Chapter 14

Body Image in Sport and Exercise

Catherine Sabiston Jennifer Brunet

Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Define body image and distinguish between the different body image dimensions.
2 Provide examples of ways that each body image dimension can be measured.
3 Identify the main theories related to body image and physical activity.
4 Identify factors that may influence the development and maintenance of body image.
5 Understand how physical activity can influence body image.
6 Summarize the key findings related to body image and physical activity to guide your practice.

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 371 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Lexi constantly tells her friends that she is fat and ugly and she is always looking for
ways to improve her weight and appearance. She just wants to be as skinny as most
of her friends on Facebook. She also wants to have a toned body like the models in
the pop-up advertisements. Her friends are always telling her that she is beautiful
and there is no need for her to lose weight, but she just cant seem to appreciate
her body. She looks at herself in the mirror every day, constantly weighs herself, and
is always pulling at the small amount of fat on her waistline and wishing it wasnt
there. Lexi is always late for school because she spends so much time getting ready,
and every day she feels bad about eating junk food and not exercising enough. While
sitting in class, her thoughts often drift to her appearance. She asks herself: I won-
der if the person behind me can see my muffin top? . . . I hope none of the guys
have to lift me during gymastics class . . . I wish Id worn a long-sleeved sweater
today so no one could see my big arms. She hates physical education class because
she has to wear shorts and a T-shirt, which means her body is exposed to others.
She thinks about the changerooms long before class since there is only one bath-
room stall, which will be taken if she doesnt get there first, and then she will have
to change out in the open with all her female classmates. She often fakes being sick
or injured to avoid participating in physical education so she doesnt have to change.
Sometimes, she even skips classes, especially when she knows the teacher will test
her on a skill in front of all the other students. During the basketball unit, she had to
do lay-ups and free throws, and all she thought about was whether her shirt might
come up enough to reveal her stomach to others. Lexi cant wait until next year when
she can opt out of physical education. She has already convinced her parents to stop
sending her to swimming lessons. Soon she wont have to do any physical activity
unless she chooses to do it at home and alone.
Maddox is in many of Lexis classes at school. He is a class clown and always
tries to be the centre of attention. In fact, he is one of the students Lexi worries will
try to pick her up or grab the fat on the back of her arms. In spite of his outward
antics, Maddox struggles with his physiquehe sees himself as being too thin even
though he isnt. In some ways, he is always joking around as a cover for his negative
thoughts and feelings about his thin body. He would be so embarassed if his friends
knew how he really feltits certainly not something guys talk about. If any of his
friends on the football team saw him admiring their larger muscles, he would likely
be made fun of to the point of being ostracized from the team. Maddox keeps his
disdain to himself, which is often heightened in the locker room at school when he
gets ready for football practice. One senior player, Jake, is particularly ruthless in
his comments about his teammates body shapes and sizes. Jake walks around the
locker room in his underwear, saying that he is bigger and tougher than everyone
else. Maddox is frustrated because he wants nothing more than to gain weight
and he often takes protein shakes and tries to eat a lot of calories to bulk up. He
sometimes goes to the gym twice a day to try to build muscle but isnt seeing many
results. When his friends ask him to go out to social events, he often makes excuses
so that he can work out without anyone else knowing. When he cant manage to go
to the gym, he feels really guilty and overcompensates during his next workout. He
has started to think about taking steroids to bulk up faster, and wishes there was an
easy way to get access to these drugs. He is afraid to ask around at the gym because

372 Sabiston, Brunet

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 372 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 he is intimitated on the inside and would be super embarrassed if a classmate saw
him buying steroids. After all, he has to maintain the persona of the outgoing, con-
fident, carefree athlete that he is thought to be, rather than the real Maddox who
feels badly about his physique and wishes he could change his body size more than
anything.
In the above scenario, Lexi and Maddox struggle with the images they have of
their bodies. They both have negative thoughts and inaccurate perceptions, express
many negative emotions, and spend a lot of time monitoring their respective body
shapes, sizes, and appearances. As will be discussed in the chapter, these are com-
mon attributes associated with body image. Lexi and Maddox also worry very much
about how they are perceived by others, and fear being evaluated negatively.
Defined in the chapter as social physique anxiety, this is a commonly studied body
image emotion. Common influences on body image are pervasive in these scenarios.
Lexi is a female adolescent who compares herself to others on Facebook and to
models in advertisements. Media-presented images are often discussed as sources of
negative body image. Maddox is a male adolescent who compares himself to ath-
letic peers who are more muscular than he is. Social comparisons among peers, in
particular during adolecence, are also highly predictive of negative body image. Also,
Lexi clearly avoids physical activity when she can, which is a behavioural outcome
associated with negative body image. Conversely, Maddox is dependent on physical
activity and engages in other muscle-building behaviours such as consuming protein
products. He is also contemplating using steroids. These avoidance and remedial
actions are behavioural outcomes associated with negative body image. Since adoles-
cence is a time when physical activity levels drop significantly, it may be important to
address peoples body image experiences through education, training, and practice.

COMMON MYTHS ABOUT BODY IMAGE IN

SPORT AND EXERCISE
MYTH: Negative body image is the opposite of positive body image.
MYTH: A person with a negative body image is also said to have an eating disorder.
MYTH: Males dont have body image issues.
MYTH: People with negative body image will always avoid physical activity,
whereas people with positive body image will engage in physical activity.

INTRODUCTION
It is estimated that a majority of children, adolescents, and adults in modern Western
cultures report disatisfaction with some aspect of their body shapes, sizes, weights,
and appearances. This prevalence of body-related concerns or dissatisfaction has been
described as a normative discontent because of how widespread it is. Even so, most Normative discontent:
people can also identify physical attributes that they appraise as positive, and may report Concept that most women
experience weight and
some acceptance toward their bodies in spite of also experiencing some discontent. Both appearance dissatisfaction.
negative and positive body image have been associated with various psychological, physi-
cal, and social outcomes, as well as with behavioural outcomes such as physical activity.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 373

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 373 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Body schema: A represen-
tation of the position and
configuration of the body.
Body image boundaries:
An individuals perception of
meaning attributed to specific
body parts, overall body
awareness, and distortions in
body perception.
Body cathexis: Peoples sub-
jective evaluations outlined
by a degree of satisfaction
or dissatisfaction with their
bodies.
Body esteem: Self-
evaluations of ones body
and/or appearance.
374
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 374
While different types of physical activities can promote positive body image, many situa-
tions related to sport and exercise participation, and physical education, naturally involve
interpersonal comparisons, physical evaluations and judgments from others, and may also
promote negative body image.
In the current chapter, the historical roots of body image are presented and defini-
tions of body image are provided to show that it is more complex than simply I like or
dislike my body. Important body image-related concepts, such as physical self-concept
and self-perceptions, are presented, and the links between body image-related concepts
and physical activity are identified. The chapter ends by providing strategies that can be
used in practicewhether by kinesiologists, physical educators, coaches, clinicians, or
other specialiststo help decrease negative body image and increase positive feelings,
attitudes and thoughts about the body.
THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF BODY IMAGE SCIENCE
Body image has been studied since the early 1900s when neurologists were attempting to
explain unusual body perceptions and experiences reported by patients with brain inju-
ries (e.g., phantom limb pain, whereby amputees experience sensation in the amputated
limb). The early neurological construct was coined by Sir Henry Head and labelled body
schema. He explained it as a representation of the position and configuration of the
body. Paul F. Schilder (1935) argued for a biopsychosocial approach to body image to
include the neurological aspects as well as psychological and socialcultural aspects. This
was among the first multidimensional conceptualizations of body image, and his 1935
book The Image and Appearance of the Human Body prompted a shift in the way research-
ers thought about body image. In the 1950s and 1960s, Seymour Fisher introduced it as a
psychodynamic concept in which body image boundaries were identified and described
as an individuals perception of meaning of specific body parts, general body awareness,
and distortions in body perception. In the late 1960s, Franklin Shontz articulated cogni-
tive and perceptual dimensions of body image since his findings showed that peoples
perceptions of their body shapes, sizes, and weights are often discrepant from their actual
measurements.
Another term emanating from a psychological perspective was body cathexis.
Presented by Paul Secord and Sidney Jourard in the early 1950s, it corresponds to peoples
subjective evaluations by capturing the degree of their satisfaction or dissatisfaction
with their bodies. At that time, body cathexis was tied to self-concept since it had been
observed that peoples evaluation of body and self were virtually one in the same. As such,
cognition and affect were both highly tied to body image. In the early 1980s, Stephen
Fanzoi and Stephanie Shields conceptualized body image within a self-esteem framework
and used the term body esteem to reflect self-evaluations of ones body and/or appearance.
As such, body esteem shared similiarities with the concept of body cathexis.
In the 1990s, Thomas Cash and Thomas Pruzinsky wrote several papers stressing the
importance of considering body image as a multidimensional concept. They pioneered
body image theory, research, and practice in areas such as disability and rehabilita-
tion. Thomas Cash is the editor of the first journal dedicated to the topic (Body Image:
An International Journal), and has recently edited what is arguably the biggest collec-
tion of work in this area (Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance). J. Kevin
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 Thompson contributed to the clinical manifestations and associations between body
image, eating disorders, and obesity while highlighting advances in the assessment and
treatment of body image disorders. This era was marked by specific cognitivebehavioural
treatment approaches for body image problems that are still favoured today. Another shift
in thinking about body image came at the turn of the century, when Harrison Pope and
colleagues published a book highlighting the body concerns of boys and men (The Adonis
Complex: The Secret Crisis of Male Body Obsession). Since that time, there has been a
slow but gradual increase in understanding male body image concerns. Finally, one of the
biggest contributions of more recent theory, research, and practice is the shift away from
pathology-focused approaches (i.e., a focus on the negative, or body image problems) to
the focus on positive psychological perspectives of body image (Tylka, 2011). Positive psychological
Over the more recent decades, Canadian academics have played a role amid the perspectives: Health pro-
motion framework suggesting
developments of body image theory, research, and practice. Kathleen Martin Ginis has led that removing negative/mal-
a number of experimental research studies linking body image to physical activity. Donald adaptive characteristics but
McCreary has pioneered work on body image among men, with a specific focus on drive for not teaching positive/adap-
tive characteristics will lead
muscularity. Kent Kowalski, Peter Crocker, and Diane Mack have all advanced research on
to mental health character-
body image emotions during adolescence with a particular focus on social physique anxiety. ized by a lack of pathology
Catherine Sabiston has advanced the affective body image literature by highlighting a range but also absence of vitality.
of self-conscious emotions associated with the body and calling for a positive psychology focus
on body-related emotions. Caroline Davis has been instrumental in examining body image
pathologies (e.g., eating disorders) among athletes. Jennifer Brunet has focused on body image
perspectives among individuals across the lifespan. And Kimberly Gammage has examined
the effects of exercise on body image and self-presentational concerns. Many other Canadian
sport and exercise psychology reserchers have also studied body image in various contexts and
their work is highlighted throughout this chapter. Body image: A multidimen-
sional construct that reflects
a persons feelings, percep-
BODY IMAGE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR tions, thoughts, cognitions,
and behaviours related to
MEASUREMENT his/her body appearance and
function.
As alluded to in the historical accounts of the term, there are various definitions for body
image. However, there is a growing consensus that body image is a multidimensional Affective dimension of
construct that reflects a persons feelings, perceptions, thoughts, cognitions, and behav- body image: Body image
dimension defined as body-
iours related to his/her body appearance and function. These different dimensions of body related feelings and emotions
image are discussed in the next few paragraphs. that an individual experi-
The affective dimension of body image is defined as body-related feelings and emo- ences.
tions that an individual experiences. Commonly assessed feelings and emotions that stem Social physique anxiety:
from thinking about ones body size, shape, and function include anxiety, shame, guilt, pride, The anxiety a person experi-
embarrassment, and envy. Social physique anxiety, arguably the most studied affective body ences as a result of perceived
or actual judgments from
image construct, is defined as the anxiety a person experiences as a result of perceived or actual others.
judgments from others (Hart et al., 1989). For example, in the opening scenario, Lexi is wor-
ried about performing in physical tasks since she feels that her classmates might judge her. Body-related shame: A
negative emotion that is
She also expresses concern that people are judging her body shape while she is sitting in class. focused on the self.
These are examples of experiences of social physique anxiety. Body-related shame is defined
as a negative emotion that is focused on the self (e.g., I am an ugly person), whereas body- Body-related guilt: A nega-
tive emotion attributed to
related guilt is a negative emotion attributed to a failure to complete an action or behaviour a failure of completing an
(e.g, I didnt exercise for two weeks) that often involves tension and regret. Maddox displays action or behaviour.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 375

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 375 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Body-related pride: A
positive emotion that results
from an individual feeling
satisfied with his/her body-
related behaviour or physical
attributes.
Authentic pride: A type
of pride focused on achieve-
ment and behaviour.
Hubristic pride: A type of
pride focused on grandiose
attributes of the self.
Perceptual dimension of
body image: Body image
dimension defined by the
mental representation and/or
reflections that an individual
has of his/her body appear-
ance and function.
Cognitive dimension of
body image: Body image
dimension reflecting an indi-
viduals thoughts, beliefs, and
evaluations of his/her body
appearance and function.
376
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 376
feelings of guilt when he doesnt get to the gym. Body-related pride is defined as a positive
emotion that results from an individual feeling satisfied with behaviour (such as exercising)
or with physical attributes (such as appearance). There are two types of pride, which are dis-
tinguished by the focus being on the behaviours and outcomes (authentic pride) or on the
self attributes (hubristic pride). Hubristic pride often involves an inflated sense of satisfaction
of the self and feelings of superiority over others (e.g., I am better looking than everyone on
this beach). In this sense, hubristic pride is associated with being egotistical or conceited. In
the opening vignette, Jake demonstrates hubristic pride by walking around and showing off.
Authentic pride comes from feeling a sense of satisfaction from having fulfilled ones inten-
tions (e.g., I feel proud because I have been working out and achieved my weight loss goal).
The perceptual dimension of body image refers to the mental representation
and/or reflections that an individual has of body appearance and function. It relates to
the level of accuracy between a persons perceived characteristics and actual charac-
teristics, either in relation to specific body parts or to the body as a whole. In a semi-
nal study of body image perception, Traub and Orbach (1964) designed an adjustable
mirror that could distort a persons body or provide an actual reflection of the body
(i.e., undistorted). Individuals were asked to adjust the mirror until the reflection
represented their actual body shapes, and the researchers were able to detect differ-
ences in what the individuals perceived to be their actual body shapes and the true
undistorted reflection. This work inspired the development of various tools that are
now commonly used to measure the perceptual dimension of body image. Some of
these include having respondents manipulate the size of a body on a computer screen
to fit their body shape and size, using a compass-like device with which people indi-
cate how wide they perceive their body to be, asking individuals to open a door as
wide as is needed for them to fit through, or having people illustrate their perceived
body shapes and sizes on a figure drawing. All of these measurement techniques high-
light that a persons subjective self-perception can be quite different from the actual
self. You could imagine giving one of these tasks to Lexi, the young woman in the sce-
nario at the beginning of this chapter. Based on her friends perceptions, Lexi is not
big, although she perceives herself to be. As such, she is likely to open the compass
much wider than she would need to match her actual body width, or to open a door
wider than needed for her to fit through. Alternatively, Maddox would likely open
the door very little given that he perceives himself to be thinner than he actually is.
The cognitive dimension of body image reflects an individuals thoughts, beliefs, and
evaluations of his/her body appearance and function. This dimension is often assessed
using measures in which respondents are asked to describe their level of satisfaction (or
dissatisfaction) with their body shape, size, weight, and functions. There are a multitude
of cognitive body image measures in circulation that explicitly ask respondents to indicate
the degree of (dis)satisfaction with different body parts (e.g., chest, arms, face), attributes
(e.g., thinness, weight, appearance, muscularity), or physical function (e.g., strength,
endurance). Also, a common method of indirectly assessing body satisfaction or dissatis-
faction is to present respondents with two identical sets of gendered specific drawings or
photos that represent a series of possible body shapes and sizes ranging from very thin to
very overweight (or more recently from very thin to very muscular). For the first set, a
person is asked to identify the body that most resembles their actual body. For the second
set, they are asked to identify the body that most resembles their ideal body (i.e., the one
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 they would like to look like). A difference score between the two sets (i.e., actual and
ideal) is then used as an index of body dissatisfaction, with higher scores generally pre-
sumed to reflect more dissatisfaction. Finally, there are also measures that assess favour-
able thoughts about the body regardless of actual appearance (e.g., Body Appreciation
Scale; Avalos et al., 2005). The cognitive body image dimension has received the most
clinical and research attention.
The behavioural dimension of body image relates to the choices and actions people Behavioural dimension of
take based on the perceptions, feelings, thoughts, and cognitions they have about their body image: Body image
dimension related to the
body size, shape, weight, and functions. These may include avoiding situations or events, choices and actions people
diverting attention away from the body by wearing loose-fitting clothing, and engaging take based on the percep-
in behaviours such as physical activity, dieting, steroid use, cosmetic surgery, and body tions, feelings, thoughts, and
cognitions they have about
checking (e.g., weight monitoring, measuring areas of ones body, pinching oneself as a
their body sizes, shapes,
measure of fatness). In focus group discussions among teenage girls, Sabiston and col- weights, and functions.
leagues (2007) reported that common behavioural strategies used to reduce experiences
of social physique anxiety included exercising, limiting calories or the consumption of
certain foods, using drugs, and employing appearance management efforts such as wearing
certain clothing or make-up. The behavioural dimension of body image is often assessed
using self-report questionnaires measuring frequency and intensity of behaviours, likeli-
hood of taking action, or body checking frequency.
Maddox engages in different behavioural strategies when he consumes protein
shakes, eats extra calories, goes to the gym multiple times a week, and considers using ste-
roids. Lexi also engages in behavioural strategies when she checks what fat she has around
her waistline. She also takes a long time to get ready for school so she can use make-up
and clothing to manage her appearance. But in contrast to Maddox, Lexi avoids physical
activity. Thus, negative body image can lead people to avoid or engage in both health and
risk behaviours, which can impact their physical and mental health.

There are multiple dimen-

sions to body image.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 377

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 377 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Body image investment:
An individuals certain
beliefs or assumptions about
the importance, meaning,
and influence of appearance
in his or her life.
378
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 378
Is Body Image Positive or Negative?
The short answer to this question is, Both. Each of the body image dimensionsaffec-
tive, cognitive, perceptual, and behaviouralcan be either positive or negative. Positively
valenced body image in any dimension may imply accurate perceptions, positive thoughts
and feelings about the body, and predominantly adaptive actions or health-promoting
behaviours. Negative body image refers to unfavourable perceptions, predominantly
negative thoughts and feelings, and maladaptive actions or health-risk behaviours driven
by body-related self-evaluations. Thus, positive and negative perspectives are essential to
consider in research and practice focused on each body image dimension.
It is important to understand, however, that low negative body image does not reflect
positive body image. Many researchers have erroneously suggested that low body dissat-
isfaction scores or absence of negative affect suggests people are satisfied and happy with
their bodies. Accordingly, few researchers have included measures of positive body image.
Thus, while we have gained a better understanding of negative body-related emotional
experiences, it has been at the expense of understanding experiences of positive body
image. Considering that positive and negative body image have different predictors and
outcomes, and can be simultaneously endorsed and reported, focusing on positive body
image will help advance body image theory, research, and practice.
Body Image Investment
Body image is highly influenced by the positive and/or negative evaluation of ones
body. However, it is also tied to how important the body is to the individual. This
body image investment dictates the overall impact of body image on related percep-
tions, emotions, cognitions, and behaviours. Specifically, body image investment
takes into account an individuals beliefs or assumptions about the importance, mean-
ing, and influence of appearance in his or her life. For example, Sam is a university
studentathlete who has a generally negative evaluation of her body, but she doesnt
really care about her body as much as about her success at school and her role on the
field hockey team. Sam would say, I dont like my body, but whateverI dont have
the time to do anything about it! Ryan is on the university hockey team. He thinks
his body looks great (positive body image) and it is really important to him. In fact,
Ryan is quite worried that next year, when he has graduated from university and is
no longer competing on the university hockey team, he will lose his toned physique.
Sam displays low body image investment, whereas Ryan depicts someone with high
body image investment.
Focused on helping overweight women improve body image, Carraa and colleagues
(2011) had women in their intervention examine their body reflections in a mirror, develop
realistic weight and body change goals, and develop realistic ideal body types based on genetics
and familial history. These strategies helped to improve body image evaluation. The body
image investment component of the sessions included a focus on decreasing the preoccupation
with appearance by helping women understand body image, explore the triggers of negative
body image, keep a diary of negative self-talk and related feelings, and examine stereotypes
and weight prejudice. The researchers also helped to illustrate the idea that there is no one
particular ideal body. Overall, the strategies helped to improve body image and highlight the
value of focusing on both body image evaluation and investment.
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 REFLECTIONS 14.1

Think about how you feel about your body. Do you have a tendancy to evaluate your body
as generally positive or negative? Does it matter to you? How valuable is your appearance
and weight to you? Now think about times in your life when this evaluation and invest-
ment might change. Consider life transitions such as when you leave university, when you
start a new job or go back for a professional degree, when you have a family, and when
you age.

Is Body Image Only Relevant to Women?

In the opening scenario, it is clear that Lexi and Maddox express body image concerns
that are rooted in the gendered notion of what the body should look like for women and
men, respectively. Historically, body image has been considered a womens issue and
many researchers have focused their attention exclusively on women. However, emerg-
ing research over the last two decades has highlighted prominent body image challenges
among men. While the bulk of research evidence demonstrates that women report more
negative body image than men, these findings may be misleading because researchers
have often used measures that do not adequately capture mens body image issues (i.e., few
questions pertain to desires to gain weight or become more muscular). As such, there are
many debates about the nature of these differences. As was clearly evident in the opening
vignette, females and males pursue different body sizes and shapes; men in Western societ-
ies tend to desire a more muscular physique and women desire a thinner physique (Smolak
& Murnen, 2008). For instance, Lexi wants to be thinner and Maddox wants to be more
muscular. If Maddox were to complete a typical body image questionnaire focused on
thinness and appearance, he would likely respond that he does not want to be thinner
or lose weight. These responses would be interpreted as him having little negative body
image. However, if he were to complete a body image questionnaire that captured atti-
tudes and behaviours relating to muscularity, Maddoxs responses would likely illustrate
his dislike for his current physique. These responses, in contrast, would be interpreted as
his having negative body image concerns.
Recognizing these different body ideals, there is much speculation about how these differ-
ences for particular body shapes and sizes emerge. It is likely that socialization processes play a
role in perpetuating gendered body ideals. Parents may foster the media-idealized body types
(i.e., thin for females, muscular for males) in their homes by allowing their children to watch
television and movies that portray these ideals. They may also do this by providing their chil-
dren with toys that support the thin and beautiful ideal for girls and muscular and athletic ideal
for boys. For instance, Barbie, Bratz, and Princess dolls (common toys among young girls) have
become taller, thinner, and more attractive over time, whereas action figures that are often
found in young boys toy boxes (i.e., GI Joe, Superman, Batman, and Spiderman) have big
chests, muscular arms and legs, and a six-pack of sculpted abdominal muscles. While these
types of fictional characters have unrealistic anatomies that are almost impossible for most
people to attain, many girls and boys grow up wanting to look like these respective body types
(Murnen, 2011). Accordingly, body image is not merely a womens issue and it is important

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 379

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 379 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Body dysmorphia:
Overexaggerated and inac-
curate perceptions of flaws
related to body parts and
characteristics.
Body dysmorphic disorder:
A recognized disorder reflect-
ing a preoccupation with an
imagined defect in appear-
ance.
Muscle dysmorphia: A
specified condition within
body dysmorphic disorder
represented by a chronic pre-
occupation with insufficient
muscularity and inadequate
muscle mass.
Some people have a
chronic preoccupation with
insufficient muscularity and
inadequate muscle mass.
380
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 380
to recognize and address body image concerns in both genders. With a better understanding of
body image among the likes of Lexi and Maddox, we can help to ensure that gender-specific
interventions are developed to assist both women and men in establishing and maintaining a
positive body image.
Body Image Pathologies
While the majority of individuals would like to change something about their body size,
shape, weight, or functions, this normative discontent is not usually indicative of a serious
body image issue. However, an individual may be extremely preoccupied with an aspect of
their appearance that is perceived to be flawed. As a result, they have negative thoughts
about their appearance and may experience clinically significant levels of distress that
impairs functioning. Body dysmorphia is used to describe overexaggerated and inaccurate
perceptions of flaws related to body parts and characteristics. Recognized as a disorder in
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), body dysmorphic
disorder is described as a preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance, which
causes severe distress and impairment in daily functioning. In sport and exercise settings,
symptoms may manifest as withdrawal from others, constant need for reassurance from
coaches or exercise staff, or extreme body checking and monitoring. Muscle dysmorphia,
a specified condition within body dysmorphic disorder, is a chronic preoccupation with
insufficient muscularity and inadequate muscle mass. Individuals presenting with muscle
dysmorphia perceive themselves as much thinner than they actually are, and experience
pressure to increase muscle mass and strength, despite possessing high muscle mass. In the
opening vignette, Maddox displays muscle dysmorphia tendencies. This condition involves
excessive attention to muscularity, distress over presenting the body to others, extreme
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 weight training, and focus on diet. Impaired function in daily life is also an outcome of these
compulsive behaviours, along with a high risk of abusing physique-enhancing supplements
and performance-enhancing drugs. Whereas males and females are generally equally likely
to present with body dysmorphia, males are more likely to experience muscle dysmorphia.
Many people suffering from body dysmorphic disorder are also diagnosed with an eat-
ing disorder. Eating disorders, which are recognized mental disorders in the DSM-5, are Eating disorders:
defined as abnormal eating habits that result in insufficient or excessive consumption of Recognized mental disorders
that are defined as abnormal
food. Commonly recognized eating disorders include bulimia nervosa (characterized by eating habits that result in
recurrent binge eating and purging through self-induced vomiting, laxative/diuretic use, insufficient or excessive con-
and/or excessive exercise), anorexia nervosa (defined by considerable food restriction sumption of food.
brought about by a refusal to maintain a healthy body weight, heightened fear of gaining
Bulimia nervosa: Mental
weight, and unrealistic perception of current body weight), and binge eating disorder disorder characterized by
(compulsive and excessive overeating without purging). Many people diagnosed with an recurrent binge eating
eating disorder often also suffer from body dysmorphic disorder. and purging through self-
induced vomiting, laxative/
diuretic use, and/or excessive
exercise.
THEORIES LINKING BODY IMAGE AND
Anorexia nervosa: Mental
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY disorder defined by consider-
Body image begins as early as preschool through socialization processes, awareness of able food restriction brought
about by a refusal to main-
attractiveness, social comparison, and exposure to body-related prompts such as dolls and tain a healthy body weight,
figurines, images, movies, and television shows. Several researchers have developed theo- heightened fear of gaining
ries to offer new insights into the development and maintenance of body image. weight, and unrealistic
perception of current body
weight.
Sociocultural Theories of Body Image Binge eating disorder:
Compulsive and excessive
Sociocultural theories are useful in understanding factors associated with body image. overeating without purging.
The importance of societal ideals and perceived pressures to conform to these ideals are
highlighted as potential sources for the development and maintenance of body image.
Specifically, social agents serve to convey social ideals, norms, and standards through
direct and interect interactions. The tripartite influence model of body image (Thompson Tripartite influence model
et al., 1999) is a popular theory found throughout the body image literature. It integrates of body image: Theory sug-
gesting that media, parents,
sociocultural factors by proposing that media, parents, and peers influence body image. and peers are key socializing
Repeated exposure to idealized and attractive images presented in the mass media agents in the development of
(i.e., television, movies, magazines, newpapers) can promote criticism of oneself rather body image.
than criticism of the models, which often leads to negative affective and cognitive body
image. For example, Dittmar and Howard (2004) showed women a series of images that
emphasized societal ideals of thinness and attractiveness or neutral stimuli not related
to appearance. They found that women felt worse about their bodies after viewing the
images depicting thinness and attractiveness than after viewing the neutral images.
Similarly, Sabiston and Munroe-Chandler (2010) demonstrated that women who were
exposed to model-focused fitness advertising reported higher social physique anxiety
than those exposed to product-focused images (i.e., athletic shoes) or neutral images.
Additionally, exposure to television and viewing of related media such as music videos
impacts body image. It is also likely that, as observed in the opening scenario, social media
such as Facebook and Instagram are emerging media outlets that support both negative
and positive body image.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 381

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 381 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Body-related envy: A
negative emotion that occurs
when a person feels they lack
another persons superior
quality and either desires to
have it or wishes the other(s)
lacked it.
382
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 382
REFLECTIONS 14.2
Think about how you use social media. Why do you use it? Do you use it to look at other
peoples pictures and profiles? Do you find yourself scrutinizing their pictures? How do you
portray yourself on your online profiles? What types of photos do you post? How often do
you change your profile picture? Now think about why you post what you do. Write down
your answers to these questions and then think about how your body image is reflected
in your use of social media.
With the introduction of Facebook over a decade ago, and related social media
outlets such as Twitter and Instagram, came a very easy and mainstream way for people
to offer real-time status updates, send emoticons (i.e., pictorial representations of their
facial expression) to communicate their feelings, and post photos. Given peoples
inherent desire to present favourably (which is called self-presentation motivation
and will be discussed later in the chapter), most have a tendency to use Facebook,
or other similar forums, to either self-loathe or self-promote by selecting to post only
favourable pictures. Some self-presentation strategies include posting the newest diet
or indulgence, revealing a weight loss struggle or achievement of the day, and clocking
the longest run to present oneself as someone who is healthy and involved in healthy
eating and exercise. Also, posting photos is usually a highly reflective act in which the
humorous and attractive images prevail. This prevalence of attractive, beautiful, every-
one at their best photos can lead those who view the photos to experience feelings of
body-related envy and shame. Envy is a negative emotion that occurs when a person
feels they lack another persons superior quality and they either desire to have it or wish
that the other(s) lacked it. In the opening story, Lexi demonstrates some emotion of
envy by wanting to look more like her Facebook friends. This is an example of body-
related envy. Maddox also displays envy in the context of his comparisons to other
teammatesespecially Jake, who is not shy about flaunting his six-pack abdominals,
V-shaped chest, and general muscle bulk.
More recently, selfies (i.e., the act of posting photos of oneself, taken by oneself)
have drawn a lot of media attention. There is some evidence that people who consistently
post selfies are at risk of negative body image. Moreover, this act can cause alienation
from others and thus negatively affect ones social relationships. Also, some people who
are preoccupied with selfies and capturing the perfect self picturethe right light,
angle, and distance from the lensmay experience body dymorphia that can negatively
impact their mental health. Research on social media and the effects on body image is in
its infancy, but the evidence is starting to show that people need to take caution in what
they share online. This type of media may have similar effects on body image compared
to the more traditional outlets, such as print and digital images in magazines and on
television.
In addition to exposure to idealized images in the mass media, peers and parents
can influence peoples cognitive, affective, and behavioural dimensions of body image.
Parents can play a key role in the development of negative body image through rejection,
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 Figure 14.1 Percentage of older adolescent females and males reporting
that their mothers, fathers, siblings, and peers give them negative com-
ments and encouragement to change their weight

50
Females
45
Males
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mothers Fathers Siblings Peers

Source: Pinsonnault-Bilodeau, G., & Sabiston, C. M. (2012). Weight-related social pressures related to perceptions of the physical
self. Abstract presented at the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology conference, Halifax, NS.

setting appearance norms and modelling behaviour, encouragement to control weight

and shape, and unsupportive behaviours such as teasing and negative verbal commentary.
Peers can also affect body image through social disapproval/rejection, teasing, and giving
body-related feedback (e.g., making comments about weight and body shape, encourag-
ing weight or body shape changes). For example, over 250 older adolescent girls and boys
aged 16 to 19 years reported on the type of weight-related pressures that they perceived
from their social networks (Pinsonnault-Bilodeau & Sabiston, 2012). As presented in
Figure 14.1, 2545% of girls and 1025% of boys reported receiving negative comments
and encouragement to change their weight from significant others. When looking at the
sources of weight-related pressures, mothers were the most prominent source of weight-
related commentary for girls, and fathers were more likely to offer negative comments
to girls than to boys. Interestingly, peers were cited as more frequently offering negative
comments to boys than to girls. In physical activity settings, coaches, exercise staff, team-
mates, other exercisers, physical educators, and spectators can all act as agents of influ-
ence on body image.

Self-Presentation
As briefly alluded to in the sections above, people tend to feel pressured to present an
image that is consistent with social norms. This can result in a desire to regulate the
impressions that others may have, and attempts to construct desirable images based on
obtaining the approval from others. For example, Brady is in an undergraduate kinesiol-
ogy program and thinks that being athletic is important and socially desirable. Every day,
he dresses as an athlete to look the parteven if he has no intention to work out on
any particular day. He engages in conversations with his classmates that always involve

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 383

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 383 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Self-presentation:
Motivation and attempts to
control how one appears to
the group; also called impres-
sion management.
Impression motivation:
How motivated individuals
are to control how they are
perceived by others.
Impression construction:
Creating an image that one
wishes to convey to others
along with the particular
strategies individuals use to
create this impression.
Self-presentation efficacy:
Reflects the perceived proba-
bility of successfully conveying
ones desired impressions to
others. Driven by self-efficacy
beliefs: self-presentational
efficacy expectancy, self-
presentational outcome expec-
tancy, and self-presentational
outcome value.
Self-presentational efficacy
expectancy: The belief that
one is capable of convey-
ing a desired impression
or performing the desired
behaviour.
Self-presentational
outcome expectancy: The
belief that the conveyed
impression and behaviours
will lead to the desired
outcome.
Self-presentational
outcome value:
Importance placed on the
outcome involving self-
presentation.
Downward social compari-
son: Comparing oneself to
individuals who are worse off
on attributes of value.
Upward social compari-
son: Comparing oneself to
others who are better off
on some attributes that are
valued.
384
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 384
physical activity, and he often exaggerates the amount of time he spends in athletics.
He certainly only shares his really long run times on Facebook, with comments such as
another great run of the week, in spite of only doing the run once. Bradys motivation
and attempts to control how he appears to the group reflect the processes of impression
management or self-presentation.
According to Leary and Kowalski (1990), self-presentation is a goal-directed pro-
cess that involves two discrete sets of processes: impression motivation and impression
construction. Impression motivation refers to how motivated individuals are to control
how they are perceived by others. In the opening vignette, both Lexi and Maddox are
highly motivated to control how others perceive and evaluate them. They are preoccu-
pied by the opinions that they think others may have of them. Impression construction
involves creating an image that one wishes to convey to others along with the particular
strategies individuals use to create this impression. Impression construction strategies
can include behaviours such as wearing athletic clothing, putting on makeup, and using
self-tanning lotions.
Since the development of this two-component model, self-presentation has been used
to explore participation in physical activity yet there is no clear story. Self-presentation
can discourage individuals from participating in physical activity if they are concerned
about their ability to convey an attractive image in front of others (Hausenblas et al.,
2004), or can motivate physical activity participation as a way of achieving the desired
image and perpetuating a more positive impression from others.
Based on work advanced by Gammage and colleagues (2004), it is also important
to understand peoples confidence in their ability to convey a desired image, the likeli-
hood that behaviours might lead to the desired impression, and the importance of the
impression. Self-presentation efficacy reflects the perceived probability of successfully
conveying ones desired impressions to others. There are three related self-efficacy beliefs:
self-presentational efficacy expectancy (i.e., the belief that one is capable of conveying
a desired impression or performing the desired behaviour), self-presentational outcome
expectancy (i.e., the belief that the conveyed impression and behaviours will lead to the
desired outcome), and self-presentational outcome value (i.e., importance placed on the
outcome).
Social Comparison Theory
According to social psychologist Leon Festinger (1954), people have a need to evalu-
ate their abilities by comparing them to those of other people. People may engage in
downward social comparison in which they compare themselves to those who are worse
off than they are on attributes of value (e.g., appearance, body shape, physical skill).
An example of downward social comparison would be a star soccer player comparing
her technique or skill to that of a junior player, or a muscular and toned avid exerciser
comparing himself to a thin man at the gym. In the opening vignette, Jake displays evi-
dence of downward social comparison by comparing his superior muscular physique to
his football teammates in the locker room. On the other hand, people may engage in
upward social comparison by comparing themselves to others who are better off than
they are on some attributes that are valued. Lexi and Maddox both engage in these types
of social comparisons. Whereas downward social comparisons often lead to positive
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 feelings, thoughts, and behaviours, there may be two possible outcomes in response to
upward social comparisons. On the one hand, this type of comparison can lead to posi-
tive outcomes whereby people react by engaging in actions to reduce the discrepancy
between themselves and their comparison candidate. For example, Ben is a 75-year-old
Master-level athlete who finished in eighth place in a race and cant help but compare
himself to Mark, who is a more toned and muscular 80-year-old who just won the race.
Ben may use this comparison to fuel longer and harder workouts to win the next com-
petition. On the other hand, the comparison may lead to negative body image. If Ben
doubted that hed ever be able to measure up to Mark, hed perhaps be inclined to feel
bad about his physical ability and not make changes to his training regimen or give up
altogether. Based on social comparison theory, men and women with a higher tendency
to make upward comparisons on body appearance and function attributes are more likely
to experience body-related envy (Pila et al., 2014). Moreover, people who have a high
tendency to compare themselves to others report greater body image dissatisfaction
regardless of the direction of comparison.

Self-Discrepancy Theory
Based on Higgins self-discrepancy theory (1987), people compare themselves to inter-
nalized standards called self-guides (i.e., internalized social standards that people strive
to obtain). There are two types of self-guides: ideal self (which reflects hopes and aspira- Ideal self: A self-reflection
tions of what people want to be) and ought self (which reflects what people think they characterized by ones hopes
and aspirations of what
should be). Accordingly, there are two types of self-discrepancies, namely an actual:ideal people want to be.
discrepancy which occurs when people perceive that their current state is discrepant from
their ideal state (e.g., I am fat but I would ideally like to be thin or I am weak but I Ought self: A self-reflection
characterized by ones hopes
would like to be strong), and an actual:ought discrepancy, which occurs when individu- and aspirations of what peo-
als perceive that their current state is discrepant from the state they feel they should be ple think they should be.
in (e.g., I am fat but I should be thin or I am weak but I should be strong). The degree
and direction of discrepancy between peoples self-views and their self-guides result in spe- Actual:ideal discrepancy:
cific affective and motivational states that, in turn, may trigger behaviours such as physi- Occurs when people perceive
cal activity aimed at decreasing the discrepancy between the self-states and self-guides. that their current states are
discrepant from their ideal
In the context of body image, the degree of actual:ideal and actual:ought discrep-
states.
ancies is believed to reflect the degree of body image dissatisfaction. Generally, greater
body weight and shape discrepancies have been linked to cognitive and affective Actual:ought discrepancy:
Occurs when individuals per-
outcomes, such as greater body dissatisfaction and body-related shame, and behavioural
ceive that their current states
outcomes, such as higher eating disorder rates and lower levels of physical activity. are discrepant from the states
For example, Sabiston and colleagues (2005) found that women who identified an they feel they should be.
actual body shape that was larger than their ideal body shape, based on figure drawings,
reported more negative body image.
The notion of self-discrepancies is likely more complicated among athletes. For
example, women involved in many sports are likely to be more muscular than what is
typically portrayed (and expected) for womens bodies. For men, the role that they play
on a team may necessitate lean physiques and their sport performance may be hindered
by muscle bulk. Thus the struggle to achieve an ideal or ought body shape and size in
the context of sport may perpetuate negative body image through heightened actual:ideal
and actual:ought self-discrepancies.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 385

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 385 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Drive for muscularity:
Reflects the pursuit of
cultural and sex explicit
muscular body shape ideals.
386
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 386
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF
NEGATIVE BODY IMAGE
We will look at several factors that are associated with the development of negative body
image, including gender, age, weight status, culture, illness, sport involvement and type,
social and physical environmental factors,
Gender
As was mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is commonly accepted that men and women
experience body image differently. For instance, women may experience greater levels
of body-related shame and guilt, body-related envy, social physique anxiety, and higher
drive for thinness compared to men. While there are various potential reasons for this,
the stronger societal emphasis placed on women to be thin and slender likely contributes
to womens body image experiences (Thompson et al., 1999). Womens life experiences
such as puberty, pregnancy, and transition into menopausecan contribute to weight
gain and increased adiposity, which can make their bodies more unlike what society dic-
tates as attractive and increase their likelihood experiencing negative body image.
Much more is known about body image in women, and to better understand body
image among men it is important to study boys and mens appearance and physical
functioning concerns. One concept that may help advance research and practice on
body image among males is the drive for muscularity (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). It
reflects the pursuit of cultural and gender-explicit muscular body shape ideals for men.
The rising interest in this construct likely reflects the increasing societal pressures for
men to be muscular, the greater imporance placed on appearance by men, and the
widespread depiction of muscular men in the media. Consistently, men have reported
higher drive for muscularity scores compared to women. As such, both women and
men can experience negative body image. There is evidence that peoples desire
to become more muscular may influence their attitudes and feelings toward their
bodies, as well as their behaviours in order to become more muscular. For example,
people experiencing more drive for muscularity report more social physique anxiety
and lower self-esteem (Brunet et al., 2010). They are also at greater risk for exces-
sive exercising, dieting, bingeing, and using performance-enhancing substance and
nutritional supplements.
Age
Body image experiences may differ across the lifespan as a result of changing physiques,
values, goals, and health circumstances, or because external factors change. For example,
adolescents and young adults may experience more negative body image because of the
increased pressure for them to look good and gain social approval. However, older adults
are not immune to negative body image. In data collected from adults across the lifespan
(see Figure 14.2), body-related shame and social physique anxiety were highest among
adults 25 to 44 years of age, followed by adults over 45 years old. Those under 25 reported
the lowest levels. Body-related guilt was also highest among adults aged 25 to 44 years.
Body-related pride was lowest among adults aged 25 to 44 years. Finally, body dissatisfac-
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 Figure 14.2 Age differences for emotions related to affective body image

Guilt

Authentic Pride

Shame
Embarrassment

Hubristic Pride
Envy

1721 2229 3039 4049 5064 65+

Age Category

source: Pila, E., Brunet, J., Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C., & Sabiston, C. M. (2013). Intrapersonal characteristics of body-related
self-conscious emotion experiences. Abstract presented at the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology
conference, Kelowna, British Columbia, October.

tion, assessed as actual:ideal weight discrepancy, was highest among adults over 45 years
of age (Pila et al., 2013). Nonetheless, several studies have also shown that affective,
cognitive, and behavioural body image factors do not differ between young and older age
groups, and that body image is fairly stable. These data demonstrate that the influence of
age on body image is complex and non-linear.

Weight Status
Little is known about the timing of an association between weight and body image.
Does weight change precede body image concerns, or does negative body image lead to
avoidance behaviours that lead to unfavourable weight change? Both of these scenarios
are possible, as is the general idea that weight and body image are independent factors.
Nonetheless, consistent evidence shows that individuals who are overweight report
more body image dissatisfaction (Latner & Wilson, 2011; Neumark-Sztainer, 2011). For
example, males and females across the lifespan who have higher body mass index (BMI),
body fat percentage, skinfold measurements, and fat mass assessed by dual-energy X-ray
absorptiometry (DEXA) report heightened body image concerns.

Culture
In most Westernized culturessuch as in Canada, the United States, Australia, and the
United Kingdompeople are often rewarded for being beautiful and youthful. Thus,
many people will engage in behaviours to enhance their appearance. People often feel
like others will approve of them if they conform to societal norms of attractiveness, yet

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 387

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 387 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 these norms are unattainable for upwards of 90% of the population. Based on this per-
spective, one would think that negative body image is most prevalent in Westernized
cultures. However, many researchers have challenged this notion by showing that body
dissatisfaction is also an issue in non-Western populations. For instance, McCabe and col-
leagues (2012) reported similar levels of body dissatisfaction across adolescents from eight
countries including Australia, Fiji, Malaysia, Tonga, Tongans in New Zealand, China,
Chile, and Greece. Moreover, there can be considerable variations within cultures, due
at least partially to the Westernization phenomenon (i.e., the extent to which people
within non-Westernized cultures adopt the Western ideals of body appearance and func-
tion). In multicultural Canada, this phenomenon is often discussed as people try to con-
form to two standardsthe Western ideals of thin or muscular that are perceived to be
endorsed for women and men in Canada, which may not align with the persons native
cultural standards that may have very different definitions of attractiveness. In Sabiston
and colleagues (2007) report on interviews with adolescents, some of the young women
discussed feeling the need to straddle two sets of body-related expectations. The young
women described trying to conform to the body ideals supported by their social surround-
ings in Canada but then being criticized by friends and family for being too thin or too
muscular when travelling to their parent countries. This straddling meant that they had a
hard time attaining one particular body standard. This idea of not fitting in was also dis-
cussed by Canadian rural Aboriginal young women (Fleming & Kowalski, 2009). These
young women discussed having different body shapes and characteristics than any of their
peers in the community and feeling that they were constantly being evaluated. In these
case studies, the Aboriginal young women also discussed the lack of culturally appropriate
role models presented in the media.

Illness
Major life events can bring changes to peoples physical characteristics, which can influ-
ence their body-related thoughts, feelings, actions, and interactions with others. Physical
illness, such as a heart attack, cancer diagnosis, or serious physical injury, can amplify
existing body image concerns or elicit new ones. The illness itself can cause debilitat-
ing symptoms, physical changes, and a loss of control over ones body which can have
a negative impact on body image. As well, the physical changes resulting from surgeries
and treatments can act as a catalyst to influence body image, especially if they are vis-
ible (e.g., scars, paralysis, amputation, or hair loss). People with a chronic illness tend to
report greater body dissatisfaction than people without chronic illnesses. However, the
pattern of change in body image throughout an illness (i.e., from diagnosis through treat-
ment) is not well understood. In spite of the negative consequences, it is also possible
that a chronic illness diagnosis encourages people to reevaluate their lives such that the
importance of body image decreases as they come to value health and well-being more
than appearance. This was evident in interviews with breast cancer survivors. Brunet
and colleagues (2013) found that cancer allowed some women to value non-appearance
aspects of their bodies and develop self-acceptance and self-realization. Even so, they
noted that women continued to experience dissatisfaction with their bodies and nega-
tive emotions. In light of these findings, it is important that body image concerns be
addressed early on in the illness trajectory, as this may help protect people from negative
body image experiences.

388 Sabiston, Brunet

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 388 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 REFLECTIONS 14.3

Are your perceptions of other people based on body-related attributes? Do you think you
have biases based on gender? age? culture? weight? Think about how your views of your
body shape and physical appearance and your perceptions of others may influence or
bias the work you will do as a coach, trainer, kinesiologist, physical education teacher, or
medical professional.

Sport Involvement and Type

There is a general trend that individuals involved in physical activity tend to report lower
negative affective and cognitive body image compared to inactive individuals. Athletes,
for example, are at heightened risk for developing eating disorders and engaging in risky
behaviours to control their weight. This is likely because they face additional weight-
related pressures from coaches and teammates. Moreover, they may compare themselves
with teammates (as Maddox does in the vignette), may have to meet a certain weight
requirement, and may be judged on their appearance. Boone and Leadbeater (2006)
reported that lower body dissatisfaction was associated with team sport participation
among adolescent boys and girls. There also appear to be differences when looking across
types of sports. Athletes participating in aesthetic and subjectively rated sports (such as
figure skating, gymnastics, cheerleading, and some martial arts) commonly report higher
negative body-related emotions compared to athletes participating in non-aesthetic sports
(Thompson et al., 1999). This difference in body image between types of sports is likely
due to the high importance placed on aesthetics, lean body types, and evaluative judging
components in certain sports (Smolak et al., 2000). Nonetheless, Haase and Prapavessis
(2001) found no significant differences in social physique anxiety (an affective measure of
body image) experiences among female athletes involved in physique salient sport, weight
restricted sport, and non-physique salient sports, and non-athletes. There may also be dif-
ferences in the types of weight-control behaviours athletes engage in. Sports that promote
leanness may lead athletes to engage in self-induced vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting,
or diuretics to control their weight, whereas sports that promote strength may promote
bingeing and steroid use. It is clear that in both cases, these behaviours can lead to serious
health problems, and should therefore be monitored.

Social and Physical Environmental Factors

Physical evaluations and judgments, whether real or perceived, can influence body
image. Unfortunately, many physical activity environments are prone to being evalua-
tive in naturespotlighting athletes on the court or playing field, exercisers working
out at the gym, and students in physical education class having to do drills in front of
their peers for grades. Body image experiences have been compared across a variety
of social and environmental contexts. For example, Carron and Prapavessis (1997)
reported that social physique anxiety was lowest when undergraduate students reported
being around their best friends or a group of friends compared to being alone. While in

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 389

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 389 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 this case friends had a positive influence, the opposite has been observed. Brunet and
Sabiston (2011) found that adolescents reported higher social physique anxiety when
around their peers compared to their parents. This might be because of the perceived
pressure peers put on each other to alter appearance (Mack et al., 2007). Influential
features of the exercise environment also extend beyond social factors. It appears that
exercising in front of a mirror (Lamarche, Gammage, & Strong, 2009; Martin Ginis,
Jung, & Gauvin, 2003) or being exposed to videos which depict physique salient
instructors (Martin Ginis et al., 2008) can heighten experiences of social physique
anxiety. This highlights the importance of the social and physical environment in
regards to body image; however, most of the findings are focused on the affective dimen-
sion of body image.

CASE STUDY Environmental Design Considerations for Reducing

14.1 Negative Body Image
You are a kinesiologist who has been contracted to help
design a new local fitness centre targeting university stu-
dents and young professionals. How could you design a
fitness centre that attempts to avoid body-related evalu-
ations and focuses on physical and mental health promo-
tion? Consider the infrastructure as well as the rules and
regulations of the fitness centre. Draft a list of the possible
benefits and drawbacks of the design you have proposed.

BODY IMAGE OUTCOMES

Body image can have far-ranging effects on health and well-being, influencing physical
activity, health-compromising behaviours, mental health, and cardiometabolic risk factors.

Physical Activity
It is thought that body image can serve two functions: (1) motivate self-protection and
avoidance/withdrawal from physical activity behaviour, or (2) motivate physical activity
behaviour as a means of self-enhancement. Consequently, many Canadian researchers
have adopted motivational theories to understand the relationship between negative
body image and physical activity. These developments have shown that negative affective
(e.g., social physique anxiety, envy, shame, guilt) and cognitive (e.g., actual:ideal discrep-
ancies) body image factors are related to controlling forms of physical activity motivation,
which are associated with lower levels of physical activity behaviour (Brunet et al., 2012;
Pila et al., 2014). Together, these efforts have advanced conceptual frameworks linking
the body image and physical activity behaviour.
Historically, the emphasis has been on understanding negative body image and the
relationship to health behaviours such as physical activity. However, there is evidence
that positive body image is also tied to physical activity. Specifically, body-related
pride has been linked to more self-determined forms of motivation and higher levels of
physical activity behaviour (Castonguay et al., 2013; Sabiston et al., 2010). However,
narratives (i.e., stories related to personal experiences) written by men and women

390 Sabiston, Brunet

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 390 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Body image may motivate
some individuals to engage
in exercise.

reveal that hubristic pride may also reduce the likelihood of participating in physical
activity because individuals with these grandiose feelings of their bodies feel there is
no need to exercise (Castonguay et al., 2013). Nonetheless, the narratives also pre-
sented evidence that authentic pride was associated with engagement and persistence in
physical activity. These findings show the importance of distinguishing between types
of body-related pride.
In addition, there has been some research taking a stress and coping perspective
to understanding the association between body image and physical activity. Findings
generally support the notion that negative body image affect (predominantly studied
as social physique anxiety) can motivate engagement in or avoidance of physical activ-
ity among adolescents. For example, Kowalski and colleagues (2006) reported that the
most frequently used coping strategy to manage social physique anxiety was behavioural
avoidance (i.e., keeping away from a stressor such as physical activity environments).
Other common coping strategies included appearance management (e.g., make-up, cloth-
ing), social support (e.g., seeking support from friends and family), cognitive avoidance
(e.g., trying to avoid thoughts related to social physique anxiety), and acceptance
(i.e., accepting the situation).

Health-Compromising Behaviours
In addition to the increased likelihood of eating disorders among individuals with
high negative body image, a range of other health-compromising behaviours may
occur. For example, individuals with high negative body image tend to want and get
more cosmetic surgery (Magee, 2012; Sarwer & Spitzer, 2012). These individuals may
take up smoking cigarettes or start abusing substances like alcohol and drugs if they

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 391

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 391 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Cortisol: A stress hormone.
392
M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 392
believe this will help them manage their weight. Sexual function is commonly stud-
ied among people with negative body image. There are some reports of earlier sexual
encounters for youth with negative body image, or avoidance of sexual behaviours.
Individuals across the lifespan also report greater sexual problems and sexual dissat-
isfaction associated with negative body image (Wiederman, 2011). Furthermore, it
is likely not surprising that individuals with high negative body image are also more
likely to diet and follow unhealthy eating regimes (Grogan, 2008). While many will
avoid physical activity, some engage in excessive exercisea maladaptive strategy
people use to try to improve their body shape, weight, and function. Additionally,
males (more so than females) with more negative body images are likely to have
higher levels of binge drinking and to use drugs such as steroids (Grogan, 2008; Yager
& ODea, 2014). This list is not exhaustive but illustrates the dangers that may be
involved with negative body image.
Mental Health
Negative body image has been associated with mental health factors such as higher levels
of depressive symptoms. For example, McCreary and Sasse (2000) found that higher drive
for muscularity was associated with higher depression in adolescent boys and girls. Social
physique anxiety has also been positively associated with depression symptoms (Martin
Ginis et al., 2012). Among adolescent girls in Quebec, Chaiton et al. (2009) documented
that weight was indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through its influence on
pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction. Moreover, the authors reported that body
dissatisfaction was associated with depressive symptoms for boys. These studies conducted
by Canadian researchers provide evidence for the potential detrimental mental health
effects of negative body image. Given that depression is a significant public health burden
that is increasing at alarming rates, the importance of promoting positive body image and
decreasing negative body image cannot be overstated.
Cardiometabolic Risk Factors
Body image may affect ones physical health by working in a similar manner to a stress
response. For example, heightened chronic stress is related to increased cortisol and
immune markers in the body, which have been linked to poor health outcomes such
as cardiovascular disease, weight problems, and depression. If we look back to Lexi,
the young woman in the vignette, we can see that her negative body image likely
creates considerable stress. This stress may be manifested as heightened cortisol, and
over time this may affect her physical health. Martin Ginis and colleagues (2012)
looked at whether physique evaluative threat, akin to negative body image affect, is
related to biological stress (measured as a cortisol response in saliva). Women who
were asked to try on highly revealing attire while also being told that someone was
judging them (i.e., high physique threat) demonstrated an activated cortisol response.
Furthermore, Sabiston and colleagues (2009) found that body dissatisfaction was
related to a heightened immune marker (measured as C-reactive protein) in adoles-
cents. These studies are early evidence of a possible link between body image, stress,
and physical health.
Sabiston, Brunet
1/21/15 3:22 PM
 Negative body image is
associated with a number
of mental and physical
health symptoms.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR HEALTH

PROFESSIONALS, COACHES, AND PHYSICAL
EDUCATORS
Shifting the focus away from body appearance and function is not always feasible in sport,
exercise, and physical education settings. Nonetheless, creating supportive environments
that limit judgments and evaluations of the body can help reduce negative body image.
Furthermore, creating situations that allow for the appreciation of ones unique body and
feelings of pride can help enhance positive body image.
The adverse consequences of negative body image discussed in this chapter under-
score the importance of enhancing peoples body image across the lifespan. Intervention
strategies aimed at increasing peoples skills for effectively managing appearance-related
social pressures may help reduce negative body image. Moreover, developing interven-
tions that involve parents and peers might help to promote positive body image social
norms. Given the consistent connection between mass media (e.g., television, movies,
childrens books, magazines) and body image, intervention strategies centred on dispel-
ling the body ideals for men and women are needed. This could involve teaching people
to limit their exposure to idealized images, and increasing awareness of the processing that

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 393

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 393 1/21/15 3:22 PM


Cognitive dissonance
training: A program involv-
ing arguing against body
ideals in a way that is incon-
gruent with their personal
beliefs.
occurs on a model photo. In the last few years, many worldwide initiatives have focused
on transparency around airbrushing of models portrayed in the media. Israel is among the
first countries to adopt a Photoshop Law mandating that any modifications to a photo
must be disclosed. Researchers and practitioners in other countries are also calling for
similar mandates to be endorsed as a way of reducing body image dissatisfaction. A quick
Google search will show you how important this topic is for todays society. There are also
hundreds of YouTube videos demonstrating the benefits of digital photo manipulation
and the extent of modifications that can be done to a male or female model.
There is some evidence of body image programs being used in secondary schools among
primarily younger adolescent girls. In a review of 16 universal, classroom-based body image
programs focused on media literacy and peer influences, Yager and colleagues (2013) found
that body image improved in some ways but no program was effective at targeting body image
equally among boys and girls. The programs were also most beneficial to younger adolescents
aged 12 and 13 years. The pressures that students face to achieve and maintain a certain type
of body type are considerable, and more efforts are needed to create positive environments.
In an untested but emerging strategy, some summer camps have adopted no body
talk rules. At some camps, reminders are posted around the social areas that comments
about ones physical appearance are to be replaced with comments on ones general spirit
or well-being. At other camps, the mirrors are completely covered up to avoid body
checking behaviours altogether. Other general strategies that have been implemented
include setting a lower limit to the BMI of models in beauty pageants and in media. There
is also a Love Yourself Challenge Badge from the Girl Guides organization offering girls
aged 518 years the opportunity to complete positive body image tasks (e.g., creating
crafts that highlight and celebrate differences, posting body thoughts on forums, develop-
ing art, and writing letters) to earn the badge.
Another intervention perspective is called cognitive dissonance training and involves
individuals arguing against the body ideals in a way that is incongruent with their personal
beliefs. For example, programs might involve individuals voluntarily speaking and writing
critiques against the ideal even if they themselves internalize the ideal. The activities are
thought to produce discomfort that motivates paticipants to reduce their own pursuit of
the ideal, which subsequently decreases negative body image. The benefit of cognitive dis-
sonance training is that that it does not require delivery by a trained psychologist. As such,
coaches and teachers could use this approach to helping to reduce negative body image.

CASE STUDY Body Image Interventions for Sport and

14.2 Physical Education
Aiden was just hired as a grade 7 boys physical education
teacher at a school in southwestern Ontario. He is also the
coach of the schools girls volleyball team. Growing up,
Aiden watched many of his friends enjoy sport early on and
then drop out when they all reached high school. Now that
he has gone through school himself, he knows that the
dropout happened around the time puberty hit and nega-
tive body images became prevalent. Since he feels that he
works with kids at a critical developmental time, he wants
to address body image with his physical education students
and his sports team. Given what you have read about inter-
ventions throughout this chapter, what key strategies do
you think Aiden should include in sessions on body image?
Are the strategies different when he is targeting his boys in
physical education class compared to his girls in volleyball?

394 Sabiston, Brunet

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 394 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Furthermore, cognitivebehavioural therapy (CBT) has demonstrated the most Cognitivebehavioural
effectiveness at reducing negative body image. Specifically, cognitivebehavioural therapy: Problem-based and
action oriented approach
therapy is a problem-based and action oriented approach used to address dysfunctional used to address dysfunctional
emotions and maladaptive behaviours and cognitions. Strategies, which are delivered by emotions, and maladaptive
trained therapists, can include psychoeducation, biofeedback, desensitization, and cogni- behaviours and cognitions.
tive dissonance. Given the nature of CBT, it is less practical to implement in sport and
physical education settings.
Final considerations for interventions may be to alter the social and physical envi-
ronment in physical activity settings. Changing the environment may help reduce the
frequency of negative body-related experiences given that the attire generally worn
(e.g., uniforms in physical education class or on sports teams), opportunities for attrac-
tiveness comparisons and seeing own reflections in mirrors, pressure to show competency,
and presence of opposite sex peers are common factors linked to negative body image. It
is important to attend to the contextual factors that may increase negative body image
experiences and implement strategies to help diminish the possibility of these experiences
on the court, in the field, or in the gym.

COMMON MYTHS ABOUT BODY IMAGE IN SPORT

AND EXERCISE REVISITED
MYTH: Negative body image is the opposite of positive body image.
As illustrated in this chapter, you cannot say that an individual reporting low on
negative body image will automatically report high levels of positive body image.
Positive body image has been studied far less frequently, and is measured differently,
than negative body image. For example, positive body image is assessed as body
appreciation, pride, and engaging in healthy behaviours, whereas negative body
image is often assessed as body dissatisfaction, discrepancies, and emotions such as
social physique anxiety, shame, and guilt.

MYTH: A person with a negative body image is also said to have an eating disorder.
A person with negative body image characterized by dissatisfaction, high discrepancy
between actual and ideal selves, low physical self-worth, and/or negative emotions
such as shame and guilt may be at higher risk for an eating disorder, but the two terms
are not synomymous. Upwards of 8090% of youth and adults report some degree of
negative body image, whereas 1015% of these individuals may suffer from an eating
disorder.

MYTH: Males dont have body image issues.

Based on the research evidence to date, negative body image has been found among
women more so than men. However, with the advances in body image measurement
appropriate for males, it is clear that males are also likely to experience negative body
image. Most of the body image concerns among women stem from desires to be thinner
and more attractive, whereas the concerns for men are focused on desires for more
muscularity and strength. Regardless of the underlying reasons, women and men are
likely to report both positive and negative body image.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 395

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 395 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 MYTH: People with negative body image will always avoid physical activity,
whereas people with positive body image will engage in physical activity.
As discussed throughout this chapter, body image is related to physical activity in a
number of ways. Negative body image may lead to reduced physical activity levels
because people may avoid social environments where the body can be judged and
evaluated, and situations in which they do not feel competent. Alternatively, nega-
tive body image may motivate individuals to engage in physical activity in an attempt
to change their current circumstance (e.g., lose weight, gain muscle, etc.). Although
preliminary, there is also evidence that positive affective body image, such as pride,
may also enhance or reduce the likelihood of physical activity participation.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, the historical foundations of body image have been presented. Several of
the body image dimensions were evident over 100 years ago but have only recently been
defined and studied. The multidimensional nature of body image has been identified, along
with examples of measures used to capture each of the affective, cognitive, perceptual, and
behavioural dimensions. Common theories used to understand the development of body
image, as well as outcomes related to body image, are discussed. Overall, reseachers have used
several approaches (e.g., motivation, stress, and coping) to study the association between
body image and physical activity outcomes. Prominent factors studied in the development
of negative body image include gender, age, weight status, culture, illness, sport type, and
social and environmental factors. Also, the association between body image, mental health,
and cardiometabolic outcomes such as stress and immune function biomarkers have been
shown in preliminary studies. Finally, there are many practical strategies that could be used
to help reduce negative body image and/or enhance positive body image in sport and exer-
cise settings. With these strategies in practice, individuals like Lexi and Maddox might be
able to change their perspectives on their bodies and enhance their respective well-being.

Review Questions
1. What are the four dimensions of body image described in this chapter? Give one example
of how you would measure each dimension.
2. Describe the theories of body image that have been used in research linking body image
and physical activity.
3. What are some of the factors that can influence the development of body image?

Additional Readings
Cash, T. F. (2012). Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance. London, UK: Elsevier.
Crombie, P.-A., Brunet, J., & Sabiston, C. M. (2011). Stop staring! Proposed strategies to reduce
body image concerns in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance,
82, 3943.

396 Sabiston, Brunet

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 396 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Edwards, C., Tod, D., & Molnar, G. (2014). A systematic review of the drive for muscularity
research area. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7, 1841.
Sabiston, C. M., Pila, E., Pinsonnault-Bilodeau, G., & Cox, A. (2014). Social physique anxiety
experiences in sport and exercise: An integrative review. International Review of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 7, 158183.

References
Avalos, L., Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. (2005). The Body Appreciation Scale: Development
and psychometric evaluation. Body Image, 2, 285297.
Boone, E. M., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2006). Game on: Reducing risks for depressive symptoms in early
adolescence through positive involvement in team sports. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16,
7990.
Brunet, J., Burke, S., & Sabiston, C. M. (2013). Surviving breast cancer: Womens experiences with
their bodies. Body Image, 10, 344351.
Brunet, J., & Sabiston, C. M. (2011). In the company we keep: Do experiences of social physique
anxiety differ around parents and peers? Journal of Health Psychology, 16, 4249.
Brunet, J., Sabiston, C. M., Castonguay, A., Ferguson, L., & Bessette, N. (2012). The association
between physical self-discrepancies and womens physical activity: The mediating role of moti-
vation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34, 102134.
Brunet, J., Sabiston, C. M., Dorsch, K. D., & McCreary, D. R. (2010). Exploring a model linking
social physique anxiety, drive for muscularity, drive for thinness and self-esteem among adoles-
cent boys and girls. Body Image, 7, 137142.
Carraa, E. V., Silva, M. N., Markland, D., Vieira, P. N., Minderico, C. S., Sardinha, L. B., &
Teixeira, P. J. (2011). Body image change and improved eating self-regulation in a weight man-
agement intervention in women. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,
18(18), 75.
Carron, A. V., & Prapavessis, H. (1997). Self-presentation and group influence. Small Group
Research, 28, 500516.
Castonguay, A., Gilchrist, J., Mack, D. E., & Sabiston, C. M. (2013). Body-related pride in young
adults: An exploration of the triggers, contexts, outcomes, and attributions. Body Image: An
International Journal, 9, 335343.
Chaiton, M., Sabiston, C. M., OLoughlin, J., McGrath, J., Maximova, K., & Lambert, M. (2009).
A structural equation model relating adiposity, psychosocial indicators of body image, and
depressive symptoms among adolescents. International Journal of Obesity, 33, 588596.
Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004) Thin-ideal internalization and social comparison tendency as
moderators of media models impact on womens body-focused anxiety. Journal of Social and
Clinical Psychology, 23, 768791.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117140.
Fleming, T.-L., & Kowalski, K. C. (2009). Body-related experiences of rural Aboriginal women.
Journal of Aboriginal Health, 4, 4451.
Gammage, K. L., Hall, C. R., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2004). Self-presentation in exercise contexts:
Differences between high and low frequency exercisers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34,
16381651.
Grogan, S. (2008). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children. New
York: Routledge.
Haase, A., & Prapavessis, H. (2001). Social physique anxiety and eating attitudes in female athletic
and non-athletic groups. Journal of Medicine and Science in Sport, 4, 396405.
Hart, E. A., Leary, M. R., & Rejeski, W. J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11, 94104.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 397

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 397 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Hausenblas, H., Brewer, B., & Van Raalte, J. L. (2004). Self-presentation and exercise. Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 318.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94,
319340.
Kowalski, K. C., Mack, D. E., Crocker, P. R. E., Niefer, C. B., & Fleming, T.-L. (2006). Coping with
social physique anxiety in adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 275279.
Lamarche, L., Gammage, K. L., & Strong, H. A. (2009). The effect of mirrored environments on
self-presentational efficacy and social anxiety in women in a step aerobics class. Psychology of
Sport and Exercise, 10, 6771.
Latner, J. D., & Wilson, R. E. (2011). Obesity and body image in adulthood. In T. Cash &
L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 189197).
New York: Guilford.
Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-
component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 3447.
Mack, D. E., Strong, H. A., Kowalski, K. C., & Crocker, P. R. E. (2007). Does friendship matter?
An examination of social physique anxiety in adolescence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
37, 12481264.
Magee, L. (2012). Cosmetic surgical and non-surgical procedures for the face. In Thomas
Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (pp. 350359). London, UK:
Academic.
Martin Ginis, K. A., Jung, M. E., & Gauvin, L. (2003). To see or not to see: Effects of exercising in
mirrored environments on sedentary womens feeling states and self-efficacy. Health Psychology,
22, 354361.
Martin Ginis, K. A., Prapavessis, H., & Haase, A. M. (2008). The effects of physique-salient and
physique non-salient exercise videos on womens body image, self-presentational concerns, and
exercise motivation. Body Image, 5, 164172.
Martin Ginis, K. A., Strong, H. A., Arent, S. M., & Bray, S. R. (2012). The effects of threatened
social evaluation of the physique on cortisol activity. Psychology and Health, 27, 9901007.
McCabe, M. P., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., Mellor, D., Ricciardelli, L., Skouteris, H., & Mussap,
A. (2012). Body satisfaction among adolescents in eight different countries. Journal of Health
Psychology, 17, 693701.
McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent
boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48(6), 297304.
Murnen, S. K. (2011). Gender and body images. In T. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.) Body image: A
handbook of science, practice, and prevention, pp. 173179. New York: Guilford.
Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2011). Obesity and body image in youth. In T. Cash & L. Smolak
(Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 180188). New York:
Guilford.
Pila, E., Brunet, J., Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C., & Sabiston, C. M. (2013). Intrapersonal
characteristics of body-related self-conscious emotion experiences. Abstract presented at the
Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology conference, Kelowna, British
Columbia, October.
Pila, E., Castonguay, A., Stamiris, A., & Sabiston, C. M. (2014). Body-related envy in sport and
exercise. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 36, 93106.
Pinsonnault-Bilodeau, G., & Sabiston, C. M. (2012). Weight-related social pressures related to
perceptions of the physical self. Abstract presented at the Canadian Society for Psychomotor
Learning and Sport Psychology conference, Halifax, NS.
Sabiston, C. M., Brunet, J., Kowalski, K. C., Wilson, P., Mack, D. E. & Crocker, P. R. E. (2010).
The role of body-related self-conscious emotions in motivating womens physical activity.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,32, 417437.

398 Sabiston, Brunet

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 398 1/21/15 3:22 PM

 Sabiston, C. M., Castonguay, A., Barnett, T., OLoughlin, J., & Lambert, M. (2009). Body image
and C-reactive protein in adolescents. International Journal of Obesity, 33, 597600. PMID:
19204727.
Sabiston, C. M., & Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2010). Effects of fitness advertising on weight and body
shape satisfaction, social physique anxiety, and exercise motives. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral
Research, 14, 165180.
Sabiston, C. M., Munroe-Chandler, K. J., & Crocker, P. R. E. (2005). Examining currentideal
discrepancies and reasons for exercise as predictors of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 28, 118.
Sabiston, C. M., Sedgwick, W. A., Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C., & Stevens, D. (2007). Social
physique anxiety in adolescents: an examination of influences, coping strategies and health
behaviours. Journal of Adolescent Research. 22, 78101.
Sarwer, D. B., & Spitzer, J. C. Cosmetic surgical procedures for the body. In Thomas Cash (Ed.)
Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance, pp. 360365. London, UK: Academic.
Schilder, P. (1935). The image and appearance of the human body. Oxford, England.
Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (2008). Drive for leanness: Assessment and relationship to gender,
gender role and objectification. Body Image, 5, 251260.
Smolak, L., Murnen, S. K., & Ruble, A. E. (2000). Female athletes and eating problems: A meta-
analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 371380.
Thompson, K., Heinberg, L., Altabe, M, & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory,
assessment, method, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: APA.
Traub, A. C., and Orbach, J. (1964). Psychophysical studies of body-image I. The adjustable body-
distorting mirror. Archives of General Psychiatry, 11, 5366.
Tylka, T. (2011). Positive psychology pespectives on body image. In T. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.)
Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 5666). New York, NY: Guilford.
Wiederman, M. W. (2011). Body image and sexual functioning. In T. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.),
Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 271278). New York: Guilford.
Yager, Z., Diedrichs, P. C., Ricciardelli, L. A., & Halliwell, E. (2013). What works in secondary
schools? A systematic review of classroom-based body image programs. Body Image, 10, 271281.
Yager, Z., & ODea, J. (2014). Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and
attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: Implications for prevention programs.
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11: doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-13.

Chapter 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 399

M14_CROC3916_03_SE_C14.indd 399 1/21/15 3:22 PM