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Engineering Fluid Mechanics: Fluids in Motion
Engineering Fluid Mechanics: Fluids in Motion
Chapter 4
Fluids in Motion
Dr. Ahmad Sakhrieh
American University of Ras Al-Khaimah
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the Kinematics part of fluid in
motion, i.e. Velocity, Acceleration and Flow Visualization
and next chapter will discuss the Dynamics of fluids, i.e.
Force and Momentum.
Objectives:
Understand velocity, acceleration, and flow visualization
Distinguish between convective and local acceleration.
Introduce new flow terminologies such as streamlines,
steady and uniform flow
Distinguish between Laminar and Turbulent flow
Pressure varaition in flowing fluid
Eulers Equation
Bernoullis Eqaution
Pressure distribution about bodies
Separation
2
Velocity; Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints
Lagrangian viewpoint
Lagrangian viewpoint in which the motion of a specific fluid particle is
recorded for all time ( Watch individual, single particle all the time, at all
locations x,y, and z). This is the familiar approach in dynamics.
v(t)=u i +v j+w k
3
Eulerian viewpoint
The other way to express fluid velocity is to focus on a certain point in
space and describe the motion of fluid particles that pass this point as
time goes on. This is known as the Eulerian approach. In this case, the
fluid particle velocity depends on the point in space and time.
u = u(x, y, z, t) ; v = v(x, y, z, t) ; w = w(x, y, z, t)
In this method we observe the motion of particles passing a specific point
in space, as opposed to the Lagrangian method in which we track the
position of a specific particle as time passes. In order to describe the entire
flow field, we must know the fluid motion at all points in the field.
4
Streamlines and Flow Patterns
To visualize the flow field it is desirable to
construct lines that show the flow direction.
Such a construction is called a flow pattern,
and the lines are called streamlines.
The streamline is defined as a line drawn
through the flow field in such a manner that
the local velocity vector is tangent to the
streamline at every point along the line at
that instant.
5
Dividing Streamline:
Whenever flow occurs around a body, part of it will go to one side and
part to the other as shown in the figure for flow over an airfoil section.
The streamline that follows the flow division (that divides on the
upstream side and joins again on the downstream side) is called the
dividing streamline. At the location where the dividing streamline
intersects the body, the velocity will be zero with respect to the body.
This is the stagnation point.
6
Uniform flow:
Flow in which the velocity is the same in both magnitude and direction at a given
instant at every point in a fluid (Streamlines are straight and parallel)
Non-Uniform flow:
The velocity changes along a fluid path (Streamlines are not straight and parallel)
V
0
S
8
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move
smoothly with respect to each other. A typical laminar flow would be the flow of
honey or thick syrup from a jug. Laminar flow in a pipe has a smooth, parabolic
velocity distribution as shown in the figure (a)
Turbulent flow is an unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream
mixing. For example, the flow in the wake of a ship is turbulent. The eddies
observed in the wake cause intense mixing. The transport of smoke from a smoke
stack on a windy day also exemplifies a turbulent flow. The mixing is apparent as
the plume widens and disperses. An instantaneous velocity profile for turbulent
flow in a pipe is shown in Figure (b). See Movie
9
Laminar flow:
Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.
Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
overall direction of flow is one way.
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One-Dimensional and Multi-Dimensional Flows
The dimensionality of a flow field is characterized by the number of spatial
dimensions needed to describe the velocity field.
Figure (a) shows the velocity distribution for an axisymmetric flow in a circular
duct. The flow is uniform, or fully developed, so the velocity does not change inthe
flow direction (z). The velocity depends on only one dimension, namely the radius
r, so the flow is one-dimensional.
But,
Local Acceleration
Similarly,
Convective Acceleration
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Streamline Approach:
Using normal and tangential components, the velocity of a fluid particle on
a streamline may be written as:
V V S ,t e t
where V(s, t) is the speed of the
particle, which can vary with
distance along the pathline, s, and time, t.
The direction of the velocity
vector is
given by a unit vector e t
dV d et dV (I)
a V e t
dt dt dt
In Eq. (I), the derivative of the unit vector d et / dt is nonzero because
the direction of the unit vector changes with time as the particle moves
alongthe pathline. The derivative is:
d et V
en (II)
dt r 13
To evaluate the derivative of speed in Eq. (I), the chain rule for a function
of two variables can be used.
dV S ,t V S V
dt S t t
dV S ,t V V
V (III)
dt S t
Substituting (II) and (III) into (I) yield,
V V V 2
a V e t e n
S t
Centripetal Acceleration
r
Convective Acceleration
Local Acceleration
The acceleration component along the streamline depends on two terms:
The first one, the variation of velocity with time at a point on the pathline, namely
V / t, is called the local acceleration. In steady flow the local acceleration is zero.
The other term, VV / s, depends on the variation of velocity along the pathline
and is called the convective acceleration.
In a uniform flow, the convective acceleration is zero.
The acceleration with magnitude V2 / r, which is normal to the pathline and
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directed toward the center of rotation, is the centripetal acceleration.
Pressure Variation in flowing Fluid: Eulers Equation
Force Balance
F ma
Fpressure Fgravity ma
Fpressure pA p p A
pA
z
Fgravity W
z
pA A Aa Important Notes:
1- It shows that the acceleration is equal to the
Divide by A change in piezometric pressure with distance. The
minus sign means the acceleration is in the direction
p z
a of decreasing piezometric pressure.
2- In a static body of fluid, Euler's equation reduces to
the hydrostatic differential equation
dp dz 3- In the direction normal to the wall, the n
a direction, the acceleration is zero.
d d
Applying Euler's equation in the n
d
p z a direction gives n(p + z) /= 0, so
the piezometric pressure is constant in
d the normal direction. 15
Euler Equation
Pressure Distribution in Rotating Flows
Apply Eulers Equation in r-direction
d
p z ar
dr
V 2
ar
r
V2
d
p z
dr r
V r
d
p z r 2 Important Notes:
dr 1- If the angular speed is zero, the
Integrating with respect to r equations reduces to the hydrostatic
equation
r 2 2
p z cons tan t 2- The equation for pressure variation in a
2 rotating flow is used to predict the surface
profile of a liquid in a rotating tank.
2r 2
p z C 3- The maximum pressure in the tank
occurs at the outer radius and the deepest
2 point
These equations describe the
pressure variation in rotating
flow. 16
Example:
A U-tube is rotated about one leg, as shown. Before being rotated the in the tube fills
0.25 m of each leg. The length of the base of the U-tube is 0.5 m, and each leg is 0.5 .
What would be the maximum rotation rate in (rad/s) to ensure that no liquid is expelled
from the other leg.
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The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
Start from Eulers Eqn. along a streamline
Important Notes:
d
p z at 1- Steady 2- Irrotational 3- Non-viscous fluid (= 0)
dS 4- Incompressible fluid 5- Apply along the streamline
6- If V=0, the equations reduces to hydrostatic Eq.
V V
at V 7-Even though the real fluid is viscous, the effects of
S t viscosity are small for short distances. Also, the effects
Assume steady state of viscosity on pressure change are negligible compared
to the pressure change due to velocity variation.
dV
at V
dS
V
dV 1 d 2
V
dS 2 ds
d V 2
d
p z
ds ds 2
d V2
p z 0
ds 2
p1 V12 p2 V22 p3 V32
z1 z2 z3
V2
p z
2g 2g 2g
C
2 Bernoullis Equation 18
Kerosene at 20 C flows through a
contraction section as shown. A pressure
gauge connected between the upstream
pipe and throat section shows a pressure
difference of 20 kPa. The gasoline velocity in
the throat is 8 m/s. What is the velocity in the
upstream (m/s) in the upstream pipe?
19
Application of the Bernoulli Equation to Velocity
Measurement Devices
Stagnation tube:
A Stagnation tube (sometimes called a total head tube) is an open-ended
tube directed upstream in a flow and connected to a pressure sensor.
Because the velocity is zero at the tube opening, the pressure measured
corresponds to stagnation conditions.
V12 V22
p1 z1 p 2 z 2
2 2
Note V2=0
V12 p 2 p1
2
By the equations of hydrostatics
(there is no acceleration normal to
the streamlines where the
streamlines are straight and parallel),
p1 = d and p2 = (l + d).
Therefore, Eq. (4.20) can be written as
V1 2 gl
20
The Pressure Coefficient
Describing the pressure distribution is important because pressure gradients
influence flow patterns and pressure distributions acting on bodies which create
resultant forces. A common dimensionless group for describing the
pressure distribution is called the pressure coefficient:
p z p zo h ho
Cp 2
Vo / 2 Vo /( 2 g )
2
where p is local pressure; p0 and V0 are the free-stream pressure and velocity.
Note that the minimum pressure (Cp = - 3.0) occurs at the midsection, point C,
where the velocity is highest.
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Concept of favorable and adverse pressure gradient:
From Euler's equation for pressure gradient
and acceleration along a streamline,
(neglecting gravitational effects) one has: dp
at
ds
One notes that at > 0 if p/s < 0; that is,
the fluid particle accelerates if the pressure decreases
with distance along a pathline. This is a favorable pressure gradient.
Consider the flow of a real (viscous) fluid past a cylinder as shown in the figure.
The flow pattern upstream of the midsection is very similar to the pattern for an
ideal fluid.
However, in a viscous fluid the velocity at the surface is zero (no-slip), whereas
with the flow of an inviscid fluid the surface velocity need not be zero.
Because of viscous effects, a thin layer, called a boundary layer, forms next to
the surface. The velocity changes from zero at the surface to the free-stream
velocity across the boundary layer. Over the forward section of the cylinder,
where the pressure gradient is favorable, the boundary layer is quite thin.
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Separation
In real flow, downstream of the midsection, the
pressure gradient is adverse and the fluid particles
in the boundary layer, slowed by viscous effects,
can only go so far and then are forced to detour
away from the surface.
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