Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electromagnetic Waves and Their Applications in Telecommunications by Tanjoh Klaus K.
Electromagnetic Waves and Their Applications in Telecommunications by Tanjoh Klaus K.
UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Laboratory of Research on Advanced Material and Nonlinear Sciences
(LaRAMaNS)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
By
(SC13A732)
SUPERVISOR:
Associate Professor.
JUNE, 2016
i
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
CERTIFICATION
UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
This is to certify that the work in the project entitled:
By
(SC13A732)
________________________________
Date_______________________________
ii
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my mum: Mme.
Abia Susane Mah, and to my fiance: Mbah
Sounita Nnah.
iii
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to thank the University of Buea for providing a
welcoming, encouraging and flexible study environment that helped me
grow in so many ways. Special thanks go to my project supervisor:
Dr. F. M. Moukam Kakmeni (Associate Professor, Physics) for his great
support in developing this project, and also to the entire staff of the
department of physics of the University of Buea for their
comprehensive lectures which have really boosted my level of
consciousness as far as science is concerned. I also thank all my
teachers back in secondary education for their basic knowledge they
imparted in me.
iv
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
ABSTRACT
Electromagnetic waves play a very important role in the world as
far as telecommunication is concerned. The discovery of
electromagnetic waves (that is, the unification of electric and magnetic
fields) has been a great breakthrough in the field of
Telecommunications Engineering. The study of electromagnetic waves
and a deep understanding of their properties will be helpful in the
development of better technologies in new ways of communication.
v
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGEi
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v
List of figures. .................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE
vi
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
CHAPTER TWO
CHAPTER THREE
vii
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY..60
viii
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
List of figures.
I.1: A plane electromagnetic wave.9
ix
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
x
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Before entering into our study of electromagnetic radiations and how they
are applied in telecommunications, we should look back in their early days in
order to have some knowledge about their discovery.
In 1865, the Scottish Mathematician and Physicist, James Clerk Maxwell
(*1831 - 1879) proposed and published the theory of electromagne c radia ons.
Electromagnetic radiation is energy radiated in the form of a wave as a result of
the motion of electric charges. [9] IF the motion of a magnetic field changes or
accelerates, the magnetic field can provide an electric field (2008). The produced
electromagnetic wave is both a transverse and a polarized wave (2008). More
importantly, electromagnetic radiation does not require a material medium and
can travel through a vacuum (2008).[9]
In November 1886, the German Scientist, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (*1857 -
1894) who was a student to Kirchho and Helmholtz, discovered
1
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
2
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
First lets acknowledge the fact that Gausss law for electrostatics implies
the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed.
The electric field lines originate from the positive charge (source) and terminate
at the negative charge (sink) [5].
E = . = / 0 (0.3.5)
B = . = m/0 (0.3.6)
B = . = 0. (0.3.7)
This implies that the number of magnetic field lines entering a closed surface is
equal to the number of field lines leaving the surface. That is, there is no source
or sink. In addition, the lines must be continuous with no starting or end points.
Maxwells Equations.
The Maxwells Equations in integral forms and their physical interpretations are
given in table 1 below.
3
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Now, let us transform these equations into their respective differential forms
which will look much clearer and simpler.
. = /0 (0.3.8)
4
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
5
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
CHAPTER ONE.
7
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
= (I.1.1)
In three dimensions, (x, y, and z say) the wave equation is;
f = (I.1.2)
Where f = f(x, t) is the wave function and = + + , is the laplacian in
the rectangular coordinate system, v is the velocity of the wave.
7. Propagation or a Wave Vector: This is the vector that describes the direction
of propagation of the wave and we shall denote it by k, in our study.
8. Complex Notation of EM waves: The complex form of an electromagnetic
wave f is represented in exponential form as
( . )
(r, t) = (I.1.3)
and in trigonometric form as
(r, t) = cos( . t + ) + sin( . t + ) (I.1.4)
where the real part is
(r, t) = cos( . t + ) (I.1.5)
where is the polarization vector and
= (I.1.6)
is the complex amplitude where is the real amplitude and is the phase
constant. [13]
8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
We can obtain the relationship between the magnitudes of the fields using
Maxwells Equations. To see this, we consider the rectangular loop below which
lies in the xy-plane.
Let the unit vector normal to the loop be in the positive z-direction, = k.
9
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
. = - B/ t (I.2.1)
On the other hand, the rate of change of magnetic flux on the RHS of equation
(I.2.1) is given by
- . = - (Bz/t)xy (I.2.4)
The second condition on the relationship between E and B may be deduced using
the Ampere-Maxwell equation
. = 00 . (I.2.6)
Consider a rectangular loop in the xy-plane depicted in figure I.3 below with a
unit normal =
10
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
. = (Ey/t)xz (I.2.8)
11
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Similarly, another partial derivative of equation (I.2.9) with respect to x yields, and
then another partial derivative of equation (I.2.5) with respect to x give
(I.2.12)
Where v is the speed of propagation. We see clearly that both Ey and Bz satisfy
the wave equation and propagate with speed
v= =c (I.2.15)
It should be noted that if f1(r, t) and f2(r, t) are both solutions to the wave
equation (I.1.2), then f1(r, t)+ f2(r, t) and f1(r, t)- f2(r, t) are also solutions.
Therefore, electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle. [5]
Where the fields are sinusoidal with amplitudes E0 and B0, k is the wave number
related to the wavelength, , by
k = (I.2.18)
12
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
= kv = 2 = 2 (I.2.19)
We see that E and B fields are always in phase (attaining maxima and minima at
the same time).
y(x, t) = cos(kx t)
(I.3.1)
z(x, t) = cos(kx t)
13
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
y(x, t) = cos(kx + t)
(I.3.2)
z(x, t) = cos(kx + t)
Lets assume for simplicity that these electromagnetic waves have the same
amplitudes ( = = , = = ) and wavelengths (k1 = k2 = k, =
= ).
These waves do not propagate but simply oscillate in space and time.
For linear polarization, they are two types namely; vertical and horizontal
polarizations.
14
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
( )
v(z, t) = (I.4.1)
( )
h(z, t) = (I.4.2)
15
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
= ( . ) = (I.5.2)
Similarly, taking the curl of (iv) and substituting (ii) and (iii) into the result, we
have
( - 0 0 )B = 0 (I.5.4)
Comparing each of equations (I.5.3) and (I.5.4) with equation (I.2.14), it is clear
that electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum with speed
v= =c
(I.5.5)
UE = E (I.5.6)
UB =
B (I.5.7)
16
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Uem = ( +
B) (I.5.8)
u = ( + B) (I.5.9)
B = E = E (I.5.10)
u = E = Ecos(kz-t+) (I.5.11)
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. The energy flux
density (energy per unit area per unit time) transported by the fields is given
by
S = [E x B ] (I.5.12)
S = c Ecos(kz-t+) = cu (I.5.13)
Notice that the Poynting vector is the energy density u, multiplied by the
velocity of the wave c , as it should be.
= S (I.5.14)
17
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
= c Ecos(kz-t+) = u (I.5.15)
<u> = E (I.5.16)
<S> = E (I.5.16)
<> = E (I.5.16)
I have used <> to denote (time) average over a complete cycle. The average
power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is given by
I = <S> = E (I.5.17)
) . = 0, ) = .
(I.6.1)
) . = 0, ) =
Where, if the medium is linear,
D = E, H = B. (I.6.2)
18
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
If the medium is homogeneous, that is and do not vary from point to point,
then Maxwells Equations reduce to
) . = 0, ) = .
(I.6.3)
) . = 0, ) =
Therefore, through a linear homogeneous medium, electromagnetic waves
propagate at speed
v = = (I.6.4)
where
c = (I.6.5)
The quantity n, is the refractive index of the material. Note that for most
materials, is so close to and so,
n (I.6.6)
The quantity is called the dielectric constant. Since is always greater than 1,
light travels more slowly through matter.
All of our previous results carry over, with the simple transcription and
and hence, c v.
The energy density is
u = ( + B) (I.6.7)
S = [E x B ] (I.6.8)
For monochromatic waves, the frequency and wave number are related by =
kv, and the amplitude of B is 1/v times the amplitude of E and the intensity is
I = vE (I.6.9)
More interestingly, we wish to know what happens when a wave passes from
one transparent medium to another. For example glass to plastic say. We
expect to get a reflected wave and a transmitted wave.
19
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
The equations that relate electric and magnetic fields just to the left and just to
the right of the interface between the two media are;
) = , c) || = || .
|| (I.6.10)
) = , d) = || .
where , , , and || , || , || , || are the perpendicular and
parallel components of the fields respectively, where the subscripts represent the
respective media when the wave is travelling from medium 1 to medium 2.
I shall use these equations to deduce the laws governing reflection and refraction
of electromagnetic waves. Thus, equation (I.5.10) is the boundary condition. [5]
20
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
The incident and the reflected fields are in medium 1 and so have the
same velocity though the reflected wave is in the opposite direction to the
incident wave. The transmitted wave is in medium 2 with velocity .
At the boundary (z=0), the combined fields on the left must equal that on
the right in accordance with the boundary condition (equation I.6.10) but in this
case, there are no components perpendicular to the surface and so, (a) and (b) of
equation (I.6.10) are trivial. However, (c) requires that,
+ = (I.6.14)
( ) = ( ) (I.6.15)
Or
- = (I.6.16)
Where
= (I.6.17)
21
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
= ( ) , = ( ) (I.6.18)
= ( ) , = ( ) (I.6.19)
Then we see that the reflected wave is in phase (right side up) if v > v and out of
phase (upside down) if v < v. the real amplitudes are related by
= | | , = ( ) (I.6.20)
I = E (I.6.22)
R = IR/II = ( ) = ( ) (I.6.23)
And the ratio of the transmitted intensity to the incident intensity is generally
T = IT/II =
( ) =
( ) (I.6.24)
22
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
But
= = ( ) = =
R+T=( ) + ( ) = (4 + 1 2 + ) = 1
( )
Therefore,
R + T = 1 (I.6.26)
) . = , ) = .
(I.7.2)
) . = 0, ) = +
And the continuity equation for free charge is
23
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
. = (I.7.3)
= ( . ) =
( ) = ( / ) (0) (I.7.4)
) . = 0, ) = .
(I.7.5)
) . = 0, ) = +
You can see clearly that only the term of equation (iv) of (I.7.5) makes the
equation (I.7.5) to differ from equation (I.6.3) (that is, for non conducting media).
Now, applying the curl to (ii) and (iv) as before, we obtain the modified wave
equation for E and B as follows;
= + , = + (I.7.6)
These equations will admit plane wave solutions,
( ) ( )
( , ) = , ( , ) = (I.7.7)
But this time, the wave number is complex:
24
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
= + i (I.7.8)
= i
= + i
= k + i (I.7.9)
Where
k [ 1 + ( ) + 1]
(I.7.10)
[ 1 + ( ) 1]
The distance it takes to reduce the amplitude by a factor of 1/e (about a third) is
called skin depth d given by
d ; (I.7.12)
the skin depth is the measure if how far the electromagnetic wave penetrates into
the conductor. Meanwhile, the real part of , determines the wavelength, the
propagation speed, and the index of refraction, in the usual way:
= , v = , n = (I.7.13)
25
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
the attenuated plane waves (equation I.7.11) satisfy the modified wave equation
(I.7.6) for any and . But Maxwells Equations (I.7.5) impose further
constraints, which serve to determine the relative amplitudes, phases,
polarizations of E and B. As before, (i) and (iii) rule out any z components: the
fields are transverse. We may as well orient our axes so that E is polarized along
the x direction.
( )
( , ) = (I.7.14)
(Equation (iv) gives the same result). Once again, the electric and magnetic fields
are mutually perpendicular.
= K (I.7.16)
Where
K | | = + = 1 + ( ) (I.7.17)
And
tan-1( ) (I.7.18)
26
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Evidently, the electric and magnetic fields are no longer in phase; in fact,
= (I.7.20)
This means that the magnetic field lags behind the electric field. Meanwhile, the
(real) amplitude of E and B are related by
= = 1 + ( ) (I.7.21)
( , ) = ( + )
(I.7.22)
( , ) = ( + + )
Figure I.6: Phase difference between electric and magnetic fields.(Source: [5])
27
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
) = 0
(I.8.1)
) = 0
Free charge and current will be induced on the surface in such a way as to enforce
these constraints. We are interested in monochromatic waves that propagate
down the tube, so E and B will have the generic form
( ) ( )
( , , , ) = ( , )
( )
(I.8.2)
( ) ( , , , ) = ( , )
(For the case of interest k is real, so I shall dispense with the tilde.) The electric
and magnetic fields must, of course, satisfy Maxwells Equations, in the interior of
the wave guide.
) . = 0, ) = .
(I.8.3)
) . = 0, ) =
A wave guide is a conductor capable of transmitting electromagnetic waves,
where the electric and magnetic fields inside the conductor are both zero. If the z
component of the electric field is zero ( = 0), then the waves are said to be a TE
(Transverse Electric) waves; if the z component of the magnetic field is zero
( = 0), then the waves are said to be TM (Transverse Magnetic") waves. If
( = 0 and = 0, then we call the waves TEM waves. It turns out that TEM
waves cannot occur in hollow wave guides. [5] As a matter of fact,
+ = 0,
- = 0.
Indeed, the vector the complex amplitude vector of the electric field, , has zero
divergence an zero curl. It can therefore be written as the gradient of a scalar
potential that satisfies Laplaces equation (see appendix B.1). but the boundary
28
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
I.9 CONCLUSION.
As we have seen in this chapter, the above subsections include some of the
generalities of electromagnetic waves. That is, plane electromagnetic waves and
the wave equation, standing electromagnetic waves, polarization of
electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves in vacuum, energy and
momentum in electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves in matter and
transmission in linear media, reflection and transmission of electromagnetic
waves at normal incidence, electromagnetic waves in conductors and
waveguides. These generalities will help us to understand how electromagnetic
waves are transmitted in various media in daily life. The above generalities apply
to all the types of electromagnetic waves present in the electromagnetic
spectrum which well see in the next chapter.
29
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
CHAPTER TWO
30
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATION
TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Figure II.1
The electromagnetic spectrum. (Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Sixth Edition
Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett, Jr) [6]
31
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Figure II.2
This high-voltage traction power line running to Eutingen Railway Substation in
Germany radiates electromagnetic waves with very long wavelengths.(credit:
Zonk43, Wikimedia Commons)
Note that the ability of radio waves to penetrate salt water is related to their
wave length much like ultrasound. Penetrating tissue. The longer the waves
length the farther they penetrate.
32
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
33
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
II.2.3 TV Waves.
Television is also broadcast on electromagnetic waves. Since the waves must
carry a great deal of visual as well as audio information, each channel requires a
34
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
35
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
more complex.[3] There are two basic modes of propagation: ground waves and
sky waves. As their names imply, ground waves travel along the surface of the
earth, while sky waves bounce back to earth. Figure II.6 the different
propagation paths for HF (High Frequency) radio waves. Ground waves consist of
three components: surface waves, direct waves, and ground-reflected waves.
Surface waves travel along the surface of the earth, reaching beyond the horizon.
Eventually, surface wave energy is absorbed by the earth. The effective range of
surface waves is largely determined by the frequency and conductivity of the
surface over which the waves travel.[3] Absorption increases with frequency.
Transmitted radio signals, which use a carrier traveling as a surface wave, are
dependent on transmitter power, receiver sensitivity, antenna characteristics, and
the type of path traveled. For a given complement of equipment, the range may
extend from 200 to 300 km over a conductive, all-sea-water path. Over arid, rocky,
non-conductive terrain, however, the range may drop to less than 30 km, even with
the same equipment. Direct waves travel in a straight line, becoming weaker as
distance increases. They may be bent, or refracted, by the atmosphere, which
extends their useful range slightly beyond the horizon. Transmitting and receiving
antennas must be able to see each other for communications to take place, so
antenna height is critical in determining range. Because of this, direct waves are
sometimes known as line-of-sight (LOS) waves. Ground reflected waves are the
portion of the propagated wave that is reflected from the surface of the earth
between the transmitter and receiver. Sky waves make beyond line-of-sight
(BLOS) communications possible. At certain frequencies, radio waves are
refracted (or bent), returning to earth hundreds or thousands of miles away.
Depending on frequency, time of day, and atmospheric conditions, a signal can
bounce several times before reaching a receiver. Using sky waves can be tricky,
since the ionosphere is constantly changing. [3]
36
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
37
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
waves used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have frequencies on the order
of 100MHz, although this varies significantly depending on the strength of the
magnetic field used and the nuclear type being scanned. MRI is an important
medical imaging and research tool,
producing highly detailed two- and three-dimensional images. Radio waves are
broadcast, absorbed, and reemitted in a resonance process that is sensitive to the
density of nuclei (usually protons or hydrogen nuclei). The wavelength of 100-
MHz radio waves is 3 m, yet using the sensitivity of the resonant frequency to the
magnetic field strength, details smaller than
a millimeter can be imaged. This is a good example of an exception to a rule of
thumb (in this case, the rubric that details much smaller than the probes
wavelength cannot be detected). The intensity of the radio waves used in MRI
presents little or no hazard to human health.
II.3 MICROWAVES.
Microwaves are the highest-frequency electromagnetic waves that can be
produced by currents in macroscopic circuits and devices. Microwave
frequencies range from about 109Hz to the highest practical LC resonance at
nearly 1012Hz . [6] Since they have high frequencies, their
wavelengths are short compared with those of other radio waveshence the
name microwave. Microwaves can also be produced by atoms and molecules.
They are, for example, a component of electromagnetic radiation generated by
thermal agitation. The thermal motion of atoms and molecules in any object at a
temperature above absolute zero causes them to emit and absorb radiation. Since
it is possible to carry more information per unit time on high frequencies,
microwaves are quite suitable for communications. [12]
other constituents of food have a slightly negative charge at one end and a
slightly positive charge at one end (called polar molecules). The range of
microwave frequencies is specially selected so that the polar molecules, in trying
to keep orienting themselves with the electric field, absorb these energies and
increase their temperaturescalled dielectric heating. The energy thereby
absorbed results in thermal agitation heating food and not the plate, which does
not contain water. Hot spots in the food are related to constructive and
destructive interference patterns. Rotating antennas and food turntables help
spread out the hot spots. Another use of microwaves for heating is within the
human body. Microwaves will penetrate more than shorter wavelengths into
tissue and so can accomplish deep heating (called microwave diathermy). This is
used for treating muscular pains, spasms, tendonitis, and rheumatoid arthritis.
39
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
nearly perfect blackbody (that is, it has e = 1 ), with a 6000 K surface temperature.
About half of the solar energy arriving at the Earth is in the infrared region, with
most of the rest in the visible part of the spectrum, and a relatively small amount
in the ultraviolet. On average, 50 percent of the incident solar energy is absorbed
by the Earth.
The relatively constant temperature of the Earth is a result of the energy
balance between the incoming solar radiation and the energy radiated from the
Earth. Most of the infrared radiation emitted from the Earth is absorbed by CO2
and H2O in the atmosphere and then radiated back to Earth or into outer space.
This radiation back to Earth is known as the greenhouse effect, and it maintains
the surface temperature of the Earth about 40C higher than it would be if there
is no absorption. Some scientists think that the increased concentration of CO2
and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting from increases in fossil
fuel burning, has increased global average temperatures.
40
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
41
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
about 10nm at its highest frequencies, [6] which overlap with the lowest X-ray
frequencies. It was recognized as early as 1801 by Johann Ritter that the solar
spectrum had an invisible component beyond the violet range. Solar UV radiation
is broadly subdivided into three regions: UV-A (320400 nm), UV-B (290320 nm),
and UV-C (220290 nm), ranked from long to shorter wavelengths (from smaller
to larger energies). Most UV-B and all UV-C is absorbed by ozone ( O3) molecules
in the upper atmosphere. Consequently, 99% of the solar UV radiation reaching
the Earths surface is UV-A.
II.7 X RAYS.
In the 1850s, scientists (such as Michael faraday) began experimenting with
high voltage electrical discharges in tubes filled with rarefied gases. It was later
found that these discharges created an invisible, penetrating form of very high
42
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
frequency electromagnetic radiation. This radiation was called x ray, because its
identity and nature were unknown. [6]
Figure II.8
Artists conception of an electron ionizing an atom followed by the recapture of an
electron and emission of an X-ray.
43
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
An energetic electron strikes an atom and knocks an electron out of one of the
orbits closest to the nucleus. Later, the atom captures another electron, and the
energy released by its fall into a low orbit generates a high-energy EM wave called
an X-ray.
In the case shown, an inner-shell electron (one in an orbit relatively close to and
tightly bound to the nucleus) is ejected. A short time later, another electron is
captured and falls into the orbit in a single great plunge. The energy released by
this fall is given to an EM wave known as an X-ray. Since the orbits of the atom are
unique to the type of atom, the energy of the X-ray is characteristic of the atom,
hence the name characteristic X-ray.
44
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Figure II.9
Artists conception of an electron being slowed by collisions in a material and
emitting X-ray radiation. This energetic electron makes numerous collisions with
electrons and atoms in a material it penetrates. An accelerated charge radiates
EM waves, a second method by which X-rays are created.
45
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
46
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
47
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
II.9 CONCLUSION.
In this chapter, weve seen the various types of electromagnetic waves and how
each of them can be produced. These waves, that is; radio and TV waves,
microwaves, infrared radiations, visible light, ultraviolet radiations, x-rays, and
gamma rays are shown on the electromagnetic spectrum (figure II.1) and have
some common characteristics which are;
48
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
1. They can all travel through a vacuum in a straight line with speed c 3.0 x
108m/s.
2. They all obey the wave equation; that is, v = f x , where, v = speed of the
wave, f = frequency, = wavelength
3. They all obey the inverse square law ( ). Where the intensity of
the radiation and r is the distance separating the point source emitting the
radiation and the detector.
4. They are electric and magnetic in nature.
5. They carry energy from one place to another; hence, they are progressive
transverse waves.
In the next chapter were going to see some applications of the above
electromagnetic waves in telecommunications.[13]
49
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
CHAPTER THREE
50
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Extremely low frequency (ELF) radio waves of about 1kHz are used to
communicate with submerged submarines. The ability of radio waves to
penetrate salt water is related to their wavelength (much like ultrasound
penetrating tissue)the longer the wavelength, the farther they penetrate. Since
salt water is a good conductor, radio waves are strongly absorbed by is, and very
long wavelengths are needed to reach a submarine under the surface. [3]
51
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
1. Radar: The term radar stands for radio detection and ranging. Radar
came into wide use during World War II (1939 1945) as a way of detecting
aircraft and ships from distance and estimating their locations. Radar works
by transmitting microwaves, receiving reflections of the waves from objects
the waves strike, and converting these patterns into visual images on a
screen. Today, radar technology is used to control air traffic at airports,
analyze weather conditions and measure the speed of a moving vehicle.[7]
2. Cell Phones: A cell phone is actually a radio transmitter and receiver that
uses microwaves. Cell phones depend on an overlapping network of cells,
or areas of land several kilometers in diameter. Each cell has at its center a
tower that sends and receives microwave signals. The tower connects cell
phones inside the cell to each other or to the regular wire based
telephone system. These two connecting paths are shown in the figure
below.[7]
52
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
53
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
54
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
III.7 CONCLUSION.
In this chapter, we have seen some of the applications of electromagnetic
waves in telecommunications. That is, summarily, weve seen how AM radio
waves are used in long distance communications, FM radio waves are used in
short distance communications, TV waves are used in both audio and video
signals. Microwaves are used in radar and cell phone communications. Infrared
radiation is used in wireless communications especially WLANs (wireless area
networks). Visible light is used in VLC (visible light communication) which use LEDs
(light emitting diodes) for illumination and communication simultaneously. And
lastly weve seen some advantages of the optical wireless communications
(OWCs) over radio waves communications.
55
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
GENERAL CONCLUSION.
It has been of course a great deal since so far, weve discussed the
electromagnetic waves, beginning from the brief history of electromagnetic
waves, later on the derivation of the Maxwells Equations which, in their
differential form read
) . = /, ) = .
) . = 0, ) = +
We went on to see some generalities of electromagnetic waves in chapter one
and then in chapter two, we saw the electromagnetic spectrum and each of the
electromagnetic waves in the spectrum was discussed; that is, how they are
produced, some general uses , and their effects on the environment. And finally,
in chapter three, we then saw finally, some applications of electromagnetic waves
in telecommunications.
From the above Knowledge, we can really conclude that if the study of
electromagnetic waves is taken deeper, and more researches are carried out so
that some hidden features of electromagnetic waves can be discovered, the
better technologies will evolve as far as electromagnetic waves communication is
concerned.
56
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
APPENDICES
A = Ax (A.1.1)
Where is a unit vector along the x-axis and Ax is the component of A in the x-
direction. Similarly, in 2-D, the same vector A can be represented as
A = Ax + Ay (A.1.2)
A = Ax + Ay + Az (A.1.2)
Where 0 is the radial component of the vector, 0 < < is the polar angle
and 0 < < 2 is the Azimutal angle. Therefore, in the spherical coordinate
system, the components of A are; Ar = rsincos , A = rsinsin , and =
rcos
57
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Partial Derivatives.
The partial derivative of the vector A above in Cartesian coordinates
in 3-D with respect to x is , with respect to y is , and with
respect to z is .
. = + + (A.1.4)
Where the quantity
= + + (A.1.5)
Is the gradient operator.
= (A.1.6)
. = . (A.2.1)
58
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
Stokes Theorem.
The Stokes theorem or the fundamental theorem of curls states that
the integral of the curl of a vector function A over a patch of a
surface, is equal to the value of the function at the perimeter of the
patch. That is,
. = . (A.2.2)
E=- V (B.1.1)
V=- (B.1.2)
V = 0 (B.1.3)
59
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Wireless Infrared Communications by Jeffrey B. Carruthers Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering Boston University, Boston, MA 02215 USA,
pp. 1.
[2] D. Lee, J. Kahn, and M. Audeh, \Trellis-coded pulse position modulation for
indoor wireless infrared communications," IEEE Transactions on Communications,
pp. 1080,1087, Sept. 1997.
[6] PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINNERS 6th Edition, by Raymond A. Serway
and John W. Jewett, Jr. Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved, pp. 1080,
1081.
[7] www.effinghamschools.com
[8] Schetgen, Robert (Ed.) (2005). The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communication.
Newington, Conn.: Amateur Radio Relay League.
[9] http://en.m.wikipedia.org
60
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
[10] Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering Third Edition K.F. RILEY,
M.P. HOBSON and S.J. BENCE. Cambridge University press Cambridge, New York,
Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, and So Paulo, pp. 437 454.
[12] ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND WAVES, Including Electric Circuits. By; Paul
Lorrain University of Montral and McGill University, Dale R. Corson Cornell
University, Francois Lorrain. W.H Freeman and company New York, pp. 594
645.
[13] M. Nelkon & R. Parker, Advanced Level Physics, Third Edition With SI Units
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, LONDON EDINBURGH MELBOURNE TORONTO,
SINGAPORE JOHANNESBURG ACKLAND, IBADAN HONG KONG NAIROBI, NEW
DELHI, pp. 980 989.
61