1.

2- Tectonics and Structural Features

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Structural Geology
Learning objectives
Awareness Level:
Global Tectonics as a framework
Mid Ocean Ridge Mountains
Trench
for sedimentary basins
Ocean plate

Folded Structures and Faults

Magma Magma

In-Situ Stress in the subsurface

Continental
plate

Hydrocarbon reservoirs in
geologic structures

2 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Global Earth Processes

Tectonics- The Study of the Large-Scale Processes that
Collectively Deform the Earths Crust

Plate - One of the Numerous Rigid Sections of the Lithosphere

That Moves as a Unit of Material Over the Asthenosphere

Plate Tectonics - The Theory That Proposes That the Earths

Outer Shell Consists of Individual Plates that Interact in Various
Ways, Producing Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Mountains, and
Sedimentary Basins
3 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

8 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

The EARTH

9 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Plate Tectonics
Mantle is Plastic
Mantle flows in
convection current from
the very hot core to the
outer mantle/crust
These currents cause
the crust to move
The crust movements
are responsible for all
the Earth Features.
10 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Mantle Convection

11 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection

Lithosphere forms
Lithosphere cools
From hot rising magma
As it spread
Cooled Lithosphere
sinks

Asthenosphere

Cooled lithosphere sinks

12 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Basic Elements of Plate Tectonics

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY CONVERGENT BOUNDARY

Mid-ocean ridge Plate subduction
Sea floor spreading Volcanism Mountain
Lithosphere building
Oceanic Deep Sea Continental
crust Rift Trench crust

Magma Rising

Asthenosphere

Magma Forming

Earthquakes centres

13 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Types of Plate Boundaries

c
Ar
c
ni
lca
Vo
Divergent Boundary Convergent Margin

Crust
Asthenosphere
(Mantle)
Transform Boundary

14 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Movements of Plates:
Compressional
Feature
Two Plates are
pushed together
They can create
mountains
A Plate can push
under the other Plate
creating a trench.
15 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Movement of Plates
Tensional Features

The plate stretches

out and thins
This creates faults
and rifts
Sometime, another
plate is created

16 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Plates Movements
Ocean plate - Ocean Plate

Two ocean plates

colliding in a
compressional
event.
A trench is formed on
Trench one side

Mountains
Mountains
(volcanoes) are
created on the other.
17 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Plates Movements
Ocean plate -
Continental plate
This is a typical trenching
effect with the ocean
plate being forced down
Mid Ocean Ridge Trench
Mountains under the continental
plate.
Ocean plate
The latter is forced up
Magma Magma into a mountain chain,
while there is a trench
Continental
plate formed at the boundary.
18 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Plate Movements
Continental - Continental
Two continental plates
colliding create a
mountain between them.
Compressional forces
driving this effect.
The entire region
surrounding the
mountains with be
heavily affected by
faulting and fracturing.
19 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
Structural Style
1.2- Tectonics andand Stress Features
Structural Fields
Relative to Sedimentary Basin Type

21 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
The Sedimentation Process

Sediments accumulate at
low points, originated by
plate movement

22 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Sedimentary
Rocks
Accumulation:
Sedimentation of
detrital particles
Chemical
precipitation from
solutions Biological
accumulation of
organisms

Formation of Rocks,
burial, compaction
and then diagenesis
lead to transformation
of sediment into
ROCKS

23 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Evolution of the Sediment Fill

Accommodation space in a
sedimentary basin is formed,
and sediments are
deposited- Sediment
properties evolve during
burial

Primary properties:
porosity,
permeability, k

24 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Anticline & Syncline

25 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Fault Dipmeter Motif (signatures)

Series parallel fault planes Change of dip across a fault Drag along fault plane (upper block)

Drag along fault plane (both blocks) Rollover in upper block Beds overturned by drag in the upper
of growth fault block of thrust fault
26 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Folded Structures

Anticline Syncline

27 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

The Pad design

on the Formation
MicroImager
(FMI*). Each pad
is a duplicate pad
of electric buttons
giving a total of
192 measuring
4 Arms - 8 Pads buttons.
192 Electrodes

* Schlumberger Trademark

29 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Shear Fault
FMI image showing a
shear fracture or
micro-fault around
8029 ft.
The dense seam or
stylolite, marked by
green boundary
appears to have been
displaced along the
fracture / fault plane
by 6 inches.
Courtesy Schlumberger
30 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Minor Fault
(F1) and Major
Fault (F2)

Courtesy Schlumberger

31 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Major Faults
Figure : Abrupt change on LWD
logs across the steep resistive
feature at 12303 ft is due to a
fault.
The log correlation and forward
modeling suggest that the fault is
possibly a major one as it has a
throw of approximately 42 ft.
Since the fault plane appears to
be much less dense (resistive)
than the other faults and it has
some open fractures in its
immediate vicinity.
Therefore the fault could be non-
Courtesy Schlumberger sealing.
32 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Courtesy Schlumberger
Figure: FMI image impressions of high angle resistive surfaces interpreted
as micro-faults based on less than 6 inches throw along displaced strata.
33 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

34 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Faults
Normal Fault Reverse Fault
Strike direction Strike direction
Fault scarp

Key bed F.W. Dip

F.W. angle
H.W. H.W.
Dip angle
Fault plane Fault plane

35 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Strike Slip Fault (Left Lateral)

37 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Horsts and Graben

Horst
Graben
Graben

38 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Methods of Structural Evaluation:

Structural Maps

39 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Gas
Shale Oil Trap Oil/Gas Closure
Contact

Oil / Water
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

40 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Hydrocarbon Traps - Dome

Gas
Oil

Sandstone
Shale

41 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Fault Trap

Oil / Gas

42 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Fractures
Outcrop studies
Core descriptions
Borehole imaging logs
Fracture analysis

45 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Fracture Morphology (Open, Mineral-Filled, Vuggy)

Open

Partially filled

Mineral filled

Solution enhanced
(vuggy)

46 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

47 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Fold-Related Fractures

Type 3a fractures

Type 3b fractures

(modified from Freeman and others, 1998)

48 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

OPEN
FRACTURES
imaging

Courtesy Schlumberger

49 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Fractures in Horizontal well

Courtesy Schlumberger

50 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Open Fractures
Example and
Orientation

Courtesy Schlumberger
51 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa
1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Reservoir Heterogeneity in Sandstone

Heterogeneity Also May

Result From:
Faults

Fractures
Faults and Fractures may
be Open (Conduits) or
Closed (Barriers) to Fluid
Flow
(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa
Sandstone, Venezuela)

52 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Subsurface Pressures
Lithostatic Pressure: The pressure resulting from the weight of all overlying
rock and pore fluid. Also called overburden pressure. Gradient of about 1 psi/ft.
Hydrostatic Pressure: Pressure exerted by a column of water to the surface.
Gradient of 0.433 psi/ft
Pore Pressure: Pressure of the fluid in the pore space, as measured by drill
stem tests.

53 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features
Pressure Pore Pressure Formation Pressure

Pressure

the pressure acting upon the fluids in the pore

space of the formation (Fertl, 1976)

the pore pressure can be equal to hydrostatic

pressure (=pressure exerted by a column of
water at the same depth as the formation), transition zone

Depth
higher (=Overpressure) or

lower (=Underpressure=Subnormal pressure ) Effective Stress

abnormal pressure refers to pressures that differ

from the hydrostatic pressure
UNDERPRESSURE OVERPRESSURE

Courtesy Schlumberger fracture limit

54 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa

1.2- Tectonics and Structural Features

Key Points-Structural Geology

Plate Tectonic Elements and Stress Regimes

Types of Stresses and Effects
Types of Structural Traps
Why are Fractures Important
Pressure Elements

55 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa