Lecture 5 Fracture of Cracked Members

4/1/17
Lecture 5
Fracture of Cracked Members
KQA 7007 / KXGB 6301 / KXGM 6310 Assoc. Prof. Dr. A. Andriyana

Part A
Preliminary Discussion
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Design Approach
Strength of Materials
Approach
Applied Stress Yield or Tensile Strength
Applied Stress
Fracture Mechanics
Approach
Flaw Size Fracture Toughness
Fracture of Metals
Fracture
Separation of a body/component/material into two or more
parts in response to an imposed stress
Type of fracture
Ductile fracture
Occurs after substantial plastic deformation
Characterized by slow crack propagation
Brittle fracture
Occurs with very little plastic deformation
Characterized by rapid crack propagation, thus very dangerous
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Ductile vs Brittle Fracture
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
Brittle Fracture
Dangerous since crack propagates very rapidly

without warning
In many cases, occurs due to existence of defects
formed during manufacturing or during service
Folds
Large inclusions
Porosity
Crack
Initiate at the defect location (stress raisers)
Ductile materials can experience brittle fracture at
low temperature and high loading rates
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Toughness
Toughness (Kc)
Capacity of a material to absorb energy up to fracture, i.e.
the energy per unit volume required to break the material.

Prior the advent of Fracture Mechanics,
toughness is measured from the area under
stress-strain curve up to fracture
This method cannot be used to predict
facture behavior, e.g. ductile metals can
experience brittle fracture
High strain rate, low temperature and
triaxiality facilitate brittle fracture
Impact Fracture Testing
Requirements for fracture testing
The test should represent most severe conditions relative

to the potential for fracture, i.e.
Deformation at a relatively low temperature, e.g. using N2
High strain rate, i.e. impact loading
Triaxial stress state, e.g. introduced by the presence of a notch
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Impact Fracture Testing: Charpy Testing
General procedure
Charpy V-notched specimen is placed
across parallel jaws
The heavy pendulum is positioned at a
given height h and released
The pendulum strikes and fractures the
specimen
The pendulum continues to swing to a
maximum height h < h
Energy absorbed to fracture is
measured by measuring h, h and the
mass of the pendulum

Ductile to Brittle Transition (DBT)
DBT temperature (TDBT)
(Cu, Ni, -Fe)
(Cr, Mo, -Fe)
(TDBT)
(y > E/150)
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Ductile to Brittle Transition (DBT)
Fracture surface
(low-carbon steel)
Temperature
(C)
Granular (shinny) texture Fibrous (dull) texture

Brittle fracture Ductile fracture
Theoretical Strength: Slip vs Brittle Fracture
Plastic deformation by slip

Driven by shear stress, sliding one atomic plane along another
Broken atomic bonds are allowed to reform in new position
Brittle fracture
Driven by normal stress, acting to separate one atomic plane
from another
Broken atomic bonds are not allowed to reform in new position
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Theoretical Cohesive Strength
Two ways to estimate theoretical cohesive strength:

By considering atomic bond forces
By considering balance of energy
Atomic bonding forces
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Approximation
The theoretical cohesive strength can

max
be approximated by:
E
r0 max =

r

2
x = r r0
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Example 1
Question
The tensile strength and modulus elasticity of two materials are
tabulated below. Compute and compare the theoretical cohesive strength
of both materials with their measured values (tensile strength).
Material E (GPa) TS (MPa)

Cast iron 90 210
Silicon carbide 210 350
E
max =

Basic consideration: balance of energy

When fracture occurs in a brittle solid, all of the work
expended in producing the fracture goes into the creation
of two new surfaces
Each of this surface has a surface energy (J/m2)
W = 2 s
W : Work done per unit area of surface (J/m2)
s : Surface energy (J/m2)
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% Plane of rupture
(cleavage plane)
Cleavage mode
of fracture
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The work done per unit area of surface in creating the

fracture is the area under the stress-displacement curve

Considering energy balance, the
max theoretical cohesive strength can
also be expressed as:
r0
E s
r max =
r0
2
x = r r0
By considering atomic bond forces

E
max =

By considering balance of energy

E s
max =
r0
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Remarks
The stress required to fracture brittle materials is 100-1000

times lower than its theoretical value (breaking atomic
bonds)
According to English engineer, A.A. Grifgith, the discrepancy
between theoretical and measured fracture strength can be
attributed to the presence of glaws in materials
These glaws are a detriment to the fracture strength because
an applied stress may be ampligied or concentrated at the tip
of the glaws
Stress Concentration
1/ 2 1/ 2
a a
m = Kt 0 K t = 1 + 2 2
t t
Stress concentration factor
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Nominal stress at fracture
Taking into account the stress concentration factor due to the

presence of crack, the nominal stress at fracture is given by

1/ 2
E
f = 0 at fracture = s
4a
Example 2
Question
Calculate the fracture stress and the theoretical cohesive strength for a
brittle material with the following properties
Material E (GPa) s (Jm-2) r0 (nm) a (m)

Brittle material 100 1 0.25 2.5
1/ 2
E s E s
f = 0 at fracture = max =
4a r0
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Stress concentration factor (Kt)

A dimensionless scalar which measures the degree to which external
stress is ampligied at the location of abrupt change in geometry, e.g.
vicinity of crack, discontinuity, hole, sharp corner, notch etc.

Stress Concentration Factor
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition,
by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
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Example 3
Question
A steel shaft with a shoulder gillet is subjected to a tensile force of 60 kN. If the
smaller and larger shaft diameters are 20 and 30 mm respectively, determine
the maximum local stress around the gillet of the shaft using the following
stress concentration data. The radius of the gillet is 1 mm.
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Part B
Principles of Fracture Mechanics

Part B
B1: Energy Approach
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GrifLith Theory of Brittle Fracture
Basic considerations
GRIFFITH [1921, 1925]
All materials contain a population of gine cracks

Some of these cracks are oriented in the most unfavorable
direction relative to the applied loads so as to have the
maximum stress concentration factor
At one of these cracks, the theoretical strength is reached at
the crack tip, and the crack grows
Basic considerations
GRIFFITH [1921, 1925]
The source of the energy for crack propagation is the strain

energy released as the crack extends
The growth of the crack results in an increase in surface
energy
The crack growth process continues as long as the rate of
released strain energy (decrease in strain energy) exceeds
the energy required to form a new surface
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Using the result of INGLIS [1913], Grifgith

found that the decrease of strain energy
due to the formation of a crack is
a 2 2t
UE =
E
E =E (plane stress)
E
E= (plane strain)
1 2
The surface energy due to the formation

of a crack is
U S = 4at s
Thickness t
The total change in potential energy of the system resulting from

the creation of a crack is
a 2 2t
U U U 0 = U E + U S = + 4at s
E
Potential energy of body Potential energy of body

with crack without crack
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According to Grifgith, the crack will propagate under a constant

applied stress if an incremental increase in crack length produces
no change in the total energy of the system, i.e. the increased surface
energy is compensated by a decrease in strain energy
1/ 2
2 E s
(U ) = 0 =
a a
Stress required to propagate a crack
Remarks on GrifLith Theory
The Grifgith relation was derived for an elastic (and brittle)

material, such as glass, containing a very sharp crack
Although the Grifgith relation does not explicitly involve the
crack-tip radius , as was the case for the stress
concentration, the radius is assumed to be very sharp
As such, the Grifgith relation should be considered necessary
but not sufgicient for failure
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Remarks on GrifLith Theory
X-ray diffraction and metallographic studies of fracture

surface showed that metals which fail in a completely brittle
manner undergone some plastic deformation prior to
fracture
Plastic deformation around the crack tip will blunt the crack
tip resulting to a higher fracture stress
Therefore, the Grifgith relation does not apply for metals
Extension of GrifLith Theory
For metals and polymers which undergo plastic deformation prior

to fracture, OROWAN [1952] extended Grifgith theory by simply
adding a term representing plastic energy dissipation p (J/m2)
1/ 2
2 E ( s + p )
=

a
In majority of cases, p >> s , thus the contribution of surface

energy is often neglected
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Extension of GrifLith Theory
For engineering convenience, the previous relation was modigied

by IRWIN [1958] by simply replacing the terms s and p by a single
term G called the energy release rate or crack driving force
1/ 2
E G
= G = 2( s + p ) (J/m2)
a
Crack propagate whenever the energy release rate G reaches its

critical value Gc
The critical energy release rate Gc is a material parameter and can
be measured in the laboratory with sharply notched specimens
Analysis of Energy Release Rate
Using the Grifgith theory, it can be

shown that the energy release rate is
given by
P 2 C
G=
2t a
where
u Compliance (inverse of the stiffness)
C=
P (m/N)
P
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Analysis of Energy Release Rate
Example 4
Question
A beam with congiguration below is made of a material having elastic modulus
of 200 GPa and critical energy release rate of 300 J/m2, investigate whether or
not the crack propagate when the applied load is P = 100 N
P u
2
Thickness = t a P 2a 2
G=
tEI
h
th3
I=
u 12
P 2
a = 20 mm
h = t = 5 mm
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Part B
B2: Stress-Field Approach
Introduction
Energy approach
The body containing crack is treated from a global perspective and failure
theories are deduced from energy-balance arguments
Local stress gield at the crack tip enters the formulation indirectly through
its ingluence on the strain energy
Stress-gield approach
The failure theories are developed by considering the stress gield at the
immediate neighborhood of the crack tip
The ingluence of the body as a whole and its remotely applied forces are
incorporated into the theory through the geometric stress intensity factor
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Modes of Fracture
There are three basic modes (modes of fracture) of separation of

the crack surface

Mode I Mode II Mode III

(opening) (in-plane sliding) (anti-plane sliding)

Combinations of modes (mixed-mode loading) are also possible
Stress Analysis of Crack
We now carry out a linear elastic stress analysis the cracked body
in order to formulate critical condition for the growth of cracks
more precisely
An analysis of this type falls within the gield of Linear Elastic
Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
y yy
xy
xx
r
crack

x
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Following the work of WESTERGAARD [1939] on the stress gield around

a singularity, IRWIN [1958] published solutions for crack tip stress
distribution
KI 3
xx = cos 2 1 sin 2 sin 2
2r
K I 3
yy = cos 2 1 + sin 2 sin 2
2r
K I 3
xy = sin cos cos
2r 2 2 2

K I Stress intensity factor (MPam1/2)
Mode I K I = a
a Crack length (m)
(opening)

distribution
K II 3
xx = sin 2 2 + cos 2 cos 2
2r
K II 3
yy = cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 cos 2
2r
K II 3
xy = cos 2 1 sin 2 sin 2
2r

K II Stress intensity factor (MPam1/2)
Mode II K II = a
a Crack length (m)
(in-plane sliding)
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distribution
K III
xz =
2r sin 2
K
yz = III cos 2
2r

K III Stress intensity factor (MPam1/2)

Mode III K III = a
a Crack length (m)
(anti-plane sliding)
Modes of Fracture
In the following discussion, we will

focus only on Mode 1
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distribution
K I 3

xx = cos 2 1 sin 2 sin 2
2r
K I 3
yy = cos 2 1 + sin 2 sin 2
2r
KI 3
xy =
2r sin 2 cos 2 cos 2

Mode I
(opening)
Stress Analysis of Crack: Mode 1
Digital Image Correlation (DIC)
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Remarks
Mode I loading is encountered in the overwhelming majority of

actual engineering situations involving cracked components
The local stresses at the crack tip could rise to a very high level as r
approaches zero. In reality, this does not happen because plastic
deformation occurs at the crack tip
yy Mode I
(opening)
y For = 0
KI
yy =
crack 2x
Plastic zone
Stress Intensity Factor
The stress intensity factor K is a convenient way of describing the

stress distribution around a glaw
If two glaws of different geometry have the same value of K, then
the stress gield around each of the glaws are identical
Values of K for many geometrical cracks and many types of loading
may be calculated with the theory of elasticity
For general case, the stress intensity factor for Mode I is given by
K I = Y a
Dimensionless parameter that depends on
Y the specimen and crack geometry
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Dimensionless Parameter Y
K I = Y a
Y
K I = Y a
Y
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K I = Y a
Y
Example 5
Question
A following center-cracked plate is subjected to a force of P = 50 kN.
Determine the stress intensity factor K for crack length a = 10 mm and
a = 30 mm
b = 50 mm
t = 5 mm
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Stress Intensity Factor
In Mode I, crack propagate whenever the stress intensity factor KI

reaches its critical value KIC
The critical stress intensity factor KIC is a material parameter called
fracture toughness and can be measured in the laboratory from the
combinations of crack size and applied stress at fracture
The stress intensity factor KI can be related to the energy release
rate G through the following equation
E =E (plane stress)
K I2
G= E=
E
(plane strain)
E 1 2
Fracture Toughness Testing
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Fracture Toughness Testing
K
Plane strain t 2.5 IC

y
Fracture Toughness
Note:
Low KIC means tend to be more brittle
Materials with low plastic deformation before fracture have lower KIC
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Fracture Toughness
Design Philosophy
K I = K IC = Y a
Allowable glaw size

Material selection Design stress or NDT glaw detection
Given: Fracture toughness KIC and crack size a K IC

1 f =
Y a
Determine: Critical stress at fracture f
2
2 Given: Fracture toughness KIC and applied stress ac =

1 K IC

Determine: Critical crack size at fracture ac Y
3 Given: Stress and crack size at fracture f and af K IC = Y f a f

Determine: Fracture toughness KIC
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Safety Factors
When crack may be present, safety factors against yielding

need to be supplemented by safety factors against brittle
fracture
Depending on the particular situation, either yielding or
fracture might control the design
K IC ac
SFK = SFa =
KI a
(safety factors on K) (safety factor on crack length)
Example 6
Question
A center-cracked plate of 2014-T651 aluminum is subjected to a force
of P = 50 kN. Assuming Y = 1, determine:
(a) The largest permitted crack length for safety factor SFK = 3
(b) Safety factor on crack length
(c) Safety factor against yielding
K IC = 24 MPa m
K IC
SFK =
y = 415 MPa KI
ac
b = 50 mm SFa =
t = 5 mm a
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Leak-Before-Break Design of Pressure Vessel
In a thin-walled pressure vessel with a crack growing in the

wall, two possibilities exist:
1. The crack may gradually extend and penetrate the wall causing a
leak before sudden brittle fracture can occur
2. Sudden brittle fracture may occur prior to the vessel leaking
Since a brittle fracture in a pressure vessel may involve

explosive release of the vessel contents, a leak is by far
preferable
A leak is easily detected from a pressure drop or from the
escape of vessel contents. Hence, pressure vessel should be
designed to leak before they fracture
Leak-Before-Break Design of Pressure Vessel
Leak starts to occur when 2a = t

To ensure gluid leakage will occur prior to brittle fracture, allowance
is introduced. The leak-before-break condition is met when:
ac t
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Example 7
Question
A spherical pressure vessel is made of ASTM A517-F steel and
operates at room temperature. The inner diameter is 1.5 m, the wall
thickness is 10 mm, and the maximum pressure is 6 MPa. Assume Y =
1.
(a) Is the leak-before-break condition met?
(b) What is the safety factor on K relative to KIC?
(c) What is the safety factor against yielding using Tresca criterion?
K IC = 187 MPa m
y = 760 MPa
Plastic Zone
yy
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Plastic Zone Size
yy
xx
zz = 0
yy
zz xx zz = 0
2 2
1 K 1 K I
2r0 = I 2r0 =
y
3
y

(Plane stress) (Plane strain)
Plastic Zone Shape
(Von Mises Criterion) (Tresca criterion)
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Plastic Zone Shape
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4/1/17

Fracture of Cracked Members

Ductile vs Brittle Fracture

Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

Dangerous since crack propagates very rapidly

Impact Fracture Testing

Requirements for fracture testing

The test should represent most severe conditions relative

Impact Fracture Testing: Charpy Testing

Ductile to Brittle Transition (DBT)

DBT temperature (TDBT)

(Cu, Ni, -Fe)

(Cr, Mo, -Fe)

Ductile to Brittle Transition (DBT)

Granular (shinny) texture Fibrous (dull) texture

Theoretical Strength: Slip vs Brittle Fracture

Plastic deformation by slip

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Two ways to estimate theoretical cohesive strength:

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Atomic bonding forces

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Atomic bonding forces

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Atomic bonding forces

The theoretical cohesive strength can

Material E (GPa) TS (MPa)

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Basic consideration: balance of energy

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

The work done per unit area of surface in creating the

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

By considering atomic bond forces

By considering balance of energy

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

The stress required to fracture brittle materials is 100-1000

Nominal stress at fracture

Taking into account the stress concentration factor due to the

Material E (GPa) s (Jm-2) r0 (nm) a (m)

Stress concentration factor (Kt)

Stress Concentration Factor

Stress Concentration Factor

Stress Concentration Factor

Stress Concentration Factor

GrifLith Theory of Brittle Fracture

All materials contain a population of gine cracks

GrifLith Theory of Brittle Fracture

The source of the energy for crack propagation is the strain

GrifLith Theory of Brittle Fracture

Using the result of INGLIS [1913], Grifgith

The surface energy due to the formation

GrifLith Theory of Brittle Fracture

The total change in potential energy of the system resulting from

Potential energy of body Potential energy of body

GrifLith Theory of Brittle Fracture

According to Grifgith, the crack will propagate under a constant

Remarks on GrifLith Theory

The Grifgith relation was derived for an elastic (and brittle)

Remarks on GrifLith Theory

X-ray diffraction and metallographic studies of fracture

Extension of GrifLith Theory

For metals and polymers which undergo plastic deformation prior