IMPORTANT

FACTS
AND
FORMULAE

FOR JEE
Sr.No. Subjects Page No.

1. Physics 1 - 39

2. Chemistry 40 - 90

3. Mathematics 91 - 158
91 MATHEMATICS

IMPORTANT FACTS AND FORMULAE FOR JEE

AIEEE MATHEMATICS

UNITS 1: SETS, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

Algebraic properties of sets:

1. A BC AB C

2. AB B A
3. AI I
4. A B AB A AB B

5. AB c Ac Bc and A B c Ac Bc (De Morgans Laws)

Formulae for domains of functions:

1. dom(f + g) = domf domg
2. dom(f g) = domf domg
3. dom(f/g) = domf domg {x : g(x) z 0}

4. dom f = domf {x : f(x) t 0}

Type of functions:
1. Surjective function: If a function f : A o B is such that each element
in B is an image of atleast one element in A, then f is a function of A
onto B or f is a surjective function (also called onto function) from A to B.
2. Injective function: If function does not take the same value at two
distinct points in its domain, then the function is said to be an injective
function (also called one-to-one function)
3. Bijective function: If a function f is both one-to-one and onto, the f is
said to be a bijective function.

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UNITS 2: COMPLEX NUMBERS

1. Property of Order
It states that (a +ib)  (or ! ) c + id is not defined for complex
numbers. For example, the statement 9 + 6i  2 - i make no
sense.
i) The sum of four consecutive powers of i is zero.
I
in + in+1 + in+2 + in+3 = 0, n
ii) a b ab is valid only if atleast one of a and b is
non-negative.
If a and b are both negative then
a b  ab
2. Properties of Conjugate Complex Numbers
(i) z1  z 2 z1  z 2 and z1  z 2 z1  z 2

z z1
(ii) z1z 2 z1 z 2 and 1
z2 z2

(iii) z1 z 2  z1z 2 2Re z1 z 2

3. Rotational approach
If z1, z2, z3 be vertices of a triangle ABC
described in counter-clockwise sense
(see Fig.) then:
z2  z3 z1  z 3
e iD
z2  z3 z1  z 3

or z2  z3
amp D BCA
z1  z 3

4. Properties of Modulus

(i) z z z z

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2
(ii) zz z
n
(iii) zn z

(iv) z1  z 2 d z1  z 2

(v) z1  z 2 t z1  z 2

(vi) z1z 2 z1 z 2

z1 z1
(vii)
z2 z2
2 2 2 2
(viii) z1  z 2  z1  z 2 2 z1  z2

(ix) z1  z 2 d z1  z 2

2 2 2 2
(x) az1  bz 2  bz1  az 2 a2  b2 z1  z2 R.
, where a, b

5. Properties of Argument of Complex Numbers

(i) Arg (z1z2) = Arg (z1) + Arg (z2)
z
(ii) Arg 1 = Arg (z1) - Arg (z3)
z2
(iii) Arg (z1z2z3.zn) = Arg (z1) + Arg (z2) + Arg (z3). + Arg (zn)
(iv) Arg (zn) = n Arg (z)
z z1
(v) If Arg 2 T , then Arg 2k S  T,k l
z1 z2

6. Demoivres theorem
(a) If n is a positive or negative integer, then
n
cos T  i sin T cos n T  i sin n T

(b) If n is a positive integer, then

1/n 2k S  T 2k S  T
cos T  i sin T cos  i sin
n n
Demoivres theorem is valid if n is any rational number.
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7. Some important Results

(i) If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then the distance between
z1 and z2 is z1  z 2 .

(ii) Segment joining points A(z1) and B(z2) is divided by point P(z) in
m1z 2  m2 z1
the ratio m1 : m2 then z , m1 and m2 are real.
m1  m2

(iii) The equation of the line joining z1 and z2 is given by

z z 1
z1 z1 1 0 (non-parametric form)
z2 z2 1

(iv) Three points z1, z2 and z3 are collinear if

z1 z1 1
z2 z2 1 0
z3 z3 1

(v) az  az  b 0, b R describes equation of a straight line

Slope of line: The complex slope of the line az  az  b 0 is

a coeffi. of z
 
b coeffi.of z

(vi) z  z0 r is equation of a circle, whose centre is z0 and radius is r

(vii) If z  z1  z  z 2 2a , where 2a ! z1  z 2 then point z describes

an ellipse.
z  z1
(viii) k is a circle if k z 1 , and is a line if k = 1.
z  z2

z1  z 3 z3  z4
(ix) If Arg rS, 0, the points z1, z2, z3, z4 are
z1  z 3 z2  z3
concyclic.

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UNIT 3: MATRICES & DETERMINANTS
1. Some Important Terms
A matrix A aij is said to be a
m un

(i) Row matrix if m = 1

(ii) Column matrix if n = 1
(iii) Null or zero matrix if aij = 0,  i and j
(iv) Square matrix if m = n
(v) Diagonal matrix if m = n and aij = 0,  i z j
(vi) Scalar matrix if m = n and aij = 0,  i z j
and aij O,  i J
(vii) Unit or identity matrix if m = n and aij = 0,  i z j
and aij 1,  i J
2. Properties of matrix multiplication
i) If A is a square matrix, then
Am An = Am+n,  m, n
N
(Am)n = Amn,  m, n
N
ii) If A is an invertible matrix then
(A-1BA)m = A-1 Bm A
and A-m = (A-1)m,  m N
3. Transpose of a Matrix

Definition: The transpose of a matrix A aij , denoted by A

m un

(or by A) is the matrix Ac bij , where bij = aji,  i and j.

n um

By A we mean a matrix B bij , where bij a ij , where a denotes

m un
conjugate of a and by A* we mean
c
A* A Ac

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Properties of Transpose of a Matrix

i. AB c Ac  Bc

ii. kA c kAc where k is a scalar.

iii. AB c BcAc [Reversal law]

c -1
iv. If A is an invertible matrix, then A -1 Ac

4. Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix

The adjoint of a square matrix A aij is defined to be the matrix

m un

adj. A bij , where bij = Aji where, Aji is the cofactor of (j, i)th
n um
element of A.
Properties of Adjoint
i) A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A In

ii) adj (kA) = kn-1 (adj A)

iii) adj(AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
Properties of Inverse
i) AA-1 =A-1 A = In
ii) (A-1)-1 = A
iii) (kA)-1 = k-1 A-1 if k z 0
iv) (AB)-1 = B-1A-1 [reversal low]
v) Inverse of a matrix if it exists is unique.
a b d b
vi) For a matrix A c d , Adj. A c
a

1 d b
and A-1 c ifad  bc z 0
ad  bc a

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5. Properties of Determinants
i) The interchange of any two rows (or columns) in ' changes its
sign.
ii) If all the elements of a row (or column) in ' are zero or if two rows
(or columns) are identical (or proportional), then the value of ' is
zero.
iii) If all the elements of one row (or column) is multiplied by a non-
zero number k, then the value of the new determinant is k times
the value of the original determinant.
iv) If ' becomes zero on putting x = D , then we say that xD is
factor of ' .
a1 a 2 a3 a1 0 0
v) 0 b2 b3 a1b2c 3 b1 b2 0
0 0 c3 c1 c 2 c 3

6. Systems of Linear Equations

The system of homogeneous linear equations
a1x + b1y + c1z = 0
a2x + b2y + c3z = 0
and a3x + b3y + c3z = 0
has a non-trivial solution (i.e., at least one of x, y, z is non-zero) if
a1 b1 c1
' a2 b2 c 2 0
a3 b3 c 3

and if ' z 0 , then x = y = z = 0 is the only solution of above system

(Trivial solution).
Cramers Rule: Let us consider a system of equations
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1;
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2;
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3;

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a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
Here ' a2 b2 c 2 , '1 d2 b2 c 2 ,
a3 b3 c 3 d3 b3 c 3

a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
'2 a2 d2 c 2 , ' 3 a2 b2 d2 ,
a3 d3 c 3 a3 b3 d3

'1 '2 '3

By Cramers Rule, we have x ,y , and z
' ' '
7. Differentiation of Determinant Function
f1 f1 f1
If F x g 2 g2 g 2 where f 1, f 2, f 3; g1, g2, g3; h1, h2, h3; are the
h3 h3 h 3
functions of x, then
f1c f1c f1c f1 f1 f1 f1 f1 f1
? Fc x g 2 g 2 g2  g 2c g 2c g 2c  g 2 g2 g 2
h3 h 3 h3 h 3 h 3 h3 h 3c h 3c h 3c

8. Cyclic Order
If elements of the rows (or columns) are in cyclic order,

1 a a2
i.e., i) 1 b b2 a b b c c a
1 c c2

a b c 1 1 1
ii) a 2 b2 c 2 a 2 b2 c 2 a b b c c  a ab  bc  ca
bc ca ab 3 3 3
a b c

a bc abc a a2 a3
iii) b ca abc b b2 b3 abc a  b b  c c a
c ab abc c c2 c3

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1 1 1
iv) a b c a b b c c a a b c
3 3 3
a b c

a b c
v) b c a a 2  b 2  c 2  3 abc
c a b

UNIT 4: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1. Roots of the equation

b r b 2  4ac
ax 2  bx  c 0 x are D and E
2a
2. Sum and product of the roots:
b c
S DE  ; P DE .
a a
3. To find the equation whose roots are D and E
x2 Sx + P = 0
where S is sum and P is product of roots.
4. Nature of the roots
D = b2 4ac where D is called discriminant.
(a) If b2 4ac t 0, roots are real
i) b2 4ac ! 0, roots are real and unequal.
ii) b2 4ac = 0, roots are real an equal. In this case, each
b
root = 
2a
iii) b2 4ac = perfect square, roots are rational.
iv) b2 4ac = not a perfect square, roots are irrational.

(b) if b2 4ac  0, i.e., -ve, then b 2  4ac is imaginary.

Therefore the roots are imaginary and unequal.

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5. Symmetric function of the roots
If D and E are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, then
b c
i) DE  and DE
a a
2
ii) D2  E2 DE  2DE
2
iii) DE DE  4DE

iv) D2  E2 DE DE

3
v) D3  E3 DE  3DE D  E
2
vi) D4  E 4 D2  E 2  2D 2E2

6. Condition for Common roots

Equations: a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0
Roots: a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0
Condition for one common root:
(c1a2 c2a1)2 = (b1c2 b2c1)(a1b2 a2b1)
Condition for both the roots to be common:
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
Note: If the coefficient of x2 in both the equations be unity, then the
value of common root is obtained by subtracting their equations.
7. Inequalities
a) x 2 ! a 2 is positive if  -a or x ! a
b) x 2  a2 if a  x  a
2 2 2
c) a  x b double inequality ? a  x  b or -b  x  -a.
8. In an inequality you can always multiply or divide by a +ve quantity but
not by a ve quantity. Multiplying by a ve quantity or taking reciprocal
will reverse the inequality.
1 1
e.g., a ! b  a  b or  .
a b

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UNIT 5: PERMUTATIONS & COMBINATIONS

1. Fundamental Principle of Counting
(i) Multiplication Principle: There are m ways doing one work and
n way doing another work then way of doing both work together
= m.n.
(ii) Addition Principle: There are m way doing one work and n ways
doing another work then ways doing either m ways or n ways
= m + n.
2. The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects in a row taking
n
r 0 d r d n at a time is denoted by Pr or P(n, r)

n n!
and Pr n n  1 n  2 .... n  r  1
n r !
n n n n
Note that, P0 1, P1 n and Pn -1 Pn n!
3. The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects along a circle is
n 1 !

4. The number of ways of arranging n beads along a circular wire is

n 1 !
.
2
5. The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time, p are alike of
one kind, q are alike of another kind and r are alike of a third kind and
n!
the rest n (p + q + r) are all different is .
p ! q !r !
6. The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects taking r of them at a
time where any object may be repeated any number of times is n r .
7. The number of selecting at least one object out of n distinct object
= 2n - 1
8. Derangements: The number of derangements (No object goes to its
scheduled place) of n objects.
1 1 1 1 n 1
n ! 1      ....  1
1! 2! 3! 4! n !
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-n n +r -1
9. The coefficient of x r in the expansion of 1  x Cr

10. Some Important Results

n n
(i) C0 Cn 1, n C1 n
n n +1
(ii) Cr  n Cr -1 Cr
n n
(iii) Cx Cy x y or x  y n
2n +1
(iv) C0  2n +1C1  ......  2n +1Cn 22n

n n n -1
(v) Cr . Cr -1
r
n
Cr n  r 1
(vi) n
Cr -1 r

(vii) n
Cr  n +1Cn  n +2Cn  .....  2n +1Cn 2n
Cn +1

UNIT 6: MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION AND ITS APPLICTIONS

It is often used to prove a statement depending upon a natural number n.
Ist Principle of Induction
If P(n) is a statement depending upon n, then to prove it by induction, we
proceed as follow:
i) Verify the validity of P(n) for n = 1
ii) Assume that P(n) is true for some positive integer m and then using it
establish the validity of p(n) for n = m + 1.
N
Then, P(n) is true for each n
IInd Principle of Induction:
In P(n) is a statement depending upon n but beginning with some positive
integer k, then to prove P(n), we proceed as follows:
i) Verify the validity of P(n) for n = k
ii) Assume that the statement is true for n = m t k. Then, using it establish
the validity of P(n) for n = m + 1.
Then, P(n) is true for each n t k.
UNIT 7: BINOMIAL THEOREM & ITS APPLICATIONS
1. Binomial Theorem
C then
It n is a positive integer and x, y,
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n
x y n
C0 x n -0 y 0  n C1 x n -1 y1  n C2 x n -2 y 2  ......  n Cn y n
n
Here C0 , n C1 , n C2 ........n Cn are called binomial coefficient.
2. Some Important Points to Remember
(i) General term: General term = (r + 1)th term
? Tr +1 n
Cr x n -r yr , where r = 0, 1, 2,.., n.
(ii) Middle term: The middle term depends upon the value of n.
(a) If n is even,
n
i.e.,  1 th term is the middle term.
2
(b) If n is odd, there are two middle terms,
n  1 n  3
i.e., th and th are two middle terms.
2 2
(iii) Greatest Term:
(a) If p is an integer, then Tp and Tp+1 are equal and both are
greatest term
(b) If p is not an integer, then T[p]+1 is the greatest term,
where [.] denotes the greatest integral part.
(iv) Greatest Coefficient:
n
(a) If n is even, then greatest coefficient Cn /2
n n
(b) If n is odd, then greatest coefficients are Cn -1 and C n 1 .
2 2
(v) Important Formulae:
(a) C0 + C1 +C2 + C3 +Cn = 2n
(b) C0 + C2 +C4 + = C1 + C3 + C5 += 2n-1
sum of odd binomial coefficients = sum of even binomial coefficients
(c) C20  C12  C22    Cn2 2n
Cn
(d) C0Cr + C1Cr+1 + C2Cr+2 + . Cn-r Cn = 2nCn-r

n
where C0, C1, C2, C3,, represent C0 , n C1 , n C2 , n C3 ,........
(vi) General Binomial theorem:
If n R,  1  x  1 , then

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n n n 1 2 n n 1 n  2 r
1 x 1  nx 
x  ....  x  ....f
2! r!
(vii) Important Expansions:
(a) (1 + x)-1 = 1 x + x2 x3 ++ (-1)r xr +..
(b) (1 x)-1 = 1 + x1 + x2 + x3 + ..+ xr +
(c) (1 + x)-2 = 1 2C1x + 3C2x2 - 4C3x3 + .. + (-1)r r+1C
r xr +.
(d) (1 + x)-2 = 1 + 2C1x + 3C2x2 + 4C3x3 + .. + r+1Cr xr +.

UNIT 8: SEQUENCES & SERIES

1. Arithmetic Progression
(i) Tn a  n  1 d,n I
n
(ii) Sn 2a  n  1 d ,n I
2
where Tn = nth term of an AP
Sn = sum of n terms of an AP
a = first term of an AP
d = Common difference
(iii) Arithmetic Mean (AM) of two quantities a and b,
a b
A
2
(iv) AM of n gives quantities,
x1  x 2  .....xn
An
n
(v) Tn Sn  Sn -1 n t 2
2. Geometric Progression (GP)
(i) Tn = arn-1 where a = first term of the GP, r = common ratio of the
GP and Tn = nth term of the GP
(ii) Sum of n terms of a GP
a 1 rn
Sn
1 r
(iii) Sum of an infinite number of terms of a GP, when r  1

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a
Sf
1 r
(iv) Geometric mean of two quantities a and b,
G2 = ab, ab ! 0
(v) Geometric mean of n given quantities, a1, a2, ., an.
Gn = (a1a2a3..an-1an)1/n
Tn
(vi) Common ratio .
Tn -1
3. Harmonic Progression (HP)
(i) nth term of a HP,
1
Tn
a  n 1 d
(ii) Harmonic mean of a and b,
2 ab
H
a b
(iii) Relation between A, G and H
a  b 2 ab
AH =
2 a  b
= ab = G2
AH = G2
(iv) A ! G ! H, i.e., A, G, H are in descending order of magnitude.
4. Arithmetico-Geometric Sequence
Sum of an infinite number of terms of the sequence ab, (a + d)br,
(a + 2d)br2, is
ab d br
S 
1 r 1 r
2

5. Series of natural numbers

n n 1
(i) n 1  2  3  ......  n
2
n n  1 2n  1
(ii) n2 12  22  32  ......  n  1
2
 n2
6

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2
n n  1
(iii) n 3 3 3 3
1  2  3  ......  n 3

2


(iv) a a  a  ......  a n terms na

6. Exponential and Logarithmic series

x2 x3
(i) ex 1 x    .....
2! 3!
e x  e -x x2 x4
(ii) 1   .....
2 2! 4!
e x  e -x x3 x5
(iii) x   .....
2 3! 5!
x2 2 x3 3
(iv) ax 1  x ln a  ln a  ln a  .....
2! 3!
x2 x3
(v) ln 1  x x   ...... x  1
2 3
n n n 1 2
(vi) 1 x 1  nx  x  ......n R
2!

UNIT -: 9 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Functions
Formulae for domain of a function
1. Domain (f(x) + g(x)) = Domain f(x) Domain g(x)
2. Domain (f(x) . g(x)) = Domain f(x) Domain g(x)
f x
3. Domain = Domain f(x) Domain g(x) x : g x z 0
g x
4. Domain f x = Domain f(x) x : f x t 0
5. Domain (fog) = Domain g(x), where fog is defined by fog(x) = f{g(x)}

Odd and Even Function

(i) A function is an odd function if f(-x) = -f(x) for all x.
(ii) A function is an even function if f(-x) = f(x) for all x.
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Periodic function
A function f(x) is said to be a periodic function of x, if there exist a positive real
number T such that f(x + T) = f(x) for all x.

If positive value of T independent of x then f(x) is periodic function and if the

value of T depends upon x, then f(x) is non-periodic.
Signum function
The signum function f is defined as
1 if x ! 0

Sgn f x 0 if x 0
if x  0
1
As x shown in figure

Greatest Integer function

I and [.] denotes the greatest integer function, then
If f(x) = [x + n], where n
f(x) = n + [x].
a) x  1  [x] d x
b) [ x ] [x ] , if x I
c) [ x ] [x ]  1 , if x I
d) [x ] t n x t n ,n I
e) [x ] d n x  n  1,n I
f) [x ] ! n x t n  1,n I
g) [x ]  n x  n ,n I

Modulus function (or Absolut-Value-function)

Modulus function is given by
x x t0
y x
x x 0
Properties of Modulus Function
a) x d a a d x d a ; a t 0

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b) x t a a or x t a ; a t 0

c) x ry d x  y
d) x ry t x  y
Limits and Continuity
Frequently used Limits
x
1 1/h
(i) lim 1  e lim 1  h
x of x h o0

x
a
(ii) lim 1  ea
x of x

x n  an
(iii) lim na n -1 , where n Q
x oa x a
sin Tc tan Tc
(iv) lim 1 and lim 1
To 0 Tc To 0 Tc
ax 1
(v) lim ln a a ! 0
x o0 x
ex 1
(vi) lim l
x o0 x
log a 1  x
(vii) lim log a e a ! 0, a z 1
x o0 x

Expansions of Trigonometric Functions

x3 x5
(i) sin x x   .....
3! 5!
x2 x4
(ii) cos x 1   .....
2! 4!
x3 2 5
(iii) tan x x  x  .....
3 15
Sandwich Theorem
If f, g, h are functions, such that f (x ) d g (x ) d h (x ) then
lim f (x ) d lim g (x ) d lim h (x )
x oa x oa x oa
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Indeterminate Forms
If a function f(x) takes any of the following forms at x =a
0 f
, , f  f,0 u f,00 , f 0 ,1f
0 f
then f(x) is said to be indeterminate at x = a.
LHospitals Rule
Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions, such that f(a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then
f (x ) f c(x )
lim lim
x oa g (x ) x oa g c(x )
Provided f(a) and g(a) are both non-zero.
Derivatives
Differentiability and Continuity
For a function f(x)
(a) Differentiable Continuous
(b) Continuous Differentiable
(c) Not Continuous Not Differentiable
Theorems on Derivatives
d d d
(i) f1 x r f 2 x f1 x r f2 x
dx dx dx
d d
(ii) k x k f1 x , where k is any constant.
dx dx
d d d
(iii) f1 x f 2 x f1 x f2 x  f2 x f1 x
dx dx dx
dy dy du dv
(iv) If y = f 1(u), u = f 2(v) and v = f 3(x) then
dx du dv dx

Some Standard differentials

(i) d (ii) d 1
xn nx n -1 , x R,n R, x ! 0 x
dx dx 2 x

(iii) d (iv) d
ex ex ax a x ln a
dx dx

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(v) d 1 (vi) d 1
ln x log a x log a e
dx x dx x
(vii) d (viii) d
sin x cos x cos x  sin x
dx dx
(ix) d (x) d
tan x sec 2 x cot x  cosec 2 x
dx dx
(xi) d (xii) d
sec x sec x tan x cosec x cosec x cot x
dx dx
(xiii) d 1 (xiv) d 1
sin-1 x cos-1 x
dx 1 x 2 dx 1 x2

(xv) d 1 (xvi) d 1
tan-1 x 2
cot-1 x
dx 1 x dx 1 x2
(xvii) d 1 (xviii) d 1
sec -1 x cosec -1 x
dx x x2 1 dx x x2 1

Some Standard Substitutions

Expression Substitution

a2  x2 x a sin T or a cos T

a2  x2 x a tan T or a cot T

x2  a2 x a sec T or a cosec T

ax ax
or x a cos T or a cos 2T
ax ax

2ax  x 2 x a 1  cos T

Critical Points
dy dy
The points on the curve y = f (x ) at which 0 or does not exist are
dx dx
known as the critical points.
Rolles Theorem

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If a function f(x) is defined on [a,b] satisfying
(i) f is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) f is differentiable on (a, b)
(iii) (a,b) such that f(c)= 0
f(a) = f(b) then c
Lagranges mean value Theorem
If a function f(x) is defined on [a, b] satisfying
(i) f is continuous on [a, b]
f b f a
(ii) (a,b) such that f c c
f is differentiable on (a, b) then c
b a
Test of Monotonicity
(i) The function f(x) is monotonically increasing in the interval [a, b], if
f c x t 0 in [a, b]
(ii) The function f(x) is strictly increasing in the interval [a, b], if
f c x ! 0 in [a, b]
(iii) The function f(x) is monotonically decreasing in the interval [a, b], if
f c x d 0 in [a, b]
(iv) The function f c x is strictly decreasing in the interval [a, b], if
f c(x)  0 in [a, b]
Working Rule for Finding Maxima and Minima
(a) First Derivative Test
To check the maxima or minima at x = a
(i) If f c(x ) ! 0 at x  a and f c(x )  0 at x ! a i.e., the sign of f c(x )
changes from +ve to ve, then f (x ) has a local maximum at x = a.
(ii) If f c(x )  0 at x  a and f c(x ) ! 0 at x ! a i.e., the sign of f c(x )
changes from -ve to +ve, then f (x ) has a local minimum at x = a.
(iii) If the sign of f c(x ) does not change, then f (x ) has neither local
maximum nor local minimum at x = a, then point a is called a
point of inflection.

(b) Second Derivative Test

(i) If f cc(a )  0 and f c(a ) 0 , then a is a point of local maximum.
(ii) If f cc(a ) ! 0 and f c(a ) 0 , then a is a point of local minimum.

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(iii) If f cc(a ) 0 and f c(a ) 0 , then further differentiate and obtain
f ccc(a )

(iv) If f c(a ) f cc(a ) f ccc(a ) ...... f n -1(a ) 0 and f n (a ) z 0

In n is odd then f(x) has neither local maximum nor local minimum at x = a,
then point a is called a point of inflection.
If n is even, then if f n (a )  0 then f (x ) has a local maximum at x = a and if
f n (a ) ! 0 then f (x ) has a local minimum at x = a.
Note: Maximum or Minimum values are also called local extremum values.
For the points of local extremum either f c(x ) 0 or f c(x ) does not exist.

UNIT 10: INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Methods of Integration
List of Basic Forms of Integrals
1. f (M(x )Mc(x )) dx
Substitution M(x ) t

2. f (x ) Mc(x )dx
Integration by parts

f (x ) Mc(x )dx f (x ) M(x )  M(x ) f c(x ) dx

e pn (x ) dx , where pn (x ) is polynomial of degree n.
ax
3.

Applying the formula for multiple integration by parts (see above), we get
p (x ) pnc (x ) pncc (x ) (n )
n pn (x )

e ax pn (x ) dx e ax n
D

D 2

D 2
 ......  (  1)
Dn +1 C

Mx  N
x 2  px  q dx. p
2
4.  4q  0

p
Substitution, x  t
2
dx
5. In x2 1
n

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Reduction formula is used
x 2n  3
In  In -1
(2n  2)(x  1) 2 n -1 2n  2
P(x ) P(x )
6. Q(x ) dx , where Q(x )
is a proper rational fraction

Q(x) = (x x1)1 (x x2)m.(x2 + px + q)

Integrand is expressed in the form of a sum of partial fractions
P(x ) A1 A2 A1 B1 B2
Q(x ) x  x1

x  x1
2
 ......
x  x1
1

x  x1

x  x1
2
 ....

Bm M1x + N1 M2 x + N2 Mk x + Nk
..  m
 ...... 2
 2
 .......  k
 ....
x  x2 x  px  q x 2  px  q x 2  px  q

Mx  N
7. ax 2  bx  c
dx

b
By the substitution x  t the integral is reduced to a sum of two
2a
integrals:
Mx  N t dt dt
ax 2  bx  c
dx M1 at 2  m
 N1 at 2  m
The first integral is reduced to the integral of a power function and the
second one is a tabular integral.

8. R x , ax 2  bx  c dx , where R is a rational function of x and

ax 2  bx  c .
Reduced to an integral of rational fraction by the Euler substitutions:

ax 2  bx  c t r x a (a ! 0)

ax 2  bx  c tx r x c (c ! 0)

ax 2  bx  c t (x  x1 ) (4D  b 2  0)
Where x1 is the root of the trinomial ax2 + bx + c.
The indicated integral can also be evaluated by the trigonometric
substitutions:
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b 2  4ac
sin t
b 2a
x
2a b 2  4ac
cot t (a  0,ac  b 2  0)
2a
b 2  4ac
sec t
b 2a
x
2a b 2  4ac
cosec t (a ! 0,4ac  b 2  0)
2a
4ac  b 2
tan t
b 2a
x
2a 4a  b 2c
cot t (a ! 0,4ac  b 2  0)
2a
Pn (x )
9. ax 2  bx  c
dx , where Pn(x) is a polynomial of degreed n.

write the equality

Pn (x )dx dx
2
ax  bx  c
Qn -1(x ) ax 2  bx  c  k 2
ax  bx  c
Where Qn-1(x) is a polynomial of degree n 1. Differentiating both parts
of this equality and multiplying by ax 2  bx  c , we get the identity
1
Pn (x ) Qn -1(x )(ax 2  bx  c )  Qn -1(x )(2ax  b )  k ,
2
Which gives a system of n + 1 linear equations for determining the
coefficients of the polynomial Qn-1(x) and factor k.
dx
And the integral 2
ax  bx  c
is taken by the method considered in

No. 10(M = 0; N = 0)
dx
10. x  x1
m
ax 2  bx  c
3

This integral is reduced to the aboveconsidered integral by the

substitution

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1
x  x1
t
11. R sin x ,cos x dx

x
Universal substitution tan t
2
If R(-sin x, cos x) = -R(sinx, cos x), then the substitution cos x = t is
applied
If R(sin x, -cos x) = -R(sinx, cos x), then the substitution sin x = t is
applied
If R(-sin x, -cos x) = -R(sinx, cos x), then the substitution tan x = t is
applied

12. sin ax sin bx dx

sin ax cos bx dx
cos ax cos bx dx
Transform the product of trigonometric function into a sum or difference, using
on of the following formulas;
1
sin ax sin bx [cos(a  b )x  cos(a  b )x ]
2
1
cos ax cos bx [cos(a  b )x  cos(a  b )x ]
2
1
sin ax cos bx [sin(a  b )x  sin(a  b )x ]
2

sin
m
13. x cosn x dx

Where m and n are integers.

If m is an odd positive number, then apply the substitution cos x = t
If n is an odd positive number, apply the substitution sin x = t
If m + n is an negative number, apply the substitution tan x = 1
If m and n are even non-negative numbers, use the formulas

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1  cos 2x 1  cos 2x
sin2 x ;cos 2 x
2 2

sin
p
14. x cosq x dx (0  x  S /2)

p and q rational numbers.

Reduce to the integral of the binomial differential by the substitution
sin x = t
q -1
sin tp 1  t
p 2
x cosq x dx dt (see No. 14)

R(e
ax
15. ) dx .

Transform into an integral of a rational function by the substitution

eax = t
Indefinite Integration
1. Properties of Indefinite Integration
(i) f1(x ) r f 2 (x ) r ....... r fn (x ) dx
f1(x ) dx r f 2 (x ) dx r ..... r fn (x ) dx  C
(ii) k f (x ) dx k f (x ) dx  C
[ f (x )]n +1

n
(iii) f (x ) f c(x ) dx C
(n  1)
f c(x )
(iv) f c(x ) dx ln f (x )  C

f c(x )
(v) f c(x )
dx 2 f (x )  C

2. Standard Results in Integration

x n 1
(i) x n dx
n 1
 C (n z 1)

1.dx x
0
In particular dx x C

1
(ii) x dx ln x  C

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e
x
(iii) dx ex  C

ax
(iv) a x dx
ln a
 C;a z 1, a > 0

(v) sin x dx  cos x  C

(vi) cos x dx sin x  C
(vii) tan x dx ln sec x  C
(viii) cot x dx = ln sin x  C
(ix) sec x dx = ln sec x  tan x  C ln sec x  tan x  C

S x
= ln tan   C
4 2

(x) cosec x dx = ln cosec x  cot x  C ln cosec x  cot x  C

x
= ln tan C
2

sec x dx tan x  C
2
(xi)

co sec x dx  cot x  C
2
(xii)

(xiii) sec x tan x dx sec x  C

(xiv) cos sec x cot x dx  cosec x  C
dx 1 x
(xv) a2  x 2 a
tan-1  C
a
dx 1 x a
(xvi) x 2  a2 2a
ln
x a
C

dx 1 ax
(xvii) a2  x 2 2a
ln
ax
C

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dx x
(xviii) a2  x 2
sin-1  C
a

dx
(xix) x2  a2
ln x  x 2  a2  C

dx
(xx) x a2 2
ln x  x2  a2 C

dx 1 x
(xxi) x x2  a2 a
sec-1 + C
a

x a2 x
(xxii) a 2  x 2 dx
2
a2  x2 
2
sin-1  C
a
x a2
(xxiii) a 2  x 2 dx
2
a2  x 2 
2
ln x  x 2  a 2  C

x a2
(xxiv) x 2  a 2 dx
2
x 2  a2 
2
ln x  x 2  a 2  C

1
(xxv) x
dx 2 x C

1 1
(xxvi) x n dx n  1 x n -1
C

Definite Integration
Properties of Definite Integrals
b b
(i) f (x ) dx a f (t ) dt
a
b a
(ii) f (x ) dx
a

 f (x ) dx
b
b c b
(iii)
a
f (x ) dx
a
f (x ) dx  c f (x ) dx
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Where c, is a point within or out of the interval [a, b].
a a
(iv) f (x ) dx f (a  x ) dx
0 0
a a
(v) f (x ) dx
-a
0
2 f (x ) dx or 0

According as f(x) is even or odd function of x.

a

2a
2 f (x ) dx , if f (2a  x ) f (x )
(vi) 0 f (x ) dx 0
if f (2a  x )  f (x )
0,
b 1
(vii)
a
f (x ) dx 0
(b  a ) f ((b  a )x  a ) dx

b b
(viii)
a
f (x ) dx a f (a  b  x ) dx
b +nT b
(ix)
a +nT
f (x ) dx a f (x ) dx
I.
where f(x) is periodic with period T and n
na a
(x) If f(a + x) = f(x), then 0 f (x ) dx 0
n f (x ) dx

b b
(xi) If f (x ) d I for x [a ,b ] ,then
a
f (x ) dx d a I(x ) dx
b b
(xii)
a
f (x ) dx d a f(x ) dx
(xiii) Leibnitzs rule:
If f continuous on [a, b] and u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x
whose values lie in [a, b] then

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v (x )
d dv du
dx f (t ) dt f v (x ) .
dx
 f u( x ) .
dx
u (x )

UNIT 11: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

(i) d (xy ) x dy  y dx
x y dx  x dy
(ii) d
y y2
x y dx  x dy
(iii) d tan-1
y x 2  y2
x dy  y dx
(iv) d [ln (xy )]
xy

x y dx  x dy
(v) d ln
y xy

1 x dx  y dy
(vi) d ln x 2  y 2
2 x 2  y2

(vii) d x pyq x p -1y q -1( py dx  qx dy )

UNITS 17: TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometric Functions and Identities

1. Measurement of an Angle
(i) 10 = 60 minutes = 60c
(ii) 1c = 60 seconds = 60cc
(iii) Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is equal to
n 2 S
,n ! 2
n

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2. Some Important Formulae and Identities

sin(A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin(A-B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
cos(A+B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B cos(A-B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A  tan B tan A  tanB
tan(A + B) ; tan(A - B)
1  tan A tan B 1  tan A tan B

1  tan A 1  tan A
tan(450 + A) ; tan(450 - A)
1  tan A 1  tan A
sin (A + B) sin(A - B) = sin2 A - sin2 B = cos2 B - cos2 A
cos (A + B) cos (A - B) = cos2 A - sin2 B = cos2 B - sin2 A
2 sin A cos B = sin (A+B) + sin (A-B) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A+B) - sin (A-B)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A+B) + cos (A-B) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A-B) - cos (A+B)
C+D C-D C+D C-D
sin C  sin D 2 sin cos sin C  sin D 2 cos sin
2 2 2 2
C+D C-D C+D D-C
cos C  cos D 2 cos cos cos C cos D 2sin cos
2 2 2 2
1  sin2 A
2 tan A 2 2 1  tan2 A
sin 2A 2sin A cos A = cos 2A cos A  sin A
1  tan2 A 1  tan2 A
2
2cos A  A
2tan A 1  cos 2A 1  cos 2A
tan 2A 2
sin2 A and cos2 A
1  tan A 2 2
sin 3A = 3 sin A 4 sin3 A; cos 3A = 4 cos3 A 3 cos A

3 tan A - tan3 A
tan 3A
1  3 tan2 A
3. Conditional Identities
If A + B + C = 1800, then
(i) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
(ii) cos 2 A + cos 2B + cos 2C = - 1 - 4 cos A cos B cos C
A B C
(iii) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2

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A B C
(iv) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
(v) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan c
A B B C C A
(vi) tan tan  tan tan  tan tan 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
4. Trigonometrical Ratios

(i) sin 4 T  cos 4 T 1  2 sin2 T cos2 T

(ii) sin 6 T  cos 6 T 1  3 sin 2 T cos2 T

(iii) sin 2 T  cos 4 T cos 2 T  sin 4 T 1  sin 2 T cos 2 T

(iv) sin 2 T  cosec2T t 2, cos 2 T  sec 2 T t 2 and sec2 T  cosec2T t 4

5. Some standard Results

(i) tan T  cot T 2 cosec 2T
(ii) cot T  tan T 2 cot 2T

S
(iii) sin T  cos T has the same sign as that of sin T 
4

S
(iv) sin T  cos T has the same sign as that of sin T 
4

(v) Maximum value of a sin x + b cos x is a 2  b 2 and its minimum

value is  a 2  b 2 .
(vi) The equation a sin x + b cos x = c has real solutions only if
c d a 2  b 2 , i.e., if c 2 d a 2  b 2

S1  S3  S5  ......
(vii) tan (x1 + x2 + x3 + + xn) = ,
1  S2  S4  ......

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UNIT 12 : TWO DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

Straight Lines

1. Distance Formula
The distance between two points P x1, y1 and Q x 2 , y2 is given by

2 2
PQ x 2  x1  y2  y1

Note : Distance of x1, y1 from origin x12  y12

2. Section formula
If R (x, y) divides the line joining P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) in the ratio m1 :
m2 m1,m2 ! 0 then

m1x 2  m2 x1 m1y2  m2y1

x ; y (divides internally)
m1  m2 m1  m2

m1x 2  m2 x1 m1y2  m2y1

and x ; y (divides externally)
m1  m2 m1  m2

x  x 2 y1  y2
The mid point of PQ is 1 , .
2 2
3. Area of a Triangle
The area of a 'ABC with vertices A (x1, y1); B (x2, y2) and C (x3,y3) is
denoted by ' and is given as:
x1 y1 1
1 1
' x2 y2 1 x1 y2  y3  x 2 y3  y1  x 3 y1  y2
2 2
x3 y3 1

4. Standard points of a Triangle

(i) The centroid of a triangle with vertices A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and
C (x3, y3) is

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x1  x 2  x 3 y1  y2  y3
,
3 3
(ii) The incentre of the triangle ABC is
ax1  bx 2  cx 3 ay1  by2  cy3
,
a b c a b c
a, b, c being the sides BC, CA, AB of the triangle respectively.
(iii) The orthocenter of the triangle ABC is
x1 tan A  x 2 tan B  x 3 tan C y1 tan A  y2 tanB  y3 tan C
,
tan A  tan B  tan C tan A  tan B  tan C
(iv) The circumcentre of the triangle ABC is
x1 tan 2 A  x 2 tan 2B  x 3 tan 2C y1 tan 2 A  y2 tan2B  y3 tan 2C
,
tan 2A  tan 2B  tan 2C tan2A  tan2B  tan 2C
5. Collinearity of three Given Points
The three given points are collinear i.e., lie on the same straight line if
(i) Area of triangle ABC is zero.
(ii) Slope of AB = slope of BC = slope of AC
(iii) Distance between A and B + distance between B and C = Distance
between A and C
(iv) Find the equation of the line passing through any two points, if
third point satisfied the equation of the line then three points are
collinear.
6. Slope of a line
The slope of a line joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
y2  y1
m tan T x1 z x 2
x 2  x1
where T is angle which the line makes with the positive direction of
x-axis.

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7. Equation of Straight line in Various Forms
(i) General Form : The general equation of the first degree in x and y
is ax + by + c = 0,where a and b can not be zero at the same time.
a
Its slope is 
b
c
Intercept on the x-axis is 
a
c
Intercept on the y-axis 
b
(ii) Intercepts form : The equation of a line making intercepts a and
b upon x and y axes respectively is given by
x y
 1
a b
(iii) Slope-intercept form : The equation of line which has slope m
and cuts off an intercept c upon y-axis is given by y = mx + c
where m = tan T
(iv) Point-Slope form : The equation of a line passing through the
point (x1, y1) and having slope m is given by
y  y1 m x  x1

(v) Two point Form : The equation of a line passing through two
y2  y1
points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given by y  y1 x  x1
x 2  x1
(vi) Parametric Form : The equation of a line passing through
(x1, y1) and making an angle T with the positive direction of x-axis
x  x1 y  y1
is r
cos T sin T
Where r is the distance of the point (x, y) from the point (x1, y1). If
r is positive, then the point (x, y) is on the right of (x1, y1) but if r is
negative then (x, y) is on the left of (x1, y1).

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(vii) Normal Form : The equation of a line on which the perpendicular
from origin is of length p and the perpendicular makes an angle D
with the positive direction of x-axis is given by, x cos D  y sin D p
8. Positions of points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) relative to a given line
If the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are on the same side of the line
ax + by + c = 0, then ax1  by1  c and ax 2  by2  c both are of the same
ax1  by1  c
sign and hence ! 0, and if the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are
ax 2  by2  c
on the opposite of the line ax + by + c = 0, then ax1  by1  c and
ax 2  by2  c both are of signs opposite to each other and hence
ax1  by1  c
0
ax 2  by2  c
9. Angle between two Lines

m1  m2
Angle between two lines whose slopes are m1 and m2 is T tan-1
1  m1m2

Corollary 1 : If two lines whose slopes are m1 and m2 are parallel if

T 0 or S tan T 0 m1 m2 .

Corollary 2 : If two lines whose slopes are m1 and m2 are perpendicular

S S
if T or 
2 2
cot T 0 m1.m2 1.

Note : Two lines given by the equations a1x  b1y  c1 0 and

a 2 x  b2y  c 2 0 are
a1 b1
(i) Parallel if
a2 b2
(ii) Perpendicular if a1 a2 + 4b1 b2 = 0
a1 b1 c1
(iii) Identical if
a2 b2 c2

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10. Length of perpendicular from a Point on a Line
The length of perpendicular from (x1, y1) on ax + by + c = 0 is

ax1  by1  c
a 2  b2

11. Distance between Two Parallel Line.

The perpendicular distance between the parallel lines ax  by  c 0 and
ax  by  c1 0 is

c1  c
a 2  b2

12. Family of Lines

Any line passing through the point of intersection of the lines
a1x  b1y  c1 0 and a 2 x  b2y  c 2 0 can be represented by the
equation a1x  b1y  c1  O a2 x  b2y  c 2 0.

13. Concurrent Lines

The three lines ai x  bi y  ci 0, i 1,2,3 are concurrent if

a1 b1 c1
a 2 b2 c 2 0
a 3 b3 c 3

14. Equations of the bisectors of the angles between two Lines

Equations of the bisectors of the lines
L1 :a1x  b1y  c1 0 and L 2 :a 2 x  b2y  c 2 0

a1b2 z a2b1 where c1 ! 0 and c 2 ! 0 are

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a1x  b1y  c1 a 2 x  b2y  c 2
r
a12  b12 a22  b22

Conditions Obtuse angle bisector Acute angle bisector

a1a2  b1b2  0 - +

a1a2  b1b2 ! 0 + -

Pair of Straight Lines

1. Homogeneous Equation of Second Degree

An equation of the form ax 2  2h xy  by 2 0 is called a homogeneous

equation of second degree. It represent two straight lines through the
origin.

(i) The lines are real and distinct if h 2  ab ! 0.

(ii) The lines are coincident if h 2  ab 0.

(iii) The lines are imaginary if h 2  ab  0.

(iv) If the lines represented by ax 2  2h xy  by 2 0 be y  m1x 0

2h a
and y  m 2 x 0 then y  m1x y  m2 x y2  xy  x 2 0
b b
2h a
m1  m2  , m1m2
b b
2. Angle between two Lines
If a b z 0 and T is the actual angle between the lines
ax 2  2h xy  by 2 0, then

2 h 2  ab
tan T
a b

Note: Lines ax 2  2h xy  by 2 0 are mutually perpendicular iff a + b = 0

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3. Equation of the Bisectors of the Angles between the Lines
2 2
ax  2h xy  by 0

x2  y2 xy
The equation of bisectors is
a b h
4. General equation of Second Degree

The equation, ax 2  2h xy  by 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0, is the general second

degree equation.
It represents a pair of straight lines if

' { abc  2 fgh  af 2  bg 2  ch 2 0

a h g
i.e., if h b f 0
g f c

otherwise it represents a conic (i.e., if abc  2 fgh  af 2  bg 2  ch 2 z 0 )

Circle and Family of circles
1. The equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is
2 2 2
x h  y k r . If the centre is at the origin, the equation of circle
is x 2  y 2 r 2.
2. Equation of the circle on the line segment joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) as
diameter is x  x1 x  x 2  y  y1 y  y2 0

3. The general equation of a circle is

x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0
Where g, f, c are constants. The centre is (-g, -f) and the radius is
g 2  f 2  c, g2  f 2 t c .

Note : A general equation of second degree

a x 2  2h xy  by 2  2 gx  2 fy  c 0
In x, y represents a circle if
(i) Coefficient of x2 = coefficient of y2 i.e., a bz0
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(ii) Coefficient of xy is zero, i.e. h = 0.

4. The equation of the circle through three non-collinear points A (x1, y1),
B (x2, y2), C (x3, y3) is

x 2  y2 x y 1
x12  y12 x1 y1 1
0
x 22  y22 x 2 y2 1
x 32  y32 x 3 y3 1

5. The point P (x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the circle

S { x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c 0. according as

S1 { x12  y12  2gx1  2 fy1  c ! or  0.

6. The parametric co-ordinates of any points on the circle
2 2
x h  y k r 2 are given by

h  r cos T,k  r sin T , 0 d T  2S

7. The equation of the tangent to the circle x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0 at the

point (x1, y1) is xx1  yy1  g x  x1  f y  y1  c 0 and that of the
normal is
y1  f
y  y1 x  x1
x1  g
The equation of tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = r2 at the point (x1, y1) is
x y
xx1  yy1 r 2 and that of the normal .
x1 y1
8. The general equation of a line with slope m and which is tangent to a
circle

x 2  y2 a 2 is y mx r a 1  m2 .

9. The locus of point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents is called

the director circle. The director circle of the circle
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x 2  y2 a 2 is x 2  y 2 2a 2 .

10. Equation of the chord of the circle S { x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0

in terms of its middle point (x1,y1) is
T = S1
Where
T xx1  yy1  g x  x1  f y  y1  c ; S1 x12  y12  2gx1  2 fy1  c

11. Equation of the Chord of contact

Equation of the chord of contact of the circle

x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0

is xx1  yy1  g x  x1  f y  y1  c 0

12. Length of tangent x12  y12  2gx1  2 fy1  c S1

13. Condition of orthogonality of two circles

2g1g 2  2 f1 f 2 c1  c 2 OR r12  r22 d2

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14. Pair of tangents

Tangents are drawn from P(x1, y1) to the circle x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0

Then equation of pair of tangents is
SS1 = T2

Where S { x 2  y 2  2gs  2 fy  c 0

S1 { x12  y12  2gx1  2 fy1  c 0

T { xx1  yy1  g x  x1  f y  y1  c 0

15. Radical Axis : The equation of radical-axis if two circles S1 = 0 and

S2 = 0 is given by S1 - S2 = 0 (coefficient of x2, y2 in S1 and S2 are 1).
16. Family of Circles

Let S { x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  C 0

S' { x 2  y 2  2g ' x  2 f ' y  C' 0

and L px  qy  r 0, then
(i) If S = 0 and S = 0 intersect in real and distinct points,
S  O S' 0 O z 1 represents a family of circles passing through
these points. S - S = 0 for O 1 represents the common chord
of the circles S = 0 and S = 0.
Conic Section
Conic is the locus of a point moving in a plane so that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point (known as focus) to its distance from a fixed
line (known as directrix) is constant. This ratio is known as Eccentricity
and is denoted by e.
If e = 1, then locus is a Parabola.
If e < 1, then locus is an Ellipse.

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If e > 1, then locus is a Hyperbola.
Nature of Conics
The equation of conics is represented by the general equation of second
degree

ax 2  2h xy  by 2  2gx  2 fy  c 0, when its discriminant, ' z 0.

The discriminant of the above equation is given by

' abc  2 fgh  af 2  bg 2  ch 2

The following table shows the nature of conic for different condition on a,
b and h.
Condition Nature of Conic
h = 0, a = b a Circle
ab h2 = 0 a Parabola
ab h2 > 0 an Ellipse
ab h2 < 0 a Hyperbola
ab h2 and a + b = 0 a Rectangular hyperbola.

Parabola
1. Standard form of a Parabola
The general form of standard parabola is y2 = 4ax, where a is constant.
2. Important Properties
(i) SP = PM and AS = AO
(ii) Vertex is at origin A { 0,0

(iii) Focus is at S { a ,0

(iv) Directrix is x + a = 0
(v) Axis is y = 0 (x-axis)
(vi) Length of latus rectum = LL = 4a
(vii) Ends of the latus rectum are L { a ,2a and L' a , 2a .

(viii) The parametric equation is : x = at2, y = 2at.

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3. General equation of a parabola

2
2 2 lx  my  n
x a  y b
l 2  m2
This equation is of the form
2
mx  ly  2gx  2 fy  C = 0

Which is the general equation of a parabola.

4. Position of a Point (h, k) with respect to a Parabola y2 = 4 ax
Let P be any point (h, k).
Now P will lie outside, on or inside the parabola according as
k 2  4ah ! 0.

5. Equation of the tangent

a
Equation of tangents in terms of slope, y = mx + ,m z 0.
m
The equation of the tangent at any point (x1,y1) on the parabola y2 = 4ax
is yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
Corollary 1 : Equation of tangent at any point having parameter t is
1
ty = x + at 2 Slope of tangent is
t
Corollary 2 : Co ordinates of the point of intersection of tangents at t1
and t2 is at1t 2 ,a t1  t 2 .

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Corollary 3 : If the chord joining t1 and t2 is a focal chord, then
t1t2 = -1.
1
t2
t1

Hence if one extremity of a focal chord is at12 ,2at1 , then the other

a 2a
extremity at22 , at 2 becomes 2 ,  .
t t1
1
6. Equation of the Normal
Equation of normal at any point t is
y = - tx + 2at + at 3

Slope of normal is t.
7. Equation of the Normal in terms of slope
y = mx 2 am am3
at the point (am2, -2am)
Hence any line y = mx + c will be a normal to the parabola if
c = -2 am am3.
8. Equation of chord with mid point (x1, y1)
The Equation of the chord of parabola y2 = 4ax, whose mid point be
(x1, y1) is
T = S1
Where T { yy1  2a x  x1 0

and S1 y12  4ax1 0

9. Chord of Contact
If PA and PB be the tangents through point P(x1, y1) (see Figure) to the
parabola y2 = 4 ax, then the equation of the chord of contact AB is
yy1 = 2a (x+x1) or T = 0 at (x1, y1)

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10. Pair of Tangents

If P (x1, y1) be any point lies outside the parabola y2 = 4 ax, and a pair of
tangents PA, PB can be draw to it from P, (see Figure) then the equation
of pair of tangents PA and PB is
SS1 = T2

Where, S { y 2  4ax 0

S1 { y12  4ax1 0

T { yy1  2a x  x1 0

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Ellipse
1. Standard form of an Ellipse
The general form of standard ellipse is :

x2 y2
 1, a ! b , where a and b are constants. (see Figure below)
a2 b2

2. Important Properties
(i) ST = e TM
(ii) Co-ordinate of centre C (0,0)
(iii) Equation of directrix x r a /e
(iv) Equation of latus rectum x r ae
3. General Equation of an Ellipse
2 2 2
l 2  m2 x a  y b e 2 lx  my  n

4. Parametric Equation of an Ellipse

x2 y2
The parametric equations of the ellipse  1 are
a2 b2
x a cos I , y b sin I , where I is the parameter.
5. Auxiliary Circle and Eccentric angle
The circle described on the major axis of an ellipse as diameter is called
its auxiliary circle (see Figure) .

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The equation of the auxiliary circle is

x2 + y2 = a2
? Q { a cos I,a sin I and P { a cos I,b sin I

I eccentric angle

6. Condition for tangency

x2 y2
A line y = mx + c is tangent to ellipse  1 if c r a 2m 2  b 2 .
a2 b2
Corollary 1 : x cos D  y sin D p is a tangent if
2
p a cos D  b 2 sin2 D.
2 2

Corollary 2 : lx + my + n = 0 is a tangent if n 2 a 2l 2  b 2m 2 .
7. Equation of the Tangent
(i) The equation of the tangent at any point x1, y1 on the ellipse

x2 y2 xx1 yy1
2
 2
1 is 2
 1.
a b a b2
x y
(ii) The equation of tangent at any point ' I ' is cos I  sin I 1.
a b
8. Equation of the Normal
(i) The equation of the normal at any point (x1, y1) on the ellipse
x2 y2 a 2 x b 2y
 1 is  a 2  b2
a2 b2 x1 y1
(ii) The equation of the normal at any point ' I ' is

ax sec I  by cos ec I = a 2  b 2
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9. Equation of chord with mid point (x1, y1)

x2 y2
The equation of the chord of the ellipse  1 , whose mid point be
a2 b2
x1, y1 is T = S1

xx1 yy1 x12 y2

Where T {  1 0; S1 {  1
a2 b2 a2 b2
10. Chord of Contact
If PA and PB be the tangents through point P(x1, y1) to the ellipse
x2 y2
 1 , then the equation of the chord of contact AB is
a 2 b2
xx1 yy1
 2 1.
a2 b
11. Pair of tangents

x2 y2
Let P(x1, y1) be any point lying outside the ellipse 1 and a pair 
a2 b2
of tangents PA, PB can be drawn to it from P. then the equation of pair of
tangents of PA and PB is
SS1 = T2
12. Important properties of an Ellipse
(i) If D, E, J, G be the eccentric angles of the four concyclic points on
an ellipse then D  E  J  G 2 n S, n I
(ii) The necessary and sufficient condition for the normal at three
D, E, J points on the ellipse to be concurrent is

sin E  J  sin J  D  sin D  E 0

Hyperbola
1. Standard form of a Hyperbola
If (a, b) is the focus S, and lx + my + n = 0 is the equation of directrix,
then the standard equation of a hyperbola is
2 2 2
l 2  m2 x a  y b e 2 lx  my  n

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2. Important Properties
(i) ST = e TM
(ii) Co-ordinates of vertices A and A are r a ,0 .

(iii) Co-ordinates of the foci S and S are r ae ,0 .

(iv) Equation of directrix x r a / e.

2b 2
(v) Equation of latus rectum x r ae and length LL' L1L1 .
a
3. Parametric Equation of the Hyperbola

x2 y2
The parametric equations of the hyperbola  1 are
a2 b2
x a sec I, y b tan I, where I is the parameter.
4. Condition for Tangency

x2 y2
A line y = mx + c is tangent to the hyperbola  1 iff
a2 b2
c2 a 2m 2  b 2 .
5. Equation of the Tangent
(i) The equation of the tangent at any point (x1,y1) on the hyperbola

x2 y2 xx1 yy1
2
 2
1 is 2
 1
a b a b2
x y
(ii) The equation of tangent at any point ' I ' is sec I  tan I 1
a b

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6. Equation of Chord with Midpoint (x1, y1)

x2 y2
The equation of the chord of the hyperbola  1 whose mid point
a2 b2
be (x1, y1) is T = S1

xx1 yy1 x12 y12

Where T {  1 0, S1 {  1 0
a2 b2 a2 b2
7. Chord of Contact
If two tangents are drawn through a point (x1, y1) to the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1, then the equation of the chord of contact is
a2 b2
xx1 yy1
2
 1 or T 0 at x1, y1
a b2
8. Pair of Tangents
If a pair of tangents is drawn from any point (x1, y1) outside the
hyperbola, then the equation of pair of tangent is
SS1 = T2

x2 y2 x12 y12 xx1 yy1

Where S { 2
 2
1 0; S1 { 2
 2
1 0; T { 2
 1 0
a b a b a b2
9. Asymptotes of Hyperbola
A hyperbola has two asymptotes passing through its centre. Asymptotes
x2 y2 x2 y2
of hyperbola  1 are given by  0.
a2 b2 a2 b2
b
Note : Angle between asymptotes 2 tan-1 .
a
10. Rectangular Hyperbola
If asymptotes of the standard hyperbola are perpendicular to each other
it is known as rectangular hyperbola.
Properties of Rectangular Hyperbola xy = c2

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b2
(i) Eccentricity, e 1 2.
a2
c c
(ii) Since x ct , y satisfies xy c 2 , x ,y ct , is called a t
t t
point with parameter t.
(iii) Equation of the chord joining t1 and t2 is
x  y t1t 2  c t1  t2 0

(iv) Equation of tangent at t is

x  yt 2  2 ct 0
(v) Equation of normal at t is

xt 2  yt  ct 4  c 0
(vi) Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is

xy1  yx1 2c 2
(vii) Equation of normal at (x1, y1) is

xx1  yy1 x12  y12

UNIT 13 : THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

1. Distance formula: The distance between two points P(x1, y1, z1) and
2 2 2
Q (x1, y2, z2) in space is given by PQ x 2  x1  y2  y1  z 2  z1

2. Section formula: If R (x, y, z) divides the join of P(x1, y1, z1) and
Q(x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m1 : m2 m1,m2 ! 0 then

m1x 2  m2 x1 m1y2  m2y1 m1z 2  m2z1

x ;y ;z
m1  m2 m1  m2 m1  m2
(divides internally), and
m1x 2  m2 x1 m1y2  m2y1 m1z 2  m2 z1
x ;y ;z
m1  m2 m1  m2 m1  m2 (divides externally)
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3. Centroid of a triangle: The centroid of a triangle ABC whose vertices are

A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3) are
x1  x 2  x 3 y1  y2  y3 z1  z 2  z 3
, ,
3 3 3
4. Direction Cosines (d.c.s):
If cos D, cos E, cos J are direction cosines of a given line AB, then

cos2 D  cos 2 E  cos 2 J 1

5. Direction ratios (d.r.s): direction ratios of a line are numbers which

are proportional to the direction cosines of a line. Direction ratios of a
line PQ, where P and Q are (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) respectively, are
x2 x1, y2 y1 and z2 z1.
6. Relation between the d.c.s and d.r.s: If a, b, c are the d.r.s and
l, m, n are the d.c.s then
a b c
l r ,m r ,n r
a 2  b2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2

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7. Angle between two Lines
a1a 2  b1b2  c1c 2
cos T r
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

2
b1c 2  b2c1
and sin T r
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

8. Angle between two Planes

If T be the angle between the planes a1x  b1y  c1z  d1 0 and
a 2 x  b2y  c 2z  d2 0 then

-1 a1a 2  b1b2  c1c 2
T cos
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

Also, 1. If planes are perpendicular then a1a 2  b1b2  c1c 2 0
a1 b1 c1
2. If planes are parallel then,
a2 b2 c2
9. Length of Perpendicular from a point to a Plane
The length of perpendicular from (x1, y1, z1) on ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ax1  by1  cz1  d
a 2  b2  c 2

10. Family of Planes

Any plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a1x  b1y  c1z  d1 0 can be represented by the
equation
ax  by  cz  d  O a1x  b1y  c1z  d1 0

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UNITS 14 : VECTOR ALGEBRA

1. Position Vector of R(r ) dividing PQ in the ratio m : n is

mq  np
r [internal division] and
m n
mq  np
r [external division]
m n
2. If a a1i  a2 j  a 3k ,

b b1i  b2 j  b3k

a. b a b cos T ; also a. b a1b1  a 2b2  a 3b3

a .b a1b1  a 2b2  a 3b3

cos T
a b a12  a22  a 32 . b12  b22  b32

3. a. b 0 a = 0 or b = 0 or a A b

4. a ub a b sin T e ; a u b a b sin T

i j k
a ub a1 a 2 a 3
b1 b2 b3

5. a u b uc a.c b  a .b c

a1 a 2 a 3
6. a u b .c b1 b2 b3 a b u c [a b c ]
c1 c2 c3

7. a , b , c are coplanar if and only if a. b u c 0.

8. Area of parallelogram OACB a ub

1
Area of 'OAB a ub
2

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9. Volume of parallelepiped = [a b c ]

10. For any 3 vectors a , b , c ,[a b c ] [b c a ] [c a b ]

a ub a ub
11. Unit vector Ar to a and b r and sin T
a ub a b

UNITS 15 : MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY & DISPERSION

1. Arithmatic Mean (AM)

x1  x 2  ......  xn 1 n
(i) Individual Series x xi
n n i =1
f1x1  f 2x 2  ......  f n x n 1 n
(ii) Discrete Series x f i xi
f1  f 2  ......  f n N i =1
n
where N fi
i =1

2. Geometric Mean (GM)

(i) Individual series
G = (x1, x2, xn)1/n
(ii) Discrete series
f n
G (x1f1 x 22 ...... x nfn )1/N , where N fi
i =1

3. Harmonic Mean (HM)

1
H

1 1 1 1
  ...... 
n x1 x 2 xn

1 1 n 1
or (Individual series)
H n i =1 x i

1 1
and n
(Discrete series)
H 1 f
i
N i =1 x i

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If x1, x2, , xn > 0, then it is known that
AM t GM t HM
4. Median
h N n
M l  C where, N fi
f 2 i =1

h = the width of the median class

C = the cumulative frequency (c.f.) of the preceding to the median
class.
f = the frequency of the median class
l = the lower limit of the median class
5. Mode
( f1  f 0 )
Mode (for continuous series) = l  uh
(2 f1  f 2  f 0 )
where l = the lower limit of the modal class (the class having maximum
frequency)
f 1 = frequency of the modal class
f 0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f 2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
h = width of the modal class
6. Mean - Deviation (MD)
1 n n
MD f i x i  A , where N fi
N i =1 i =1

7. Standard Deviation (SD)

1 n
D 2 (Variance) (x  x )
2
n i =1 i

and Standard deviation = Variance

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UNITS 16 : PROBABILITY

1. Definition
The probability of occurrence of an event is the ratio of the number of
cases in its favour to the total number of cases (equally likely).
n (E) number of Favourable cases
P(E)
n (S) total number of cases
2. Types of Events
(i) Equally likely Events : The given events are said to be equally
likely, if none of them is expected to occur in preference to the
other.
(ii) Independent Events : Two events are said to be independent if
the occurrence of one does not depend upon the other. If a set of
events E1, E2, , En are independent events, then
P(E1 E 2 E 3 ...... En ) P(E1 ).P(E 2 )......P(En )

(iii) Mutually Exclusive Events : A set of events is said to be mutually

exclusive if occurrence of one of them precludes the occurrence of
any of the remaining events.
If a set of events E1, E2, , En are mutually exclusive events,
then
P(E1 E 2 E 3 ...... En ) I

then P(E1 E 2 E 3 ...... En ) P(E1 ) + P(E 2 ) + ......P(En )

(iv) Exhaustive Events : A set of events is said to be Exhaustive if the

performance of the experiment results in the occurrence of at least
one of them.
If a set of Events E1, E2, , En are exhaustive events, then
P(E1 E 2 E 3 ...... En ) 1

(v) Compound Events : If E1, E2, , En are mutually exclusive and

exhaustive events, then if E is any event,

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n n E
P(E) = P(E Ei ) = P(Ei ).P , if P(Ei) > 0.
i =1 i =1 Ei
3. Conditional Probability
The probability of occurrence of an events E1, given that E2 has already
occurred is called the conditional probability of occurrence of E 1 on the
E
condition that E2 has already occurred. It is denoted by P 1
E2

E P E1 E 2
i.e., P 1 , E2 z I
E2 P E2

4. Bayess Theorem or Inverse Probability

If E1, E2, , En are n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events such
that
P(Ei ) > 0,(0 d i d n )

and E is any event, then for 1 d k d n ,

E
P(Ek )P
E Ek
P k .
E n E
P(Ek )P
k =1 Ek
5. Important Results
(i) If E1 and E2 are arbitrary events, then
P(E1 E 2 ) P(E1 ) + P(E 2 )  P(E1 E 2 )

(ii) If E1, E2, E3 are three events then

P(E1 E 2 E 2 ) P(E1 ) + P(E 2 ) + P(E 3 )

 P(E1 E2 )  P(E2 E3 )  P(E 3 E1 )  P(E1 E2 E3 )

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UNITS 17 : TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometric Functions and Identities
1. Measurement of an Angle
(i) 10 = 60 minutes = 60 (ii) 1 = 60 seconds = 60
(iii) Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is equal to
(n  2)S
,n ! 2 .
n
2. Some Important Formulae and Identities
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin(A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A
sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A
sin B
tan A  tan B tan A  tan B
tan(A  B) ; tan(A  B)
1  tan A tan B 1  tan A tan B

1  tan A 1  tan A
tan(450  A) ; tan(450  A)
1  tan A 1  tan A
sin (A + B) sin (A - B) = sin2 A - sin2 B = cos2 B - cos2 A
cos (A + B) cos (A - B) = cos2 A - sin2 B = cos2 B - sin2 A
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)
CD CD CD CD
sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos sin C - sin D = 2cos sin
2 2 2 2
CD CD CD DC
cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos cos C - cos D = 2 sin sin
2 2 2 2
1  2 sin 2 A
2 tan A 1  tan2 A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = cos 2A = cos 2 A  sin 2 A
1  tan 2 A 1  tan2 A
2 cos 2 A  1

2 tan A 1  cos 2A 1  cos 2A
tan 2A = 2
sin2 A and cos 2 A
1  tan A 2 2
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sin 3A = 3 sin A - 4 sin3 A; cos 3A = 4 cos3 A - 3 cos A

3 tan A  tan 3 A
tan 3A
1  3 tan 2 A

3. Conditional Identities
If A + B + C = 1800, then
(i) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
(ii) cos 2 A + cos 2B + cos 2C = - 1 - 4 cos A cos B cos C
A B C
(iii) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2
A B C
(iv) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
(v) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan c
A B B C C A
(vi) tan tan  tan tan  tan tan 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
4. Trigonometrical Ratios

(i) sin 4 T  cos 4 T 1  2 sin2 T cos2 T

(ii) sin 6 T  cos 6 T 1  3 sin 2 T cos2 T

(iii) sin 2 T  cos 4 T cos 2 T  sin 4 T 1  sin 2 T cos 2 T

(iv) sin 2 T  cosec2T t 2, cos 2 T  sec 2 T t 2 and sec2 T  cosec2T t 4

5. Some standard Results

(i) tan T  cot T 2 cosec 2T
(ii) cot T  tan T 2 cot 2T

S
(iii) sin T  cos T has the same sign as that of sin T 
4
S
(iv) sin T  cos T has the same sign as that of sin T 
4

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(v) Maximum value of a sin x + b cos x is a 2  b 2 and its minimum

value is  a 2  b 2 .
(vi) The equation a sin x + b cos x = c has real solutions only if
c d a 2  b 2 , i.e., if c 2 d a 2  b 2

S1  S3  S5  ......
(vii) tan (x1 + x2 + x3 + + xn) = ,
1  S2  S4  ......
where Sr stands for the sum of the products of
tan x1, tan x2, tan x3, tan xn taken r at a time. For example,
tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A tan B tan C
tan (A + B + C) =
1  tan A tan B  tan B tan C  tan C tan A

tan A  tan A tan B tan C

tan (A + B + C + D) =
1  tan A tan B  tan A tan B tan C tan D

4 tan A  4 tan 3 A
In particular, tan 4A =
1  6 tan2 A  tan 4 A
(viii) m, n theorem
If D is a point on the side BC of a triangle ABC
such that BD : DC :: m : n,
ADC = T, BAD = D, CAD = E
then
(m + n) cot T m cot D  n cot E and
(m + n) cot T n cot B  m cot C

(ix) cos T cos 2T cos 22 T ...... cos 2n T

sin 2n +1 T
for all n N
2n +1 sin T

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(x) (2 cos T  1)(2 cos 2T  1).(2 cos 22 T  1) ...... (2 cos 2n T  1)

2 cos 2n +1 T  1
for all n N
2 cos T  1

(xi) 2  2  2  ...... 2  2 cos 2n T 2 cos T

for all n N , where there are n square root signs on the left hand
side.
(xii) sin D  sin(D  E)  sin( D  2E)  ......  sin( D  n  1 E)

D  D  n  1E nE
sin sin
2 2
,n N
E
sin
2

(xiii) cos D  cos( D  E)  cos( D  2E)  ......  cos(D  n  1 E)

D  D  n  1E nE
cos sin
2 2
,n N
E
sin
2

Trignometric Equations

sin x 0x n S, n I

S
cos x 0x (2n  1) , n I
2
tan x 0x n S, n I

sin x sin D x n S  ( 1)n D, n I

cos x cos D x 2n S r D, n I
tan x tan D x n S r D, n I

sin 2 x sin2 D x n S r D, n I

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cos 2 x cos 2 D x n S r D, n I

tan 2 x tan2 D x n S r D, n I

Properties and Solution of Triangles

1. Relations between the Sides and Angles of a Triangle
(i) Sine Formulae
a b c
2R , where R is the circumradius of the
sin A sin B sin C
triangle.
or a = k sin A, b = k sin B, c = k sin C where k is some non-
zero constant.
a b c
or sin A ,sin B ,sin C , k being some non-zero
k k k
constant.

(ii) Cosine Formulae

b2  c 2  a 2 c 2  a2  b2 a2  b2  c 2
cos A , cos B and sin C
2bc 2ca 2ab

(iii) Projection Formulae

a = b cos C + c cos B ; b = c cos A + a cos C ; c = a cos B + b cos A

(iv) Napiers Analogy

BC b c A CA c a B AB a b C
tan cot ; tan cot ; tan cot
2 b c 2 2 c a 2 2 a b 2

(v) Semi-sum Formulae

A (s - b )(s - c ) B (s - a )(s - c ) C (s - a )(s - b )
sin = ; sin = ; sin =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab

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A s (s - a ) B s (s - b ) C s (s - c )
cos = ; cos = ; cos =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab

A (s - b )(s - c ) B (s - a )(s - c ) C (s - a )(s - b )

tan = ; tan = ; tan =
2 s (s - a ) 2 s (s - b ) 2 s (s - c )
where, s = (a + b + c) / 2
1 1 1
' ab sin C bc sin A ac sin B , where ' Area of 'ABC
2 2 2
' s (s  a )(s  b )(s  c ) (Heros formula)

2. Circumradius (R) and Inradius (r) Formulae

a b c abc
(i) R
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4'

' A B C
(ii) r (s  a ) tan (s  b ) tan (s  c ) tan
s 2 2 2
A B C
(iii) r 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Important Formulae
S S
y sin-1x iff x sin y, x d 1, y  ,
2 2

y cos-1x iff x cos y, x d 1, y [0, S]

S S
y tan-1x iff x tan y, x R, y  ,
2 2
y cot -1x iff x cot y , x R, y (0, S)
S S
y sec-1x iff x sec y, x t 1, y 0, , S
2 2
S S
y cosec-1x iff x cosec y, x t 1, y  ,0 0,
2 2

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S S
sin-1 x  cos -1 x , x d1 tan-1 x  cot -1 x ,x R
2 2
S
sec-1 x  cosec-1x , x t1 sin-1(  x ) sin-1x , x d 1
2

cos -1(  x ) S  cos -1x , x d 1 tan-1(  x )  tan-1x , x R

1 1
cos-1 sec-1 x , x t 1 sec-1 cos-1 x , 0  x d 1
x x
1 1
sin-1 cosec -1x , x t 1 cosec-1 sin-1x , 0  x d 1
x x
1
tan-1 cot-1x , x ! 0 sin(cos -1x ) cos(sin-1x ) = 1  x 2 , x d 1
x
x
sec(cosec-1x ) cosec(sec-1x ) = ; x !1
2
x 1
x y -1 1  x S
tan-1 x  tan-1 y tan-1 , xy  1 tan 1  x  tan-1 x , x  1
1  xy 4

1  x S 2x
tan-1  tan-1 x , x ! 1 sin-1 2 tan -1 x , x R
1  x 4 1  x 2
1  x 2 2x
cos -1 2
2 tan -1 x , x t 0 tan -1 2 tan-1 x , x  1
1  x 2
1  x
1
2 sin -1 x sin-1 2x 1  x 2 , x d 2 cos -1 x cos -1(2x 2  1), x [0, 1]
2
1 1
3 sin -1 x sin-1(3x  4x 3 ), x d 3 cos -1 x cos -1(4x 3  3x ), d x d1
2 2

sin-1 x  sin-1 y sin-1 x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2

S S
for those values of x and y in [-1, 1] for which LHS lies in the interval  ,
2 2

cos -1 x  cos-1 y cos -1 xy  1  x 2 1  y 2

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where x, y are real numbers in [-1, 1] such that LHS lies in the interval [0, S] .

(i) sin-1 x  sin-1 y S iff x y 1

(ii) sin-1 x  sin-1 y S iff x y 1

(iii) cos-1 x  cos-1 y 0 iff x y 1

(iv) cos-1 x  cos-1 y 2S iff x y 1

2x 1
(v) sin-1 2 cot-1 x 2 tan-1 for x t 1
1  x 2 x
x y
(vi) tan -1 x  tan-1 y S  tan-1 , where xy > 1, x > 0, y > 0.
1  xy

UNITS 18 : MATHEMATICAL REASONING

(i) p q is true if p and q are both true.

(ii) p q is false if p and q are both false.

(iii) If p is true, then  p is false.

If p is false, then  p is true.

(iv) p q is true in all cases except when p is true and q is false.

(v) pq
(a) p q is true if both p and q have same truth value.
(b) p q is false if p and q have opposite truth value.
(vi) If p is any statement, t is tautology and c is contradiction, then :
(a) p t { t (b) p t { p
(c) p c { p (d) p c { c
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Complement Laws :
(a) p ( p) { t (b) p ( p) { c
(c) t {c (d) c {t

Involution Laws :
(a)  ( p) p
DeMorgans Laws :
If p and q are any two statements, then :
(a)  ( p q ) { (  p ) ( q ) (b)  ( p q ) { (  p ) ( q )
Laws of Contrapositive :
pq { q  p

(vii) If a compound statement contains variables t (tautology) and c

(contradiction), then its dual is obtained by replacing t by c and c by t in
addition to the replacement of and by and respectively.

Types of Statements :
i) If a statement is always true, then the statement is called tautology.
ii) If a statement is always false, then the statement is called
contradiction.
iii) If a statement is neither tautology nor a contradiction, then it is called
contingency.

Converse, Contrapositive, Inverse of a Statement

If p o q is a hypothesis, then
i) Converse q o p .
ii) Contrapositive  q o  p .
iii) Inverse  p o  q .

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