CH 01

Chapter 1:
Foundations: Sets, Logic, and Algorithms
Discrete Mathematical Structures:

Theory and Applications
Learning Objectives
Learn about sets
Explore various operations on sets
Become familiar with Venn diagrams
Learn how to represent sets in computer

memory
Learn about proposition logic
Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 2
Learning Objectives
Learn how to use logical connectives to combine

statements
Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates
Learn various proof techniques
Explore what an algorithm is

Sets
Definition: Well-defined collection of distinct
objects
Members or Elements: objects in the set
Membership Test: Let Vowels be the set of all
vowels.
“a belongs to the set of Vowels” is written as: a ∈
Vowels
“j does not belong to the set of Vowels: j ∉ Vowels
A well-defined set can always tell which elements
are its members.
How to Define a Set: Method 1

Roster Method: Description of a set by
enumerating the elements, enclosed with
braces
Examples:
Vowels = {a,e,i,o,u}
Primary colors = {red, blue, yellow}
N = { 1, 2, …, n, … }
How to Define a Set: Method 2
Set-builder method
A = { x | x ∈ S, P(x) } or A = { x ∈ S | P(x) }
A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x

satisfies the property P
Example:
If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X

can be described as
X = {n ∈ Z | n is even and 2 ≤ n ≤ 10}

Sets of Numbers
Standard Symbols which denote sets of numbers
N : The set of all natural numbers
Z : The set of all integers
Q : The set of all rational numbers
R : The set of all real numbers
C : The set of all complex numbers
Subsets
Set X is a subset of set Y if every member of X is
also a member of Y.
“X is a subset of Y” is written as X ⊆ Y
“X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y
Example:
X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and z = {i, n, o, u}
Y ⊆ X, since every element of Y is an element of X
Y Z, since a ∈ Y, but a ∉ Z
Subsets vs. Supersets

Superset
If X ⊆ Y, then “Y is a super set of X” or “Y
contains X”, written Y ⊇ X
Proper Subset
X is a proper subset of Y if X ⊆ Y and
there exists at least one element in Y that is
not in X. This is written X ⊂ Y.
Example:
X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a,e,i,o,u,y}
X ⊂ Y , since y ∈ Y, but y ∉ X

Set Equality and Empty Set
Set Equality
X and Y are said to be equal if every element of X
is an element of Y and every element of Y is an
element of X, i.e. X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ X
Examples:
{1,2,3} = {2,3,1}
X = {red, blue, yellow} and Y = {c | c is a primary
color} Therefore, X=Y
Empty (Null) Set
A Set is Empty (Null) if it contains no elements.
The Empty Set is written as ∅
The Empty Set is a subset of every set
Finite and Infinite Sets
X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n

such that X has n elements, then X is called a finite
set with n elements.
If a set is not finite, then it is an infinite set.
Examples:
Y = {1,2,3} is a finite set
P = {red, blue, yellow} is a finite set
E , the set of all even integers, is an infinite set
∅ , the empty set, is a finite set with 0 elements
Cardinality of Sets
Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements,
where n ≥ 0. Then |S| = n , where the
cardinality (i.e., the size) of S is n
Example:
If P = {red, blue, yellow}, then |P| = 3
Singleton
A set with only one element is a singleton
Example:
H = { 4 }, |H| = 1, H is a singleton

Power Sets
Power Set
For any set X ,the power set of X ,written P(X),is
the set of all subsets of X
Example:
If X = {red, blue, yellow}, then P(X) = { ∅ , {red},
{blue}, {yellow}, {red,blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue,
yellow}, {red, blue, yellow} }
Theorem: If |X| = n, then |P(X)| = 2n
Barber’s Paradox
In a small village, a barber claims that “I

shave anyone who does not shave himself,
and none else.”
Let A = the set of men who do not shave
themselves.
Let B = the set of men that the barber
shaves.
A = B?
Russell’s Paradox (1901)
Let M be the set of all sets that do not

contain themselves as members. That is,
M = { A | A ∉ A }.
Question: Does M contains itself?

Cantor’s Paradox (189?)
The cardinality of a set is smaller than the

cardinality of its power set.
The set of all sets is its own power set.
Therefore, the cardinality of the set of all
sets is smaller than itself.
Universal Sets and Venn Diagrams
Universal Set: A set of all Venn Diagrams

objects, i.e., a superset of Abstract visualization
all sets, in a given of a Universal set, U
problem. as a rectangle, with all
subsets of U shown as
circles.
Shaded portion
represents the
corresponding set
Example:
In Figure 1, Set X,
shaded, is a subset of
the Universal set, U
Union of Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then
X∪Y = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
Intersection of Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = {5}
Disjoint Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,} and Y = {6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = ∅
Properties of Set Operations

Properties of Set Operations
Operations over Multiple Sets

The union and intersection
of three,four,or even
infinitely many sets can be
considered
For a finite collection of n
sets, X1, X2, … Xn where n
≥2:
Mutually Disjoint Sets
A family of sets A = { A1, A2, …, An } are said to be

mutually disjoint, or pairwise disjoint, if for any Ai,
Aj in A, Ai ∩ Aj = ∅
Example:
If A = {a,b,c}, B = {x, y, z} and C = {1,2,3}

then A∩B = ∅ and B∩C = ∅ and A∩C= ∅.
Therefore, A,B,C are pairwise disjoint

Difference of Sets
• Example:
If X = {a,b,c,d} and Y =
{c,d,e,f}, then X – Y =
{a,b} and Y – X = {e,f}
Complement of Sets
Example:
If U = {a,b,c,d,e,f} and
X = {c,d,e,f}, then X’ =
{a,b}
Illustration of Difference Sets

Properties of Difference
Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Products

Ordered Pair
X and Y are sets. If x ∈ X and y ∈ Y, then an ordered
pair is written (x,y)
Order of elements is important. (x,y) is not necessarily
equal to (y,x)
Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of two sets X and Y , written X
×Y ,is the set
X ×Y ={ (x, y) |x ∈ X , y ∈ Y}
For any set X, X × ∅ = ∅ = ∅ × X
Example:
X = {a,b}, Y = {c,d}
X × Y = {(a,c), (a,d), (b,c), (b,d)}
Y × X = {(c,a), (d,a), (c,b), (d,b)}

Computer Representation of Sets
A set may be stored in a computer in an array as an

unordered list
Problem: Difficult to perform operations on the set.
Solution: use Bit Strings
A Bit String is a sequence of 0s and 1s
Length of a Bit String is the number of digits in the
string
Elements appear in order in the bit string
A 0 indicates an element is absent, a 1 indicates that the
element is present
Mathematical Logic
Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules

and techniques to determine whether an
argument is valid
Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be
true (under certain conditions)
Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an
odd integer
This statement is true under the condition that x is an
integer is true
Propositional Logic
A statement, or a proposition, is a declarative
sentence that is either true or false, but not both
Lowercase letters denote propositions
Examples:
p: 2 is an even number (true)
q: 3 is an odd number (true)
r: A is a consonant (false)
The following are not propositions:
p: My cat is beautiful
q: Are you in charge?

Truth Values and Truth Assignments
One of the truth values “true” or “false”

assigned to a statement or propositional
variable
True is abbreviated to T or 1
False is abbreviated to F or 0
A truth assignment is a mapping from
statements (or propositional variables) to
truth values (such that every statement is
assigned a truth value).
Negation
The negation of p, written ∼p, is the statement
obtained by negating statement p
Truth values of p and ∼p are opposite
Symbol ~ is called “not” ~p is read as as “not p”
Example:
p: A is a consonant
~p: it is the case that A is not a consonant
Truth Table
Each row represents
a truth assignment for
propositions.
Conjunction (logical AND)
The conjunction of p and q,

written p ∧ q , is the
statement formed by
joining statements p and q
using the word “and”
The statement p∧q is true
if both p and q are true;
otherwise p∧q is false
Truth Table:

Disjunction
Let p and q be statements. The disjunction
of p and q, written p ∨ q , is the statement
formed by joining statements p and q using
the word “or”
The statement p∨q is true if at least one of the
statements p and q is true; otherwise p∨q is
false
The symbol ∨ is read “or”
Truth Table for Disjunction
Truth Table for

Disjunction:
Implication
Let p and q be statements.The statement “if p
then q” is called an implication or condition.
The implication “if p then q” is written p → q
p → q is read:
“If p, then q”
“p is sufficient for q”
q if p
q whenever p
p implies q

Truth Table for Implication
Truth Table for Implication:
p is called the hypothesis, q is called the conclusion
Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car.

The conjunction p → q is the statement:
p → q : If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
The converse of this implication is written q → p
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
The inverse of this implication is ~p → ~q
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
The contrapositive of this implication is ~q → ~p
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday
Biconditional or Equivalence
Let p and q be statements. The statement “p
if and only if q” is called the biimplication or
biconditional of p and q
The biconditional “p if and only if q” is written
p↔q
p ↔ q is read:
“p if and only if q”
“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
“q if and only if p”
“p is equivalent to q”

Truth Table for Biconditional
Truth Table for the Biconditional:
Statement Formulas
Symbols p ,q ,r ,...,called propositional or
statement variables
Symbols ~, ∧, ∨, →,and ↔ are called logical
connectives
Definition of Statement Formulas:
1) A statement variable is a statement formula
2) If A and B are statement formulas, then the
expressions (~A ), (A ∧ B) , (A ∨ B ), (A →
B ) and (A ↔ B ) are statement formulas
Expressions are statement formulas that are
constructed only by using 1) and 2) above
Precedence of Logical Connectives
Precedence of logical connectives is:
~ highest
∧ second highest
∨ third highest
→ fourth highest
↔ fifth highest

Mathematical Logic
Example:
Let A be the statement formula (~(p ∨q )) → (q ∧p )
Truth Table for A is:
Tautology and Contradiction
Tautology
A statement formula A is said to be a tautology if
the truth value of A is T for any assignment of the
truth values T and F to the statement variables
occurring in A
Contradiction
A statement formula A is said to be a
contradiction if the truth value of A is F for any
assignment of the truth values T and F to the
statement variables occurring in A
Logical Implication and Logical

Equivalence
Logically Implies
A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A →
B is a tautology. If A logically implies B, then
symbolically we write A → B
Logically Equivalent
A statement formula A is said to be logically
equivalent to a statement formula B if the
statement formula A ↔ B is a tautology. If A is
logically equivalent to B , then symbolically we
write A ≡ B (or A ⇔ B)
Properties of Logical Connectives
Example of Proof
Proof of (~p ∧q ) → (~(q →p ))
Validity of Proofs
Proof: a proof of a theorem consists of a finite
sequence of logically valid statements ending in
a conclusion A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An −1 , An
The final statement, An , is the conclusion, and
the statements A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An −1 are the
premises of the argument.
A proof is logically valid if the statement formula,
i.e., A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An−1 → An is a tautology.

Validity of Arguments
Valid Argument Forms
Modus Ponens (Method of Affirming)
Modus Tollens (Method of Denying)
Validity of Arguments
Valid Argument Forms
Hypothetical Syllogism
Dilemma
Quantifiers and First Order Logic
Predicate or Propositional Function

Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a
sentence
Then P(x) is called a predicate function with
respect to the set D if for each value of x in D,
P(x) is a statement; i.e., P(x) is true or false
Moreover, D is called the domain of the
discourse and x is called the free variable

Quantifiers and First Order Logic
Predicate Function
Example:
Q(x,y) : x > y, where the Domain is the set of integers
Q is a 2-place predicate
Q is T for Q(4,3) and Q is F for Q (3,4)
Universal Quantifiers
Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of

the discourse. The universal quantification of P(x)
is the statement:
For all x, P(x) or
For every x, P(x)
The symbol ∀ is read as “for all and every”
∀x P ( x)
Two-place predicate: ∀x∀y P ( x, y )
Existential Quantifiers
Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of the

discourse. The existential quantification of P(x) is the
statement:
There exists x, P(x)
The symbol ∃ is read as “there exists”
∃x P ( x )
Bound Variable
The variable appearing in: ∀x P( x) or ∃x P ( x )

Examples of Quantifiers
Everybody loves somebody.
Everybody is loved by at least one.
There is one that everybody loves.
He loves everybody.
Brothers are siblings.
One’s mother is one’s female parent.
A first cousin is a child of a parent’s sibling.
Examples of Quantifiers
All apples are red.

∀x Apple(x) /\ Red(x)
∀x Apple(x) → Red(x)
Implication is the usual connective for ∀
One person in UI is very smart.
∃x At(x, UI) /\ Smart(x)
∃x At(x, UI) → Smart(x)
Conjunction is the usual connective for ∃
Logic versus Set
What’s the relationship between P(x) and the

set SP = { x | P(x) }?
The domain D for x is the Universal Set.
Theorem:
P(a) is true iff a ∈ SP.
∀ x P(x) is true iff SP = D.
∃ x P(x) is true iff SP is not ∅.

Logic versus Set
What’s relationship between logical connectives

and set operations?
Let SP = { x | P(x) } and SQ = { x | Q(x) }.
Theorem:
P(a) \/ Q(a) is true iff a ∈ SP ∪ SQ.
P(a) /\ Q(a) is true iff a ∈ SP ∩ SQ.
∀ x P(x) \/ Q(x) is true iff SP ∪ SQ = D.
∀ x P(x) /\ Q(x) is true iff SP ∩ SQ = D.
∃ x P(x) \/ Q(x) is true iff SP ∪ SQ is not ∅..
∃ x P(x) /\ Q(x) is true iff SP ∩ SQ is not ∅.
Negation of Predicates
~ ∀x P( x) ≡ ∃x ~ P( x)
Example:
If P(x) is the statement “x has won a race” where the
domain of discourse is all runners, then the universal
quantification of P(x) is ∀x P ( x) , i.e., every runner has
won a race. The negation of this statement is “it is not the
case that every runner has won a race. Therefore there
exists at least one runner who has not won a race.
Therefore: ∃x ~ P ( x)
and so, ~ ∀x P ( x) ≡ ∃x ~ P ( x)
Negation of Predicates
~ ∀x P( x) ≡ ∃x ~ P( x)
~ ∃x P( x) ≡ ∀x ~ P( x)

Formulas in First Order Logic
All statement formulas are considered formulas

Each n, n =1,2,...,n-place predicate P(x1 , x2 , ... , xn ) containing
the variables x1 , x2 , ... , xn is a formula.
If A and B are formulas, then the expressions ~A, (A∧B),
(A∨B) , A →B and A↔B are statement formulas, where
~, ∧, ∨, → and ↔ are logical connectives
If A is a formula and x is a variable, then ∀x A(x) and
∃x A(x) are formulas
All formulas constructed using only above rules are
considered formulas in predicate or first order logic
Counterexample and Disproof

An argument has the form ∀x (P(x ) → Q(x )), where the
domain of discourse is D
To show that this implication is not true in the domain D, it
must be shown that there exists some x in D such that
(P(x ) → Q(x )) is not true
This means that there exists some x in D such that P(x) is true
but Q(x) is not true. Such an x is called a counterexample of
the above implication
To show that ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)) is false by finding an x in D
such that P(x) → Q(x) is false is called the disproof of the
given statement by counterexample
Proof Techniques
Theorem
Statement that can be shown to be true (under certain

conditions)
Typically Stated in one of three ways
As Facts
As Implications
As Biimplications

Proof Techniques
Direct Proof or Proof by Direct Method
Proof of those theorems that can be expressed in
the form ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)), D is the domain of
discourse
Select a particular, but arbitrarily chosen, member
a of the domain D
Show that the statement P(a) → Q(a) is true.
(Assume that P(a) is true, show that Q(a) is true)
Proof Techniques
Indirect Proof
The implication p → q is equivalent to the
implication (∼q → ∼p)
Therefore, in order to show that p → q is true,
one can also show that the implication
(∼q → ∼p) is true
To show that (∼q → ∼p) is true, assume that
the negation of q is true and prove that the
negation of p is true
Proof Techniques
Proof by Contradiction
Assume that the conclusion is not true and then
arrive at a contradiction
Example: Prove that there are infinitely many prime
numbers
Proof:
Assume there are not infinitely many prime numbers,
therefore they are listable, i.e. p1,p2,…,pn
Consider the number q = p1p2…pn+1. q is not
divisible by any of the listed primes
Therefore, q is a prime. However, it was not listed.
Contradiction! Therefore, there are infinitely many
primes
Proof Techniques
Proof Techniques
Proof of Biimplications
To prove a theorem of the form ∀x (P(x) ↔
Q(x )), where D is the domain of the discourse,
consider an arbitrary but fixed element a from D.
For this a, prove that the biimplication P(a) ↔
Q(a) is true
The biimplication p ↔ q is equivalent to
(p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Prove that the implications p → q and q → p are
true
Assume that p is true and show that q is true
Assume that q is true and show that p is true
Proof Techniques
Proof of Equivalent Statements

Consider the theorem that says that statements
p,q and r are equivalent
Show that p → q, q → r and r → p
Assume p and prove q. Then assume q and prove
r Finally, assume r and prove p
Or, prove that p if and only if q, and then q if and
only if r
Other methods are possible

Algorithms
Definition: step-by-step problem-solving process in which a
solution is arrived at in a finite amount of time
All algorithms have the following properties:
Input : For example, a set of numbers to find the sum of the
numbers
Output : For example, the sum of the numbers
Precision : Each step of the algorithm is precisely defined
Uniqueness : Results of each step are unique and depend on the
input and results of previous step
Finiteness : Algorithm must terminate after executing a finite
number of steps
Generality : Algorithm is general in that it applies to a set of
inputs
Algorithms
Pseudocode Conventions
The symbol := is called the assignment operator
Example: The statement x := a is read as “assign the value a
to x” or “x gets the value a” or “copy the value of a into x”
x := a is also known as an assignment statement
Control Structures
One way-selection
if booleanExpression then statement
If booleanExpression evaluates to true, statement is
evaluated
Two way-selection
if booleanExpression then statement1
else statement2
If booleanExpression evaluates to true , statement1
executes,
otherwise statement2 executes
Algorithms
Control Structures
The while loop takes the form:
while booleanExpression do loopBody
The booleanExpression is evaluated. If it evaluates
to true, loopBody executes. Thereafter loopBody
continues to execute as long as booleanExpression
is true
The for loop takes the form:
for var := start to limit do loopBody
var is an integer variable. The variable var is set to
the value specified by start. If var limit, loopBody
≤
executes. After executing the loopBody , var is
incremented by 1. The statement continues to
execute until var > limit
Algorithms
Control Structures
The do/while loop takes the form:
do loopBody while booleanExpression
The loopBody is executed first and then the

booleanExpression is evaluated. The loopBody
continues to execute as long as the
booleanExpression is true
Algorithms
Block of Statement
To consider a set of statements a single statement, the
statements are written between the words begin and
end
begin
statement1
statement2
...
statementn;
end
Algorithms
Return Statement
The return statement is used to return the value
computed by the algorithm and it takes the following
form:
return expression;
The value specified by expression is returned. In an
algorithm, the execution of a return statement also
terminates the algorithm
Read and Print Statements
read x;
Read the next value≤ and store it in the variable x
print x;
Output the value of x
Algorithms
Arrays (List)
A list is a set of elements of the same type
The length of the list is the number of elements in the list
L[1...n ]. L is an array of n components, indexed 1 to n . L[i ]
denotes the ith element of L
For data in tabular form, a two-dimensional array is used:
M[1...m,1...n ] M is a two-dimensional array of m rows
and n columns
The rows are indexed 1 to m and the columns are
indexed 1 to n
M[i,j] denotes the (i,j)th element of M, that is, the element
at the ith row and jth column position
Algorithms
Subprograms (Procedures)
In a programming language,an algorithm is implemented in
the form of a subprogram, a.k.a. a subroutine or a module
Two types of subprograms
Functions
Returns a unique value
Procedure
Other types of subprograms
body of the function or procedure is enclosed between the
words begin and end
the execution of a return statement in a function terminates
the function
Algorithms
Comments
In describing the steps of an algorithm, comments are
included wherever necessary to clarify the steps
Two types of comments: single-line and multi-line
Single-line comments start anywhere in the line
with the pair of symbols //
Multi-line comments are enclosed between the pair
of symbols /* and */
Specifies what the algorithm does, as well as the input
and output

Algorithms
Polynomial Operations
Polynomial in one variable is
ai are real (or complex) and n is a non-negative integer

If p(x) = a0 then p(x) is a constant polynomial
If p(x) is a nonzero constant polynomial, then the degree of p(x) is
defined to be 0
If p(x) is not constant and an ≠ 0, then n is called the degree of p(x);
that is, the degree of a non-constant polynomial is defined to be the
exponent of the highest power of x
The basic operations performed on polynomials are to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide polynomials, and to evaluate a polynomial at a
given point

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Chapter 1:

Foundations: Sets, Logic, and Algorithms

Discrete Mathematical Structures:

Learn about sets

Explore various operations on sets

Become familiar with Venn diagrams

Learn how to represent sets in computer

Learn about proposition logic

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 2

Learn how to use logical connectives to combine

Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates

Learn various proof techniques

Explore what an algorithm is

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 3

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 4

How to Define a Set: Method 1

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 5

How to Define a Set: Method 2

 A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x

If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X

X = {n ∈ Z | n is even and 2 ≤ n ≤ 10}

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 6

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 7

“X is a subset of Y” is written as X ⊆ Y

“X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y

 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and z = {i, n, o, u}

Y ⊆ X, since every element of Y is an element of X

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 8

Subsets vs. Supersets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 9

Finite and Infinite Sets

 X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 11

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 12

Theorem: If |X| = n, then |P(X)| = 2n

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 13

In a small village, a barber claims that “I

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 14

Russell’s Paradox (1901)

Let M be the set of all sets that do not

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 15

The cardinality of a set is smaller than the

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 16

Universal Sets and Venn Diagrams

Universal Set: A set of all Venn Diagrams

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 19

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 20

Properties of Set Operations

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 21

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 22

Operations over Multiple Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 23

Mutually Disjoint Sets

A family of sets A = { A1, A2, …, An } are said to be

If A = {a,b,c}, B = {x, y, z} and C = {1,2,3}

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 24

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications 25

Learn about sets

Explore various operations on sets

Become familiar with Venn diagrams

Learn how to represent sets in computer

Learn about proposition logic

Learn how to use logical connectives to combine

Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates

Learn various proof techniques

Explore what an algorithm is

A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x

If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X

“X is a subset of Y” is written as X ⊆ Y

“X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y

X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and z = {i, n, o, u}

Y ⊆ X, since every element of Y is an element of X

X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n

Theorem: If |X| = n, then |P(X)| = 2n

In a small village, a barber claims that “I

Let M be the set of all sets that do not

The cardinality of a set is smaller than the

Universal Set: A set of all Venn Diagrams

If A = {a,b,c}, B = {x, y, z} and C = {1,2,3}

A set may be stored in a computer in an array as an

Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules

One of the truth values “true” or “false”

The conjunction of p and q,

The symbol ∨ is read “or”

Truth Table for

p is called the hypothesis, q is called the conclusion

Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car.

Precedence of logical connectives is:

Proof of (~p ∧q ) → (~(q →p ))

Modus Tollens (Method of Denying)

Predicate or Propositional Function

Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of

Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of the

Everybody loves somebody.

Everybody is loved by at least one.

There is one that everybody loves.

Brothers are siblings.

One’s mother is one’s female parent.

A first cousin is a child of a parent’s sibling.

All apples are red.

What’s the relationship between P(x) and the

What’s relationship between logical connectives

All statement formulas are considered formulas