Literature Review Roles and Issues Within The Social Work Profession in England 2015

Literaturereviewofroles
andissueswithinthesocial
workprofessioninEngland
JoMoriarty
MaryBaginsky
JillManthorpe
March2015
Contents
Summary....................................................................................................................................ii
Termsofreferenceandmethods..............................................................................................1
Termsofreference.................................................................................................................1
Methods.................................................................................................................................1
Background................................................................................................................................2
LimitationsofexistingdataaboutsocialworkandsocialworkersinEngland.........................3
Definingsocialwork...................................................................................................................3
Globaldefinitionofsocialwork.............................................................................................4
Needforapublicdefinitionofsocialwork?..........................................................................5
Differentkindsofjobrolessocialworkersperform..................................................................6
Table1:Typologiesofsocialworkroles.............................................................................7
Socialworkersresponsibilitiesandtasks..................................................................................7
Table2:Socialworkersresponsibilitiesandtasks.............................................................8
Specialisation.......................................................................................................................10
Conflictsandtensionsbetweendifferentrolesandresponsibilities......................................11
Roleambiguityandroleconflict..........................................................................................12
Professionaldiscretionandtimeonadministration...............................................................13
Wheresocialworkersareemployed.......................................................................................14
Teamstructureandsupervision..............................................................................................17
Teamstructures...................................................................................................................17
Supervision...........................................................................................................................17
Workingwithotherprofessionals...........................................................................................18
Prevalenceofstress,depression,alcoholanddrugproblems................................................19
Regulation................................................................................................................................21
Changesandconcerns.............................................................................................................22
Socialworkreform...............................................................................................................22
Concerns..............................................................................................................................23
References...............................................................................................................................24

i
Summary
ThisreviewwascommissionedbytheProfessionalStandardsAuthoritytohelp
informitsworkoverseeingtheregulationofsocialworkersinEnglandand
accreditingvoluntaryregistersforcareoccupations.
Wewereaskedtoidentifywhatresearchtellsusaboutthevarietyofrolesand
contextsthatsocialworkersworkinandthemainissuesintheprofessionwith
relevancetoitsregulation.
Inordertodothis,weundertooksystematicsearchesofarangeofbibliographic
databasesandwebsitessupplementedbysearchesoftablesofcontentsinkey
journalsandcheckingthereferencelistsofrelevantarticlesinordertoidentify
materialthathadnotbeenretrievedinthesearches.
Thereviewshowedthatdefinitionsofsocialworkhavealwaysbeencontestedand
thattheactivitiesthatsocialworkersdoarestronglyinfluencedbytheexpectations
abouttheirrolethatpredominateinthecountriesandagenciesinwhichthey
practise.
Thereisanongoingdebateaboutwhatshouldbethebalancebetweensocialwork
activitiesaimedatsupportingindividualsandtheirfamilies,forexample,advocacy,
andsafeguardingactivitiesespeciallyaimedatprotectingchildrenoradultsatrisk.
Somecommentatorssuggestthatsocialworkisespeciallycharacterisedby
combiningsupportforindividualsandworkatacollectiveleveltoachievesocial
transformation.Thereisclearlysomeoverlapbetweentheactivitiesthatsocial
workersdoandthoseundertakenbyotherprofessionalsbutwedidnotidentifyany
recentresearchthatlookedatthisindetail.
Mostroutestoaqualificationinsocialworkhavebeengeneric,withmostchoosing
tospecialiseindifferentareasofpractiseafterqualifying.However,newfasttrack
qualifyingroutesareemergingwhichspecialiseineitheradultsorchildrenssocial
work.Thishasattractedsomecontroversy.
Thereisanestablishedevidencebase,mainlybutnotexclusivelyoriginatinginwork
fromoutsidetheUnitedKingdom,highlightingthenegativeeffectsofroleconflict
androleambiguity.
Thereisanextensiveevidencebaseconsistingofresearchundertakenwithinand
outsidetheUnitedKingdomhighlightinghighratesofstressandburnoutamong
socialworkers.
Theextenttowhichsocialworkerscanexerciseprofessionaldiscretionandthe
amountofadministrationtheyneedtoundertakehasbeenidentifiedascontributing
topoorretentionratesand/orburnout.
ii
Goodsupervisionisthoughttoimproveretentionratesandpreventburnoutbut
mostoftheresearchonsupervisionhasbeenundertakenoutsidetheUnited
Kingdom.
Socialworkwascomparativelylateinbecomingaregulatedprofession.Ithasbeen
suggestedthattherehasbeenmoreemphasisinreportsandinquiriesinto
identifyingproceduralerrorsoromissionsthaninclarifyingpoorpracticeandwhen
fitnesstopractiseproceduresshouldbeinvokedbutthisisanareainwhichthe
researchevidencebaseisstillcomparativelysmall.
iii
Termsofreferenceandmethods
Keypoint:Thissectionexplainsthetermsofreferenceforthisliteraturereviewandthe
methodsusedtoretrievetheitemsincluded.
Termsofreference
1.1 ThisreportwascommissionedbytheProfessionalStandardsAuthoritytohelpinform
itsworkoverseeingtheregulationofsocialworkersinEnglandandaccrediting
voluntaryregistersforcareoccupations.
1.2 Wewereaskedtoprovideinformationonthefollowing:
What is the profile of the social worker profession in England in terms of:
Abreakdownofthedifferentkindsofjobrolessocialworkersperform
Theresponsibilitiesandtasksthoserolesinvolve
Thestructureofteamssocialworkersworkwithinandthetypesandfrequency
ofsupervisionsocialworkersreceive
Whichregulatedprofessionalsandunregulatedoccupationssocialworkerswork
withorliaisewith
Thenatureofemployment(forexamplelocalauthority,otherpublicsector,
educationsector,privatesector,thirdsector,socialenterprises,selfemployed)
Whatorganisationsexistthatseektorepresent/supportsocialworkers
Theprevalenceofstress,depression,alcoholanddrugproblemsamongst
practisingsocialworkers
WhatarethemainchangesonthehorizonforthesocialworkprofessioninEngland?
Forexample,greaterintegrationbetweenhealthandsocialcare;changesinsocial
workpracticestheChildrenandFamiliesAct2014andCareAct2014willintroduce;
changestosocialworktrainingfollowingtheNareyandCroisdaleApplebyreviews
1.3 ThisreviewcomplementsresearchcommissionedconcurrentlybytheProfessional
StandardsAuthoritylookingatserviceusersviewsofsocialworkers.
Methods
1.4 Weusedascopingmethodologytoidentifymaterialforinclusioninthisreview.
Definitionsofscopingstudiesvarybuttheygenerallyinvolveaprocessofsystematic
searchingtomaprapidlythekeyconceptsunderpinningaresearchareafollowedby
chartingandsortingtheinformationretrievedaccordingtokeyissuesandthemes.
Theensuingreviewcanbeusedtoidentifygapsintheresearchaswellaswhatis
knownaboutaparticulartopicortopics(ArkseyandO'Malley,2005;Levacetal.,
2010;MoriartyandManthorpe2014).
1
1.5 Wesearchedthefollowingelectronicbibliographicdatabasesusingacombinationof
fixedtermsfromtheirthesauriandfreetextsearchesforeachofthekeytopicareas
coveredinthisreview(roles,responsibilities,interprofessionalworking,employment,
teamstructure,supervision,stress,burnout,andqualifyingeducation):SocialCare
Online,SocialWorkAbstracts,SociologicalAbstracts,InternationalBibliographyofthe
SocialSciences,PsycINFO,EducationAbstracts,CINAHL,Zetoc,HMIC,andWebof
Science.
1.6 Wealsoundertooksearchesofthefollowingwebsitesthatweconsideredtobe
particularlyimportantintermsofrelevantinformation:BritishLibrarySocialWelfare
Portal;SocialCareInstituteforExcellence;HealthandCareProfessionsCouncil;
DepartmentofHealth;DepartmentforEducation;SkillsforCare;BritishAssociation
ofSocialWorkers;ProfessionalStandardsAuthority;andTheCollegeofSocialWork.
Wealsomadegeneralinternetsearches,includingGoogleScholar.
1.7 WehandsearchedthetableofcontentsofBritishJournalofSocialWork,Journalof
InterprofessionalCare,andChildandFamilySocialWorkforthepreviousfiveyears
andreferenceharvestedthebibliographiesinkeyjournalarticlesandreportsto
identifyotherrelevantmaterialthathadnotcomeupinthedatabaseorwebsite
searches.
1.8 Wesetalimitonmaterialpublishedbetween2000andthepresent.Overall,we
identifiedover2000itemsaspotentiallyrelevant,includingduplicates.After
eliminatingmostoftheseonthebasisofthetitleandabstract,weselectedjustover
300itemsforfulltextretrieval.Wedidnotrestrictoursearchestoresearch
undertakeninEnglandbutwehavespecificallyhighlightedwheretheregulatoryand
policycontextdiffersfromthatinEngland.
Background
Keypoint:TheoriginsofmodernprofessionalsocialworkinEnglanddatebacktothe19th
centurybutitwasonlyintheearly21stcenturythatitbecamearegulatedprofession.
2.1 Therearecurrently91,001socialworkersinEnglandregisteredwiththeHealth&Care
ProfessionsCouncil(HCPC)(Health&CareProfessionsCouncil2014b).Thismakesita
comparativelysmallprofessioncomparedwithteachingornursingbutbyfarthe
largestregulatedbytheHCPC.1
2.2 AlthoughtheoriginsofmodernprofessionalsocialworkintheUnitedKingdom(UK)
aregenerallydatedbacktoinitiativesinthelate19thcenturyaimedatimprovingthe
livingconditionsofpeopleadverselyaffectedbytherapidsocialchangesresulting
frommassindustrialisation(Manthorpe2002,Payne2005b,Davis2008),itwasonly
inthe21stcenturythatitbecamearegulatedprofession.Thisfollowedadecisionby
thepreviousLabourgovernmenttosetupCareCouncilsineachUKconstituent
1
Therewere438,000fulltimeequivalent(FTE)teachersinlocalauthoritymaintainedschoolsandacademies
inEnglandin2011(DepartmentforEducation2012).In2014630,000nurseswereregisteredwiththeNursing
andMidwiferyCouncil,whichhasaUKremit(Nursing&MidwiferyCouncil2014).Bycontrast,theequivalent
numberofoccupationaltherapistsis35,273(Health&CareProfessionsCouncil2014a).
2
countrywithresponsibilityforregisteringsocialworkers(andotherkeysocialcare
professionals,suchascarehomemanagers,inScotland,NorthernIrelandandWales.)
Thereasonforestablishingseparateregulatorybodiesisthatsocialcareisadevolved
matter.
2.3 CompulsoryregistrationforpeoplewishingtopractiseassocialworkersinEngland
beganinApril2003(GeneralSocialCareCouncil2012).Thesamelegislationmade
socialworkeraprotectedtitle,bringingsocialworkintolinewithotherregulated
professions.
2.4 Priortothis,althoughmuchofthesectorhadlongbeeninfavourofaregulatory
councilandregistration(OrmeandRennie2006)andvariousexamplesexistedof
voluntaryregistrationforsocialworkersinhospitalormentalhealthsettings,earlier
attemptstosetupaunifiedregistrationschemehadprovedtobeeitherunworkable
(McLaughlin2007)orwereactivelyresistedbysomeaselitist(Payne2002).
LimitationsofexistingdataaboutsocialworkandsocialworkersinEngland
3.1 Historically,thequalityofinformationaboutsocialworkersinEnglandhasbeen
mixed,partlybecausesocialworkersareemployedacrossmultipleorganisationsand
inmultiplesettingsandpartlybecausetheavailabledatahavenotalwaysbeen
collectedconsistently,makingitdifficulttodrawcomparisons.
3.2 Althoughtherehavebeenattemptstoimprovethequalityandavailabilityofdataon
thesocialworkworkforce(forexample,DepartmentforEducation2014a,Health&
SocialCareInformationCentre2014),thepictureremainsuneven.Inparticular,
thereismoreinformationontheworkofchildrenssocialworkersemployedinlocal
councilsthanaboutsocialworkersinotherroles.Bycontrast,ithasbeenargued(for
example,LymberyandPostle2010,Rayetal.2014)thatsuccessivegovernment
policieshaveneglectedthepotentialofsocialworkwithadultssothereis
comparativelylittleinformationaboutthisareaofwork.
3.3 AnotherreasonforthegapsinthesocialworkresearchevidencebaseinEngland
relatestoconstraintshamperingthedevelopmentofsocialworkresearchinUK
universities(ShawandNorton2007,OrmeandPowell2008,Sharland2012,Moriarty
etal.2014b).Oncemore,thereisproportionallymoreresearchaboutsocialwork
withchildrenandfamiliesthanotherareasofpractice(ShawandNorton2007).
OthertopicsaboutwhichthereisconsiderablenonUKresearch,suchassocialwork
inhealthcaresettings(Altpeteretal.2005,Fieldsetal.2012,CraigandMuskat2013),
remaincomparativelyunderexplored.
Definingsocialwork
Keypoints:Definitionsofsocialworkarecontestedandevolving;whilethetasksthatsocial
workersundertakevaryacrossdifferentcountriesanddifferenttypesofwelfareregime.A
recentlyagreedglobaldefinitionofsocialworkseekstocapturethevaluesofsocialwork,its
knowledgebase,andpracticemethodologies.
3
4.1 Intheirliteraturereviewoftheroleofthesocialworkerinthe21stcenturyforthe
ScottishGovernment(thenScottishExecutive),Asquithandcolleaguessuggestedthat
itwasimportanttobeginwiththequestionWhatissocialwork?Otherwise,they
argued:
itiswellnighimpossibletodeterminewhattheroleofthesocialworker
mightbe;whatskillsandexpertisesocialworkersshouldhave;whattraining
andeducationisappropriateforsocialworkers;andwhatitisthat
distinguishessocialworkfromotherprofessions.
(2005:10)
4.2 However,astheyandothers(Asquithetal.2005,Blewettetal.,McLaughlin2008,
Cree2011,Staniforthetal.2011,Jones2014,MackayandZufferey2014)have
observed,ithasprovedhardertoreachaconsensusaboutwhatsocialworkisand
whatsocialworkersdo.AsCree(1995:153)haswritten,historyshowsthatsocial
workhasalwaysbeenupforgrabs;itstaskandfuturedirectionbynomeansself
evident.
4.3 Thereareseveralreasonswhydefiningsocialworkhasprovedbothcomplexand
controversial.Adistinctionisoftenmadebetweenbroaderdefinitionsofsocialwork
asanactivityandnarroweronesofsocialworkasaprofessionaloccupation(Payne
1996,citedinAskelandandPayne2001).Inaddition,socialworkersrolesand
responsibilitieshavebeengreatlyinfluencedbythewelfareregimeinwhichtheyare
located.OutsidetheUK,andparticularlyintheGlobalSouth,definitionsofsocial
worktendtobebroaderandincludemorecommunityorientatedactivities(Hugman
2009).Furthermore,theviewsofpoliticians,themedia,serviceusersandcarers,
practitioners,employers,andeducatorsaboutwhatismeantbysocialworkmaynot
coincide(AskelandandPayne2001).Finally,thechangingnatureofsocialworkinthe
21stcenturymeansthatdefinitionsofsocialworkwillalsobedynamicandevolving
(Hare2004).
4.4 Takentogether,thesefactorsmeanthatsocialworkpracticeisstronglyinfluencedby
theexpectationsoftheroleineachcountryandagencyinwhichtheypractise
(Baginsky2014b).
Globaldefinitionofsocialwork
4.5 In2014,thetwobodiesrepresentinginternationalsocialworktheInternational
FederationofSocialWorkers(IFSW)andtheInternationalAssociationofSchoolsof
SocialWork(IASSW)agreedthefollowingglobaldefinition:
Socialworkisapracticebasedprofessionandanacademicdisciplinethat
promotessocialchangeanddevelopment,socialcohesion,andthe
empowermentandliberationofpeople.Principlesofsocialjustice,human
rights,collectiveresponsibilityandrespectfordiversitiesarecentraltosocial
work.Underpinnedbytheoriesofsocialwork,socialsciences,humanitiesand
indigenousknowledge,socialworkengagespeopleandstructurestoaddress
lifechallengesandenhancewellbeing.
4
(InternationalFederationofSocialWorkers2014)
4.6 Itaimstocapturethevaluesofsocialwork,itsknowledgebaseandpractice
methodologiesandtocountercriticismsofearlierattemptstoreachaglobal
definitionwhichwereperceivedtohaveaWesternbiaswithanemphasison
individualratherthancollectiverights(Hare2004,Truell2014).
Needforapublicdefinitionofsocialwork?
4.7 However,theSocialWorkTaskForcewhichwassetupintheaftermathofthedeath
ofPeterConnelly(BabyP)toadvisetheSecretariesofStateforeducationandhealth
aboutreformstoimprovetheeffectivenessofsocialworkinEnglandhadearlier
expressedconcerns,sharedbysomeinthesector,thatthegeneralpubliclacksaclear
PlainEnglishdefinitionofwhatsocialworkis.Theyproposedthefollowingpublic
definitionofsocialwork:
Socialworkhelpsadultsandchildrentobesafesotheycancopeandtake
controloftheirlivesagain.
Socialworkersmakelifebetterforpeopleincrisiswhoarestrugglingtocope,
feelaloneandcannotsortouttheirproblemsunaided.
Howsocialworkersdothisdependsonthecircumstances.Usuallytheyworkin
partnershipwiththepeopletheyaresupportingcheckoutwhattheyneed,
findwhatwillhelpthem,buildtheirconfidence,andopendoorstoother
services.Sometimes,inextremesituationssuchaswherepeopleareatriskof
harmorindangerofhurtingothers,socialworkershavetotakestrongeraction
toprotectthemandtheyhavethelegalpowersanddutiestodothis.
Youmaythinkyoualreadydothisforyourfriendsandfamilybutsocial
workershavespecialisttraininginfullyanalysingproblemsandunmetneeds,in
howpeopledevelopandrelatetoeachother,inunderstandingthechallenging
circumstancessomepeopleface,andinhowbesttohelpthemcopeandmake
progress.Theyarequalifiedtotellwhenpeopleareindangerofbeingharmed
orharmingothersandknowwhenandhowtousetheirlegalpowersand
responsibilitiesinthesesituations.
Youmaythinkthatyoullneverneedasocialworkerbutthereisawiderange
ofsituationswhereyouoryourfamilymightneedone,suchas:
caringforfamilymembers;
havingproblemswithfamilyrelationshipsandconflict;
strugglingwiththechallengesofgrowingold;
sufferingseriouspersonaltroublesandmentaldistress;
havingdrugandalcoholproblems;
5
facingdifficultiesasaresultofdisability;
beingisolatedwithinthecommunity;or
havingpracticalproblemswithmoneyorhousing.
(SocialWorkTaskForce2009b:10)
Differentkindsofjobrolessocialworkersperform
Keypoints:Socialworkersperformmultiplejobroles,sparkingdebatesaboutwhichshould
bethemostimportant.Theiractivitiesareoftenseenasoperatingonacontinuum
betweencareandcontrolbutsomecommentatorshavearguedthattheincreasing
emphasisinEnglandonsocialworkersrolesinsafeguardingchildrenandadultsthoughtto
beatriskmeansthatthereisnowmoreemphasisonthelatterthantheformer.
5.1 Socialworkersundertakeanumberofroles.Themostrecentattempttodescribe
themhasbeenbyTheCollegeofSocialWork(TCSW),anindependentorganisation
thataimstoupholdprofessionalstandardsforsocialworkandpromotethe
profession.IthasissuedanAdviceNote,developedinconsultationwithsocial
workers,employers,andotherprofessionals,designedtoprovideclarityaboutwhat
socialworkersdo.Thisdocumentdescribesthesocialworkroleasfollows:
A. Socialworkersuseadistinctiverangeoflegalandsocialworkknowledgeand
skillstohelppeopletomakechangesintheirlivesandgettheoutcomes
needed;
B. Theyareuniquelyskilledinaccessingawiderangeofpracticalandemotional
supportandservicestomeetindividualsneedsandaspirations;
C. Theyareacollaborativeprofession,workingalongsideotherprofessionalsbut
takingtheleadinhelpingchildren,adultsandfamiliesimproveandgaincontrol
oftheirliveswhentheirsafetyorabilitytoparticipateintheircommunitiesis
restricted;
D. Theyhavealeadroleinsafeguardingpeoplewhomaybesociallyexcluded,at
riskofabuseorneglect,orwhobecomevulnerableforotherreasons.They
balancesupportandprotection/safeguardingrolescarefullyandinkeepingwith
thespecificneedsandcircumstancesofthepersonorfamily,takingprotective
actionasneededandwithinthecontextoflegalrolesandframeworks;
E. Theyareeducatedandtrainedtoengagewithpeoplewhoseage,mental
incapacityorillhealthconstrainstheirabilitytoprotectthemselvesorothers;
F. Inadultsocialcaretheyendorseandactinaccordancewiththeprinciplesof
personalisation,ensuringthatcareandsupportarepersoncentredandasfaras
possibleputthepeoplewithwhomtheyworkincontroloftheirlives;
6
G. Inchildrenssocialcaretheymaintainafocusonthechild,ensuringthatthe
childissafeandwell,thatfamiliesarehelpedtochangewherenecessary,and
thatrequiredoutcomesareachieved.
(TheCollegeofSocialWork2014:3)
5.2 Amongtheseroles,thethemeexpressedinpointDaboutthebalancebetween
supportandprotection/safeguardingrolesisprobablytheonethathasprovokedthe
greatestdebatewithinandoutsidetheprofession.Asthereviewofsocialworkfor
theScottishGovernment(21stCenturySocialWorkReviewGroup2006:27)
suggested,thebalancebetweencareandcontrolisperhapsthedefiningfeatureof
socialworkandprovidesadynamictensionwhichinfluencessocialworkers
workload,prioritiesandpublicperceptionsoftheirrole.
5.3 Twoapproachestodefiningtheroleofsocialworkersthathavebeenparticularly
influentialintheUKbutalsoinAustralia(MackayandZufferey2014)andNew
Zealand(Staniforthetal.2011)havebeenthoseofPayne(2005a)andDominelli
(2009)whicharesummarisedinTable1.Bothrepresentsocialworkactivitiesas
threepartsofatriangleconnectingwitheachother.AswillbediscussedinSection5,
thetransformational/emancipatoryapproachesaremoreassociatedwithcollective
orcommunitybasedresponseswhiletheremainderaremoreaboutworkwith
individualsandtheirfamilies.
Table1:Typologiesofsocialworkroles
Author Role Description(adaptedfromoriginaltext)
Payne Therapeutic Theprocessofinteractionandreflexivenessbetweenthesocialworker

(2005a:89) andclientswhichleadstoclientsgainingpowerovertheirownfeelings
orwayoflife.
Transformational Empoweringdisadvantagedandoppressedpeopletotakepartina
processofmutualcooperationandlearning.
Socialorder Meetingindividualneedsduringaperiodofdifficultysotheycanrecover
stabilityagain.
Dominelli Maintenance Aimstoimproveindividualfunctioningoradaptationtosituations.
(2009:1214) Assistanceisprovidedonthebasisofclearlydefinedcriteria.
Therapeutic Anoffshootofthemaintenanceapproachbutfocusesonwhatan
individualcandotoimprovehisorhersituationthroughtargeted
professionalinterventions.
Emancipatory Thisisassociatedwithradicalsocialworkandquestionsthecurrent
balanceofpowerinsocietyanddistributionofresources.Actionsare
aimedbothathelpingindividualsandachievingstructuralchange.
Socialworkersresponsibilitiesandtasks
6.1 BothDominelli(2009:1011)andAsquithandcolleagues(2005:18)havesummarised
someofthekeyresponsibilitiesandtasksofsocialworkers.TheCollegeofSocial
WorkAdviceNote(2014:718)hassimilarlydevelopedfiveillustrativeexamples
whereitthinkssocialworkersskillsandknowledgeareparticularlyrelevant.These
7
instancesdifferentiatebetweensituationsinwhichsocialworkerscouldorshould
makeacontributionalongsidethosemadebyotherhealthandcareprofessionalsand
thosewherelegislationorguidancestatesthatasocialworkermustbethelead
professional(forexample,alocalauthoritysocialworkerwillundertakeenquiries
underS47oftheChildrenAct1989).Eachofthesethreeapproachesissummarised
inTable2below.Theresponsibilitiesandtasksechothecontrastsbetweenindividual
andcollectivistactivitiesandthethemesofcareandcontrolmentionedearlier.
Table2:Socialworkersresponsibilitiesandtasks
Author Responsibilityor Description(adaptedfromoriginaltext)

task
(Dominelli Facilitators Enablingotherstoreachtheirobjectives

2009:1011)
Gatekeepers (Dis)allowingaccesstosocialresourcesandservices
Regulators Controllingunacceptablebehaviourstomaintainsocialorderand
minimisingserviceuserscapacitiestoharmthemselvesorothers
Upholders Upholdingpeopleshumanrightsandcitizenship
Advocates Advocatingforchange
Asquithetal Counselloror Alongstandingrolewithinsocialworkandonethatappealstothose
(2005:1819) caseworker whoseviewofsocialworkisoneinwhichhelpingorsupporting
individualsisakeycomponent.Thelossofthecaseworkorcounselling
roleisseentobeamajorissueforsocialworkasprovidedthrough
publicservices.
Advocate Thesocialworkerinthisrolecangiveassistorsupportindividualsor
groups.Theadvocacyrolestillprivilegesthenotionofaclose
relationshipbetweenclient/serviceuserandsocialworker.
Partner Thesocialworkercanalsobeviewedasapartnerof,andworkingfor,
disadvantagedordisempoweredindividualsorgroups.Thereisaclose
relationshipbetweenthesocialworkerandthosesheorheis
supporting.
Assessorofrisk Socialworkershavebeengivenamajorroleintheassessmentofneed
andofneed andriskoveranumberofclientgroups.Thereisconcernthatthismay
wellhavebeenattheexpenseofotheractivities.
Caremanager Socialworkersmaybeinvolvedinarrangingcareforclients/service
usersbutbeinvolvedinverylittledirectcontactwiththeclientswhose
caretheyareorganising.
Agentofsocial Fromaradicalperspective,socialworkcanbeseentobeaconservative
control forceinperpetuatinganunequalsocialandeconomicsystem.Inthe
broadsensethiscanrefertotherolethesocialworkermayplayin
maintainingthesocialsystemingeneral.
8
Author Responsibilityor Description(adaptedfromoriginaltext)
task
TheCollegeof Respondingto Anexamplewhereachildrenssocialworkermustbethelead

SocialWork complexneeds professionalisinassessing,reviewingandprovidehelptoachild,family
(2014:718) orcarerwithcomplexfamilyorsocialcareneeds.Anexamplewhere
socialworkerworkingwithadultsshouldbetheleadprofessionalisin
interveningandprovidinghelptoanindividualorfamilywhose
complexfamilyorsocialcareneedsorrisksindicatethattheyneed
ongoingprofessionalsupportwhichtheymightnotnormallybewilling
toacceptforexample,someonewithmentalhealthproblems
dischargedfromhospitalonaGuardianshipOrderoraCommunity
TreatmentOrder.
Effective Anexamplewhereachildrenssocialworkermustbethelead
safeguardingand professionalisincarryingoutanassessmentorinvestigationand
riskmanagement planningresponsestosafeguardachildfromabuse,neglector
exploitation.Anexamplewheresocialworkerworkingwithadults
shouldbetheleadprofessionalwouldbeinenablinganadultwhohas
beenabusedorneglectedtoimprovetheircircumstances,whereitis
unclearwhetherthepersonlacksmentalcapacitytomakedecisions,or
whereitisunclearwhethertheirdecisionsarecompromisedbythe
undueinfluenceofothers.
Addressing Anexamplewhereachildrenssocialworkermustbethelead
adversityand professionalwouldbeinhelpingdisabledchildrenandtheirfamilies
socialexclusion addressissuesarisingfromtheirimpairments,includingovercomethe
problemsofdisability,negotiatethetransitiontoadulthoodand
achieveindependentliving.Anexamplewheresocialworkerworking
withadultsshouldbetheleadprofessionalwouldbeinhelpingdisabled
adultsaddressissuesresultingfromtheirimpairments,tohavechoice
andcontrolandtoachieveindependentliving.
Promoting Anexamplewhereachildrenssocialworkershouldbethelead
independenceand professionalwouldbeinsupportingalookedafterchildoracareleaver
autonomy and,asappropriate,tohelpthemtomeettheirpotential,andprepare
forandachievegreaterindependenceandautonomy.Anexample
wheresocialworkerworkingwithadultsshouldbethelead
professionalwouldbeinactingasaBestInterestsAssessorwhenitis
proposedtodepriveapersonoftheirlibertyundertheDeprivationof
LibertySafeguards(DoLS),wherethereasonforitprincipallyderives
fromthepersonscomplexsocialcircumstances.
Anexamplewhereachildrenssocialworkermustbethelead
Preventionand
professionalwouldbeinarrangingappropriatealternativecare
earlyintervention
(including,whereindicated,apermanenthome)incollaborationwith
children,youngpeopleandtheirparentswheretheparentscannot
careforthem.Anexamplewheresocialworkerworkingwithadults
shouldbetheleadprofessionalwouldbeinarrangingappropriate
alternativecare(including,whereindicated,apermanenthome)where
theycannolongermanageintheirownhomes.Thisapplieswherethe
individualorfamilyareunabletomakesucharrangementsthemselves.
6.2 Thereisclearlysomeoverlapbetweentheseactivitiesandsomeworkundertakenby
otherprofessionalsbuttheredoesnotseemtohavebeenanyattemptintheUKto
replicatepioneeringstudiescomparingmentalhealthsocialworkersandcommunity
psychiatricnursesfromtheearly1990s(Sheppard1992,HuxleyandKerfoot1993).
9
Thesebothconcludedthatthereweresomeoverlapsbetweenthetworolesbut
thereweredifferences.However,bothstudieswereundertakeninaverydifferent
contextfromthattoday.
6.3 TheMentalHealth(ApprovedMentalHealthProfessionals)(Approval)(England)
Regulations2008createdtheroleoftheApprovedMentalHealthProfessional
(AMHP)inplaceoftheApprovedSocialWorker(ASW).Thisdecisionwasmadepartly
becauseofanationalshortageofASWsandpartlybecausemostASWshadbeen
transferredfromabaseinthelocalcounciltomultidisciplinaryteams(seeSection8)
(Rapaport2006).Itopeneduptheroletooccupationaltherapists,nurses,and
psychologistswhohaveundergoneadditionaltrainingbutthevastmajorityofAMHPs
continuetobesocialworkers. 2
6.4 ThereferencetoBestInterestsAssessors(BIAs)inTable2referstotheroleofsocial
workers,nurses,occupationaltherapistsandpsychologistswhohaveundertaken
additionaltrainingtoallowthemtomakedecisionsonbehalfofpeoplewholackthe
capacitytoconsenttothecareortreatmenttheyneedwherethiscareortreatment
couldamounttoaDeprivationofLiberty(DoLS)asdefinedintheMentalCapacityAct
2005.ASupremeCourtRuling 3 hasresultedinanincreaseinthenumberofthese
assessments,accentuatinganexistingshortageofBIAs(Samuel2014).
Specialisation
6.5 AscanbeseeninTable2,TheCollegeofSocialWork(2014)AdviceNotedistinguishes
betweensocialworkersinservicesforchildrenandfamiliesandthoseworkingwith
adults.Traditionalsocialworkqualifyingprogrammesaimtoproducegeneric
workerswhoareequallypreparedtoworkwithpeopleofallages.
6.6 Whilethemajorityofsocialworkeducatorsgenerallyappeartofavourretaininga
genericqualification(AssociationofProfessorsofSocialWorkandJointUniversity
CouncilSocialWorkEducationCommittee2014),leavingstudentstospecialiseonce
theyhavequalified,somepolicymakersandemployersfavourstudentsfollowing
differentspecialistpathwaysonqualifyingprogrammesorestablishingseparate
qualifyingprogrammesforadultsandchildrenssocialwork(seeSocialWorkTask
Force2009a,Narey2014).Frontline(MacAlisteretal.2012)hasbeendevelopedasa
fasttrackspecialistqualifyingprogrammeforchildrenandfamilysocialworkerswhile
anequivalentschemeinmentalhealth,ThinkAhead(CliftonandThorley2014),will
recruititsfirstcohortofstudentsinSeptember2015.
6.7 Oncetheyarequalified,socialworkersinEnglandareusuallyemployedinspecialist
teams,forexampleinamentalhealthteamorchildrenssafeguardingand
assessmentservice.ThisisalongstandingtrendinternationallyandwithintheUK
(Blom2004)butthepreviousLabourgovernmentdecidedtointervenedirectlyjust
overadecadeagobyseparatingcentralandlocalgovernmentresponsibilityforsocial
2
In20112012,84percentofAMHPstudentsweresocialworkers(Jonesetal.2012).
3
PvCheshireWestandChesterCouncilandP&QvSurreyCountyCouncil[2014]UKSC19.
10
workwithchildrenandwithadults.UndertheCoalition,theDepartmentfor
Educationhasretainedresponsibilityforsocialworkwithchildrenandfamilieswhile
theDepartmentofHealthremainsresponsibleforsocialworkwithadults.
6.8 Atalocallevel,therehasbeenatrendtomergeadultandchildrenssocialcare
departmentsoncemore,oftendrivenbythehopethiswillsavecosts(Samuel2013),
butsocialworkersarestillgenerallyorganisedintoseparateteamsaccordingtothe
typeofserviceuserandfamilywithwhomtheyprimarilywork.
Conflictsandtensionsbetweendifferentrolesandresponsibilities
Keypoints:Itisimportanttorecognisesomeofthetensionsthatexistbetweendifferent
socialworkroles,inparticulararoundindividualversuscollectivistwaysofworkingandin
balancingdifferentcareandcontrolactivities.Thereisaconsensusthatproceduresaimed
atimprovingindividualandorganisationalautonomyhavemadesocialworktoo
bureaucraticandaseriesofreformshavebeenintroducedaimedatreducingthis.
7.1 AlthoughAsquithandcolleagues(2005),Dominelli(2009),andTheCollegeofSocial
Work(2014)donotpresentoneaspectofsocialworkasbeinganymoreimportant
thananother,othercommentatorshavetriedtoengenderdiscussionaboutwhether
someactivitiesshouldbemoreimportantthanothers.Atfirstsight,someofthese
conflictsmightappeartobesomewhatabstrusebuttheyareimportantinexplaining
whytherearesometimesdifferencesbetweensocialworkeducatorsandemployers
perceptionsoftheeffectivenessofsocialworkqualifyingeducation(Moriartyetal.
2011,MoriartyandManthorpe2012,Taylor2013,Higginsetal.2014,Moriartyand
Manthorpe2014).Theyalsosetthecontextforanemergingbodyofresearchlooking
atthelinksbetweenroleconflictandjobsatisfaction(seeparagraphs7.57.10
below).
7.2 ThedichotomybetweenindividualandcollectivistactionsillustratedinTables1and2
hasbeenneatlysummedupbyStaniforthandcolleagues(2011:193)asbeingabout
wheresocialworkersshouldengageinthechangeeffort.Shouldtheybehelping
peoplechangethemselvesorbeinvolvedinchangingsociety?Insimilarvein,
Trevithickasks:
Shouldsocialworkbeaboutreformorrevolutionshoulditfitpeopleinto
thesystem,changethesystemorboth?Issocialworkprimarilyarational
technicalactivityorapracticalmoralone?
(Trevithick2008:1220)
7.3 Theindividualistversuscollectivistdebatehasengenderedsomepolarisedviews
withinsocialworkinEngland.Forsome,socialworkscontestedidentityandin
particular,afocusonriskandrationinginfavourofcommunitysocialworkwith
underrepresentedanddisadvantagedgroupshasleftitweakinresistingand
repellingtheimpactofexternaltrendsandforceswhichhaveincreasingly
compromisedandconstrictedthecontributionwhichsocialworkmightmake(Jones
2014:488489).Othershaveexpressedconcernaboutthenatureofwhattheyterm
11
statesocialwork.Theyusethistodescribetheroleofsocialworkersinsocialcare
departmentsinsupportingthosewhoseproblemstheyviewaslesstheresultof
individualfailingsbutmoretheconsequencesofwiderissuesofpovertyand
inequality(forexample,Jones2001,Jordan2004).Analternativeviewseessocial
workasdemonstratingacompromisepositionbetweenliberalideasoffreedomand
personalautonomyandtheneedforthestatetosafeguardthefunctioningofsociety
asawhole(forexample,Cree2009).
7.4 Thesedebateshavelargelybeendrivenbytheoryratherthanempiricalresearch.
Someemployershavearguedthattoomuchattentiontothetheoryandvaluesof
socialworkinsomequalifyingprogrammeshasmeantthatsomenewlyqualified
socialworkersarenotpreparedwellenoughfortheworktheywillbedoinginsocial
caredepartmentsrunbylocalcouncils(SocialWorkReformBoard2010,Narey2014,
Pemberton2014).SuchviewsarecapturedinthisextractfromSirMartinNareys
reportintoqualifyingeducationforchildrenandfamilysocialworkersandillustrate
whythetopicremainscontentious:
OnenewlyqualifiedsocialworkerfromawellregardedUniversitytoldmethat
theconcentrationinhercourseonnonoppressivepracticewasattheexpense
ofunderstandingpracticalitiesaboutthejob.Idontbelieveherexperience
wasunique.Althoughsomeacademicsaredismissiveofthesephilosophical
approaches,theyhaveaprominentplaceinsomeoftheuniversitysocialwork
curriculaIhaveseenandenjoysignificantprominenceincoretexts.Inpart
theyrepresentachallengetotheviewsofsuccessivegovernmentsthatthe
childhasprimacyinchildrenssocialworkandneedstobeviewedasan
individual.
(Narey2014:11)
Roleambiguityandroleconflict
7.5 Itisimportanttorecognisethatthattheboundariesbetweendifferentrolesand
functionsinsocialworkhavealwaysbeenblurredandthatanabilitytotakeonnew
rolesthatmayinvolvebalancingconflictsandtensionsareaninherentpartofsocial
work:
Socialworkscapacityforadaptabilityandresponsivenesscanbeseenasa
powerfulstrengthSocialworkhasalwayssoughttoadapttothesocialand
individualneedsofarapidlychangingdemographic,economicandsocial
structure.
(Blewettetal.2007:6)
7.6 Atthesametime,thereisanextensiveresearchliteraturethatpresentsamore
negativeperspectiveonroleconflictandroleambiguity.Examplesofroleconflict
couldincludehavingtorationaccesstoresourcesorbeingunabletospendasmuch
timewithindividualsandtheirfamiliesastheworkerwouldwish(Coyleetal.2005).
Roleambiguityincludesfeelinguncertainaboutjobresponsibilitiesandperformance,
(Blombergetal.2014).Separatelyortogether,roleambiguityandroleconflictsare
12
regularlyreportedasfactorsthatcontributeeithertostressamongsocialworkers
and/orpoorretentionintheworkplace(Coyleetal.2005,Pasupuletietal.2009,Kim
2011,WebbandCarpenter2012,Blombergetal.2014).
7.7 MostofthisevidenceisbasedonworkundertakenoutsidetheUKandthereisalack
ofrecentresearchthathasattemptedtomeasureroleambiguityandroleconflict
systematicallyamongsocialworkersinEnglandasawhole.However,threerecent
studieshavelookedatthistopic,onefromtheperspectivesofstudents(Higginsetal.
2014)andtwofromthoseofnewlyqualifiedsocialworkers(Husseinetal.2013,
Carpenteretal.2015).
7.8 Higginsandcolleagues(2014)suggestedthatstudentsfeltdiscouragedfromapplying
socialworktheoriesontheirpracticeplacementandfounditdifficulttoapplythe
wideraspirationalaspectsofsocialwork.Studentsfoundthattherewasan
increasingemphasisonalimitedrangeofstatutorytypeactivitiessuchasmeeting
targets,completingassessmentsandobtaininginformation(p10).
7.9 Husseinandcolleagues(2013)followedupasampleofstudentsintotheirfirsttwo
yearsofpracticeaschildrenandfamilyoradultsocialworkers.Oneofthekeyfactors
associatedbothwithjobsatisfactionandintentiontostayintheircurrentpostwas
thefeelingthattheirjoballowedthemtoapplytheirsocialworkvaluesintheir
practice.
7.10 Carpenterandcolleagues(2015)studiedalargesampleofnewlyqualifiedsocial
workersinchildrenandfamilyserviceswhohadbeenonaninductionprogramme
designedtosupportthemintheirfirstyearofpractice.Ashoped,theseworkersfelt
cleareraboutwhatwasexpectedofthemovertimebutthattheyalsoexperienced
greaterroleconflict.Betweenathirdandahalfofrespondentsagreedwiththe
followingstatements:IhavetodothingsthatshouldbedonedifferentlyandI
receiveanassignmentwithoutadequateresourcestocarryitout(p15).Whilerole
ambiguity,highroleconflict,andlowjobsatisfactionwereallstatisticallyassociated
withstress,thestudyalsosuggestedthattheprogrammehadimprovedparticipants
confidenceandcompetence.
7.11 Someaspectsofsocialworkmaybehiddenfromdominantwaysofrecordingtheir
activitiesbutreflectanongoingcommitmenttobroaderprinciples.Thisiscaptured
inasmallqualitativestudyfromtheIrishRepublic(FordeandLynch2014)where,as
theauthorspointout,thereisasimilarclimateoffiscalausterityandindividualism
andashiftofresponsibilityawayfromthestatetowardscivilsocietytothatin
England.Theyfoundthattherewereexamplesofwhattheytermedcreative
activismamongsocialworkerswhowereinvolvedinactivitiessuchascoordinating
aninterprofessionalapproachtoengagingwiththeRomacommunity.
Professionaldiscretionandtimeonadministration
Keypoint:Concernshavebeenexpressedabouttheamountoftimesocialworkersspend
oncaserecordingandotheradministrativetasksattheexpenseofotheractivities.
13
8.1 Attheheartofmanyofsocialworkerscurrentconcernsliesthequestionof
professionaldiscretionandtheextenttowhichproceduresandinformationsystems
designedtoimproveindividualandorganisationalaccountabilityhavedecreased
socialworkersopportunitiestoexerciseprofessionaldiscretionandincreasedthe
amountoftimetheyspendonadministration.Thisisoftenstructuredaround
Lipskys(1980)influentialaccountsofsocialworkersasstreetlevelbureaucrats
facedwiththecoredilemmaofbeingsupposedtohelppeopleormakedecisions
aboutthemonthebasisofindividualcaseswhilethestructureoftheirjobsmakes
thisimpossible(forexample,Hallidayetal.2009,Ash2013).
8.2 Writingmainlyinrelationtosocialworkwithadultsoveradecadeago,Evansand
Harris(2004)suggestedthatassertionsthattherehadbeenadeclineinprofessional
discretionmightbeexaggeratedbutamorerecentethnographicstudyof15social
workchildrenandfamilyteamsspreadacrossfivelocalcouncils,concludedthat
managerialcontrolwasoverintrusiveandhadpotentiallynegativeconsequencesfor
socialworkersdecisionmaking(Broadhurstetal.2010,Wastelletal.2010).Thishas
beenfollowedupbyothersurveyshighlightingtheamountoftimesocialworkers
spendonadministration(BritishAssociationofSocialWorkers2012,AllParty
ParliamentaryGrouponSocialWork2013).
8.3 Anotherstudy(Baginskyetal.2010)basedondatafrom1153socialworkerswho
completedatimediaryforoneworkingweekfoundthattheyspentalmostasmuch
timeoncaserelatedrecording(22percent)asindirectfacetofaceworkwithclients
(26percent).Comparisonswithearliersimilarstudiesshowedthatsocialworkers
havealwaysspentcomparativelylittletimeindirectfacetofacecontactwith
individualsandtheirfamiliescomparedwithmanyotherhealthandcare
professionalsbecauseoftheirworkarrangingandcoordinatingsupportandmeeting
otherprofessionals.Itconcludedthattherehadbeenasmalldecreaseinfacetoface
contactincomparisonwiththepastbutnotasmuchaswassometimesperceived
especiallyinreportsbasedonestimatesofhowsocialworkersspenttheirtimeas
opposedtousingmoreobjectivemeasures.
8.4 Othercommentatorshavealsohighlightedthechangesinthedemandsmadeon
socialworkersintermsofwhatinformationtheyrecordandconcernsaboutthe
unwieldinessofelectroniccaserecordingsystems(McGregor2013,Gillingham2014a,
Gillingham2014b).
8.5 FollowingtheMunro(2011)Reviewofchildprotection,attemptshavebeenmadeto
increasechildrenandfamilysocialworkersopportunitiestoexercisediscretionand
reducepaperworkbutunwieldyinformationandrecordingsystemsarestillreported
ascausingdifficulty(AllPartyParliamentaryGrouponSocialWork2013).
Wheresocialworkersareemployed
Keypoints:Socialworkersareemployedinanumberofdifferentsettingsincludinglocal
councils,theNHS,voluntary,andprivatesector.Whilemostsocialworkersarestilldirectly
employedbylocalcouncils,goodqualitydataonthoseemployedinothersettingsishardto
find.
14
9.1 Therehasalwaysbeenatendencytodefinesocialworkersbywhotheyworkfor
ratherthanwhattheyactuallydo.FormanyyearsbeingasocialworkerinEngland
wassynonymouswithworkingforalocalauthoritysocialservicesdepartment
(Blewettetal.2007).Itisstillthecasethatthemajorityofsocialworkersare
employedinsocialcaredepartmentsrunbylocalcouncilswithsocialservices
responsibilities(CSSRS).TheDepartmentforEducation(2014a)estimatedthatin
September2013,therewere24,890childrenssocialworkersemployedbylocal
councilsinEngland.Theequivalentfigureforsocialworkerswithadultswas16,500
(Health&SocialCareInformationCentre2014).
9.2 However,whenthesenumbersarecomparedwiththe91,001socialworkers
registeredwiththeHCPC(2014b),itbecomesclearthatsocialworkersemployedby
localcouncilscomprisejustoverhalfofregisteredsocialworkers.Unfortunately,itis
farlessapparenthowandwheretheremainderofthisworkforceisdistributed.
9.3 Anestimatefrom2012(NationalCouncilforVoluntaryOrganisations2013)usingthe
StandardIndustrialClassification(SIC)codesuggeststhataround29percentof
businessesinthesocialworkwithoutaccommodationcategoryarebasedinthe
voluntarysector.
9.4 Cafcass,anondepartmentalpublicbodyaccountabletotheSecretaryofStatefor
Justice,describesitselfasthelargest[single]employerofsocialworkersinEngland
butdoesnotreporthowmanysocialworkersitemploys(Cafcass).Socialworkers
employedbyCafcassadvisecourtsincareoradoptionproceedingsandwhere
separatingordivorcingparentscannotagreeonfuturecarearrangementsfortheir
children.
9.5 VoluntaryorganisationssuchastheNSPCCorBarnardosalsoemploysocialworkers.
TheNSPCCistheonlyvoluntaryorganisationwhichcanapplytoacourtforacare,
supervision,orchildassessmentorderinthesamewayasalocalauthoritysosocial
workersattheNSCPCCmaydosimilarworktothoseinchildprotectionand
safeguardingteamsbasedinalocalcouncil(NSPCC2015b).
9.6 OthervoluntaryorganisationsemployingsocialworkersincludeSSAFA,thevoluntary
organisationsupportingpeopleinthearmedforcesandtheirfamilies(SSAFA2015),
andhospices(Davidson2013).Socialworkersmayalsobeemployedbyorganisations
supportingolderpeople,peoplewithmentalhealthproblems,peoplewhomisuse
substances,andfamilycarers.Forexample,anexploratorystudyofworkersinposts
witharemittosupportfamilycarersfoundthat4ofthe38workerstakingpartinthe
studyhadasocialworkqualificationbutthiswasnotarequirementfortheirpost
(Moriartyetal.2014a).
9.7 Justoverhalfoflocalcouncilshaveintegratedtheirmentalhealthsocialworkersinto
NHSteams(McNicoll2013a)butsomecouncilshavealsowithdrawntheirsocial
workersfromNHSTrusts,withsomesocialworkersreportingnegativeimpactson
theirrole(McNicoll2013b).Therehavebeensporadicattemptstointegratesocial
workersintoprimarycare(forexample,Daveyetal.2005)butdevelopmentssuchas
thesehaveneverenteredthemainstream.Socialworkershavetraditionallyplayed
15
animportantpartinsupportingpeoplebeingdischargedfromhospitalbutalthoughit
ispossibletofindindividualaccountsofsocialworkinhospitalsettings(forexample,
McKie2015,McNicoll2015),incontrastwithNorthAmerica(JuddandSheffield2010,
DuffyandHealy2011)thereislittlerecentEnglishresearchinthisarea.
9.8 In2000,itwasreportedthatover200socialworkerswereemployedinpalliativecare
teamsintheUK(Sheldon2000).However,morerecentresearchfromScotland
(Clausenetal.2005)andNorthernIreland(Waldronetal.2013)suggeststhatfew
palliativecarepatients,otherthanthosebeingsupportedbyahospice,areintouch
withapalliativecaresocialworker.
9.9 TheseparatecriminaljusticesystemsinEnglandandWales,NorthernIrelandand
Scotlandmeanthattherolessocialworkersplayinthecriminaljusticesystemare
differentineachcountry.InEnglandandWales,thetrainingofprobationofficers
waslocatedwithinsocialworkeducationuntil1996whenanewprobation
qualificationwasintroduced(KnightandWard2012).PostsinYouthOffending
Teamsareoftenadvertisedforpeoplewithaprobationorsocialworkqualification
buttheredoesnotappeartobeanyinformationonthenumberofsocialworkers
workingfortheNationalOffenderManagementServiceorforvoluntaryorganisations
supportingpeoplewhohaveoffendedorwhoareatriskofoffendingandtheir
families.
9.10 BoththeCoalitionanditspredecessorLabourgovernmentshaveexpressedinterest
insupportingnewmutualorganisationsandcooperatives.Pilotsocialworkpractices
havebeensetupwithchildren(Stanleyetal.2012)andadults(Manthorpeetal.
2014).Theextenttowhichthesesettingsrepresentedabreakfromworkingfora
localcouncilwasvariableandthepilotsrepresentaverysmallproportionofthe
socialworkworkforce.Itisnotclearwhetherthenumberofpilotswillexpandand
someofthemhavebeenbroughtbackintolocalauthoritycontrol.
9.11 UnlikeNorthAmericawhereasubstantialnumberofsocialworkersareemployedin
privatepracticeascounsellorsortherapists(NASWCenterforWorkforceStudies&
SocialWorkPractice2011),thisisrarelythecaseinEngland.Althoughdataonthe
professionalbackgroundsofcarehomemanagersarelacking(Orellana2014),the
majorityofsocialworkersemployedintheprivatesectorinEnglandarelikelytobe
workingasmanagersinresidentialcaresettings.However,theyrepresentan
extremelysmallproportionofthecarehomeworkforce.Otherselfemployedsocial
workersmayworkasindependentpracticeeducatorssupervisingsocialwork
studentsonfirstplacementinsettingswheretheirlinemanagermaynotbea
registeredsocialworker.
9.12 Anemergingareaofemploymentforsocialworkersinrecentyearshasbeenwith
employmentagenciesspecialisinginprovidinglocumsocialworkers(Carey2007,
Hoqueetal.2011,Cornesetal.2012,Cornesetal.2013).Variousreasonsforthis
havebeengiven,includingbetterwages,increasedflexibilityintermsofworking
hours,increasedjobsatisfaction/andorreducedstress,asawayofacquiring
experiencebeforegettingapermanentpost,andadesiretoescapefroma
particularorganisation.Afterstrenuousattemptsbylocalcouncilstoreduce
16
expenditureonagencyworkers(Hoqueetal.2011,Cornesetal.2013),itappearsto
berisingoncemore.Unionrepresentativeshavesuggestedthatthismaypartlybe
causedbysocialworkerswishingtogaingreatercontrolovertheirworkinglives
(Schraer2014b).
Teamstructureandsupervision
Keypoints:Postssuchasconsultantsocialworkerandseniorpractitionerarebeing
developedthatallowexperiencedsocialworkerstoremaininpracticewithbetterpayand
status.Thereisevidencethatsupervisionhelpsimprovejobsatisfactionandretention
rates.
Teamstructures
10.1 Socialworkershavetraditionallybeenorganisedintoteamswherebyateammanager
supervisesateamofsocialworkers,eachwiththeirowncaseload.Dependingonthe
sizeoftheteam,themanagermayhaveoneormoredeputies.Theteammayalso
includeotherworkerswithvocationalqualificationswhoseroleistotakeontheless
complexreferralsandanadministrator.Thesestructuresarehierarchical,withthe
teammanagerinturnbeinganswerabletohisorherownlinemanager.
10.2 Thismodelhasbeencriticisedforfailingtooffersocialworkersopportunitiesfor
promotionotherthanbybecomingamanager(SocialWorkTaskForce2009a).The
creationofmoreconsultantsocialworkerandseniorpractitionerpostsinsocialcare
departmentsinlocalcouncilsmarksanattempttoensurethatthemostexperienced
andskilledsocialworkersremaininpractice.
10.3 AninfluentialdevelopmentinchildrenssocialworkhasbeentheReclaimingSocial
Work(sometimescalledHackney)modelinwhichstaffareorganisedintounits,each
ledbyaconsultantsocialworker.Everyfamilyisdiscussedinaweeklygroup
meeting.Anevaluationofthismodel(Forresteretal.2013)suggestedthatthere
weremanypositivefeaturestothiswayofworking,includinggreatertimeonfaceto
facecontactwithfamilies,betterqualityassessments,bettersatisfactionwiththe
servicetheyreceivedonthepartofthefamilies,andlessstressonthepartofsocial
workers.However,itacknowledgedthecomplexitiesinshowingthesechangeswere
causedbythisdifferenttypeofstructure.
Supervision
Learningfromsupervisedpracticeisanessentialcomponentoftheeducation
andtrainingofsocialworkers.Throughregular,structuredmeetingswitha
supervisor,studentslearnhowtomanageacaseload,applytheoryand
researchevidencetopractice,performthekeytasksofassessment,planning
andintervention,andreflectontheirownprofessionaldevelopment.
Supervisionisalsoanopportunitytoseekandreceiveemotionalsupportfor
undertakingwhatcanoftenbeademandingandstressfulrole.
(Carpenteretal.2012:1)
17
10.4 Beddoe(2012)suggeststhattwokeyfeaturesthatdifferentiatesupervisioninsocial
workfromsupervisioninotherprofessionsare,firstly,thatitcontinuesthroughout
socialworkerscareers,notonlyintrainingand,secondly,thatitisusually
undertakeninhousewithintheorganisation.SurveysundertakeninEngland
suggestthatmostsocialworkersreceivesupervisionmonthlyforaroundoneortwo
hoursandthatmostconsiderthistobeadequate(Baginskyetal.2010,Goldman
2013).
10.5 Despiteconcernsaboutthequalityofthesupervisionreceivedbysocialworkersin
inquiries(Laming2009)orseriouscasereviews(BradfordSafeguardingChildren
Board2013),itisstrikingthatcomparativelyfewstudiesofsupervisionhavebeen
undertakenintheUK(Carpenteretal.2012)andthatweknowsolittleaboutwhat
actuallytakesplaceduringthesesessions(Beddoe2012).
10.6 Tensionshavebeenidentifiedbetweenthemanagementfunctionofsupervision
whichofteninvolvesbalancingthewiderorganisationalgoalsandresourceswith
individualperformancemanagementanditssupportiveaspects.Practitionersmay
feeltheneedtopresentaprofessionalfaceratherthanadmittoexperiencing
difficultemotionalresponsestotheirwork(Ingram2012,Ingram2013).
10.7 Satisfactionwithsupervisionisassociatedwithincreasedjobsatisfactionandbetter
staffretention(Beddoe2012,Carpenteretal.2012,ChillerandCrisp2012),possibly
becausetheopportunitytodiscussworkandtheexpectationsoftheorganisation
increasesroleclarity,reducesroleambiguity,andprovidessupportfortheworker
(KimandLee2009).However,ithasbeensuggestedthatthereislessevidenceforits
effectsonpractice(Carpenteretal.,2012).
10.8 Inadditiontothestructuredsupportreceivedinsupervision,socialworkersalso
valueinformalsupportfromcolleagues(Baginskyetal.2010,Beddoeetal.2014,
Wilberforceetal.2014).
Workingwithotherprofessionals
Keypoint:Otherprofessionalsdonotappeartohaveaclearviewoftheroleofsocial
workers.Thismaycontributetomisunderstandingsonbothsides.
11.1 Socialworkersworkwiththefullrangeofhealthandcareprofessionals,teachers,and
policebutthetypeofprofessionalwithwhomtheyaremostincontactvaries
accordingtotheirspecialism.Forinstance,contactwithfostercarersisanimportant
partoftheworkofchildrenandfamilysocialworkers(Austerberryetal.2013).
11.2 However,otherprofessionalsdonotalwayshaveaclearnotionofthedistinctive
contributionofsocialwork(CameronandLart2003,Baginsky2014a).Partlyasa
resultofthis,theymaynothaveaverypositiveviewofsocialwork(Baginsky2014a).
11.3 Inservicesforadults,astudyofintegratedmentalhealthandsocialcareteams
suggestedthatthestructureoftheseteamswasoftendowntoaccidentsofpolitics
andhistory.Itsuggestedthatthetermintegrationwasoftenusedratherloosely
18
andthatmoreattentionneededtobepaidtothecompositionandskillmixofthese
teams(Huxleyetal.2011).
11.4 Fromtheperspectiveofsocialworkersinmultidisciplinaryorintegratedteams,they
areoftentheonlyrepresentativeoftheirprofession.Thismeansthattheymayhave
poorerperceptionsofteamfunctioningandexperiencehigherlevelsofroleconflict
thantheirhealthcolleagues(Carpenteretal.2003).Astudyofsocialworkersinthe
criminaljusticesysteminScotlandfoundthattheyoftenfelttheirrolewas
marginalisedormisunderstood(Hallidayetal.2009).Similarfeelingswereexpressed
intheevidencepresentedtotheAllPartyParliamentaryGroupofSocialWork(2013).
Prevalenceofstress,depression,alcoholanddrugproblems
Keypoints:Thereisstrongevidencefortheriskofstressandburnoutinsocialwork.A
supportiveorganisationalculture,attentiontoworkloads,andincreasingjobsatisfactionare
thoughttohelpcounteractthefrequencyofstressandburnoutamongsocialworkers.
Thereisincreasinginterestinhowpractitionerscanbehelpedtodevelopstrategiesthatwill
helpthemcopewiththechallengesoftheirwork,althoughhardevidenceofhowthishas
beentranslatedintopracticeislacking.
12.1 Professionalsworkinginhealthandsocialcarehavebeenshowntoexperiencehigher
levelsofstressthantherestofthepopulationinpaidemployment(Walshetal.2005,
HealthandSafetyExecutive2014).
12.2 Researchonstressinsocialworkismainlyconcernedwiththelinksbetween
workload,stress,burnout,andcompassionfatigue.Burnoutisdefinedasa
syndromeofemotionalexhaustionandcynicismthatoccursfrequentlyamong
individualswhodopeopleworkofsomekind(MaslachandJackson1981:99).
Compassionfatigueisarelativelynewtermthatdescribesthesecondarytraumatic
stressexperiencedbysocialworkersandotherhelpingprofessionalswhoworkwith
clientsexperiencingtraumawhichisaresultof:
thenaturalandconsequentbehaviorsandemotionsresultingfromknowing
aboutatraumatizingeventexperiencedbyasignificantotherthestress
resultingfromhelpingorwantingtohelpatraumatizedorsufferingperson.
(Figley1995:7,citedinBrideetal.2007)
12.3 Apartfromthenegativeconsequencesforindividualsaffectedbystress,burnoutor
compassionfatigueandtheirfamilies,theremaybewiderrepercussionsforpeople
usingservicesandtheirfamilies,colleagues,andtheemployingorganisationifsocial
workersaffectedbyburnoutdevelopnegativeorneglectfulattitudesabouttheir
workortheirjudgementisimpaired(Lloydetal.2002,BoyasandWind2010).
12.4 Thereisanextensiveinternationalliteratureonstressinsocialwork(forexample,
Acker2004,TamandMong2005,MnttrivanderKuip2014)andasmallnumberof
UKstudiesbasedonrepresentativesamplesofsocialworkers(Huxleyetal.2005,
Evansetal.2006,HudsonandWebber2012,Carpenteretal.2015)andsocialcare
staffincludingsocialworkers(Coffeyetal.2009).Usingthesamescreeningmeasure,
19
theGeneralHealthQuestionnaire12(GHQ12)(GoldbergandWilliams1988),the
proportionsofsocialworkersintheseUKstudiesscoringabovethecutpointonthe
GHQ12indicatingpotentialpsychiatricdisorderssuchasanxietyordepression
rangesfromaroundathirdtoahalf.
12.5 Specifically,theproportionsrangedfrom47percentamongmentalhealthsocial
workers(Evansetal.2006),43percentamongApprovedMentalHealthProfessionals
(HudsonandWebber2012),36percentamongsocialservicesstaff(Coffeyetal.
2009),andfrom3141percentatdifferentphasesofdatacollectionamongnewly
qualifiedchildrenandfamilysocialworkers(Carpenteretal.2015).
12.6 Therearealsomanyindividualaccountsandreportsbasedonselfselectedsamples
ofsocialworkers(forexample,Schraer2014a,Schraer2015).Althoughthelatter
provideaveryvividandcurrentpicture,theirdisadvantageisthatthoseresponding
maynotberepresentativeperhapsonlythosewhofeelmoststressedmighthave
chosentorespondandtheytendtobebasedonselfdefinitionsofstress,rather
thanusingastandardisedmeasurebasedonquestionsthathavebeenpretestedto
reducetheriskofbiasandensurethatallrespondentsunderstandthequestionsina
similarway.
12.7 TwosystematicreviewshavesoughttodrawtogetherthefindingsfromtheUKand
internationalliteratureonstressandburnout(Coyleetal.2005,McFaddenetal.
2014).Bothemphasisethedemandingnatureoftheworkitself,heavyworkloads,
poorjobsatisfaction,andunsupportiveorganisationalculturesascontributingto
stressandburnout.McFaddenandcolleaguesalsoreportresearchthathasfound
thatsocialworkerswithpersonalexperienceofmistreatmentriskexperiencing
secondarytraumawhenfacedwithsimilarsituationsintheirprofessionallives.Itis
alsothoughtthatworkersinstigmatizedoccupations,suchassocialwork,mightalso
bemorepronetostress(BoveandPervan2013)andthatsomesocialworkersmay
feelreluctanttoadmitthattheyarefindingitdifficulttocope(Gibson2014).Astudy
ofsocialworkersandcaremanagersinadultservicessuggestedthatthecombination
ofhighdemandsintermsofworkloadandlowcontrolintermsofautonomyand
authoritytotakedecisionshadaparticularlydetrimentalimpactintermsofstress
(Wilberforceetal.2014).
12.8 Stanleyandcolleagues(2012)interviewed50socialworkerswhohadexperienced
depression.Ofthese,70percenthadbeenprescribedantidepressantsandalmostall
hadneededtotaketimeoffwork.Themajorityconsideredthatheavyworkloadshad
contributedtotheirdepressionbutotherfactorswerelackofsupportatwork,
bullying,andviolenceandthreatsfrompeopleusingservices.Overhalfthose
interviewedfeltthattheyhaddelayedseekinghelpbecausetheywereconcerned
abouttheconsequencesofdisclosureatwork,eitherbecausetheyfelttheywere
lettingdowntheircolleaguesorbecausetheywouldbeseenasnotbeingableto
cope.
12.9 Almosttwothirdsofaselfselectedsampleofsocialworkersreportedeatingcomfort
foodstocopewithstress,whileathirdusedalcoholbuttheamountseatenordrunk
20
werenotreported.Themostpopularwaysofcopingwithstressweretalkingto
colleaguesorfriendsandfamily(McGregor2013).
12.10Giventhestrengthoftheevidenceabove,itissurprisingthattheredonotappearto
beanypublishedinterventionstudiesaimedatreducingtheriskofstressand
burnout(Coyleetal.2005).However,thelinksbetweenjobautonomy,having
supportivesupervisorsandcolleagues,andworkloadandstressandburnouthighlight
someimportantareasinwhichmanagersandorganisationscanimproveworking
environments.
12.11Thereisalsoincreasedinterestinidentifyingwhichpositiveaspectsofsocialworkers
personalcharacteristicsmightactasbuffersagainsttheeffectsofstressandburnout.
Thisisseenasanincreasinglyimportantpartofqualifyingeducation(Collins2007,
Collins2008,Beddoeetal.2013,Grantetal.2014,McFaddenetal.2014).Among
employers,onecouncilisreportedtohaveofferedmindfulnesstrainingtostaff,
consistingoftwoandahalfhoursonceaweekovernineweeks(DunkinRead2015).
Regulation
Keypoint:Onlyalimitedamountofresearchhasexaminedhowwellregulationisworking
andhowitcouldbeimproved.
13.1 Relativelylittleisknownabouthowsocialworkershaveengagedwithbeing
regulated.Meleyal(2014)interviewedasampleofsocialworkersandfoundthatthe
majoritywelcomedbeinginaregisteredprofession.Theyspokeofhopesthat
registrationwouldimprovethestatusofsocialworkandhowitisperceivedbythe
publicandmedia.However,casesagainstsocialworkershadledtosomefeeling
personallyvulnerableandmorefearfulofcomingtotheattentionoftheregulatory
body.Theirkeyconcernswerethatactivitiesthatincludeddrinkingalcoholina
publicplaceorpoliticalandcampaigningactivitiesmightbeseenasaffectingtheir
suitability.
13.2 McLaughlin(2010)studied14appealsmadebyindividualsagainstbeingremovedor
suspendedfromtheregistermaintainedbythepreviousregulator,theGeneralSocial
CareCouncil(GSCC).Heconcludedthattherewasanimbalanceofpowerinthat
individualsweregenerallyrepresentedthemselves,althoughtwowererepresented
byatradeunionorprofessionalbodywhereastheGSCCwasalmostalways
representedbylegalcounsel.
13.3 WhenitbecameclearthatanumberofconductreferralsinvestigatedbytheGSCC
involvedinappropriaterelations,Doelandcolleagues(2009)undertookaliterature
reviewofprofessionalboundaries,askedasampleoforganisationsandindividualsto
commentonsomescenariosandstudiedacollectionofpolicydocuments.They
concludedthatresearchevidencewasalmostalwaysabsentfromtheresponsesto
scenariosorinpolicydocuments.Theyconcludedthatmanyinstancesofmisconduct
involvegreyareasbutthatpolicydocumentsrarelyaddressthesegreyareas.They
recommendedthatmuchpolicyguidanceshouldberewrittentomakeitrelevant
21
andtransparent,notsomethingthatwasonlytakenoutwhenneeded,likean
insurancedocument.
13.4 Astudyofseriouscasereviews(SCRs)involvingchildrensservicesconcludedthat
theyweremuchmorelikelytoconcentrateonproceduralerrorsratherthanseekto
addresssomeofthecomplexitiesofpractice,suchasengagingwithhardtoreach
familiesorexamineleadershipandsupervision(Brandonetal.2013).
13.5 IthasnotbeenpossibletoundertakecomparableworkanalysingthecontentofSCRs
involvingadultsatriskbecausethereiscurrentlynoequivalentcentralrepositoryto
thatheldbytheNSPCC(2015a)andoftenitisonlythesummaryoftheSCRthatis
published(ManthorpeandMartineau2014).
13.6 TheonlypublishedevidencethatwefoundofwhetherSCRsshouldrefertoindividual
professionalstotherelevantregulatororwhetherregulatorsshoulduseSCRreports
asevidencewastheSCRintoMrsGloriaFosterwhodiedwhenthehomecareagency
thatshehadbeenusingwasclosedbythethenUKBorderAgency.Thefailureto
arrangeanalternativehomecareproviderleftherwithoutanycarevisitsforalmost
ninedays.Thereviewcommented:
ItisnowfortheemployerandtheHealthandCareProfessionsCouncilto
considertheevidenceanddeterminewhatfurtherconsequencesshouldensue.
(SurreySafeguardingAdultsBoard2013:29)
13.7 However,SCRreportsareauthoredbyawiderangeofindividualsandthereis
considerablevariationinthecontentandstyleofpublishedexecutivesummaries
(Brandonetal.2013)andsofurtherresearchwouldberequiredbeforebeingableto
commentonthisfurther.
Changesandconcerns
Keypoint:Themajorchangesthathavetakenplaceinsocialworkoverthepast20yearsare
likelytocontinue.Widerpolicychangesintermsofwelfarereformandtightlimitson
publicexpenditurearelikelytocontinuetohaveanimpactonsocialwork.
Socialworkreform
14.1 ReviewsforthepreviousLabour(SocialWorkTaskForce2009a)andcurrentCoalition
government(SocialWorkReformBoard2010,Munro2011,SocialWorkReform
Board2012)recommendedaseriesofreformsaimedatamelioratingsomeofthe
concernsaboutthepositionofsocialworkandcreatingastrongmoreaccountable
profession.Thesehaveincludedanewoverarchingprofessionalstandards
frameworkintheProfessionalCapabilitiesFramework(PCF)(TheCollegeofSocial
WorkUndated),theappointmentoftwoChiefSocialWorkers(oneforChildrenand
FamiliesandoneforAdults)togiveprofessionalleadershipandimprovetheinfluence
ofsocialworkonpolicy(GOV.UK2013),andtheAssessedandSupportedYearin
Employment(ASYE)whichoffersadditionalsupporttosocialworkersintheirfirst
yearofpracticeand,alongwiththePCF,providesabenchmarkagainstwhichallnew
22
socialworkersknowledgeandcapabilitycanbeobjectivelyassessedattheendof
theirfirstyear(SocialWorkReformBoard2012).
14.2 Socialworkqualifyingeducationcontinuestobeacontroversialpolicyarea,withtwo
separatereviewsbeingcompletedin2014fortheDepartmentforEducation(Narey)
andDepartmentofHealth(CroisdaleAppleby).TheChiefSocialWorkershaveissued
draftknowledgeandskillsstatements(KSS)forsocialworkersworkingwithchildren
andfamilies(DepartmentforEducation2014b)andadults(DepartmentofHealth
2014).Ithasbeensuggestedthatsocialworkerswhocanpassatestbasedonthe
standardsforsocialworkersworkingwithchildrenandfamilieswillbegivenapproved
childandfamilypractitionerstatuswhileproposalsforsocialworkerswithadultsaim
tointroduceanationalsystemofqualityassuranceintermsofemployersstandards.
Concerns
14.3 Thereisdebateaboutthepaceofthesechangeswithintheprofessionandwhether
earlierdevelopmentshavebeengiventimetobeddown.Inadditiontotheconcerns
aboutworkloadsandtimespentonadministrationmentionedearlier,the
consequencesoftheincreasesindemandforbothchildrensandadultssocialcare
havebeendebatedthroughoutthesector,inparticularaboutwhethercutstosocial
careandotherchangesinsocietywillincreasesocialinequalities(Featherstoneetal.
2012).Forallthesereasons,debatesabouttheroleofsocialworkersarelikelyto
continuetobecontroversial.
23
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