thus bringing co terainal systoas con
ventions like dialogue instruction ("CAI"), or arblcrary
restrictions of how things nay be connected, presented or
written on the coaputer aay be a great alstake.
The hlghway-nuaber analogy continues. The older
highways had nuabere for convenience, and our travels be-
caae organized around them, and particular highways (like
"U.S. 1" and "Route 6 6") caae to have special character.
BuC now with che Interstates, a highway le a planned.
sealed unlc, no longer Juet a collection of roads gather
ed togecher under a name.
This unit, Che Interstate, Is not merely a psychologi
cal construct, but a planned structure. Knowing whaC works
and what doesn't In che design of fast highways, Che Inter-
scacas were built for speed, strucCured ae closed unlcs.
Designing Chem wlch llalced access hss been a conscious
decision ln the syscea design for well-based ressons, not
a chance scruccure brought in froa horse-and buggy days.
Now, the conscructs of previous media writing, fllas,
othar arts evolved over tine, and In many cases aay have
found their way to a "natural" form. BuC because of the
peculiar way that coaputer media are currently evolving
( under large grants largely granted to professionals who
uee very large words to proaoce the idea that their origi
nal professions are largely applicable ), this sort of
natural evolution aay noC take place. The new constructs
of coapuCer media, especially coaputer screen-edl^ aay not
have a chance Co be choughc out. We need designs for screen
presenCstlons and thslr mixture vignetting, Windows,
screen ttsalcs, transformed and augaented views, and the
rapid and comprehensible control of theae views and windows.
We sre still Just beginning to find clever viewing tech
niques, and have hardly begun to discover highly respon
sive forma of viewsblllty and control (cf. collaCeratlon
ln "Thlnkertoys," p. $*52^, snd Knowlcons button-box
(See T. Nelson, "A Conceptual Framework for
Han-Machine Everything," cited p. , and material on
controls, below.)
THE HIND'S UNIFICATION
One of the reasrkable things abouC the huaan mind
la che way it ties things togecher. Perceptual unity
The human mind being ae supple as it Is, anything
whatever can be used co control systeas. The problem le
having It be a comprehensible whole.
Aa slresdy remarked, our ability mentally co unify
things Is excrsordlnary. That we somehow tie together
clutch, gear, acceleracor and brake InCo a comprehensible
concrol etructure to make care go and stop should amaze
and inetruct.
Engineers and "human factors" people speak aa though
there were some kind of scientific or determinate way to
deaign control systams. Piffle. We choose a sec of con
trols, much like an artlete Palette, on the baeis of ge
neral approprlateneae; and Chen Cry besc and mosc artistic
ally to fit thea to what needs doing.
The resulc muse be conceptually elear and reCroacdve-
ly "obvious" simply because clarity is che simplest way
co keep the ueer from making mistakes. Clear snd simple
systems are easier co learn, harder to forget, lass likely
to be screwed up by the user, and thus are more economic
al getting more done for Che resources put ln.
There Is a sore of paradox here. The kinds of con
trols are totally arblcrary, buC Chelr unification In a
good syscea is not. Sooochness snd clarity can cooe from
disparate elements. Ic is for chls resaon that I lay par
ticular strees on ay JOT system for che Input and revision
of texC, using a palette of keys available on che simplest
standard computer terainal, the 33 Teletype. I cannot
aake the final judgement on how good this systea Is, but
it pleases me. JOT 1s also an important example becauee
lc suggests that a conceptually unified syscem can be
creaced from Che arcful non-obvlous combination of loose
elements originally having differenc intended purposes.
Mentsl analogy 1 s an important and clear concrol
technique. We tend co forget chat the steering wheel was
invenCed. aeparacely replacing both the boat's tiller and
the automobile's Ciller. We aleo forget thac Che use of
such steering mechanisms must be actually learned by
children. Such continuous analogies, though, require cor
responding continuities in che spscs co be controlled
an important condiClon.
Simplicity and clarity have nothing to do with the
appearance of controls, buC wlch the clarity and unique
locatablllty of individual parte. For thia reaaon I find
deplorable che arrayed controls thac are turning up, e.g.
on Codsy's audio equipment. Designers aeem to think
rowa of things are desirable. On che contrary: Che best
designed controls I ever used are on che Sony TC-50
pocket tap^ recorder
,
t a u i. r e j )
But useful wholeneas can be helped along. Jusc as
what I have called che accordance-*tructure of wrltine
(see *Writlng,' p.^ft) aoves It along aooothlv fanM-
deelgn that builds from a well-organized internal dy
namic should confer on a fantlc system the same momentum
and clarlCy chac carefully-organized writing haa.
This contribution of wholeness can only occur, how
ever, lf cbe under-level coapllcatlons of a system have
been carefully streamlined aod emoothed back ac least
as they affect the user. Consider ehe design of the JOT
editing syscea (p **>); while it is simple co the
usT, cooputer people often react co it with Indignation
and anger becauee It hides whac are co chem the signifi
cant features of computer text editing explicit pre-
occupadon wlch storage, especially the calling and re
vision of blocks." Nevertheless, I ssy It la the de
tails at Chls level which muse be smooched back if we
are co make systems for regular people.
The same applies to the Th3 system (see p. D f r f O ,
which Is designed to keep the user clear-minded aa he
coopsres Chlngs in multiple dimensions. The oechanlsms
st the computer level muse be hidden to - nVf chls work.
FANTIC SPACE
Pudovkln and Elaeneteln, greac Russian movle-makars
of che tvenelee, talked abouc "filaic space" ths Imagin
ary apace that che action ae*"1" to be ln.
Thl* concept extends Itself naturally co fantlc space
the space and relatlonehlpe sensed by a viewer of sny me- '
dlum, or a user in any presenting or responding environ
ment. The design of computer display ayatema, then la
really che artful crafting of f an d c apace. Technicalities
are subservient to effects. (Indeed, I think computer
graphics is really a branch of movle-oaklng.)
FANTIC STRUCTURE
The fantlc structure of anything, then, consists of
les noticeable pares, lneerconnectlona, contents and ef
fects.
I claim that It 1s the fantlc unity the conceptual
and presentational clarity of theee chlngs thsc makes
fantlc systems presentational systems and materiel-
clear and helpful, or not.
Lec us cske an lncereetlng example from a syst
computer-assisted Instruction now under implementation.
for

comes out of nowhere. A bunch of irregular reel*- I will not identify or consent on the aystem because per'
dentlal and industrial blocks becomes thought of as "ay haps I do noc understsnd It sufficiently. Anyway, they
neighborhood." K most remarkable case of mental uni have an array of etudent control-buitona that look like
Chls-.
fication Is afforded by the visage of our good friend
Hickey Mouse. The character is drawn ln a most para
doxical fashion: Cwo globelike protrusions (representing
the sars) are ln different positions on the head, depend O tJ MiVICE
ing on whether we view him from che front or the side. I ri 'F t f V I
No one finds this objectionable; few people even notice, I H IT
it seems.

TH E P A R A D O X I C A L A N A T O M 1 OF HIC K E Y MO U S E
K \A r EA5 IER
but of courae cbls Is now phased out; Instead mosc cassette

M I C K B X MO U S E (f r o n t a l ) (lateral)
POSSIBLE RECONCILIATIONS; Ho I ling
D i a go na l M o u n t i n g Relative
to Ca mera
What this shows, of course, le che way the alnd can
unify Into a consistent mental whole even things which
are inconsistent by normal rules (ln chls case, the rules
of three-dimensional structure).
Even perceptlone are subject to the same principle
of unification. The fingernail is an excrescence with no
nerves ln lc; yet somehow you csn feel things with your
fingernails eying togecher disparate sensadons inco
a unified senea of soaechlng ln the world (ssy, a coin
youre crying to pick up). In Che ssme way, an experienc
ed driver feels the rosd: ln a very real sense, che car's
wheels aod suspension become his own sensory extensions.
This principle of oencal unification is what aakea
chlngs cooe together, both literally and figuratively,
ln a fantlc field. A viewer sees two consecutive movie
shots of streecs snd unifies chem into one screet; controls,
If you sre used co chem, become a single fused syscem of
options; we csn have a sense of a greater whole, of which
one view on a screen Is a pare.
Tt (3HMT, m k
IS n o t IH o o r ^ i T M y
JtT '4
CONTROLS: THEIR UNIFICATION AND FEEL
Controls sre Intimately related to screen presencs-
don, jusc ae arbitrary, and just ae luporcant.
The artful deaign of control systems le a deeply
Misunderstood area, ln no way deconfused by calling it
"human factors." There are aany functions to be control
led, such as text editing operations, views of Che uni
verse on s screen, the heading of a vehicle, the tile of
an aircraft, the windage and adjustments of artillery,
Che temperature of a etove burner and any ocher control
lable devicee. And nowadays any conceivable devices
could control that pushbuccons, knobs, cranks, wheels,
levers and Joysticks, trigger, dials, aaglc wands, aani-
puladon by llghtpen on CRT screens (see p.9*'T), flicks
of Che finger, the turning of che eves (as in soae ex
perimental gun-alalng devicee), Che huaan voice (but
thac inCroduces probleas see p.^HI3), keyboards, elec
tronic cablete, bgelbart alee and chordwrlters, and so
recorders have five or six stupid buttons ln a row. (Was
lc too good to last?) RYU EM M P, f w c .r
Spurious control elegance comes ln many guises. Con
[fncf.cjJ
sider Bruce McCall's description of the Tap-A-Toe Futuroi-
die Foodess De-Clutchlngtu systeo. This wae offered on
the fictltloua 1934 Bulgemoblles, and allowed you to drive The genersl thinking ln this system aeems to be
the car wlch one pedal, racher than three (see box nearby). chac the student may gee an overall organizing view of
whac he la supposed to be learning (MAP); Information on
Careless and horrible designs are noc all flccltloua. what he la currently supposed to be about (OBJ); csnned
One egregious exaaple also Indicates the low level of de suggestions based on what hes recently done (ADVICE).
aign currently going Inco some responding systems: comput Moipver, he can get ehe aystem to present a rule sbout
er people hsve designed CRT writing systeas for newepspers the subject or give him practice; and for either of
which actually have a "kill" button on the console, by these he may request easier rules or prsctlce, or hsrdsr
which authors would accidentally kill their stories. In rules (i.e., more abstruse generslltles) or harder prsc-
s recenc magazine article It wae explained thac che event cice.
ual aoluclon wae Co chsnge Che prograa so thac to kill
the atory you had co hit the "kill" button {wice. To ae For the laccer, the student Is supposed co hie
RULE or PW.CT followed by KELP, HARDER or EASIER, vi*.-.
this seems like a beautiful exaaple of what happens when
you lec lnsulaced technical people design che system for
you: s "kill" button on the keybosrd is about as intelli
gent ae instslllng knives on the dashboard of a car,
pointing ac che passenger.
O gJ e ip ATWe
There is another poor tendency. When computer pro- / 1
granere or other Cechnlcal people design particular
sysceas wlchout thinking more generally, Chlngs are not
likely to be either simple or coablnable. What aay re
M*\P CAW
sult la intricate user-level controls for one particular /<
funcdon, controls chac sre differendy used for anocher ------- r
particular function, making the two functions not com- EUIE e w \ p fWCT
binable.
Whac makes for the best control structures, then?
There Is no simple answer. I would ssy provlslonslly
chac ic is a maccer of unified and conspicuous constructs
Now regardless of whecher chls Is a well-thougtfrout
in che menCsl view of Che domain to be controlled,
way to divide up a subject Ill be interested to see
correapondlng to a vell-dletingulshed and clesrly-incer-
how it works out chese controls do not s e a eo be well-
related set of controlling mechanisms. But that is hardly
che last word on che subject. arranged for conceptual claricy. It seems eo be Che old
rowe-of-buttons approach.
THE ORGANIZATION OF WHOLENESS I have no doubt thac ehe people working on chis sy-
seem are certain this is Che only possible layouC. But
Ic should be plsin that ln responding screen- consider chae the student's options might be clearer to
systeas, "what happens on the screen" snd how che him, for Instance, lf we set It up aa follows:
controls respond" sre noc really distinguishable.
Ths screen evenes are pare of the way the controls
respond. The screen functions and control functions
aerge psychologically.
Now, there le a crap here. Just ae the gas
pedal, clutch, gesrshifc and brake aerge peychologi-
cslly, any control structure csn aerge psychologicsl-
ly. Clutch snd gear shift do not have, for aosc of us,
clear psychologicsl relevance Co the problea of con
trolled forward motion. Yet we psychologlcslly Inte
grate tha use of Chese mechanisms as a unified means
for controlling forward ootlon (or, like the author,
get an Automatic). In much the saae way, sny syscem
of conCrols can gradually coae Chrough use co hsve s
psychological organlzadon, even spuriously. The crap
is thac we so easily lose sight of srbltrariness snd
even stupidity of design, and live with It when it
could be so auch better, becauee of chls psychological
melding.
OB
Or like this:
What I am crying co show here le that merely Che
arrangement of buttons creates different fantlc con
structs. If you see this, you will recognise that
considering all the other options we have, designing
new media le no small matter. The control structures
merge mentally with the presentational structures.
The tempCadon to settle on ahort-slghtsd designs hav
ing ehallow unity le all coo greac.
FANT1C DESIGN
Fantlc design is basically Che planning and selec
tion of effects. (We could also call chese "performance
values" cf. "production values" In movlea.)
Some of these lncended effects are singly the com
munication of information or cognitive structure "in
formation transfer," Co use one of the more obtuse
phrases current. Other desirable effects Include orien
ting the user and often moving him emotionally, including
sometimes overwhelming or entrancing him.
In che design of fantlc eysCeme involving automatic
response, we have a vast choice among Cypee of presenta
tional technlquee, tricks that are Just now becoming
understood. Not Just sereen techniques snd functions,
but aleo reeponee technlquee and functions.
(If "feelle" systems are ever perfected, ae In
Huxley'e Brave New World, it's still the same In prin
ciple. See WacHapteas, p. h*\^-)
In both general areas, chough wlchin media, and
designing media it seems to me that the creation of
organizing constructs is the most profound problem.
In particular, the organizing constructs must not dis
tract, or Cear up contents. An analogy: In writing, the
inventions of the paragraph, chapter and footnote were
inventions in writing technique that helped clarify what
was being expressed. What we need In computer-based
fantlc design ie Inventions which do not artificially
chop up, constrain, or interfere with the subject (see
box, Procrustes, nearby).
I do not feel these principles are everywhere suf
ficiently appreciaced. For Instance, the built-in
structures of PLATO (see "Faniic Space of PLATO," p.
P*^7.T) disturbs me somewhat in its arbitrariness-- and
the way Its control keys are scsttered around.
But there is always something artificial that is,
some form of artifice in presenCadon. So the problem
1 s to devise techniques which have elucidating value but
do not cut connections or ties or other relationships
you want to save. (For this reason I suggest the reader
consider "Stretchtext," p. J>h|a| , collateral linkage
(p a,*d the various hypergrams (p j)^i
These structures, while somewhat arbitrary and artifi
cial, nevertheless can be used to handle a subject
gently.)
An important kind of organizing construct is the
map or overall o r l e n d n g diagram. This, too, is often
partly "exacc" and partly "artifice:" certain aspects of
the diagram may have unclear import but clear and help
ful connotation. (For lnscance, consider Che "picture
systems" diagram on p. D M o Jusc what does che
vertical dimension mean? Yes, but whac does it really
Responding systems now make it possible for such
orienting structures to be multidimensional and respon
ding (cf. the orienting function of che "dimensional
flip" control llluscrated on p. DM JJI )
Fantic design, Chen, Is the creation either of
things to be shown (writing, movie-making, etc.) at the
lower end, or media to show things In, or environments.
1. The design of things co be shown whether
writing, movie-making, or whatever Is nearly always a
combination of some kind of explicit structure an ex
planation or planned lesson, or plot of a novel and
a feeling thae the author can control in varying degrees.
The two are .deeply intertwined, however.
The author (designer, director, ecc.) muec chink
carefully abouc how to give organization co what le
being preaented. Thia, eoo, hae both aspeccs, cognition
and feelings.
Ac the cognitive end, the author must concern him
self with detailed exposition or argument, or, in fiction,
plot. But almply putting appropriate parte together is
not enough: the author must use organizing eonscruccsco
continually orient the reader's (or viewer's) mind. Re
peated reference to main concepts, repeated shots (in a
movie) of particular locations, serve this function; but
each medium presents its own possible devices for thlB
purpose.
The organization of the feelings of the work
criss-crosses the cognitive; but we can't get Into
it here.
Selection of points and parts contributes to both
a*Pects. I* you are trying to keep the feeling of a
c w g from being ponderous, you ean never include
everything you wanted, but mist select from among the
explicit points and feellngfenerators that you have
thought of.
2. The design of media themaelvea, or of media
subsystems. Is not usually a matter of option. Books,
movies, radio and TV are given. But on occasion, as
for world's fairs or very personal projects, we have
certain option. Which allows things like:
Smellavislon or whacever they called It:
movlea with a smell-track, which went out
Into the theater through odor generatora.
Branching movies (see p . ^ H ^ ) .
"Multi-media" (multiple audio tracks and al-
multaueoue elide projectlone on different
screens).
Stereo movlea.
And ao on. The thing about the onea mentioned Is that
they are not viable aa continuing setups for repeated
productions. They do not offer a permanent wide market;
they are not stable; they do not catch on. Which Is in
a way, of course, too bad.
But the great change la Juat abouC now. Currenc
technicalities allow branching iredls especially those
associated with computer screens. And It Is up to us now
to design them.
3. MB4TAL ENVIRONMENTS are working places for struc
tured activity. The saae principles of showmanship apply
to a working environment as to both the contents of media
and the design of media. If media are environments into
which packaged materials are brought, structured environ-
mencs are baalcally environments where you use non-packag-
ed material, or create things yourself. They might also
be called "contentlesa media." The princlplea of whole-
neee In structured environments are the same aa for the
others, and many of our examples refer to them.
The branching computer acreen, together with the
aelfsame computer's ability to turn anything elae on
and off as selected by the user, snd to fetch up in-
formation, ylelde a realm of option In the design of
media and environment that bee never existed before.
Medls we design for screen-bssed computer systems are
going to catch on widely, so we must be far more at
tentive to the options that exlat in order to coomlt
nationally, perhaps to the best.
In tomorrow's systems, properly unified controls
can give us new flexibilities. If deeply well-designed,
these promise magnificent new capabilities. For In
stance, we could allow a Musician to "conduct" the per
formance of hia work by a computer-based music eyntheele
system (see "Audio," p.^il), perhapa controlling the
many qualities of the performance on a ecreen ae he goee,
by means of such techniques aa dimensional flip (see
p.n7j). (The tradition of cumulative audio aynthesls,
as practiced In the flftlea by Lee Paul and Mary Ford,
and more recently by Walter Carlos and Mike Oldfield,
will take on a new fillip as multidimensional control
techniques become coimiion.)
O o TT J u ^ lc rO fT e x f ,
Here's hov; simple it is to create and edit text with the JOT system.
Since your typewriter is now a JOT machine, not every key does what it used to.
CREATING TEXT: just type it in.
fa'fjf.: The quick brown fox jumps over the la2y dog.
If f'jpti: The quick brown fox jumps over tho lazy dog.
REVIEWING A SENTENCE YOU JUST TYPED: the back-arrow takes you back, the space bnr steps y o u
,,
sp sp sp sp
U (bell) The quick brown fox
DELETIONS AND INSERTIONS: the RUBOUT key rejects words you don't want.
fi* sp sp RUBOUT
Jf (bell) The quick /brown/ lithe fox jumps over the laxy dog.
REARRANGING TEXT: first w e make three Cuts in the text, signalled by free-standing excl a n a t i o n
yi sp I sp ! sp I fox
// 7y 4 The l quick J lithe ! fox
TO REARRANGE IT, YOU TYPE: LINE FEED key.
CHECK THE RESULTS:
sp sp sp Sp
(bell) The lithe quick fox
One of the intents of this book haa been to orient
you to some of the possibilities and soae of tbe option**
considered generally. There le not room, unfortunately*
to discuss more than one or two overall possibilities In
detail. The moat successful such systaa so far haa b een
PLATO (discussed pp. DM18-19); others
k.T u /,t|W Mr
NEW MEDIA TO LAST
Whet's worse, we are confronted not merely v lt b che
job of using computers to present epeclflc things. The
greater cask Is co design overall computer media that
will last us into a more intelligent future. Adrift In
a aea of Ignorance and confusion, it is nevertheless our
duty to try to create a whole transportation s y s t a that
everybody can climb aboard. For the long run, fantlc
ayatems oust be trested not as custom s y s t a a for explicit
purposee, but ae OVERALL GENERAL DESIGNS WHICH VILL H AVE
TO TIE TOGETHER AND CATCH CM, otherwise collapse and
perlab.
FINAL CONSEQUENCES.
It aeema to me certain thet we ace w i n g coward
a generalized and universal Fantlc sy e t a ; people can
and ahould d o a n d it. Perhaps there will be several;
but if so, being able to tie them together for m o t b
transmission is essential. (Think of what It would be
like If there were two kinds of telephones?) Thle then
Is a great search and crusade: to put together truly
generel media for^ruture, systoas at which we can read*
writs, learn and visualize, year after Tear after y e a r .
The Initiatives are not likely to come from the more
conventional eoaputer people; some of them are part of
the probla. (Be prepared for every poealbla form of
aggressive defensiveness froa prograMere, especially:
"Why would you want that?" The correct answer la
BECAUSE, damlt!)
But thle all means thst Interior coaputer technical
ities have to be SUBSERVIENT, and the prograoers cannot
be allowed to dictate bow it la to behave on tbe basis
of the underlevel structures that are convenient to thea.
Quite the contrary: from the fullest consideration of che
rlehest upper-level structures we want, we tha usera-to-
be aust dictate what lower-level structures are to be
prepared within.
But this means you, dear reader, muat develop the
fantlc imagination. You auat learn to visualize possible
uses of computer screens, so you can get on down to the
deeper level of how we are going to tie theee things
together.
The deelgner of responding coaputer eyeteas le
cresting unified setups for viewing snd msnlpulstlng
things and the feellnga, Impreeelons end sense of things
thst go with them. Our goal should be nothing less than
REPRESENTING THE TRUE CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF HUMAN
THOUGHT. (Yes, Dream Machlnee Indeed.) But it should
be eomethlng more: enabling the mind to weigh; pursue,
synthesize snd evaluate ideas for a better tomorrow.
Or for any at all.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Theodor H. Nelson, "A Conceptual Framework for
Man-Machine Everything." Proc. NCC 73.
"Computopia and Cybercrud. In Levien (ed.).
Computers in _Ins^ruc_^ion, The Rand Corporation,
through
To insert , Merely t y pe.
lithe sp sp sp sp sp sp
points.
This exchanges the two pieces between the c u ts.
 if c wmxivifi-Her
--- * SyiftH
I <*4cJ +

H i t U r tt-H t* y -o \)u e i h l e w T c W is c tjH te f?

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i*s M *f re*l i N T e u f C T f c o * | i a ? [s -h
A n o th e r a p p l i c a t i o n o r t h e p r e s e n t In v e n ti o n I s a l s o t a th e arc-a E i t h e r o f th e e e a l t e r n a t i v e s m y c o n tin u e v l t h I t s ovr.
o f p i c t o r i a l d i s p l a y , b u t o f f e r s a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f p o t e n t i a l u s e r c b o le e s I d develo pm ents a n d a n l a s t l t t i s u n d e r c o n t r o l o f i t s own sh ank . Me^i^-THD^icx?
a s i m p l e c ir c u m s t a n c e . I c a l l t h l e t h e " w a lk in g n e t" s y s t e a b e c a u se c o n t r o l i s S e v e ra l fe a tu re s o f th is c o c tr o i a p p lic a tio n a re of sp e e la l
e f f e c t e d th r o u g o a c h an g in g n e tw o rk o f c h o i c e s wbleb s t e p , o r " w a lk ," In te re st, t e e i s t h a t th e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a y be c o n tin u o u s i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s ,
a ro u n d th e csrv e n , a i d i n g l n c o n tin u o u s u s s r o r i e n t a t i o n . A n o th e r i s t h a t p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e
D ie p r o b le a o f I n t r i c a t e c o p u t e r g r a p h ic s &iy b e p h r a s e d

f o l l o v c : g i v e n t h a t a d i g i t a l s y s t e n c a n b o ld a wide v a r i e t y o f g r a p h i c a l
r e v e r s i b l e i n v a r i o u s w ays, a n a i d b o th i n u s e r o r i e n t a t i o n a n d s e l f - s t u d y .

(NiTt o n ly I s a d e m o n s tr a t io n r e v e r s i b l e w i t h i n a g iv e n sh ank , b u t th e u s e r e ay
'FA M TiC V
First of all, 1 feel that very few
m t e r l a l s r e a d y t o p r e s e n t , hens n ny t h e u s e r s o o t s l a p l y a n d c o n v e n ie n tly b a ck t h e p i p th r a i G h a n i n t e r s e c t i o n i n t o th e a n te c e d e n t sha nk people understand what interactive computer
s/stems are about. It's like the story of the
c hoose th e n ? I n d e e d , how m y t b e u s e r ke ep t r a c k o f what I s h a p p e n in g , v i a re which r e a p p e a r s a t t h e J u n c tu r e a s t h e llG h tp e n ta c K s u p a n d the u s e r s a y blind men and the elephant-- each thinks it's
a different thing (based, usually, on his own
h e I s a n d v b e r e he h a s been? c o n tin u e t o r e v e r s e 't h e p r e s e n t a t i o n th ro u g h t h a t p r e e e d ln g sh ank , o r t o r e - c n t e technical specialty).

T te e * t * n w l B e e h a n la a I have s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s f a c i l i t y la ra d o * ' t b e i n t e r s e c t i o n a n d nuke a n o th e r c h o i c e , " t h e p i t h n o t ta k e n . ) These But I think it's all show business.
PENNY ARCADES are the nodel for interactive
1t a l l y e a o b l n e s g r e a t v e r s a t i l i t y f o r s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r e s e n t a t i o n s w i t h .jr e a t f e a t u r e s a l lo w t h e u c e r d e a r l y t o r e p e a t d e o o n o tr a tio n s a s o f t e n a s he l i k e s computer systems, not classrooas or libraries
or imaginary robot playaates. And coaputer
s i m p l i c i t y b e f o r e t h e n a iv e u s e r . Ths id e a I s t h i s : t h e u s e r nay c c m t n d a and t o e x p lo r e num erous a l t e r n a t i v e s . graphics is an intricate branch of aovie-
naking.
c o n t i n u i n g s u c c e s s io n o f c h an g in g p r e s e n t a t i o n s , n M n g o n ly one s l n p l e c h o ic e The d is p l a y e d c o n t r o l n e t I s th u s t o be u n f e r s to o d a s a la r g e
Okay, so I wanted a term that would
a t a t i a e , y e t r e c e i v i n g I n t r i c a t e a n d r i c h a n im a tio n s v l t h e x tre m e ly c l e a r netw ork o f c h o i c e s , n o s t l y u n se e n , whose c u r r e n t l y v i s i b l e p o r t i o n "w alks" a ro u n connote, in the most general sense, the show-
aanship of ideas and feelings-- whether or not
c o n t i n u i t y on t b e s c r e e n . handled by aaehine.
th e s c r e e n a s u s e p r o g r e s s e s . W ith in t h i s s y s t e n , th e n , n u ie ro u s v a r i a n t s a r e
The e x t e r i o r s e c h a n l s u I s t h i s : a lo n g v l t b a n a r b i t r a r y g r a p h ic p o s s ib le . F o r I n a t a n c e , t b e c u r r e n t l y v i s i b l e p o r t i o n o f th s M t s a y I t s e l f I derive "fantics" from the Creek words
"phainein" (show) and its derivative "phantas-
p r e s e n t a t l o i e n th e s c r e e n , th e u s e r I s c o n tin u o u s ly p r e s e n t e d v l t h t h e l u g s be v b l a s l c a l l y I n c o r p o r a t e d i n a p i c t u r e , v l t . : tein" (present to the eye or aind).
l>L44
o f a f o r k i n g s e t o f a r m s , j.-. You will of course recognize its cousins
fantastic, fantasy, p h an to a. ("Phantom aeans
what is shown; in medical illustration it refers
to an opaque object drawn as transparent; a
w **> 6H W d "phantom limb" is an amputee's temporary feeling
V irtu e that the severed limb has been restored.) And a
fantast is a dreamer.

fr The word "fantics" would thus include

the showing of anything (and thus writing
" i' kTvI and theater), which is more or less what I
intended. The term is also intended to
c o v e T the tactics of conveying ideas and
Tbe p i p I s a c o n v e n ti o n a l i l ^ h t - p e n c u r s o r . The " c u r r e n t shank" I s a l i n e impressions, especially with showmanship
and presentational techniques, organizing
whose i m p l i c i t g r a d a t i o n s c o n t r o l f c v e lo p c e n tc i n the p i c t u r e ; a n d th e choLce constructs, and fundamental structures
underlying presentational systens.
o f a r r o w s a t th e end o f th e e u r r e n t sh a n k d c t e r a l n s & d i s c r e t e c h o ic e betw een
Thus Engelbart's data hierarchy (P.,*<fc-7),
a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t a r e to t r a n s p i r e . SKETCHPAD'S Constraints (p.,**>), and PLATOS
ttptfOSTtS TH* G l W l T fantic spaces ( p j K 2("7* 8re fantic constructions
The u s e r , s e i z i n g t b e p i p w ith th e l l g h t p c n , moves I t (th ro u g h that need to be understood if we are to under
The G re ek s t o l d o f a g ia n t, P r o c r u s t e s ( r h y w s w ith stand these systens and their potential usages.
t h e u s u a l l l g h t p z n t e c h n i q u e s ) s ld c v o y e a lo n e tb e c u r r e n t sh a n k . Moving i t ln R u s ty s ) who was v e ry h o s p it a b le t o p a s s in g t r a v e l e r s .
He would I n v i t e . Indeed c c a p a l th e a . t o s l e e p I n h i s
th e " f o r w a r d " d i r e c t i o n e au c es p r o g r t 6 d v e dev elop m en ts l n th e p l c t u i ; , D ovlnc b ed. lln f o r t u n a t e l y , be ca use i t was a v e ry odd b e d , h
hod t o c u t th e a up f i r s t . . .
I t "b ac k w a rd" c a u s e s a r c v ^ r c a l o f o n i c i t i - . r i : an d o ilie r p r e v io u s d c v e l o p z s n t s .
P r o c r u s t e s ha s h a u n ted c o n v e r s a t io n s e v e r s i n c e ; and
Vhen tb e p ip r c i c h e s t h e c h o ic e r ^ i n t i n the f o r ^ r d d i r e c t i o n , any t i n e we a r e f o rc e d t o use c a t e g o r i e s t h a t d o n 't pro
p e r ly f i t a s u b j e c t , i t s c e u l i k e an i n v i t a t i o n to th e
th e u s e r may d r a g i t (th r o u g h th e u c u a l l i g h t p s n t t c h n l q u a s ) a l o n g e i t h e r o f P r o c ru s t e a n b e d .
L iv e rm o re L ab s , th o s e h y d ro g en -b o m b
tb e b e c k o n in g a l t e r n a t i v e s . T M s th e n c a u se c f u r t h e r d e v e lo p .n n t s l c th e H y p e r te x t s y s t e a s a t l a s t o f f e r t o t a l f r e e d f r a n d e s ig n p e o p le , w ill h a v e a " L a b o ra to ry for
a r b i t r a r y c a t e g o r i z i n g and choppin gi b u t i n s y s te a s Data A n a l y s is , an o p u le n t f a c u lty for e x
p r e s e n t a t i o n c o n so n a n t v l t h th e l i n e s e l e c t e d . f o r s t o r i n g and p r e s e n tin g I n f o r a a t i o n , I c a n ' t h e lp h e a r p e rim e n tin g w ith m u ltid im e n sio n a l v isu a lisa tio n .
in g th e whle k o t P r o c r u s t e s ' k n i f e
"DevelopBents" o f t b e p i c t u r e h e re I n c lu d e e x i a n s l a n , c o n t r u e t l o r

s l i d i n g m o v e n n t s an d f n u c c -b y -T ru c e a n im a tio n . V "V
One o f your j o l l y i r o n i e s . I have aeen p ic
t u r e s o f b e a u t i f u l a u l t l b u t t o n e o n tr o l h a n d les which
were d e sig n ed f o r p r o j e c t SMASH, would you b e lie v e
( Q e s e o a t e r l o l s w i l l h av e b e e n , o f c o u r s e , e x p l i c i t l y I n p u t b y "Take new Tap-A-Toe Futuroidic Footless S o u th e a s t [Asia] H u ltle e n e o r y A ra aa en t S y s tM f o r
De-Clutching. Instead of old-fashioned gas, H e l ic o p t e r s . Aaxgh.)
a u th o rs a nd a r t i s t s . ) brake and clutch pedals that kept your feet
busier than a dance marathon, Tap-A-Toe
I n a s a a p le e a p lo y n e n t, c o i s l d e r a p r e s e n t a t i o n <n t h e s u b j e c t Futuroidic Footless De-Clutching offers the T he b e a t w ith Ihe w o n t .
convenience of Single Pedal Power Control--
o f V o lc a n o e s . I t t h e f i r s t shank o f t h e c o n t r o l n e t e o n t r o l t h e " r i s e o f a combines all foot functions in one single E v e r y th i n g la d e e p ly I n in rtw in g le d .
pedal!
v o lc a n o f r o a t h e s e a " - - a n u n d u la tin g o c e a n s u r f a c e p i e r c e d f l r o t b y a w isp o f
"Think of it: one tap-- you go, aoving
sa o k e , t h e n a growing p e a k , v l t h r i v u l e t s o f la v a se e n t o ru n down I t s s i d e s off faster than a barfly after Repeal.

and d a rk e n a s t h e y c o i t r l b u t c t o I t s g ro w th . "Two taps-- you change gears, as smooth

and automatic as a mortgage foreclosure.

"Three taps-- you stop quicker than the

U.S. economy.
- U
"And that's all there is to it. Tap-A-
Toe Futuroidic Footless De-Clutching with Designing screen systems that focus
(r~>lk J I*. Single Pedal Control is as easy and effort the user's thought on his work, with help
less as the Jap narch on Manchuria!" ful visualizations and no distractions, is
A.1.W , . J e - A rt j / . Ll the great task of fantic design.
Bruce McCall,
"1934 Bulgemobile Brochure, In a system I designed for CRT motion-
National Lampoon. May 74, 76-7. picture editing, the user could aaipulate
A t th e e n d o f th e f i r s t sltank , th e u s e r s a y b r a n s h t o tw o <irrc
written descriptions on the screen (corres
ponding to the usual yellow-pad notes). To
l a b e l l e d r e s ^ C t l v e l y WORD OHISIR a n d UTEftlCH, E i t h e r o p tio n c o n ti n u e s t!;<*
see the consequences of a particular splice,
for instance, the editor would only have to
p r e s e n t a t i o n w ith o u t a b r e a k , r e t a i n i n g ouch o f th e p i c t u r e on th e s c r e e n . draw a line between two annotated lines re
presenting shots. Trim variations could be
S e l e c t i o n Of WOJ\D ORIDIII cnufics t b e word V01CAII0 t o change t o VUIAil, a n d a seen by moving this cut-line (illustrated).
p i c t u r e o f tb e god V-jican I s se en t o s e i z e a l i g h t n i n g b o l t r i s i n g f r o a th e STCIMV1SI0M Not long after, CBS and Memorex did'in
troduce a system for movie-editing by CRT--
c r a t e r ; t e x t a p p e a rs t o e x p la i n t h i s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , I f th e u s e r c h o o se s A n ic e exasqtle o f a u n i f i e d p r e s e n t a t i o n a l but I've heard that in their systea the user
sy B tea would a llo w you a * f e e l i e " g lo v e a lo n g has to actually deal with numbers. If so,
IKTC3IQH, t b e tu b e s a n d d u c ts w ith in t h e v o lc a n o a p p e a r , an d e x p la n a to r y t e x t w ith yo ur c o o p u te r d i s p l a y th e s o r t o f th in g this is missing the whole point.
Hike N o ll h a s be en do in g a t B e ll Lahs.
a lso .
Now, su p p o se you a r e p la y in g w ith a dia g ra m
o f a s t a r on a c o n p u te r d is p l a y s c r e e n . I t ' s a l l
v e ry w e ll t o s e e I t a l a y e r s , flow ing a rrow s r e
p r e s e n tin g c o n v e c tio n c u r r e n t s , p r a o n t o r i e e and
so on b u t s m th in g s you o u gh t to b e a b le to
f e e l . Por exaxiple, th e n e c h a n ic a l r e s o n a n c e -p r o p H o N iT tn
e r t i e s o f s t a r s . I t would be n ic e t o be a b le to
re a c h and g r a s p th e s t a r , t o a a u e e te I t and f e e l
i t s p u l s a t i o n s a s i t r e g a in s i t s sh a p e. T h le
c o u ld be done i n th e g lo v e a t th e s a a e t i a e th e o r HCKD/^e
U t g t o f t h e g lo v e g r a s p s th e s t a r on th e s e r e e n ,
and th e s t a r i a sq u ish e d .

Of c o u r s e , t o b u i l d su ch a resp o n d in g g lo v e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y one t h a t gave you s u b tl e f e e l i n g s
back ln y ou r f i n g e r s , would p rob ably b e v e ry ex
p e n s iv e . But i t s th e k in d o f p o s s i b i l i t y p e o p le dlWE.NVK1*' H M T- DdteK
sho uld s t a r t c o n s id e r in g .

tH M K f tlo y s *
Our greatest problems involve thinking and the
visualization of complexity.
By "Thinkertoy" I mean, first of all, a system
to help people think. ('Toy' means it should be easy
and fun to use.) This is the same general idea for
which Engelbaxt, for instance/ uses the term "aug
mentation of intellect.
But a Thinkertoy is something quite specific:
I define it as a computer display system that helps
y ou envision complex al ternatives.
The process of envisioning ccsnplex alternatives
is by no means the only important form of human
thought! but it is essential to making decisions, d e
signing, planning, writing, weighing alternate theor
ies, considering alternate forms of legislation, doing
scholarly research, and so on. It is also complicated
enough that, in solving it, we may solve simpler prob
lems as well.
We will stress here some of the uses of these sy
stems for handling t e x t , partly because I think these
are rather interesting, and partly because the com
plexity and subtlety of this problem has got to be
better understood: the written word is nothing lees
than the tracks left by the mind, and so w e are really
talking about screen systems for handling ideas, in
all their complexity.
Numerous types of complex things have to be inter
compared, and their relatione inter-cemprehended. Here
are a few of the many types:
Alternative
Discrepancies among the testimony of witness)
'V
Successive drafts of the same document.
Pairs of things which have sane parts the
same, some parts different (contracts, holy books,
statutes of different states, draft versions of
legislation...) i For sone reason, however, the most important aspect o f such s y s te ms
Different theories and their ties to parti
cular examples and evidences.
Under examination these different types of inter-
cooparison seem to be rather different. Now, one a p
proach would be to create a different d ata structure
and viewing technique for each different type of c om pl ex .
There may be reasons for doing that in the future.
For the present, however, it makes sense to try to
find the most general possible viewing technique: one
that will allow complex intercanparisons of all the
types mentioned, and any others we might run across.
One such technique is what 1 now call collatera-
tion, or the linking of materials into collateral struc
tures.* as will be explained. This is fairly straight
forward if you think enough about the problem; Engel-
bart discovered it independently.
Let us call two structures collateral if there are
links between them, connecting a selected part of one
with a selected part of the other. The sequences of
the connected parts may be different. For s in^licitye
sake, suppose each one is a short piece of writing.
(We will also aspume that there is some convenient form
of rapid viewing and following between one end of a link
and another.)
We might
LL
Now, it will be noted first off that this ie an ex
tremely general method. By collateral structuring we
can easily handle the equivalents of: tables of contents!
indexes,- contents and marginalia; explanations, exegesis,
explication? labeling? headings: footnotes; notes by the
writer to himself; contents and questions by the reader
for later reference; and additional details out of se
quence -
alii&SiS.
.then. i. the cre.tior, of c h
multiple and viewable links BETWEEN ANY TWO DATA
STRUCTURES, in principle, it i, general and powerful
enough to handle a greet variety oj poe.ible ueee in
hunan intellectual endeavor, and deeenree conaider-
able attention from researchers of every stripe.**
The problem then, is how to handle this for
rapid and convenient viewing and whatever other work
the user wants to do writing and splicing, inter-
comparing, annotating and so on. T wo solutions ap
pear on this spread: The Parallel Textface*, design
ed as a seminal part of the Xanadu system (see p.>jft),
which I hope will be marketed with that system in the
near future, and a more recent design which I've work
ed on at the University of Illinois, the 3D Thinkertoy
or Th3.
CLARITY A M D POWER
We stressed on the other side of the book that
conputer systems must be clear, single and easy to use.
Where things like business uses of computers are con
cerned, which are intrinsically so single in principle,
some of the complications that people have been forced
to deal w ith in i 1 1 -designed computer systems verge on
the criminal. (But sane computer people want others
to think that's the way it has to be. "Your first
duty is to keep your job, right?" one computer person
said to me recently. "It wouldn't do to set up systems
so easy to use that the company wouldn't need y ou any
more." See Cybercrud," p.6 .)
But if it is desirable that conputer systems for
simple-minded purposes be easy to use, it is absolutely
necessary that computer systems for complicated purposes
be simple to use. If you a n wrangling over complex al
ternatives say, in chess, or in a political simula
tion game (see "Simulation, p. % ), or in the throes
of trying to write a novel, the last thing you will tole
rate ie for your conputer screen to Introduce complica
tions of its cwn. If a system for thinking doesn't
make thinking simpler allowing you to see farther and
more deeply it is uselss, to use only the polite term.
But systems can be both powerful and sinple at
the same time. The myth that things have to be com
plicated to d o anything for you is pernicious rubbish.
Well-designed systems can make our mental tasks lighter
and our achievements come faster.
WE OFTEN WANT TO SAVE ALTERNATIVES.
Aaitltulj [itirl'j tkprti/J,
[A U 4i f i mt mtob hr iwimmaj tjti\
T h l I [wtiU ] rttbtr f n l lit* u t
[Hit g n t i B*um riu.]
*9
[AUnm arm, jtrrwt lawiiataiiknak
[ < / . ............... . following:
[I*#) t,U Ait bet wit* frU t I
Ati &1m my Camk,
M) (ir i t] 4 - IrrrljJrU i.]
F r o m C o 1 er_id_^e1 s P o e m s ? A F a c s i m i l e
R e p r o d u c t i o n of the P r o o f s
a n d M S S , o f s o m e of th e P o e m s .
( F o l e r o f t , 19 72.)
also think of t h e m as systems for
It is for this reason that I contendthe r eader
these two designs of mine: as examples of user-level
control and viewing designs fantlc enviro nm en ts , if
you will (see p^)s-tt)-- that are p runed and tuned to
give the user great control over the viewing and cr os s-
consideration of intricate alternatives, witho ut e x
plication. I like to believe that both of these, i n
deed, are ten-minute gya* ' that is, when w e g e t
them running, the fange of uses shown here can b e t aught
to naive users?in ten minutes o r l es s.
It is because of my heartfelt belief in thia k i nd
of simplicity that I stress the creation of p r e fa br ic a
ted environments, carefully tuned for easy use, rather
than the ereation of ccmputer languages which m u t be
learnt by the user, as do s uch people as Bngelbart (aee
p.^ 1 6 ) and DeFanti (see p.J)N3i). Now, their a pproach
hbviously has considerable mer it for sophisticated user s
who w ant to tinker repeatedly w it h variant approaches.
Por people w ho want to w ork Incessantly in an envi ro n
ment, and on other things say write rs and are ab-
eent-minded and clumsy and nervous and forgetful (like
the present author), then the safe, prefabricated en
vironment, with thoroughly fail-safe functions a nd u t
terly memorable structural a nd control interrelation
ships, is the only a pproach.
* In my 1965 paper (see bibliography) I called c ollateral
structures zippered lis ts .
* * a group at Brown University has reportedly w orked
along these lines sinee I wo rk ed with them, b u t due
to certain personal animosities I hava not k ept up
with their d e v e l op Kn ts . It will be interesting to
see what kind of response they ean g et out of the
IBM systems they are using.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Theodor H. Nelson, "A File Structure for the complex,
the Changing and the Indeterminate." Proc. A C M 65,
84-100.
----- 1 "Simplicity Versus Pover in User Systems."
Unpublished.
DECISION/CREATIVITY SYSTrMS
Theo do r H. N elson
19 J uly 1970
It has b een recognized fron the davn o f c omputer display t hat t h e
grandest and most important us e of the conputer display should be t o
aid decisions end c reative thought. Hie w ork o f Ivan S utherland (SK ET CH PA D )
and Douglas i.'npelbart h ave really shown ho w v e m ay use the display t o
visualize and effect our creative decisions swiftly and vividly.
has been ncglected. We do not make important decisions, w e s hould n o t
make delicate decisions, serially and irreversibly. Rather, th e po we r o f
the conputer display (and its conputing e nd filing support) must be so
crafted that ve may develop alternatives, spin out their complications
and Interrelationships, and visualize these upon a screen.
No systen could do this for us automatically. What de sign and
programming can create, hovever, is a facility that wi l l al lo w us
to list, skctch, link a nd annotete the complexities ve s eek t o un de r^
stand, then present "views" o f the complexities in m any different forms.
Studying these views, annotating and refining, v e can reach t he final
designs and decisions v ith much rore in mind t han w e could otherwise
hold together in the imagination.
Some of the facilities that such systems must ha v e Inclu de the
Annotations to anything, to any remove.
Alternatives of decision, design, writing, theory.
Unlinked or irreru]ar Pi ec es . hanging as t he user wishes.
Hulticou-ling, or complex linkage, between alternatives, an n o t a
tions or whatever.
Histories! filin.- of the u s e r s actions, Including each a ddition
end modification, and possibly the viewing actions t hat pr eceded them.
Frozen rpnertts and versions, which the user may h ol d as m e m r a b l e
for his thinking.
Evolutionary cour Linr, where the correspondences betw ee n evol vi ng
versions are autcrsatically cair.talned, and their differences o r r el at io ns
easily annotated.
In addition, designs for screen "views", the m otion, appea ra nc e
and disappcnrancc of elements, require considerable thought and im a g i
nation.
The object is not to burden the user, or make h i m awa re o f c o m p l e x
ities in which he has no Interest. But almost everyone in intell ec tu al
and decision pursuits has at some time an implicit n ee d for so a e of
these facilities. If people knew they w ere possible, t hey w o u l d d a a n d
them. It is time for their creation.
A full-fledged decision/creativity system, embracing b ot h te x t a n d
graphics, Is one of the ultieate design goals of Project XAHADU.
 P AR A LL E L TEXTFACE (1971)

This use r -l e ve l s y s t e m is intended to a id in

all forms of w r i t i n g a n d scholarship, as w ell as
a ny w h e r e else that we n e e d to u n de rstand and m a n i
p u l a t e c omplex c l us t e r i n g s of text (i.e., t h o u g h t ) .
It w il l also w o r k w i t h c er tain animated g r a p h i c s .
The Parallel Te x tf a ce , as described here,
f ur n is h ed the initial impetus for the de v el o pm e nt
o f the X a n a d u tm s y s t e m (see p.$K$fe). X a na d u was
d ev e loped, indeed, or i g i n a l l y for the pu r p o s e of
i mp l e m e n t i n g some of these functions, but the two
s p l i t apart. It t u rn e d out that the Parallel
T e x t f a c e requi r ed an e x t r e m e l y unusual dat a struc-
s tr u ct u re and p r o g r a m techniques; these then b ec a me
the X an a du system. As d e v e l op e d in the final
X a n a d u design, they t u r n o ut to handle some very
u n u s u a l kinds of s c r e e n an i mation and file retrieval.
B u t this grew out of s t r u c tu r in g a syst em to ha ndle
the functions d es c r i b e d here.
DER I VA T IV E MOTION: w h e n links run seq u en t ia l
ly, connecting on e -a f ter-the-other on bot h sides,
the contents of the second panel are pu lled along
directly: the smoot h motion in one p a n el is m a t c h
ed in. the other. This m ay be c a l le d derivative
m o t i o n , b e t we e n independent text (being handled
directly with the lightpen) and d e p e n d en t text
(being pull ed along). The rel at i on s hi p m ay be re
versed immediately, however, simply by m o ving the
lightpen to the c o n tr o l pip of the o t h er panel,
w hose contents then become the i n d ep e nd e nt text.
Real person sits at
c a r d b oa r d Xanadu mockup. Irregularities in the links w i l l cause the
independent text to move at varying speeds or jump,
according to an average of the l i n k s 1 connectivity.

T hus the Parallel T ex tface b as ically requires

a X a n a d u system.

It is h o p ed that this s y stem c a n be so l d c o m

p l e t e (including m i n i c o m p u t e r or m i c r o p r o c e s s o r - -
n o con n ec t io n to a large c o mp u te r is required) for
a fe w thousand-d o llars by 1976 or 1977. Se e p.
( Since "business p e o p l e " are e x tr emely s k eptical
as to w he t he r anybody w o u l d w a n t such a thing, I
w o u l d be in t erested in h ea r in g expressions of i n
terest, if any.)

" Nice keyboard. But

L
w ha t ha p pened to
y o u r t y p e w ri t er ?
; If no links are shown, the de p en d en t text just

' .< . ..Ml-. Ml

1 .d l.-,. -IkJl.i ..Ml) Ml -vk. '

I <*.*. ..Ult LdJ I.

.JU-fl U..lk> .J J> l.ti V.
I R Jl< J.u-JU i.Lh (| 1
ZmII.*. hill l -l .ak. t
- .......................... f

u lt.

C ol l ateral links b e tw e en material! in the

two panels are d i s p la y ed as movable li nes b e t
Two panels are about w ee n the panels. (Text omitted in this diagram;
r i g h t for a 10 x 10 panel b o un d ar y ha s bee n made to appear.)
QH T Z - T screen.
Some links m a y n ot have both t h eir endpoints
As shown here, the s cr e en presents two panel s dis played at once. In this case we s h o w the in
text; more are allowed. E ac h contains a s e g complete link as a b ro k en arrow, p o i n t i n g in the
m e n t of a long e r document. ("Page" w o ul d be an i m dir ection of the link's completion.
p r o p e r term, since the b o u n d a r y of the text view ed
m a y be changed instantly.)

The other odds a nd ends on the sc reen are h i d

d e n keys to control e le m en t s w h i c h have be e n mad e
to fade (in this illus t ra t io n ), ju s t to lessen the
distraction.

Panel boundaries a nd control graphics m a y b?

m ad e to appear by t o uc h in g them w1U fU.
Ind e pe n de n t text pulls
d e p e n de n t text along.
U ;t' P ai n te d streaks simulate
motion, not icicles. The brok e n a r ro w serves not m er e ly as a v i
sual pointer, b u t as a jump-marker l e a di n g to the
linked material. By zapping the b r o k e n arrow with
the lightpen, the user summons the li nked material-
as shown by the com p le t io n of the link t0 'he other
panel. (Since t h ere has been a jump in the second
panel, we see that in this case the o t h e r link
b ee n broken.)

<g)H72. T. MtLioH

R O V I N G FUNCTIONS

The text moves on the screen! (Essential.)

The lower right han d c o r n e r of eac h text p a nel
contains an i nconspicuous control diagram. The
slight horizontal e x t e n s i o n is a m o vable control
pip. The user, w i t h h is light pen, m ay m ove the
p ip up or down. " U p * c au s es the text to move
s mo o th l y upward (forward in the m a t e r i a l ) , at a
rat e proportional to h o w far y ou pus h the pip; <g) H 7 2 . T- uelso *
" down" causes it to move back. (Note that we do
not refer here to je rky l i n e- b y- l in e jumps, b u t When s uch l i n k s lead to d i f f e re n t places, both
to smoot h screen motion, w h i c h is essential in of these d e s t i na t io n s m ay n e ve r theless be seen at
a hi gh-performance s y stem. If the text does not once. Thi s is. d on e by p oi nting at bo t h b r oken links
move, yo u can't tell w h e r e it came from.) in succession; the syste m then allows bo t h links to
be completed, b r e a k i n g the second p anel ^
two d es t inations (as sh own by dotted line across
panel).

9L

XANADU i m rjJcU ffi
F AIL-SAFE AND HISTO RI CA L FEATURES.
In systems for naive users, it is essential
to safeguard the user from his own mistakes. Thus
in text systems, commands given in error must be
reversible. For instance, Cannody's system (see
p. DM' iJ ) requires confirmation of deletions.
Another highly d es irable feature wou ld allow
the user to view previous versions, to see them c o l
laterally with the corresponding parts of current
versions, and even go back to the way particular
things were and resume w ork from the previous
version.
In the Parallel T extface this is all c om
p rised in the same extremely simple facility. ( Ex
tremely simple from the user's point of view, that
is. Inside it is, of course, hairy.)
In an egregious touch of narcissistic humor,
we use the very trademark on the screen as a control
d evice (expanded from the "JC" shown in the first
panel '
Actually the X in " X a na du t m ," as it appears
on the screen, is an hourglass, with a softly fall*
ing trickle of an imated dots in the lower half, and
Sands of Time seen as heaps above and below. These
have a control, as w el l as a representative, f u nc
tion.
TO UNDO SOMETHING, YOU MERELY STEP "BACKWARD
IN TIME" by dagging the upper part of the hourglass
w ith the lightpen. One poke, one editing operation
undone. Two pokes, two operations.
You may then continue to view and nake changes
'as if the last two operations had never taken place.
This effectively creates an alternative time-line.*
ilowever, if y ou decide that a previously undone edit
operation~fhould be kept after all, you may step
forward-- stepping o nto the previous time-line--
by- using the lower h alf of the hourglass.
Em " free
0111*
We see this clarified in a master time diagram
o* Revision T ree whic h may be summoned to the screen,
never mind how. In this example we see that three
versions are still "current," various other starts
and variations having been abandoned. (The shaggy
fronds correspond to short-lived variations, r esult
ing from operations whi ch were then reversed. In
other words, "excised" time-lines, to use Gerrold's
term-- see footnote.)
The user-- l et s say he is a thoughtful writer-
may define various V ersions or Drafts, here marked
on the Revision Tree.
@72.
He may, indeed, define collateral linkages between
different versions defined at various Times in the
Tree...
Si
... and see them displayed collaterally: and revise
them further.
Materials may be copied between versions. (Note
that in the copying operation of the Parallel Text
face, you actually see the moved text moved bodily
as- a b l o c k . 1
GETTING AR OUND
The user may have a number of standby layouts,
w ith different numbers of panels, and jump among
them by stabs of the lightpen.
Importantly, the panels of each can be full,
each having whatever tne contents were JJhen you last
left it.
-> jf
T-NCLIeS
The File W e b tm is a map Indicating what
(labelled) files are present in the system, and
which are collaterated.
r.le S U r '-
The File Star** is a quick index into the con
tents of a file. It expands as long as you hold
the lightpen to the dot in the center, with various
levels of headings appearing as it expands. Natur
ally, you may jump to w hat you point at.
EDITING
Rather than giving the user anything coaplicat-
Roset n . Vit.:
l l t f t t t
M e t*
t 't 'f
L.nfc
I- I (c*l tac*. f
u ru
W 7 2 , r.
Separate portions of the Ed i t Rose invoke
various edit op er at io ns . (You m us t also p o i n t with
the lightpen to the necessary points in the text:
once for insert, twice for Delete, thTee or four
times for Rearrange, three times for C o w >
GENERALITY.
71,6 system may be u sed for comaents o n things,
M i l . t. h u jm !
for organizing by mult ip le outlines o r tables
of contents;
,W .-
7 t T. Ucijpm
and as a Thinkertoy, or ganizing complex alternatives.
(The labels say: "Conflicting versions," N e w account
of conflicts, "Exposition of how different accounts
deal with objections," "Improved, synthe si zi ng account.'
In other words. In this approach ve a n n o t a t e and
label discrepancies, and verbally comment o n differen
ced in separate files or documents.
In ways this may s ee m somewhat obtuse. Y et above
all it is o r d e r l y , and the complex of coll at er al files
has a clarity that could be all-too-easily l ost in sy
stems which were programmed more s pe cifically to each
problem.
< 72.
The fundamental str en gt h of collateration,
seen here, is of course that any n ew structure
collateral to another ma y be used as a table of
contents or an outline, taking the user i ns ta nt l y
to parts which are of interest in some new context.
* Oddly, this has the saae logical s tr uc t u r e as
time-travel in science-fiction.
There are basically three alternate p r e m i s e s of
of time-travel: 1) that the p ast cannot b e changed,
all events having p receded the backstep; 2 ) t ha t the
past can be changed; and 3) that whi le time-travelers
may be deluded into thinking (2 ), that (1 ) is really
the ca se leading to various appointae at -i n- S& a ar ra
pl o t s .
Only possibility (2) is of interest h er e , but
there are various alternative logics of m u t a b i l i t y and
time-line stepping. One of the best I ha v e s e e n is in
The Man Who Folded Hims el f by David G e r ro ld (Popular
riFrary, 1973): logic expounded pp. 64-8. I aa b e
mused by the parallel b et we en GerTold's time-controls
and these, worked out independently.
 The crucial point here is cnac it's unified
f f l l * 1EW WVANH0 (t) Co che ueer: every version appears on a aide of
a boa; and a typeset version le slaply a magni

I 4h t J
1 I , | T O rrN m w .
fied two-dimensional view I d which the two dlaen-
elone are "poaltlon in overall text" (vertical)
and "poaltlon on line" (horizontal).
t GKUft-fr*klr o k |> |.
Each aide of a box aay have a different
This design, TfO (Thlnkercoy ln view projected to It. This meane that as many
3 dimensions), Is one 1 have been work as three viewa of a specific cluster may be
ing at while on che faculty of che Univ seen at once. However, for conslecency these
ersity of Illinois. Ic Is designed spe uat hsve appropriately c om o n dimensions.
cifically for Implementation using De
m an d ' s GRASS language (eee p O V3\)>
and che Vector General 3D display (see
P -*V)- Whether It will ever be actually
programed depends, of course, on nuaer-
ous factors.

It Is aeant to be a very hiah-

power Chlnkertoy, suitable for experlaen-
CaClon with creative processes, especially
writing and three-dlnenalonal deaign.
(There le no rooa Co discuss Che latter
here.) It Is suited especially Co the visual
ization of tenCatlve structures ln amorphous
clusters. In some of Its features It goes
considerably beyond che nore "coonerclal"
chlnkertoy systen, the Parallel Texcface
(elsewhere ln this spread).
Nevertheless, the same design criteria
spply: a well-designed coaputer environment
for any purpose should be learnable in ten
minutes; otherwise the designer hae not been
doing hla Job. (I mean it would be learnable
ln ten minutes If you and 1 had lc in front
of ue, working. This description will have
to be weird and abatruse, Im sorry to aay.)
This systea Is designed around a three-
dlnenslonal display screen (che Vector Gener
al display, ae aanlpulable by th^RASS lan
guage) .
Now, moat people do not think of text
as Chree-dlaenslonal. Laymen think of It as
two-dlmenelonal, since Its usually printed
on rectangular pages. Conputer people or
dinarily think of lc as one-dlmenslonal, as
a long string of characters and apacea
easendally what you'd get If you printed
thlnge ln one line on a long, long ribbon.
Well, frankly, I don't think of text as
thre-dlmenelonal eleher; but like anything
else, lc has numerous qualities or dimen-
alons, sny three of which It's nice to be
able to view at once (aee "Dlaenalonal Flip,")
p.k^V)* And that's essentially the idea:
the Chree dimensions we'll look at at any
one tiae will be a particular view of a larger
Now, the basic torm of storage will be
one of those Nelaon-structurea that drives
computer people batty. Specifically, the
basic data structure will be clusters of
By rotation and zooming the uaer aay focus
on the original pieces, and work with thea, writ |* i
ing and revising.
Moreover, by using a combination of soon
and hardware clipping (aa available on chls COLLATERAL GALAXIES AND BOXES.
equipment), the uaer may restrict his work to
a specific range of material on particular di Viewing of collateral etructurea works
mensions . through the eaae mechanism. Galaxies and
boxes aay be collateraced:
GALAXY AND BOX
There are baalcally two views of whac
you are working with: the Galaxy and the Box.
They appear ln various manifestations, allow
ing you to study discrete relations and struc
tures ln the material; various "dimensions" of
the material; alternate versions and drafts to
be made from che maCerlal; and the complex col-
lateratlon (see under "Thlnkertoys") of differ
ent structures. COMPLICATED NOTE: The extension of chese
aeehanlsms to pictorial graphics 1t two
In what follows we will discuss the screen and three dlmenslona Is scralghcforward,
functions but not the control structures, which and to conceptual substructures (such aa
have not firmed up particularly. may exlat) behind theee graphice. The
ssae goes for collateratlon and annocadon -
1. GALAXY VIEWS. of multidimensional cluster materials, e.g.
in sociology: the eyetem would allow, for
The poin.ts are seen aa a cloud of dots on Instance, che viewing, annotation and col
the screen. If no view coordlnstes are supplied, lateratlon of aoclometrlc clusterings.)
the dote will be randomly positioned.
BOX FISSION. (The Beauty Part.)
A. "Star Trek" effect.
Under a user's zooa control, the docs For paired views of projections from
fly apart as if he ie hurtling through the saae cluster which do not share a com
spsce. mon coordinate, a marvelous Crick la poa
aible: BOX FISSION. Starting with one box
B. MAGNIFICATION. The user may "magnify" containing a galaxy, we pull it apart,
the dots, making each show les keywords, making two boxes and two galaxies whose
further text, and on up to the full Polnta are linked.
Piece.
C. ROTATION. The 3D structure of the dote
ln epace may be eeen by the user at
any time through short rotatlone.

D. Any relations that exist among the

Puns sometimes reflect a higher reality.
Points, Insofar as they have been logg-
Now lc turns out that this structure In fact
reflects a great Folk Truth: written discourse
does in fact consist of "points" which you
Z. The user may sort the points by moving
Intend to get across. That we here Intend to
them with a lightpen.
have them rotate as dots upon a screen reflects
this structure.
F. The user may write within the individ
ual pieces and splice them together,
Writing le, in fact, a projection from
combining lightpen and keyboard oper-
the Intended "points" Co a finished exposition
which embraces then. Now, Chla Is very like
the view of language held in modern linguistics,
2. BOX VIEWS
nanely, that a finished sentence 1s a "surface
structure" constructed out of basic sentence
In the Galaxy Vlewe, the Individual Points
kernels chewed up by certain transformations.
simply ewann about wlch no definable position.
Well, I aa juat pointing out here that writing
'Box Views" allow you to order che points on any
Is a surface structure of "points" which have Now both boxes csn be rotated indepen
dlmenelone that have meaning to you, ln an ar
been embedded and spliced In a structure of dently, and any view coneldered; equlvalence-
bitrary coordlnate-space.
transitions, accordance-notes and so forth (aee llnkages may now be viewed between any Cwo
p - **13)* The box is more than a mere measureaent- views. (The eye must, however, c u m two
frame. On request the user may see Che points corners.)
The general idea of the Th3 eyetem, then,
projected on a specific face of the box (ortho-
la that the user may view the "poincs" he
graphlcally); and on request he may alao eee pro
wishes to make, variously upon the 3D viewing
jection lines between a box-face and Its cor
surface. Successive drafts, then, will sll be
responding point in the point cluster.
projections. geometrically, from this interior
structure of points.

Finally, the unifying Idea that gives the

systea simplicity Is this: all views will be on
faces of a cube.

"Magnifying^' as before, will create a view

(FURTHER TECHNICALITIES OF THESE 'POINTS':
Each point aay have a value (numerical pa
rameter) in any of a number of dimensions
(which nuaber may itself change). Such
values aay be null, as distinct from zero,
showing chac the point has no poelCion on
chac particular ecale.
Associated with each point may be one
or more plecee and scrape or written mater
ial. Such scraps may be Just phrases or
single words. (Indeed, such scraps may be
associated not JusC with a point, but with
several specific vslues of a point.) Each
scrap may also contain keywords.
Discrete reladons between points may
alao be defined. There may be a variety
of types of relation, which either exlat
between two points of don't.)
of the text: but in Che box mode of viewing, the
text appears on the side of the box. That Is,
the Inner view will project to the ouCslde,
yielding a draft. Naturally, thle Is the current
assembly of your pieces; lf certain coordinates
are selected 1C la even s "typeset" version.
(Note: Vector General hardware does not al
low character rotation; only keyword and headline
rotation Is possible, through software characcer
generation. Thus text pieces on the side of a
box ehow certain freaky movements lf the elde 1s
not viewed square-on.)
& At the 1971 Spring Joint Conputer Conference, I think It waa,
I wae heckled by a linguist who accused ae of being "uniiiaglnadve,"
Insisting further that writing Is merely an extension of speech
and thue "merely" the application of further transformations; and
he claimed further that what the uaer therefore needs la sn input
language to specify theae transformations. This view, while Inter
esting, Is wrong.
A buc/lndeed concrol language eight be Intereating, however.
h o w e v e r-o p e ra tlo n , a p o s t f i x " b u t . "
of complex stuff. I offer thle design, Inso
puter repreeencatlon of these things.
[Appended b y t h e
S ee 'W r i t i n g , " p . DM*0>]
(It Is Interesting to note inat the llnka In
Box Fission are handled automatically, co an
extent, by the hardware.)
WELCOME TO THE FUTURE. HUH?
Thle has euaaarlzed the development of
some Ideas for the viewing and manipulation
far as I have been able to present It
ss sn example of fantic deaign (eee p. 5 0 )-
There le.no logical necessity to It; It cor
responds to the tradleional sCructure of no
technical systea; It arises froa no Intrinsic
or traditional data etrucCures used for coa
But none of theee considerations la co
the point. This design has a certain stark
logical alapllclty; it extends Itself plaua-
Ibly from Its basic outlook (or starting
Idess, If you can ieolate them) into a tool
for truly intricate cross-consideration,
without adding unneceaeary and hard-to-
reiwaber "technicalltlea." At leaat that a
how I think of 1C.
Obviously the aeathedcs of ic are la-
portant to the designer. But a more final
criterion of Its goodneas les uaefulnesa
may depend on the same parsimony and organi
zational clarity.
JJ1*

mm p**O U S (< l
I

- < > )
Xanadu, friend, is dream.

The name comes from the poem (nearby);

Coleridge's little story of the artistic trance
(and the Person from PoTlock) make it an appro
priate name' for the Pleasure Dome of the crea
tive writer. The Citizen Kane connotations,
and any other connotations you may find in the
poem, are side benefits.

1 have been working on Xanadu, under this

RL'BLA KHAN : OH, A VISION IN A DREAiL and other names, for fourteen years now.
A PHA(iUK.NT.
Originally it was going to be a super sys
Is tl aurs trier of 'he year 17W. tbe Author, thea Id III health had
retired to a lonely farm hounti between Porlock u d Liston, on the tem for handling text by computer (see p. \%
Lhhodt nn llnff ol Hnmtnet Hn<l Uvi'oojhlre. lit ei>nieQUMce of a and ) But it grew: as I realized, level
ol^hhiehd|icTrH 1uJcvn Jj"*1 prwcrlhnl. from lh* effect
Ml* follo w * wolanc*. ur u uni. uf th* jaiiw tutoUOiIi! I * *fZnfi!u* by level, how deep the problem was.
n J fn m in : Here tn* Khun NutU itinniundnl a lAlace to be
S ' 5n<T * "*nl.,l r I**1?1*'11 ll,[e!i,.,w tf mfleaof fertile
8our?n,*rl!foimdrt* V* !ea !lf Jlie'eiTc' ,e(mu' ' 1^ o rtb o u tth m And the concept of what it was' to be kept
le slh a n from two lo tbr* liun-ln-l line* ; if tint Indeed c u be oiled changing, as 1 saw more and more clearly that
romP0",10" *n which all til* Imace* roae up before him aatblon. with
parallel production of the rorropofitlent (ip n a iln o i vllhout u y it had to be on a minicomputer for the home.
eoiailoa nr n>nKlouaa<Mof effort. On awaklui a* appeared to hlmatft
nave t JlMlnct recollection of th* xvtaol*. nil taking hia pea. Ink. aad (You can have one in your office too, if you
paprr. Intianrly and e u erly wrote down th* llnm that are here pre
served. At thin jnoinent he via uofonunatrlj' oiled out by a pareoa want, but that's not what its about.)
on builoru from PorlM'k. and detained by him above ao hour, aad on
that though he mill retained Mm* vague and dim recollection of tbe
enrral purport of the Titian, yet. ti lth the excretion of tome el*hi or
tea icatlered llnre and Imafte*. aJI the rent had pautd away like tha
Now the idea is this:
lm anontbe surface of a atrean Into which a itooe had aaao a i t .

1
but alas : without the after restoration of the latter :
Then all the charm
brokenall lhat phantom-world ao fair,
Vaalahea and a th o u tu d circlet* tpread.
And each mia-nhape the olher. Stay awhile.
Poor youth ' who aearcely d a r n lift up tblne ey
To give you a screen in your home from
which you can see into the world's hypertext
libraries.
Til* it ream will won renew ll a amoothnen. aooa
The vlalona will return : And lo ! he ataya,
And coon ihe frum en ta dim of lovely fortaf
Come trembling back, unite, and now once more
(The fact that the world doesnt have
The pool become* a mirror. any hypertext libraries-- yet-- is a minor
Aaacontraatlothle vialon. I hare annexed ifrijrtm Bt of a varvdlf* point.)
fereet^charuter, describing vlth equal Adelliy the draam of p ' " aad

KU BLA KHAN. To give you a screen system that will

I n* Xanadu did Kubl& Khan
offer high-performance computer graphics and
A (lately pleasure-doinc decree : text services at a price anyone can afford.
Where Alpli, tlic sucrcd river, n o To allow you to send and receive written mes
Through caverns measureless toman
Down to a sunless son. sages at the Engelbart level (see p.J)r'It/6) To
So twice five miles of fertile ground
With walls and lowers were girdled round : allow you to explore diagrams (see p. DM19 and
And there were gardens bright with slnuoua rill* P. 1)11.51) . To eliminate the absurd distinction
Where blossomed many an incense-bearing d e e :
And berc were forests unrient as tbe hills, between "teacher" and "pupil."
Enfolding sunny spow of greenery.
But ob ! that devp romantic cliaam which slanted
Down the green hill athwart a cedars cover I To make you a part of a new electronic
A savage place I as holy and enchanted literature and art, where you can get all your
As e'er oeaeath a waning moon was luiuntcd
By woman walling for her demou-lover ! questions answered and nobody will put you
And from this chum , with reaaclcss turmoil eeething, down.
Aa If tbls earth lo fast thick p uuis were breaLhiog,
A mighty fountalu momently was forced :
Amid whose swift lialf-iniemiiited bunt
Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hall,
Or chofly grain beneath lhe thresher's flail :
And 'mid these dunclog rocks al oncc and evif
I l flung up momently the sacred river. Originally Xanadu was programmed around
Five miles meandering with a mazy motion the Parallel Textface (see p. D H ^ ) * But as
Through wool aad dale the sacred river mo,
Then reached the caverns measureless u> mao. the requirements of the Parallel Textface were
And sank In tumult to a lifeless ocean ; better and better understood, Xanadu became
Aad 'mid this tumult Kubla beard from far
Ancestral voices prophesying war ! a more general underlying system for all forms
The shadow of lhe dome of pleasure of interactive graphic environments. Its data
Floated mid way on Ibe waves ;
Where was beard the mingled measure structure has Virtual Blocklessness and is
From the fountain nod the caves.
I t was a miracle of rare device, thus well related to the smooth motions needed
A eunnv pleasurc-doine wilh caves of icc 1 by screen users. Thus in its final form, now
A damsel wilh a dulcimer
In a vision oucc I saw ; being debugged, it will support not only the
It was an Abyssinian maid, Parallel Textface (see p. 5^) ) the Walking Net
And on her dulcimer she played,
Singing of Mount Abora. (see p. W 5 | ), Stretchtext (see p. DMl9), Zoom
Could I revive wiiblo me Maps (see p. Dtfl3) and so on, but indeed any
Her symphony and song,
To suck a deep delight twould win me data structure that needs to combine complex
That with music loud and long,
I would build that dome In nir. linkages with fast access and rapid chances.
That sunny dome ! those eaves of Ice ! Because the data structure is recursively
And all who heard should see them there.
And all should cry, Beware ' Beware ! extensible, it will permit hypertext (see\p.DHTi)
His flashing eyes, his flooiiug h a ir! of any depth and complexity, and the collateral
Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with lioly dread. linkage (see p. ^ 5 2 ) of any objects of contemp
For be on Louey-dew hath fed. lation.
And drunk Lhe milk of Paradise.

Xanadu is under private development and

should be available, if the economy holds, in
1976. Regrettably, first prices will not be at
the $3000 level necessary for the true Home
System. Exact equipment for the production ver
sion has not been selected. A number of micro
"Is that th e r iv e r th a t ru n s down to th e sea?" processors (see p. 4 H ) are in serious conten
tion, notably the Lockheed SUE, but theres
James S te v a r t something to be said for a regular mini. The
in PDP-11 is of interest (see p.^12 ); (so espe
"The FBI S t o r y . " cially is its Cai Data lookalike-- unless DEC
would like to build us a PDP-11X with seven modes
of indirect display addressing. Are you reading
this, Ken Olsen?) And heres a laugh: a com
pany called IBM may in fact make a suitable com
puter, except that they call it the "3740 Work
Station." So for those customers who want IBM
equipment, maintenance and prices, with Xanadu
software, its a definite possibility.

So, fans, that about wraps it up. Ill be

interested in hearing from people who want this
system; many hardheaded business people have
told me nobody will. Prove em wrong, America!

Of course, if hyper-media arent the great

Patent worX on Xanadu is in progress. est thing since the printing press, this whole
project falls flat on its face. But it is hard
for me to conceive that they will not be.

WT IT ISi th a b a n t of tha Bmnada s y a tm , now
being datsjgged, a w l i t i o f a h ig h ly In te g ra
p ro g rm (a uaa m m ln la ^ ju ta rs ( 's o f tw a r e '
aaa p . M) o r aicroprocaaaora ( * f t m a * sea
p. 44 ). I t l a an a e r a t i n g s y a tm w ith tw o p ro-
F " ! a bJ.qhJ.if g e n eralised d a ta ~ ~ n ja a n r ys-
f a r handling a i t i M l y a z a l e a d a ta in huge
f i l e s , aad a g e n eralised d isp lay l y t t a , marrlml
to tha o th a r, (o r handling branching enlmatlcei
and r e tr ie v a l aad canned d isp la y program*. Thaaa
ordain r e tr ie v a ls by tha d a ta a y s tm . Tha Paxal-
la l i w t f i a (aaa p.M CJ) and th a Walking Hat
(see p .fcV ll a ra t n in ch cannad p r e g c a a .
Thaaa i n u m l q r a a ra intended t o Im sold
with ctaiaolaa of varloua ty p e s, aa ill u s t r a t e d
nearby, fa r ste n l-e la n e turnkey uaa (aaa p . (3 ) .
Xanadu l l self-netw orking two oc tha pTazna u t a
a network. aad acra can jo in .
LMOlMZSi lanadu p r o g ra a H ill n e t ha la a v a il
a b le Ln any hlghar languagea, mainly b acauai o f th a lr
p ro p rla ta ry c h arac ter, b u t a lao hacauaa th a diaplay
ro u tin e s (and n a o f tha r a tr la v a l ro u tin e s) a u t
ba pi 11ai i l In machine languaga.
Tha l y i t a haa I ta own u n d e r-le v el languaga, HAP
(Xanadu Aaaaably Prograa). M tlla two h lg h a r- la w 1
d lip la y languaga#, DINGO (Diaplay Lingo) and Xu lt
(tha u ltim ate?) a ra c o n ta v la te d , th a aa w ill not o r
d in a rily ba accaaaLbla to tha u a a r. Tba purpoaa ot
Xanadu l a ta fu rn ish tha uaar w ith u n coaputerish
good-gvy a y ita aa fo r a p a c if ic p u rp o ses, not a chance
to do h is own p rogram ing.
Isgm rtant f a a tu r n o f th a d ata s y a tm a ra huga sd-
d ra a a a h lllty (ln th a t r i l l i o n ! o f i l a a n u ) and V ir
tu a l Block lea staess. ro r advantages o f th ia l a t t e r ,
aaa i a Nap, p . dm IV
COMPATIBILITY, baeauaa o f I ta h ig h ly cc^ iec ta d and
unctnvantlcaial stru c tu re ,' I t i a n o t n ^ a e t i b l i with
othar op aratin g sy a tsm (Including tim e -sh a rin g ).
Anyway, to p u t I t on a Larger aa china l i lik a hav
ing your Kaida dr Ivan around In a tr u c k . Baeauaa
I t uaaa a lin e drawinq d iaplay (aaa p . D N ||-)) and
th a ra fo ra draws Individual a rb it r a r y lin a a on tha
c ra an rap a ata d ly , i t ia not n ^ a t l b l a w ith te l s -
via ic n a ith a r imlaaa you p o in t a TV caaara a t I t ,
o r tha e q u iv alen t. S orry.
STAN&APDIZATICM. ta k in g a ls a a a t f r a tha in te g rste d
n i t o f varloua paopla whoa* work haa baan described
in th ia book, wa aaa th a t I f you want a th in g d m
r i g h t , you hava to do I t y w r s e if . (Great Idaaa of
Meatarra Mena <*< of a a a r la i .) My good f r i in d Calvin
Nooare w ith h la TMC Languaga (aaa pp. 18-21) haa d is
covered th a t trsd m a rk la ana way to n a i l th ia aa a
r ig h t.
Several lava la of a tan d ard laatio n a ra ij^ o r ta n t with
lanadu. ona, a l l lanadu ay a t o # a i a t ba a b li to work
w ith a l l Ranadu f lla a (eacapt f o r p o a a ib li v a ria tio n !
in craan performance and a laa o f lo c a l a w r y ) . Moa,
th a ri ara thoaa who would not ba concerned (o r th ia
a r t o f u n iv a ra a lity , and who Might van tr y to aaki
aura sy ste m wara ln c a a a t l h l s , ao th a t you had to buy
a ccesso ries and conversion k lta up and down tha lin a .
That ia cna o f th l th in g a th a t m a t ba avoided: p a r
tia l* c e a p a tlb llity , su b je ct to ssp e n siv s o p tlo n i and
c ond itio n s, a will-known technique in tha ( la id .
By s ta b ilis in g tha 'Xanadu* t r a d a a i k , 1 hope to p re -
vant auch ahananigana. Thua avary a c c re d ite d Xanadu
system w ill o ffe r f u ll c t ^ s t i b i l i t y w ith the data
a tru c tu ra , and a ith a r f u l l p a rfo n an c a or a u b a titu te i
aa n e ce ssita te d by tha hardware. Tha *Kanadu* trsd m ark
can thua ln p rin c ip le ba aada a v a ila b le to manufacturers
abiding by a l l daalgn faatu raa o f th a a f it a a .
Second, a l l Xanadu ayataaa ehould ba a b la to work with
outaida ayataaa a ith a r through o r o f f th a n e t, I f they
conform to tha unuaual d a ta r u le s req u ire d by tha un-
u iual daalgn of tha a y a t a . Thia aaaurea th a t Xanadu
y i t a a w ill ba c o ^ a tib la w ith any o th a r peculiar n a t-
worka. I t a lao aaauraa o th ar a who want ta o f fe r xan-
sdu-clsss aervlcaa to aystea w n a ra (through, e .g .,
m v u i t l v a l tlaa-ah arin g ) th a t l f thay adhere to tha
ru le! (aee *Cans,~ p.P^?I) they can play the game
on a c a r tid a d baala.
AVAILABILITY. I t l l hoped th a t Xanadu w ill ba a v a il
able ln 197S for a t le a s t ona machine (guaaa which).
Aa a progrm i t w ill ba a v a ila b le a a ly i n abaoluta
form, w ithout aourca o r coM anta.
A m . There la a l o t to ta lk a b o u t, b u t a l o t o f time
can ba waa ted ta lk in g . I t i s auggaatBl th a t thoiajht-
fu l coaputer flrma, in te rac ted ln i o h fo r* of p a r ti c i
pa tio n , itudy th l l book c ara f u lly a t le a a t enough io
no o a e'a time need be waatad.
BIBLIOOAFIfT
"Heleoe's tha l a m . and What Ha Proposes Could Outdo
t a s s l t e r t . " E lic tr o a lc a . 2* Hov 69, 97.
A recent rep o rt by Arthur D. L i t t l e , a Boa I an f i n
th a t mikai le i mossy by a aiming to b i e w l i c l m i ,
c o m t e d on tha c oosldarable market p o te n tia l
fa t on-lloe d ata supply ly itam a. Tha rep o rt
coat 1400 or B4000, I fo rg a t w hich. B ij-tlm s ln -
ta re e ts a n sprowl.
I W - r - 'T
Thanks a l o t , Sa a C o l e r i d g e ,
"Listen,*' Mr. Wonka uid. I'm an old man. I'm niurh
olitoi than yu ihink. I can'l go on furcvcr. I've got no
rhilitrcn o f my own. no family al all. So who is going to
run the factory when I get lnookl io doit myiclf? Sawrsnr'j
pot tn keep ii j'i'tiigif only for the ukr of the Oompa-
Lonnipaa. Mind you. ilicrc are ihouundt ofelcvcr men who
would give anything for llic fliancc to eonic in and take
over fioin me. Inn I dont HMI that tort of jtenon. I dont
wanl a grown-up pertnn at all. A grownup wont linen
lo me: he wont learn. He will try to do things his own way
and not mine. So I have to have a child. I wanl a good
sensible Inviii" child, one to whom I can tell all my most
precious candy-making serreis -while I am itill alive."
Roald Dahl, C ha rlie and tha Q m m i m r a c c n t^
tVEL KiOCL-foU
k/tu f/t /"K t >r?
The Golden l ' s ualoo w
the wind-hungry tr a v e lle r .
/ ?
fi y l P*k
Porta-Ian. (Hookup by Tam Barnard.)
Footplate r e fle c ts C/C to user v h iIs
h a 'i abroad In th* ua rid . Ona-Hand
ty p eu ri tin g and p rin tin g dMirice f r m
th a o th e r. Can be b u ilt trtch o uo tl-
able ruggaditud c a ^x m m te.
f o r t h o s e two s y o b o l s .
And t h e A l b a t r o s s .
p . 137.
I am sorry I hava not been abla
to rep ly to all Umm who haw* written
to me saying they wish tlwy could
work to r T ha Mtlaon Organisation
at a r m a low ta la rr-
8o do I, my frtand s. ki do 1.
Vieu fr a a t>ie Snook ba loony o f a la iy e lanadu in sta lla tio n ,
overlooking the internal greenery. Hexagonal architecture
permits phytioal expansion v ith o u t in tw m ^ t io n o f servioee.
(The so llve ka hov* been te llin g us scsssthing about expansion, i
* /
0. If you publiih your ldaaa Ilka th ia , a n a 't
you afraid iH o r n w ill eiaa l thaaT
A. Ho.
(Tha Law o( In te lle ctu a l Property l ! about
tha i t r a n iil l backln* the individual haa ln
t h li ao clety.)
Baaldaa which, thare le here oo r iv ilit lo n of
thi Xinadu Sn iak n ts.
Q. Won't i m b [ | company iweap your lanadu
under i f thay la lta ta i t l
A. Let 1a . I f they c n up with a ay ataw having
qu lvilm c ic o p i, which aaami unllkaly (aaa
Canona, 1 might evao (aal I had
achieved inougb. But In thl niantlwe, lik e
tha tortolaa, and ilka DEC, 1 aa |olo g to
continue to try to do It right.
Q. Aren't you afraid that writing flippant book
w ill kaip paopla from caking you aarloualyl
A. 1 de not want to ba taken earlou ily in aome
quarter! u n t i l l t ' i Coo la ta.
I h iv i baard rumori th a t a aa o g a alaa in tha
c i l l i a c a p u ta r product "Xanadu."
I tend to doubt th ia ; and even i f thay did,
uaaga goaa back to 1966.
I w ould l i k e to th a n k f i n o h r o n o le a io a i
E l l i o t Klugm an. Wat C K u b la " ) AuSn, C lenn
B a b e o k i, Cal D a n ie ls and John V.E. R idgvay
fo r o o n tid e r a b le tim e and in v o lv e m e n t
th e y gave to th e Xanadu program d e e ig n e e t e i o n t ;
thank * a le o to v a r i o u t o t h e r s uho s a t i n fro m _
ciaj* t o tim e . F or th e f i n a l t e l e o t i o n o f
a lg o r i th m e , h o u e u e r, no o ne i e t o blam e b u t me.
I am g r a t e f u l to th e good o f f i o e e o f Sua rth m o re
C o lle g e f o r th e u ee o f t h e i r e q u ip m e n t i n th e
c o n tin u in g e f f o r t s to d ebug th e la n a d u pro g ra m s.
How a r e w g o in g t o s e l l t h a Hone Computer?
W ell i f y o u w an t t o s e l l c o a p u t e r s , l e t a e t e l l you w hg t t o do:
Y o u 'v e g o t t o t a l k t o t h e h o u s e w i v e s , an d t h e c h i l d r e n , t o o ;
No one w a n t s t o p r o g r a a , t h e y w an t s o a e t h i n g th e y caji v i e w . . .
I t ' s g o t t e o f f e r fun, and i t ! s s o t to o f f e r t r u t h ;
I t ' s g o t t o g i v e you s o a e t h i n g t h a t ' l l l i f t you f r o a t h e b o o t h ;
I t ' s g o t t o b e u p l i f t i n g t o t h e Lady f r o a D u lu th ,
You v e g o t t o ha ve a v i s i o n ; y o u ve g o t t s ha ve an a n g l e ;
You s h o u l d maybe s i n g a J i n g l e ( i n a way t h a t d o e s n t j a n g l e ) ;
I t ' s g o t t o hav e a t i n g l e , m a way t h e i r a i n d s c a n ' t t a n g l e - -
So c o n t i n u i n g u n d e r o u r g u i d a n c e i n e r t i a l .
L e t ' s ha v e th e ^ K K fH ?^L .
I t ' s g o t e v e r y th in g to g iv e .
I t ' l l g e t yo u w he re you l i v e .
Re al a s o f a i n d t h a t you a a y r o a a :
[el-0 Grasp th e a a l l w ith in y o u r hoae.
( U - fw..*.]
The g r e a t e s t t h i n g s y o u ' v e e v e r s e e n
Dance y o u r w is h e s on t h e s c r e e n .
A l l t h e t h i n g s t h a t a a n h a s known
\u. u-vil C o a i n on th e t e l e p h o n e - -
P o e a s , bo ok s and p i c t u r e s t o o
f w t s m v 'J COMIN ON THE XANADU --
XAN-A-DU. 0 0 - -
[WflU>wjJ
THE-- WORLD-- OF- - Youuuu/
J> V 7
Flrat of a l l , bear In that lanadu l* a
un ified ay i t a for cr^ tlei data a a u |a w a t ^
diaplay. Thia baalcally m ina that tte { a sy-
(without the dlapLayi) can n r v e aa a famder
fhlna for tha data nitwork l t a a lf .
So f i r , ao good. That m a ia that wa can hava
a mlnlc^ n jto r network handling tba antlra I true-
tura: aending out library matarlala to uaara
c a l l , aad atorlng any aatarlala thay want aavad.
Thia aavaa a l l klnda of haaalaa with big c^m tera
and big-ccaputar-etyle programing.
But who w ill pay for ItT Te build tha n - <
of capacity wa'ra talking about a l l thoaa dlaka,
a l l t h o u B l a lc ^ u t ir a In a network wra't It
taka imanaa aaousta o f capital? How, paopla aak
a , w ill any Aaarlcan c^apany aver back auch a
Utopian ic h a a l
Aha.
Ooa aatbod of financing pcorac lta e lf in
the poetwar auburbaa ara. thia t l m of drlve-ina
and haaburgar atanda.
f ranch ialn g.
What 1 propoaa, then. 1a tha N m a d Pop lanadu
Shop. Or, moil properly, tha laaadu atand. I k a aad
Pop- a n tbe an>ara at the individual itend. Bait t b
cuatomera can be famlllaa, too.
Pr<a far away tha children aee t te t a ll goldab
Z'a. "Ob, Daddy, c n ' t wa it o p l I waat to play
Spicawar." saya l i t t l e Jobmy. Big tla adda, Tou
know. I hava ta check emething (or ay paper on
Biaan p o litic !." Aad H a aaya , "lay, that would te a
good placi for lunch."
So they turn is paat tha algo tte t aaya "Om
2 BILLION s u m BOWS. and p u ll in to tte lo t . The]
path the car, and Dad ibowa tha clerk hla lanadu e ra
i t eard, and tha kid a run to acreaaa. Dad and lha
a i l for a big horiciatal CTT, though, bacauae there
are aaaa memoriae ttey'd lik a te abate together...
S li'a paper, of courie, goaa to bar teacher
through bla lanadu coneola.
THE PLAN. tS IT A CRAZY AS IT 3EDCJ
Deep Inalda, the public wanta I t . but people
whn think of co^utera ln cllch^e can't contraband
I t . Thil Maani ''tba public" muat staabow criata i t .
Ona way to go l l to m r t a new corporation,
r ig llt e r i t with the SEC and try to TlLlI a lo t of
B o a r by a ellln g atock pu blicly. Unlortinetaly
thara are e l l kind! of obataclaa (or that, ("lag
A" la about a t far aa It w ill go .)
Through tte-miracla of Iranchiilng, now, a lot
o f t te d i ff ic u lt ie s of conventional backing can be
bypaaiad. Tha franchiiei ha! to put up thi money
for tha c c ^ u t a n , th* ecopea, t te adorable purpla
enamel building, tha johna and ao on; aa a Xanadu
(ranchliaa ha g i t i the whole turnkey lyatsa and
certain raaponalbllltlaa In tba OVEBALL 1ABAIHI H I-
U0B1 of which he le a member. Ha la aealgnad
permanent stores* o( certain claaiaa of m a terlili,
on c a ll froM alaswhare in tba n e t. (Baturelly,
everything la atorad I d more then ona place).
Tbe laaadu aubacriber. of c o u r n , gata what be
requaiti at the acraan a* gulekly as possible or
ta priority lf hs wanta to psy for I t and may
tore hla own t i l e s , including linkages aaong otter
satarlale and marginal notatlooe co other things
Chat can b* called. (Sea c o lla ter a l structures,
P-Dflft: these cen su tta stlc a lly bring forth any
thing they're linked to . (See Helenaa Canaia,"
P - * uaar'a b la to rlca l record w ill ba
stored to whstever degree ha d e sir es , but aot (If
ha cbooaaa) in ways that can bs id en tified with
bla.
Borne usefs need only dial a local phone m a
t e r thalr nearest lanadu atand to connect with
tha entire lanadu network. (Tha cost of ualng
soaething stored on lha network haa nsthing to do
with where i t Is storsd.)
(Spsclsl high-capacity lin aa need not be In
sta lled between atorags sta tio n s, as spproprlata
d ig ita l tranmlaaloo sarvlcee are becking avail
able c a a a r c la lly .)
Varloua aacurlty tachslguaa prevent othare
from reading a subscriber's f l l s s , svaa If thay
sign on falaaly; tba Darcanitb technique ot
acrambllag oo non-atored kayvords la a good ona.
Tha laaadu atand also haa prlvsta r o a a with
a ilt ip la acraana, which can bs rsotsd for p srtiss,
business m atings, daalp] se ssio n s, brlsfln gs,
legal coaaaul tat Iona, lacturea, aeaacas, a islcale a,
and so on.
Tha cteica locations (or tha Lanadu aiaoda
ara aomwhat dida ren t frm bmburgar spot a. But
tha t's probably not anything to go into hare.
Within the lanadu network, than, peopla my
read, w rits, sand aaaasgea, etudy and.play.
l a la n a d u w o rt h w a i t i n g f o r ?
T hat depanda, d o e s n 't i t ,
Op t h a v s l u a o f t h o hao d-tn tah
d if f e r e n ti a l b ird u t i l i t y r a tio .
a m if/e* fox
< 11
 IS
WHAT
R EM LV
m S tflk lfr -
feS!>N'5CanoiJj I b e lie v e t h a t an i n t r o d u c t i o n to any
s u b je c t can be hu ao ro u s, o c c a s i o n a l l y p ro
found, e x c i ti n g , v i v i d , and a p p e a l i n g even
to e x p e rts on t h e i r - s e p a r a t e l e v e l s .
Perhaps someday I can p ro v e i t .
Il i s e s s e n t i a l lo s la te th e s e firm ly a n d
p u b l i c l y , b e c a u s e y o u a r e g o in g lo s e e a lot
/ /* / & fl4ii of s y s te m s in t h e n e a r f u tu r e tha t p u r p o r t to

v * 4 e r j f+ * j 'f~
b e Ihe l a s l- w o r d c a t 's - p a j a m s s y s te m s lo b r i n g 9 ------------- (fc
y o u " a ll th e in fo rm atio n y o u n e e d , a n y tim e ,
a n y w h e r e . " U n le s s yo u h a v e th o u g h t a b ou t il
-1 W)U >.. J|,. y o u may b e s n o w e d b y s y s te m s w h ic h a r e in 4. RICH DATA SERVICES BASED ON
h e r e n t l y a n d d e e p ly lim itin g . H ere a r e some THESE STRUCTURES.
o f Ih e th in g s w h ic h I th in k w e w ill a ll w an l.
(T h e sa le s m a n f o r t h e o l h e r s y s te m w ill sa y T h e u s e r m u st b e a llo w e d m u lt ip le r o v e r s
(h e y a r e im p o s s ib le , o r "We d o n 't kno w how (m o vable p la c e m a rk e a l p o i n t s o f c u r r e n t a c t i v i t y ) ;
to d o th a t y e t , " th e s t a n d a r d p u ld o w n . But m a k in g p o s s ib l e , e s p e c i a l l y , m u lt ip le w in d o w s
From "Sarnun-Tronlcs" Il is lime to start using computers th e s e th in g s a r e p o s s ib l e . If w e d e s ig n them (lo th e lo c ation of e a c h r o v e r ) w i t h d i s p l a y s of
(c ita tio n p. DM 2 . ) to hold information for the mind in from Ihe b o ttom u p ; a n d t h e r e a r e many c o lla te r a l l in k s .
much as books have held this infor d if f e r e n t v a lid a p p r o a c h e s w h ic h c o u ld b r i n g
mation in Ihc past. Now information th e s e th in g s in to b e i n g ,) T h e s y ste m s h o u ld a lso h a v e p r o v i s i o n
1) Knowledge, understanding uul for the mind is very different from f o r h i g h - l e v e l m o oting fnya p - a n d t h e a u to
freedom <an all be advanced by Ihe "information for the computer" as T h e s e a r e r u l e s , d e r i v e d fro m common m a tic k e e p in g o f h i s t o r ic a l t r a i l s .
promotion and deployment ol com we have thought of il, hacked up s e n s e a n d un com m o n c o n c e r n , a b o u t w h a t pe op le
puter display conioles (wilh the and compressed into blocks. Instead
c a n a n d s h o u ld h a v e in g e n e r a l s c r e e n s y s te m s , T h e n , a co m p le x o f c e r t a i n v e r y n e c e s s a r y
we can slrclch the computer.
right programs behind (hem). I sm proposing a cur ions kind of s y s te m s lo r e a d f r o m . a n d v e r y p o w e r f u l f a c ilitie s b a a e d o n th e s e t h i n g s ,
2) Computer presentational media, subversion. "Let us design. ] say; v i z .:
coming soon, will nol be technically and when people sec the eyviems, 1. EASY AND ARBITRARY FRONT e Vj DS. A . ANTHOLOGICAL FREEDOM: t h e u s e r m u e l
determined but ralhcr will be new everybody will wanl one. All I wanl b e a b le lo c om bine e a s il y a n y t h i n g h e f i n d s in to
realms for human artUtry. This point lo do is put Rcnai&ancr humanism T h e " fr o n t e n d " o f a s y s t e m - - th a t i s , a n " a n th o l o g y ," a r o v a b le c o lle c ti o n o f t h e s e
of view radially aflocO* how wv in a multidimensional responsive con
design man machinc systems of any th e p r o g ra m th a t c r e a t e s Ih e p r e s e n ta tio n s for m a te ria ls h a v in g t h e s t r u c t u r e h e w a n t s . T h e
sole. And I am trying lo work oul t h e u s e r a n d in te r a c t s w ith h im m u st b e c le a r
kind, especially lhe for mlomw lin k a g e inform atio n f o r s u c h a n t h o l o g i e s m u s t b e
Ihc forrre of writing of Ihc future.
lion retrieval. leaching, and general a n d s im p le fo r p e o p le to u e e a n d u n d e r s t a n d . s e p a r a t e l y tr a n s p o r t a b l e a n d p a s s a b l e b e tw e e n
Hypcrtrits.
writing and reading. Some practi Hypcrlcilx: new forms of writing, u se rs.
tioners see such systems as narrowly appearing on computer saeens, that THE TEN-MINUTE RU LE. A n y sy ste m B . ST E P-O U T WINDOWING: f ro m a p la c e
technical, with the computer howling will branch or (Erform at Ihc reader's w h ic h c a n n o t b e w ell la u g h ! lo a laym an in in s u c h a n a n th o lo g y , t h e u s e r m u s t b e a b le
up little piece* o( writing on some OHnmand. A hypertext is a non te n m in u t e s , b y a lu lo r in t h e p r e s e n c e of a to s t e p o u l o f the a n th o lo g y a n d I n to th e p r e v i o u s
"scientific basis and showing them sequential piece of writing; only the r e s p o n d i n g s e l u p , i s loo c o m p lic a te d . T h is may c o n te x t o f th e m a te ria l. P o r i n s t a n c e , i f h e h a s
to you one grunt at a time. A Metre- computer display nuikes it practical.
o l banquet. I disagree. The system* s o u n d f a r loo s tr i n g e n t ; I t h i n k n o l. R ic h an d j u s t r e a d a q u o ta tio n , h e s h o u ld b e a b le to h a v e
Somewhere between a book, a TV
should be opulent. p o w e r f u l s y s te m s may b e g iv e n fro n t e n d s w h ich th e p r e s e n t a n th o lo g ic a l c o n te x t d i s s o l v e a r o u n d
show and n penny nraide. ihe hyper-
3) The problem in presentational a r e n o n e th e l e s s r id ic u lo u s ly c l e a r ; t h is Is a th e q u o ta tio n (w hile it s ta y s o n t h e s c r e e n ) , a n d
text can be a vnsl lopeslry of infor
systems of ony kind i lo make mation, all in plain English ispienl d e s ig n p ro b le m o f th e f o re m o st im p o r ta n c e . th e o r ig in a l c o n tex t r e a p p e a r a r o u n d i l . T h e
things look good, feel right.and come wilh a few magic tricks on Ihe n e e d o f th is in s c h o l a r s h i p s h o u l d b e o b v i o u s .
across clearly. The things that mai screen >, which ihe reader may attack TEXT MUST MOVE, th a t i s , s li d e o n Ihe C . D1SANTHOLOGICAL FREEDOM; th e
ler arc Iho feci of the system, the nnd play for the things he wants, s c r e e n w h en t h e u s e r s t e p s f o r w a r d o r b a c k w a r d u s e r m u st b e ab le to s t e p o u l o f a n a n th o lo g y
users state of mind, his possible con branching nnd jumping on the scrccn, w ith in (he te x t h e is r e e d i n g . T h e a lte r n a tiv e , in s u c h a w ay a n d n o t r e t u r n i f h e c h o o s e s .
fusion, boredom or enthusiasm, the uting simple controls as if he were
problems of communicating concf/it-'. to c le a r th e s c r e e n a n d la y o u t a new p r e s e n t a ( T h is h a s im p o r ta n t im p lic a tio n s f o r w h a t m u a t
driving :\ car Tliere ain be special
and the very nature of concepts nnd tio n . i s b a fflin g to th e e y e a n d th o r o u g h ly d i s r e a l l y b e h a p p e n in g in th e f ile s t r u c t u r e . )
ized ub|KirlN for K|jccializcd in
their interconnection There will terests. instant .availabilily of role- o r i e n t i n g . e v e n w ith p r a c tic e .
never I t a "sciencc" of presentation, voncies in all directions, footnotes E a r li e r v e r s i o n s o f p u b lic d o c u m e n t s m u st
eiccpl as il relates lo these things that are books Ihemsclvcs. Hyper- Many c o m p u te r p e o p le d o n ot y e t u n d e r b e r e t a i n e d , a s u s e r a w ill h a v e l i n k e d to th e m .
4i Nol lhe nature of machines, lexis will be so much belter Ihan sta n d Ihe n e c e s s ity of I h is . T h e p ro b le m is th a t H o w e v e r, w h e r e p o s s i b l e , li n k a g e s m u st
but the nature of ideas, is what ordinary writing that the printed if th e s c r e e n i s c l e a r e d , a n d so m e th in g new a lso b e a b le lo a u r v iv e r e v i a l o n s o f o n e o r b o th
matters. Il is incredibly hard to de word will wilher away. Frol writing th e n a p p e a r s on i t . ( h e r e ia no v is u a l w a y lo o b je c ts .
velop. organize nnd transmit idea<, by i>eopte. make no mistake, not
and il always wiU U-. Bui at least te ll w h e r e Ihe new th in g c am e from: se q u e n c e
data banks, robot summaries or olher
a n d s t r u c t u r e be co m e b a lT lin g . H av in g it slid e 5. "FREEDOM FROM
clank. A |*rson Ls writing to olher
trapped by the nature of tKiprr We people, just as before, but on magial o n (h e s c r e e n a llo w s y ou lo u n d e r s t a n d w h e r e SPYING AND SABOTAGE."
o n design nugic |xi|*r paper he can cut up and tie in knols y o u 'v e b e e n a n d w h e r e y o u 'r e g o in g ; a fee ling
and fly around on. y o u a lso g e l fro m t u r n i n g p a g e s o f a b o o k . T h e a ssu m p tio n m u st b e m a d e a l th e
(Some c lo se s u b s t i t u t e s may b e p o s s ib l e on o u ts e t of a w ic k ed a n d m a le v o le n t g o v e r n m e n ta l
so m e ty p e s of s c r e e n . ) a u t h o r i t y . If s u c h a s it u a ti o n d o e s n o t d e v e l o p ,
w ell a n d g oo d; if it d o e s , t h e s y s t e m w ill h a v e
I b e l i e v e in c a l l i n g a sp a d e a sp a d e On fro n t e n d s s u p p li e d for n o rm al u s e r s , a few m in im al s a f e g u a r d s b u i l t In .
- - n o t a p e rs o n a liz e d e a rth -m o v in g e q u ip t h e r e m u st be n o e x p lic it c o m p u te r la n g u a g e s
m ent m o d u le ; and a m u lt i- d im e n s io n a l s p a d e ,
r e q u i r i n g in p u t c o n tro l s t r i n g s , no v is i b le e so FREEDOM FROM BEING MONIT ORED. T h e
by gum , a h y p e r s p a d e - - n o t a p e r s o n a l i z e d
e a r t h - m o v i n g e q u ip m e n t m o d u le w i t h a u g m en t e r i c sy m b o ls. G r a p h ic a l c o n tro l s tr u c t u r e s u s e o f p se u d o n y m s a n d d um m y a c c o u n t s b y i n d i
te d d i r t a c c e s s , r e t r i e v a l and d i s p l a y c a p h a v in g c la r ity a n d s a f e ty , o r v e r y c le a r ta s k - v i d u a l s , a s w e ll a s th e o m is s io n o f c e r t a i n r e c o r d
a b i l i t y u n d er in d iv id u la iz e d c o n tr o l. o r ie n l e d k e y b o a r d s , a r e a m o n g th e p r im e a l te r k e e p in g b y th e sy s te m p r o g r a m , a i'e n e c e s s a r y
n a tiv e s . h e r e . File r e te n tio n u n d e r d u m m y a c c o u n ts Is
a lao r e q u i r e d .
All o p e r a tio n s m u st b e f a il -s a f e .
B e ca u se o f Ih e d a n g e r o f f ile s a b o t a g e , a n d
A r b i tr a r y f ro n t e n d s m u st be a tta ch a b le: th e p r i v a t e at-h o m e r e te n tio n b y in d i v i d u a l s o f
I w ant a world where wo can read the world's literature from screen? rnllwr
s in c e we a r c ta lk i n g a b ou t r e a d i n g from te x t, f ile s lh a l a lso e x ist on p u b lic s y s t e m s , i t is
tha n personally searching out the physical books. A world without routine i.-ipcr-
work. because ;ill copying operations '.nix ptaco automatically and lyrinaliicd trail* o r te x l- a n d - p i c l u r e c o m p le x e s , s t o r e d on a n e c e s s a r y to h a v e FIDUCIAL SY STEM S POR TELLING
actions occur through formalized ceremonies at consoles. A world whcic can la r g e d a ta s y s te m , Ihe p r e s e n ta tio n a l fro n t end WHICH VERSION IS AUTHENTIC . T h e d o c to r i n g
learn, study, croato. a^id share our creations without having nrivatelv toschlopp aud m ust b e s e p a r a b l e from th e d a ta s e r v i c e s p r o of o n -lin e docum ents, th e r e w ritin g of h is to ry
physically safeguard thi-m. There is a familiar. all-embracing motto, the jingle we v id e d f u r t h e r d o w n in th e s y s t e m , s o Ihe u s e r c f . b o th W in sto n S m ith 's c o n tin u o u s r e v i s i o n of
all know from the day school lets oul. which I lai.o quite seriously: " S o more pencils; may a tta c h h is o w n f r o n t - e n d s y s te m , h a v in g th e e n c y c lo p e d ia In N in e te e n E ig h t y - F o u r a n d
do more books: no more teachers' diity looks The Fntilic Age. h i s ow n s ty l e o f o p e r s l io n a n d h i s ow n p r iv a te H . L . H u n t's fo rg in g o f h i s t o r ic a l t e l e g r a m s f o r
c o n v e n ie n c e s f o r r o v i n g , e d itin g a n d o lh e r form s " T h e White H o uae" ia a c o n s ta n t d a n g e r . T h u s
fro n "C o n p u to p la and C y b e rc ru d ." o f w o rk o r p la y a l th e s c r e e n . o u r s y s te m s m ust h a v e a n u m b e r o f c o m p le x
(C ita tio n n e a rb y .) p r o v is io n s fo r v e rif ic a tio n o f f a l s i f i c a t i o n . e s p e
2. SMOOTH AND RAPID DATA ACCESS. c ia l ly th e c re a ti o n o f m u ltile v e l f id u c i a l s ( p a r i t y
s y s t e m s ) , a n d th e ir s t o r a g e In a v a r i e t y o f
T h e sy ste m m u st b e b u i l t lo m ake po ssib le p l a c e s . T h e s e f id u c ia ls m u st b e lo c a l lz a b le a n d
fast a n d a r b i t r a r y a c c e s s (o a p o te n tia lly h u g e s e p a r a t e to sm a ll p a r t s o f f ile s .
d a ta b a s e , a llo w in g e x tre m e ly la r g e f ile s (at
le a st in to Ihe b i l l io n s of c h a r a c t e r s ) . H ow ev e r, 7. COPYRIGHT.
Ihe s y s te m s h o u ld b e c o n tr i v e d to allow y o u to
r e a d f o r w a r d , b a c k o r a c r o s s l i n k s w ith o u t s u b C o p y r ig h t m ust o f c o u r s e b e r e t a i n e d , b u t
W f e s r o sta n tia l h e s ita tio n . S u c h a c c e s s m u st b e im pli a u n iv e r s a l f lex ible r u l e h a s lo b e w o r k e d o u l ,
c i t , nol r e q u i r i n g k n o w le d g e o f w h e r e t h in g s a r e p e r m i ttin g m a te ria l to b e t r a n s m itte d a n d c o p ie d
p h y s ic a l ly s to r e d o r w h at th e in te r n a l f ile nam es u n d e r sp e cific c irc u m s t a n c e s f o r th e p a y m e n t o f
My w o rk i s c o n c e r n e d p r in c i p a l l y w ilh Ihe m a y .h a p p e n to b e . Pile d iv is io n s m u st b e i n a r o y a lt y f e e . s u r c h a r g e d on lo p o f y o u r o t h e r
t h e o r y a n d e x e c u tio n o f s y s te m s u s e f u l lo th e mind v is i b le lo Ihe u 6 e r in a ll h is r o v in g o p e ra tio n s e x p e n s e s In u s i n g t h e sy s le m .
a n d th e c r e a t i v e im a g in a tio n . T h i s h a s p ole m ic al (FREEDOM OF ROVING): b o u n d a r ie s m u st b e
a n d p r a c tic a l a s p e c ts : I claim th a t Ih e p r e c e p t s of in v ia ib le in th e f in al p r e s e n ta tio n s , a n d th e u s e r F o r a n y in d iv i d u a l s e c tio n o f m a t e r i a l ,
d e s i g n i n g s y s te m s lha l to u c h p e o p l e 's m in d s , o r m u st no t ne ed lo know a b o u t th e m . a u c h ro y a lt y sh o u ld h a v e a m ax im u m : I . e . , nb y
c o n te n t s to b e sh o w n in th e m , a r e sim p le a n d u n i now y o u 'v e b o u g h l I t . "
v e r s a l : m a k in g t h in g s lo ok g o o d , f e e l r i g h t a n d
com e a c r o s s c l e a r l y . 1 claim th a t to d e s i g n s y s te m s 3. RICH DATA FACILITIES. V a r y in g r o y a lty r a t e a , h o w e v e r , s h o u ld
th a t i n v o lv e b o th m a c h in e s a n d p e o p l e ' s m in d s is b e th e a r b i t r a r y ch oice o f th e c o p y r i g h t h o ld e r ;
a r t f i r s t , te ch n o lo g y s e c o n d , a n d i n n o w a y a d e r i A r b i tr a r y l in k a g e s m u st b e p o s s ib l e b e e x c e p t th a t r o y a lt ie s sh o u ld n o l v a r y s h a r p l y
v a tiv e s p e c ia lty off in so m e b r a n c h o f c o m p u te r tw e e n p o r tio n s o f te x t, o r te x t a n d p ic tu r e s : lo c ally w llh ln a t is s u e o f m a te r ia l. O n p u b lic
s c ie n c e . a n n o ta tio n o f a n y th in g m u st b e p r o v id e d for; s c r e e n s , m o ving b e tw ee n a r e a s o f d i f f e r e n t r o y
c o lla te r a iio n ( s e e p . *T jo ) s h o u ld b e a s ta n d a r d a lty c o st m u st b e s h a r p l y m a r k e d .
H o w e v e r, p r e s e n ta tio n a l s y s t e m s w ill c e r f a c ilit y , b e tw ee n a n y p a i r o f w e l l-d e f in e d o b
ta in ly in v o lv e c o m p u te rs from now o n . je c t s ; PLACEMARK fac ilitie s m u st b e a llow ed
to d r o p a n c h o r a t , o r i n . a n y t h i n g . T h e s e
Sin c e h u n d r e d s of s u c h s y s te m s a r e now f e a tu r e s im ply p r i v a t e a n n o ta tio n s lo p u b lic ly - BIBLIOGRAPHY
b e in g b u i l t , m an y o f th e m a ll w r o n g , w e m ust a c c e s s i b le m a te ria ls a s a s t a n d a r d autom atic
(e a c h d e s i g n e r s (en d c e r t a i n o t h e r s ) t h e b a s ic s T h e o d o r H. N e l s o n . " C o a p u t o p l a a n d C y b e r c r u d .
a e r v i c e m ode.
In R oger L ev leo ( e d . ) . C o m p u ters
of c o m p u te r s , a n d g iv e th e m so m e go od e x a m p le s
In I n s t r u c t i o n (R and C o r p o r a t i o n , 1 9 7 1 ) .
lo e m u la te ( s u c h a s S u t h e r l a n d 's S k e tc h p a d , T h e o d o r H . N e l s o n , "A C o n c e p t u a l F r a m e w o r k
Bitzer's PLATO, and, I hope, some or my own f o r M a n -M a c h in e E v e r y t h i n g . " P r o c . NCC 7 3 .
designs).
F u r t h e r , th e p o p u la r s u p e r s t i t i o n s a b o u t T h e AI p e o p l e d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d ,
c o m p u te r s m ua t be f o u g h t- - th e m y th s th a t the y t h e Ift p e o p l e d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d ,
a r e m e c h a n is ti c , s c ie n t if ic , o b je c t iv e o r in d e p e n t h e CAI p e o p l e d o n t u n d e r s t a n d ,
d e n t o f h u m a n in te n t a n d c o n te m p la tiv e in v o lv e and f o r C o d 's s a k e d o n 't t e l l IBM. * i 7 W t i g e
m e n t. OH T V '

li

fL ir o iT -
dream, patl the vlt of man lo ta r what drum
pound Ihi* d m u . Mcllioughl I wasthere it
Do Bin can lell n ln l. Metlmght I war,and
methouphl ] had,lut man it blit a patched
loo), if he Will offer lo ar vhat melhcniffiil I hid.
The rvc of wan lialli not heard, the ear of man
halh not vrn. man'- Innj it nol ibte lo latle,
vhat my uri-.mi j-.
B o tto m th e Weaver
Now you see w hy I b ro u g h t you h e re .
This Gem-maniacal book has, obviously, been
created as a crossroad of several cross pur
poses: to furnish a needed, grabby layman's
Introduction to two vast but rather inaccessible
realms; to present a coherent, if contentious,
point of view, and unroll a particular sort of
apocalyptic vision after preparing the vocabulary
for it; to make bright friends and informed sup
porters for m y outlook and projects; to get home
lo some of m y friends the fact lhal what 1 a m
doing is at bottom not technical; and finally, if
nothing else, to set forth some principles about
the'way things should be. which others will
have-to answer if they propose to do less.
Thus, overall, this book is a message in a Klein
bottle, waiting to see w h o s thirsty.
I su p po se it all s ta rte d in college. Sw arth -
roore left me with an ex a g g e ra te d notion of (he
extent to w hich id e a s a r e valued in the academic
world; it took two g ra d u a te schools to cle a r this
up. A fter th a l. a s f a r as 1 w as c o ncern ed.
Ph.D. stood for Poophead. But I still cared
about ideas, and the deep necessity of finding
their true structure and organization. From
writing 1 knew the grueling difficulty of trying
to make ideas get in order. 1 believed in the
pure, white light of inspiration and the power of
the naive but clever mind to figure out anything,
if not obstructed bul d u m b dogmas and obtuse
mental schemata foslered by the educational system.
When 1 Anally got the idea of what c om pu
ters were aboul, sometime in 1960, 1 look endless
walks at night trying to hash these things out and
see where they led. The text systems came clear
to me, at least in ihelr beginnings; in a few weeks;
the realisation that 3D halftone was possible came
to me as a 6hock the following spring. I believe
as I was walking across Radcliffe Common. Since
then trying to build these systems for creation and
the true ordering of intricale thought has been m y
driving dream.
M y o w n life amo ng these dream machines
haa been a nightmare, thoroughly unpleasant,
and if people are right in telling m e thal nobody
wants systems like the ones I a m designing.
Ill get the heck out of this and be a disk jockey
1
or a toy salesman or something.
first got into this as a writer; all 1
wanted was a decent writing system that would
run on a compuier. Little did I realize the Im
mensity of what that entailed, or that for some
reason m y work and approach would engender
indignation and anger wherever 1 wenl. There
is a Action that everybody In theee fields is
doing something fundamentally scientific and
technical, and this Action is usually upheld in
carefully enacted mutual playlets. Trying to
cut through that and say, "Let's build a home for
mankind that will al last be shaped lo At man's
mind, does nol seem to-generate immediate
warmth and welcome.
But I'm glad for the friends I've made in
this Aeld, and of course there have been a lol
of laughs. (I'd really have haled to miss being
in this field, just for the thrilling madness of
it all.) All in all m y adventures have been a
sort of participatory journalism, which I'd like
to wrile up properly some time. Some highlights:
The d a y s of m ad n ess in '6 6 , tr y in g to
start an ho nesl co rpo ratio n to do all this stuff,
and suffering e n d le ss lu n c he s with Wall Street
hangers-on w ho w e re lookin g for a vehicle to
take p u b lic. They w anted an o th e r chicken-
franchise ty p e com pany, though, an d certainly
not ideas.
Being briefed by four different corporations,
most of lhem major, on Ihe fantastic powers iheir
inleractive'movie system was going to have. One
of these briefings w a s in the board room of a
famous skyscraper. A n d now, only one of those
systems is left-- Kodak's.
Then there was the courtly gentleman who
was going to be m y Noah Dietrich, m y Colonel
Parker. He assured m e that through his business
connections all was going lo go marvelously.
and then later intimated thet as e special favor
he was going lo put m e In touch with other
universes and the flying saucer people. I just
didn't have time for other universes.
Then there was the suppression of m y first
book (this i6 m y second). You might say it wa6
a misunderstanding, at least on m y part. M y
boss's understanding was evidently (hat the ad
vancement of m y ideas would be detrimental to
his. If it had been a question of free speech in
Yugoslavia it might have been different. Well,
it takes a long lime to get a book together, but
here we go again.
Then there was the time I was called in
as a consultant on a vast federal system, never
mind what. Numerous computer programs were
lo be coordinated by a hypertext system they
had created and Ihey wanted to know if they'd
designed it right. It took months lo find out
from Ihe programmers exactly what the system
w a a , so I ended up writing the manual; after
which I explained what was wrong with the pro
ject and the whole hypertext system was scrapped.
A n d m y job with it. I never quite got lhe swing
of consulting.
Flying coasl-to-coast with the preaident
of a large corporation, he and I planned the
whole Xanadu budget for the following year at
something like half a million dollars. T w o years
later, reduced In circumstances and driving a
yellow cab in N e w York, the miserable vehicle
breaks d own in front of (hose same corporate
headquarters. A n d Ihe reason I had thal bad
taxi was that I was out of favor with the taxi
dispatcher, on account of having been absent
the previous week-- I had had to fly to California
to give a banquet address at the Rand Corporation.
Then there were m y adventures with the
CIA.
I w as sitting in m y office at Vassar,
sagely advising a student, w he n the phone rang
and the caller identified himself as John W.
Kuipers. head of compuier research at the CIA.
He told m e I had been noticed as a n ew bright
young m an in the Aeld, and would I like to
work for them?
Now, there is something about being a
cynic and a romantic. (They go together: the
cynic deAates ideas, the romantic falls in love
with them.) It is not impossible for the cynical
romantic to surmise that because everything he
has seen personally turned oul to be so lousy,
thal the true hope m a y lie at the heart of the
vortex, just where everybody thinks is impossible.
Also Ihe Kennedy aftermath, when sophisticated
people had learned to laugh at simple idealism
as a facade for the reel wheel-and-deallng,
slap-and-tickle, may have had something to do
wilh il; anyway, I waa enchanted. Thus began
the Kuipers Caper.
YES. T H E R E IS A M cLEA N. VIRGINIA
I was given a handler named Bob, a jolly
fellow, wh o kept assuring m e that m uch money
was just around (he corner. I was regaled wilh
success s(ories of other people in the computer
Aeld w ho really, undercover Worked for Them.
(They weren't doing anything very exciting.)
I got to show m y slides in the CIA office building
in Arlington, and to eee there very fancy display
equipment behind shielded (!) double-doors in
a shielded (!!) computer room-- shielded lo keep
any planted bugs from transmitting oul the con
tents of the computers' working registers. I even
got to visit the main CIA "campus" in McLean,
Virginia, where the sign says Agricultural
Research Station. It is an incredible feeling to
walk across lhat big eagle in lhe lerrazzo,
and to be given the visitor's badge thal says
"United Slates Government" all in wiggly lines.
They told m e that they would be glad to
set me up in business as s hypertext company,
bul I would have to have a corporation, because
that was Ihe way they always did things. A nd so.
it came lo pass that The Nelson Organization, Inc.
was founded al the express request of the United
Stales Central Intelligence Agency. I wouldn't have
had it any other way. If life can't be pleasant it
can et least be surrealistic.
... B U T N O S A N T A C LA U S
I was encouraged to write proposals for them,
and write proposals I did. (1 happened to finish
typing the first one dufing a lightning slorm,
and lightning crashed jusl as I was signing the
page; 1 felt like Faust.) I explained how hyper
text might have prevented the Bay of Pigs. After
due consideration, I did not say what hypertexts
might have done for Ihe Warren Report. Numerous
Jolly phone calls assured m e lhat m y firsl $25,000
was just around the corper.
The break came w h e n Bob called m e and
asked m e to rewrite a proposal one more lime.
He had circulated it, he aaid, am on g various
people "at the shop," w h o he reminded m e were
holders of advanced degrees, and it had been
remarked that they found m y proposal meaning
less: "Every place you say 'hypertext' you
could jusl aa well put 'gobbledygook' instead;
you'll have lo clear lhat up a little."
Thai did It. They couldn't read either.
W ho turns oul to be in charge of computer stuff
in the heart of the CIA. the Inner sanctum, the
nesl of vipers, but the same old poopy Ph.Ds.
I decided to re a u scitate my v irtu e .
As far as I know, there is still not a
Decent Writing Syatem anywhere in the world,
although several things n ow come close. It
seems a shame that grown men and w om e n have
to rustle around in piles of paper, like squirrels
looking for acorns, in search of the phrases
and ideas Ihey themselves have generated.
T he decent w ritin g 9yslem , as I see it. will
^ d u a lly be m uch more: it will help ua cre a te
b e lte r th in g s in a fraction of the time, b u t also
keep tra c k o f e v e ry th in g in b etter and more
subtle waya than we e v e r could before.
But nobody sees this I suppose it's only
writers and editors that k now they're trying to
"keep track of Ideas"-- and I have been unable
to gel thia across to anybody. (The profeaeional
writers, of course, won't talk to me either.)
So here I a m after fourteen years with
exactly two systems to show for it: the main one.
Xanadu, the lext-and-animated-piclure network
system, and Fantasm (1 shouldn't have apent
the time bul it wa s a labor of love), the simu-
laled-photography system. Actually, 1 don'l
have either of them to show, it's all just flow
charts, but it turns out lhat if I work on either
of (hem with university equipment, m y w ork of
fourteen years gets conAscated. So much for
thal; the outside expedients for debugging con
tinue .
And, to lighlen Ihe burden. I've finally
given up on trying lo reach professionals, wh o
1
evidently need a Ihick gravy of lechnicalism to
make the obvious palatable; with this bookity
am taking m y case to The People. It is there,
anyway, out in Consumerdom. lhal the real ac
tion is going to occur. So the important thing
is for everybody to know whal's really possible,
and what (hey could have. Thai Is w h y I have
shol off m y big canons (and ihi6 epistol).
T o me. you see. this is really a holy
crusade, whereas I know guys to w h o m il's
jusl a living. It's no less than a question
of freedom in our lime. The cases of Solzhenitsyn
and Ellsberg remind us that freedom is slill
not what it should be, anywhere. Computer
display and storage can bring us a whole new
literature, the uniting and the apotheosis of the
old end the new; but (here are many wh o would
not necessarily wanl to see this come about.
Deep and widespread compuier systems would be
tempting to two dangerous parties, "organized ,
crime" and the Executive branch of Ihe Federal
government (assuming there ia still a difference
between the two). If we are lo have the freedoms
of information we deserve as a free people, the
safeguards have to be built in al the bottom. now.
A n d the opulence which is possible must be made
clear to everyone before we settle on an inferior
system-* as w e did with television.
Some people have called m y Ideas and
systems "Orwellian." This is annoying In two
ways. In the first place It suggests the night
mare of Orwell's book Nineteen Eighty-Four,
which obviously I want no part of. (Bul h e y ,
do you remember what that world of 1984 was
actually like? Th e cryptic wars against unseen
enemies that kept shifting? The government
spying? The use of language lo twist end
manipulate? To paraphrase Huey Long: "Of
course we'll have 1984 in America. Only we'll
cell it 1972.")
The second reason the term "Orwellian'1
is offensive is that it somehow reduces (he life
of Orwell, the man. to the world of "1984."
This is a shallow and shabby thing to do to a
man w ho apent his life unmasking oppressiveness
in human institutions everywhere.
In the larger sense, then In homage to
thal simple, honest, angry man, who cared about
nothing more lhan human freedom-- I would be
proud indeed if m y systems could be called
Orwellian.
That reminds me. Nowhere in the book
hsve 1 defined the phrase "computer lib." By
Compuier Lib I mean simply: making people
freer through computers. Thal'a all.
Fantically o r fanatically
Y ours for a b e tte r w orld,
Before we have to settle for A n y --