CD Zbornik Simpozija Psihologije Sporta

Kinezioloki fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu
European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC)

Hrvatsko psiholoko drutvo
Hrvatska psiholoka komora
1. meunarodni znanstveno-struni simpozij

psihologije sporta
SPORTSKI USPJEH:
KAKO PSIHOLOGIJA MOE POMOI?
Zagreb, 20. travnja 2013.

Urednice:
Renata Bari
Zrinka Greblo
European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC)
Hrvatsko psiholoko drutvo
Hrvatska psiholoka komora
1. meunarodni znanstveno-struni simpozij psihologije sporta

SPORTSKI USPJEH:
KAKO PSIHOLOGIJA MOE POMOI?
Zagreb, 20. travnja 2013.
ZBORNIK RADOVA
Urednice:
Renata Bari
Zrinka Greblo

Zagreb, 2013.
Izdava: Sveuilite u Zagrebu, Kinezioloki fakultet
Za izdavaa: prof.dr.sc. Igor Juki, dekan Kineziolokog fakulteta Sveuilita uZagrebu
Urednice: doc.dr.sc. Renata Bari, Sveuilite u Zagrebu, Kinezioloki fakultet

dr.sc. Zrinka Greblo, Sveuilite u Zagrebu, Kinezioloki fakultet
Programski i
organizacijski odbor: doc.dr.sc. Renata Bari, predsjednica
dr.sc. Zrinka Greblo, potpredsjednica
Josip Lopii, prof.
Amir Zuli, prof.
Anelko Botica, prof.
Nikolina Boinovi, prof.
Stjepka Lei, prof.
Natalija Babi, tajnica
Danijela Gudelj, suradnica
Tisak: W.S.P. d.o.o
Naklada: 140 primjeraka
Zagreb, 2013.
CIP Katalogizacija u publikaciji
Nacionalna i sveuilina knjinica Zagreb
CIP zapis dostupan u raunalnom katalogu Nacionalne i sveuiline knjinice u Zagrebu

pod brojem 840267
ISBN 978-953-317-018-3
3
Sadraj:
Pozvana predavanja
OCCURENCE AND PREVENTION OF TRANSITIONAL CRISIS IN THE 5

CAREER OF ELITE ATHLETS, Paul Wylleman
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL AND CORTICAL PATTERN OF ATHLETIC 6

PERFORMANCE WITHIN MULTI-ACTION PLAN MODEL, Maurizio Bertollo
NURTURING SPORT CAREER DEELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF SPORT 11

PSYCHOLOGIST, Saa-Ceci Erpi
THE PRESENCE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST ON OLYMPIC COMPETITION, 16

Tanja Kajtna
REPEATED SPORT PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFICULTIES FROM A 18

PSYCHOANALYTICAL PERSPECTIVE, Alina Gherghisan
SHARED MENTAL MODELS: INTERACTIVE BRAINS IN TEAM SPORT, 23

Medeiros Filho Edison
NAPREDAK U TE-TA ELEMENTIMA IGRE UZ POMO PSIHOLOKE 26

PRIRPEME PRIKAZ SLUAJA, Ale Vii
UIVAMO LI U NEIZVJESNOSTI?, Amir Zuli 29
CILJEVI I SPECIFINOSTI RADA SPORTSKOG PSIHOLOGA U EKIPNIM 31

SPORTOVIMA, Anelko Botica
EMOCIONALNI PROFIL SREBRNIH OLIMPIJSKIH VESLAA, Renata Bari 33
PERFEKCIONIZAM: PREDUVJET ILI PREPREKA ZA OSTVARENJE 38

SPORTSKOG USPJEHA?, Zrinka Greblo
KRATKE BIOGRAFIJE POZVANIH PREDAVAA 43
4
OCCURRENCE AND PREVENTION OF TRANSITIONAL CRISIS IN
THE CAREER OF TALENTED AND ELITE ATHLETES
Paul Wylleman
Research group Sport Psychology and Mental Support

Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy / Faculty of Psychology and Educational
sciences
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Based upon research and applied sport psychological and career support with a wide
variety of athletes, the Developmental Model of Transitions in Sport (Wylleman, Reints, & De
Knop, 2013a/b) was developed which provides an overview and understanding of the
(multilevel) transitional demands on athletes throughout their athletic career and of the
resources available to them to cope with the transitions in their athletic development.
This Developmental Model of Transitions in Sport will be used to illustrate the provision of
career support services to talented, elite and retired athletes. Career support services will be
delineated in function of three major transitions and career stages, namely (primary, secondary,
higher) education (from age nine onwards), the athletic career (from age 1416 onwards) and
the post-athletic career (from 2628 years of age onwards).Examples will include the proactive
and educational approach aimed at teaching young talented athletes, from the athletic
development stage onward, skills required at the time of the onset of a particular transitional
challenge and career stage for them to cope efficiently and effectively with that particular
challenge or stage. This will be followed with research data on the career support services
required by elite and retiring athletes. Finally, case studies will be used to illustrate the need
and use of this particular type of support.
References
Wylleman, P., Reints, A., & De Knop, P. (2013a). A developmental and holistic perspective on
athletic career development. In P. Sotiaradou & V. De Bosscher (Eds.), Managing High
Performance Sport (pp. 159-182). New York, NY: Routledge.
Wylleman, P., Reints, A., & De Knop, P. (2013b). Athletes careers in Belgium. A holistic
perspective to understand and alleviate challenges occurring throughout the athletic and
post- athletic career. In N. Stambulova & T. Ryba (Eds.), Athletes Careers across Cultures.
New York, NY: Routledge ISSP (978-0-415-50530-7).
5
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL AND CORTICAL PATTERNS OF
ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE WITHIN THE MULTI-ACTION PLAN
MODEL
Maurizio Bertollo
BIND - Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics Center

University G. dAnnunzio of Chieti-Pescara (Italy)
There is growing interest in the study of theoretical and applied issues regarding the
psychophysiological processes underlying performance in sports (Strack et al., 2011).
Psychophysiological monitoring, which enables the study of such processes, consists in
assessing activation and functioning levels of the organism. Noteworthy, psychophysiological
measures allow for a multimodal understanding of mind-body interactions (Cacioppo et al.,
2007). In the sport domain, such measures are used to uncover the mediating mechanisms that
underlie expertise acquisition and optimal performance. In fact, multimodal and
multidimensional assessments across domains (e.g., motor behaviour, sport psychology,
psycho-neuro-physiology) permit to measure performance-related cognitive and emotional
experiences. Together with classical sport and exercise psychology methods, such as self-
reports, behavioural data, and kinematic observations, psychophysiological techniques,
including electrodermal activity recording (EDA), breath rhythm via piezo-based respiratory
belts, electromyography (EMG), electrocardiography (ECG), and electroencephalography
(EEG), may help elucidating the entire spectrum of psychophysiological, cortical and
behavioural features related to performance. A multimodal approach may help (1) identifying
athletes individual zones of optimal functioning, (2) developing performance enhancement
guidelines based on bio- and neurofeedback techniques, and (3) improving self-regulation skills
that would inhibit choking under competitive pressure.
The psychophysiological, cortical, behavioural, and kinematic features of self-paced
tasks (e.g., shooting, golf putting, dart-throwing, archery) have been usually studied either with
a between-subjects approach by comparing the performance patterns of skilled performers to
those of novices (e.g., Konttinen & Lyytinen, 1992;Goodman et al., 2009; Salazar et al., 1990),
or with a within-subjects approach by contrasting individuals best and worst performance
patterns (Guillot et al., 2003; Konttinen et al., 1998; Tremayne & Barry, 2001). More recently,
several authors have used an idiosyncratic probabilistic approach in the framework of the IZOF
theory to investigate the relationship between performance and affect in different sports
(Bertollo et al. 2012; Edmonds et al., 2006; Medeiros Filho et al., 2008). This uni-dimensional
6
categorization of performance (expert/optimal vs. non-expert/suboptimal) has been recently
challenged by a 2x2 conceptualization in which performance is classified in terms of both
performance level (optimal and sub-optimal) and action control (automatized and controlled)
(Figure 1).
This two-dimensional conceptualization has led Bortoli et al. (2012) to develop a Multi-
Action Plan (MAP) intervention model for performance optimization in the framework of the
IZOF theory (Hanin, 2000).
The multi-action plan (MAP) model reflects the notion that different psycho-bio-social states
underlie distinct performance-related experiences. Empirical evidence suggests that attentional
focus, affective states, and psychophysiological patterns differ among optimal-automatic (type
1), optimal-controlled (type 2), suboptimal-controlled (type 3), and suboptimal-automatic (type
4) performance experiences (Bortoli et al., 2012; Bertollo et al., 2013).
Figure 1. 2 x 2 performance categorization: optimal-automatic (type 1), optimal-controlled (type 2), suboptimal-
controlled (type 3), and suboptimal-automatic (type 4) performance experiences.
The aim of the present talk is to present the psychophysiological and cortical patterns related to
Individual Zone of Optimal Performance within the MAP model.
Method
Self-paced sports athlete have been investigated (e.g. pistol and rifle shooters, dart-
throwers). At first, athletes were asked to accurately describe their optimal sequence of actions
for the execution of a single shot from start to follow-through, and to identify a small number
of core components considered fundamental for optimal achievements following the MAP
7
procedure (Bortoli et al., 2012). In order to examine the underpinning psychophysiological,
emotional, cortical, and postural patterns associated with the four (2x2) performance categories
derived from the MAP model the athletes were also asked to perform a large number of shots
during a practice session (Figure 2). Prior to each action, they rated their hedonic tone
(affective state) on a modified 11 point Borg scale. After each action, they also rated their
perceived levels of both control and execution accuracy of their core components. By using a
Bioharness (zephyr technology) and a UFI Skin conductance meter, both connected by a bio
amplifier to the Power lab (ADIntruments), ECG, EDA and kinematic data were collected
throughout performance. EEG data were recorded with a 32 channels ASALAB system
(Advance Neurotechnology - ANT).
Figure 2. Experimental set up with pistol (left side) and rifle (right side) shooters.
Results and Discussion

Results showed specific psychophysiological, emotional, and postural patterns (i.e.
indexes associated with IZOF) related to the 2x2 performance categorization, thereby providing
strong support to the predictions stemming from the MAP model (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Psychophysiological, and postural patterns associates to four type of performances
EEG data analysis also revealed differences in cortical activation related to performance
categories (Figure 4). Specifically, type 1 performance (Q1 - optimal-automatic) was
8
characterized by clear Event-Related Synchronization (ERS) in the bilateral centro-parieto-
occipital areas (visualized as blue areas), whereas an opposite effect, i.e. a clear Event-Related
Desynchronization (ERD) in the occipital area (visualized as yellow-red areas), was observed
for type 3 performance (Q3 - suboptimal-controlled). Variations of these patterns were noticed
for type 2 (Q2 - optimal-controlled) and type 4 (Q4 - suboptimal-automatic) performance
experiences.
Figure 4. Topographical distribution of the high-frequency alpha ERD/ERS amplitude
Since ERS in centro-parieto-occipital areas is generally associated with resting state

cortical activity, while ERD in those areas is usually related to movement onset, our EEG
findings suggest that a reduced cortical activation is associated with type 1 performance (Q1 -
optimal-automatic), where the optimal performance is achieved instinctively, thereby
supporting the well-established neural efficiency hypothesis (Nakata et al., 2010).
Additionally, results confirmed that athletes may as well attain a good level of performance
(type 2 performance - Q2) while controlling the idiosyncratic core components of action,
corresponding to a condition of low cortical activation. These findings are consistent with the
MAP framework, in which unique psycho-bio-social states underlie distinct performance-
related experiences.
References
Bertollo, M., Bortoli, L., Gramaccioni, G., Hanin, Y., Comani, S., & Robazza, C. (2013).
Behavioural and psychophysiological correlates of athletic performance: A test of the
multi-action plan model. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. [Epub ahead of print]
DOI 10.1007/s10484-013-9211-z
Bertollo, M., Robazza, C., Falasca, W. N., Stocchi, M., Babiloni, C., Del Percio, C., Comani
S. (2012). Temporal pattern of pre-shooting psychophysiological states in elite athletes: A
probabilistic approach. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 91-98.
doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.09.005
Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Hanin, Y., & Robazza, C. (2012). Striving for excellence: A multi-
action plan intervention model for shooters. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 693-
701.
9
Cacioppo, J., Tassinary, L., & Bernston G. (2007). The handbook of psychophysiology. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Edmonds, W. A., Mann, D. T. Y., Tenenbaum, G., & Janelle, C. (2006). Analysis of affect-
related performance zones: An idiographic approach using physiological and introspective
data. The Sport Psychologist, 20, 40-57.
Guillot, A., Collet, C., Dittmar, A., Delhomme, G., Delemer, C., & Vernet-Maury E. (2003).
The physiological activation effect on performance in shooting evaluation through
neurovegetative indices. Journal of Psychophysiology, 17, 214-222.
Goodman, S., Haufler, A., Shim, J. K., & Hatfield, B. (2009). Regular and random components
in aiming-point trajectory during rifle aiming and shooting. Journal of Motor Behavior, 41,
367-382.
Hanin, Y. L. (Ed.). (2000). Emotions in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Kontinnen, N., & Lyytinen, H. (1992). Physiology of preparation: Brain slow waves, heart rate,
and respiration preceding triggering in rifle shooting. International Journal of Sport
Psychology, 23, 110-127.
Kontinnen, N., Lyytinen, H., & Viitasalo, J. (1998). Preparatory heart rate patterns in
competitive rifle shooting. Journal of Sports Sciences,16, 235-242.
Medeiros Filho, E., Soares Moraes, L., & Tenenbaum, G. (2008). Affective and physiological
states during archery competitions: Adopting and enhancing the probabilistic methodology
of Individual Affect-Related Performance Zones (IAPZs). Journal of Applied Sport
Nakata, H., Yoshie, M., Miura, A., & Kudo, K. (2010). Characteristics of the athletes' brain:
Evidence from neurophysiology and neuroimaging. Brain Research Reviews, 62, 197-211.
Salazar, W., Landers, D., Petruzzello, S., Hans, S., Crews, D., & Kubitz, K. (1990).
Hemisphere asymmetry, cardiac response, and performance in elite archers. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 351-359.
Strack, B. Linden, M., & Wilson V. S. (2011). Biofeedback and neurofeedback applications in
sport psychology. Wheat Ridge, CO: Association for Applied Psychophysiology and
Biofeedback.
Tremayne, P., & Barry, R. J. (2001). Elite pistol shooters: Physiological patterning of best vs.
worst shots. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 41, 19-29.
10
NURTURING SPORT CAREER DEVELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF
SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST
Saa Ceci Erpi

Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Introduction
During the past four decades research into the career development of talented and elite
athletes has evolved into a growing topic of study among the sport psychology community
(Wylleman, Lavallee, & Theeboom, 2004). Special Interest Group Career Transitions in
Sport formed under the umbrella of European Federation for Sport Psychology (FEPSAC) is
significantly accountable for broadening the interest to research the career related topics.
According to FEPSAC (European Federation of Sport Psychology, 2000) sports career is
defined as the multiyear sports activities of the individual aimed at high level sports
achievements and self-improvement in sport. It is not a homogenous entity but is composed of
several stages. Each stage, including sports career transition and adaptation to post-sports life,
is characterized by a set of specific demands requiring adjustment by athletes and has therefore
been comprehended as a transition.
The review of newer perspectives on the career development and its termination of elite
athletes
First career transition studies comprehended the retirement from sport as a singular
event, followed by traumatic and variously difficult consequences. Since then several applied
studies have shown just the opposite: career termination can be seen as a positive life event that
is actually a process that needs adjustment on several spheres of athletes life. Employing
Schlossbergs Model of human adaptation to transition (Schlossberg, Waters & Goodman,
1995) in the sport setting, sport career termination and adaptation to post-sport life can be seen
as a transition, which is defined as an event or non-event which results in a change in
assumptions about oneself and the world and thus requires a corresponding change in ones
behavior and relationships (Schlossberg, 1981; p. 5). The result of sport career transition
(SCT), which is an important life event and therefore has to be coped with, is either successful
adjustment or adjustment that is accompanied with variously intensive difficulties. Results of
different empirical studies show that retiring athletes cope with difficulties on psychological
(e.g. identity crisis, loss of self-worth, low self-esteem, alcohol and drug abuse), physical (e.g.
injuries, health problems, difficulties with detraining), psychosocial (e.g. social loneliness,
11
problems to engage in new sport non-related relationships), and socio-economic or financial
(e.g. absence of a professional career, lack of professional qualification, unsuitable professional
career, drop in financial income) level (Ceci Erpi, 2002; Ceci Erpi, Wylleman, &
Zupani, 2004; Ceci Erpi & Wylleman, 2005; Wylleman, Lavallee & Alfermann, 1999).
Based on the several empirical research and applied sport psychological support with a wide
variety of athletes, Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) proposed a Developmental perspective on
transitions faced by athletes. It is a lifespan model that reflects the concurrent, interactive, and
reciprocal nature of athletes development in four domains, i.e., athletic, psychological,
psychosocial, academic and vocational domain (Wylleman & Reints, 2010). Each of four
domains of development are marked by normative transitions. It uses a whole career
approach, describing sports career from the initiation phase through post-sports career phase as
well as a holistic approach, i.e. describing all four domains of athletes development (for
details see Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). The model describes four distinctive phases of sports
career, namely initiation, developmental, mastery and discontinuation phase. Although these
phases are normative in nature, major differences may occur in-between sports, taking into the
account the characteristics of sport disciplines (e.g.; peak of the career in gymnastics happens
much earlier that in rowing or long distance running).
Career assistance interventions

Career assistance (CA) is a discourse in applied sport psychology focused on helping
athletes with various issues related to their careers in and out of sport (Stambulova, Alfermann,
Statler & Ct, 2009). According to Stambulova (2003) there are seven major types of CA
interventions. Career planning and lifestyle management represent preventive perspectives.
When crisis or negative consequences have already emerged, crisis-coping education and
clinical interventions can be used. Interventions such as life-skills training, identity
development and cultural adaptation can be used either in preventive or curative way
(Stambulova, 2003).
The role of sport psychologist in career transitions

One of the recent trends in applied sport psychology is a shift from the performance-
enhancement perspective to the holistic lifespan perspective (Stambulova, Alfermann, Statler &
Ct, 2009; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). As mentioned above, holistic lifespan perspective
treats athletes as individuals doing sports alongside other things in their lives. Stambulova and
12
colleagues (2009), authors of ISSP (International Society for Sport Psychology) position stand,
comprehend career assistance as an important aspect of applied sports psychologists work. The
role of psychologist is therefore to support athletes through athletic and non-athletic transitions
during sporting careers. Athletes failure in coping with the special characteristics of transitions
during career is often followed by negative long-term consequences. On the other hand,
successful coping with transitions improves athletes odds to have a long and successful career
and smooth adaptation to post-sports life. Helping athletes with career planning is one of
important aspects of preventing crisis-transitions (Stambulova, 2010).
The conceptual model for assistance in career transitions, developed by Stambulova (2003) is
one of the models that explain the process of counseling related to the transitions in sports
careers. Figure 1 shows the model of coping with the demands of transitions in sport.
Figure 1: The conceptual model for assistance in career transitions (ACT model, Stambulova,
2003)
The Five Step Career Planning Strategy (5-SCP) developed by N. Stambulova (2010) is one of
the most cited and widely used counseling frameworks for career assistance. The model is a
framework for a dialogue between a consultant and an athlete (client). It is aimed at helping the
client to increase awareness of his/her past experiences, and to be better prepared for the
forthcoming transitions in sport and in life (Stambulova, 2010). 5-SCP is focused on the
planning of a life career that incorporates all aspects of athletes life. The model is not focused
on sporting aspect alone as it comprehends an athlete from a holistic and lifespan perspective. It
is composed of five steps that are dealing with clients past experiences, current situation, and
perceived future in various spheres of life. The main idea of the model is bridging the past with
13
the present and the present with the future. The focal point is of course the present situation,
which integrates the past and is a link to a future in athletes development.
One of the main questions for applied sport psychologist career-vice is how to help the athlete
to be prepared for coping with transitions. Psychologist can help with education and presenting
information about the transition, while helping the athlete to develop transferable skills.
Transferable life-skills are those that are originally developed in the sport setting but are also
important for functioning in sport non-related settings (e.g., school, professional-vocational
setting). Counseling should be oriented toward the athletes functioning in the performance-
oriented climate, his/her management of energy and time as well as on the personal skills such
as persistence, competitiveness, being a team-player, effectiveness just to name the few. Sport
psychologist should also help athlete to develop effective coping skills. Coping skills such as
rational thinking (e.g., realistic expectations, positive mental attitude), goal-setting skills (long-
short term goals, outcome vs. performance goals), time management skills, coping strategies
(success and failure in terms of performance goals, role conflicts student vs. athlete) and
stress-management skills (cognitive, somatic) should be covered in the counseling sessions.
When transition occurs, the role of sport psychologist should be oriented toward developing the
support network, mobilizing coping resources and buffering the impact of stressful aspects of
transition. The role of the sport psychologist doesnt stop with the transition but should be
prolonged into the post-transition. After athlete has already passed the transition, counseling
should be oriented towards the development of referral network and identifying as well as
developing coping resources to manage consequences of transition.
References
Ceci Erpi, S. (2002). Konec portne kariere: Razvojno psiholoki in portno psiholoki vidiki
Sports career termination: Developmental- and sport- psychological aspects. Ljubljana:
Faculty of Sports.
Ceci Erpi, S., & Wylleman, P. (2005). Socio-psychological perspective on traumatic

retirement from sports. In D. Milanovi in F. Prot (Eds.), 4th International Scientific
Conference on Kinesiology: Proceedings book (pp. 654-657). Zagreb: Faculty of
Kinesiology, University of Zagreb.
Ceci Erpi, S., Wylleman, P., & Zupani, M. (2004). The effect of athletic and non-athletic
factors on the sports career termination process. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5 (1),
45-59.
14
European Federation of Sport Psychology (2000). Position statement 3: Sports career
transitions. In D. Lavallee, & P. Wylleman (Eds.) Career transitions in sport: International
perspective (pp. 259-261). Morgantown: Fitness Information Technology.
Schlossberg, N. K. (1981). A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. The

Counseling psychologist, 9 (2), 2-18.
Schlossberg, N. K., Waters, E. B., & Goodman, J. (1995). Counseling adults in transition:
Linking practice with theory. New York: Springer.
Stambulova, N. (2003). Symptoms of a crisis-transition: A grounded theory study. In N.

Hassmn (Ed.), SIPF Yearbook 2003 (pp. 97-109). rebro: rebro University Press.
Stambulova, N. (2010). Counseling athletes in career transitions: The five-step career planning
strategy. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 1, 95-105.
Stambulova, N., Alfermann, D., Statler, T., Ct, J. (2009). ISSP Position Stand: Career
development and transitions of athletes. International Journal of sport and Exercise
Wylleman, P., & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by

athletes. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A lifespan
perspective (pp. 507-527). Morgantown, WV: FIT.
Wylleman, P., Lavallee, D. & Alfermann, D. (1999). Career transitions in competitive sports.
Biel, Switzerland: FEPSAC.
Wylleman, P., Lavallee, D., & Theeboom, M. (2004). Successful athletic careers. In C.
Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (pp. 511-518). San Diego, CA:
Elsevier.
Wylleman, P., & Reints, A. (2010). A lifespan perspective on the career of talented and elite
athletes: Perspectives on high-intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and
Science in Sports, 20 (Suppl. 2), 1-7.
15
THE PRESENCE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST ON AN OLYMPIC
COMPETITION
Tanja Kajtna
Faculty of sport, University of Ljubljana
The role of a sport psychologist is to help the athlete perform at his or her best in the
competition. The psychologist can achieve this by teaching the athlete techniques, that will help
the athlete attain self control, focus (Kajtna & Jeromen, 2007; Morriss & Summers, 1995;
Cox, 1994). A lot of the work is based on thought control and establishing positive self talk,
goal setting Solving immediate problems is also one of the sport psychologist's tasks,
responding to immediate situations, communication with the coach and several others. On a
competition, one of the most important tasks is to help the athlete with establishing a mental
state that will allow for the best possible performance, often through helping the athlete with
pre-perfomance routines (Csikszentmihaly, 1990).
These tasks are more easily accomplished when there is a previous acquaintance between the
psychologist and the athlete and after there has been established a relationship between the
both, which includes an appropriate amount of trust (Ferjan, 2004). When athletes and coaches
do not know the psychologist from before, a lot of the roles and tasks, that a psychologist could
perform, cannot be carried out. An Olympic event is stressful in itself and any additional
novelty can add to that stress. A psychologist, who meets the athletes for the first time on the
event, can only offer information about what sport psychology is, can inform, perhaps show a
technique or two, but he or she should not attempt to change any preparation routines.
The role of a sport psychologist on an Olympic event is thus far more efficient, if it can start
already before the competition, well in advance. This means that the athletes should meet the
sport psychologist already before the competition, so that the psychologist can gain their trust.
This can be carried out on training camps or meetings of Olympic athletes, where the
psychologist or psychologists, who will be at the venue, can present what he/she can do and
where arrangements can be made what the role of the psychologist for each individual athlete
or team will be like. The same goes for coaches, since one important aspect of the
psychologists involvement in a large athletic competition is helping the coaches to cope with
the pressure (Martens, 1997).
16
This means that the psychologist attending should be chosen well in advance, so that he/she has
the time to coordinate activities, to meet with psychologists, who are working with other
athletes, since there are usually several psychologists working with Olympic athletes, not just
the one/s, attending the games attending the games as a team psychologist means that you
often have to work with people, who have previously established relationships with other
professionals and this calls for a large amount of professionalism among people from the same
branch of work (Hunt & Baruch, 2003), in this case psychologists.
Attending an Olympic event is also a big wake up call for any psychologist, since it really
becomes evident, how important good psychological preparation is and how important it is to
be able to gain the appropriate amount of control of one's mental states and occurrences.
References
Cox, R.H. (1994). Sport psychology - concepts and applications. Madison: Brown &
Benchmark.
Csikszentmihaly, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper
& Row.
Ferjan, E. (2004). Usposabljanje za timsko delo - diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Univerza v

Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta.
Hunt, J. W., & Baruch, Y. (2003). Developing top managers - the impact of interpersonal skills
training. Journal of Management Development, 22(8), 729 - 752.
Kajtna, T., & Jeromen, T. (2007). port z bistro glavo utrinski iz portne psihologije za mlade
portnike. Ljubljana: samozaloba.
Martens, R. (1997). Successful coaching (3rd edition). Champaign: Human kinetics.
Morris, T., & Summers, J. (1995). Sport psychology: Theory, application & issues. Milton:
Jacaranda Wiley.
17
REPEATED SPORTS PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFICULTIES FROM A
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Alina Isabela Gherghisan
National Institute for Sports Research, Bucharest
Sports psychology or the interdependency psyche-soma

Sports psychology is a relatively young domain and it is about the strong interdependency
between psyche and soma, beyond their average boundaries, referring visibly and almost palpable to
these two remarkable entities and only together define us as live human beings. This interdependency
can be described in a simple manner as it follows: Whatever the mind remembers, the body retains; and
whatever the body remembers, the mind processes, develops and transforms.
The real important fact related to sport psychology is that the existence of athletes compounds
and varies between two fundamental directions:
The sports/performance direction where there is a Sports Ideal an ideal of Ego imposed by
the outer reality and an Ideal Ego shaped through the inner reality, a permanent tendency
towards performance and over-edging limits, a distinct reality centred and dedicated to sports.
Self-preservation almost does not exist; masochism and perfectionism constitute
themselves as fundamental elements.
The non-sports/performance direction where everything that is torn apart, destroyed or
traumatized tries to cure, to repair, and to be. In this context, there is an ideal, this time
human, distinct, as an integrated part of the Superego constituted in conformity with the
imposed exigencies and with those learned or seen, towards which the Ego tends to conform.
Traditional sports psychology tends to have a rather limited or myopic perspective in which it
concerns approaching athletes, tending to over-concentrate on solving the performance related problems
or on solving symptoms and ignoring the athlete as a unique individual. (Anghel, 2011,
Grand&Goldberg, 2011)
Also, considering the fact that the individual/the athlete is in direct, constant and permanent
contact with the family environment, the educational environment, and also with the social and with the
sports environment, etc. ... there is obvious interdependence between these environments, all of them
converging into performance, where all emotional expressions have a voice through and in the body.
So, whether it's sport performance or high sport performance, sports psychology is better at focusing on
optimizing, maximizing and structuring at all levels, considering that all these dimensions are a fact of
the inner and outer reality of the athletes. In other words, we believe that sports psychology is not
allowed to separate performance related issues from who is the athlete as a unique human being,
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because sports performance happens where the athlete is as complex and complete individual and
performance happens in and with him. In addition, the roots of all significant issues related to athletic
performance are in the traumatic history of the athlete, both sports related and non-sports related.
The psychic apparatus of top-athletes

The problematic of the individual practicing high-level sports, as well as that of the sports
environment, is far more complicated than those of non-athletes or professional non-performance
environments. First, the top-athlete is separated from the secure and comfortable family environment or
even hometown. The rules of conduct, the non-sporting social and moral standards of living are doubled
and later replaced with rules and regulations specific to the sport chosen. The pace of life, the priorities
and the interests change, the individual assimilating the sport-specific ones as his own.
In the context of performance in sports, the athlete does not want anything ordinary - he
seeks/wants performance and this has the following characteristics: a separate environment from the
non-performance one, with its own set of rules and structures; the lack of limits in the Egos structure of
the athlete; performance aspirations; often performance goes against the interests of the athlete as a
whole; performance demands self-denial and self-destruction and devotion to the world.
Therefore, the death drive, in the context of sports performance is essential. In the absence of
self-destructive tendencies, without self-sacrifice, without taking risks at all costs, performance would
not exist. Obviously, the life drive has its own role, mainly through the ability to make repairs.
Of particular interest in sport psychology is that the Ego is constituted as a default connection
between sensory perception and muscular action, in other words, the Ego is in charge of voluntary
movements. In addition, the Ego has self-affirmation task, and it is in contact with the exterior plan, with
the outer reality. From this perspective, as weve mentioned above, the athlete is in direct contact with at
least two different outer realities: the performance reality and the non-sports reality. Also, he has ideals
(performance ideals and non-performance ideals) and he follows different sets of regulations (the moral
and social regulations of the non-performance environment and those sports related and/or related to the
performance environment, which, most of the time, are in contradiction).
Due to the demands of the performance environment, on the structure of the archaic instances
(Klein, 2008), two new psychic instances are formed seeking to meet performance criteria, and also the
instinctual requirements. The Performance-Ego and Superego do not work according or in peace with
the other three psychic instances (The ID, The Ego and The Superego), but sometimes against them.
We believe that the two psychic instances: The Performance-Ego and the Performance-
Superego are two distinct instances and are formed on the archaic structures, considering several
reasons: Ego and superego are formed by identification and athlete enters a new environment, where he
tends to identify; Sports reality contrasts with non-sports reality and its requirements are highly similar
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to those in the early stages of development, referring here to the negotiation of two types of constraints:
compulsion exigencies (pleasure principle) and reality (reality principle), and also to the primary
distribution. The concept archaic is used to refer to a particular aspect of the psyche that was
organized in a distant past and which contrasts with new, more evolved organization.
Ego cleavage is a process through which the Ego is split into two parts. One remains in contact
with the reality and the other, by delirium, builds a new reality. This defense process protects the Ego
against the anxiety of fritter. The Ego breaks trying to avoid its own extinction. "(Roussillon, 2010,
p.309) or" ... ego splits to save what can be saved. "(Andre, 2010, p.19). This case, there is no cleavage
of an ego because the ego remains permanently in touch with reality, but in contact with two different
realities, where the good and the bad objects are different, environmental requirements are different, the
things succeed differently and the normality of one reality is the abnormality of the other.
Due to strong anxiety, especially in which it concerns the integrity of the body, the archaic
instances "re-consolidate" themselves in a specific form for performance: the Performance-Ego and the
Performance-Superego that operate under the influence of the external reality the sports environment.
Another argument is that of the difficulties that one athlete faces when ending the sports career and,
often, his obvious need to stay in touch with the world of sports.
Repeated sports performance psychological difficulties

When referring to repeated sports performance psychological difficulties (RSPPD) we refer to
those experiences which are not consumed and normally processed and remain in the mind and the
body of the athlete as traumatic remains and which provide support for: anxiety, body tension, lack of
concentration, fears or repeated injuries or medical conditions. The athletes are usually not aware of the
causes of these RSPPD and they perceive it as an incurable disease in the case of anxiety or fears or
bad luck in the case of repeated sports injuries.
RSPPD are usually a result of a variety of negative or traumatic past events that are still blocked
in the body and in the mind of the athlete, because they were not to pay attention to or they had to be
forgotten right away. The construction resulted from these traumas, silent and hidden, shapes in the
inner monsters that wont let go (Anghel, 2011) and that contribute to the perpetuation of RSPPD.
Also, a significant part of the emotional events which can constitute as traumas may be caused
by the conflicts between the psychic instances, as we will describe in the case-study section. The mute
body may be the place for expressing suffering, the intra-psychic conflicts, when they are not
consumed, clarified, healthily expressed. A sports environment generating mostly frustration (caused
either by external conditions or by reporting to the internal prohibitions) and an existence marked by
suffering or absent, may cause dysfunction in the body as a place of expression of the self.
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The symptom makes sense for intra-psychic conflicts, for a rigid Performance-Superego and
also for the tensions between the Ego and an extremely cruel Superego. Also, the separation anxieties
and the anxieties of annihilation as archaic anguishes have an important role in the incidence of RSPPD.
Case-studies
1. A case-study regarding repeated sports injuries: The first case-study presents the situation of
a top gymnast who had the characteristics of an injury-prone athlete. At first he didnt accept the
presence of a sports psychologist and he refused any communication. He held each year one serious
injury like: femoral biceps rupture, ah tendon rupture and other. Although he refused any
communication, after 6 months of silent observation, he started to ask questions about a friend, asking
additional details. From an outer perspective, the athlete seemed very responsible and efficient.
However, considering a strong wish to succeed he has a significant tendency towards over-training and
burn-out. In time, the psychological assistance process proved that the tendency of exceeding his own
limits is a symptom for a strong need of being loved, lack of affection discovered in his personal history.
2. A case-study of multiple fears: Fears in gymnastics may only seem the greatest nightmare of
both athletes and coaches. The second case-study presents the story of a top-level gymnast whose
traumas from the personal history, as well as, those in the performance history were hidden behind
fears. Abandonment, death anguish and fear of annihilation shaped in the form of monsters that
wouldnt let go.
3. A case-study of lack of patience and concentration issues: The third case-study presents the
symptoms of lack of patience and concentration issues as a symptom for personal traumas and as a sign
for psychological resistances which belong to the Ego and to the Performance Ego. The frozen traumas
and the lack of patience appear in the form of perfectionism and combativeness, as signs for deeper
meanings.
Psychological intervention strategies

Even if the traditional psychology would approach the symptoms as main issues to be solved,
we consider that a deeper look is more appropriate. Our manner of work is to know, understand and
approach the whole history of the athlete and to make associations between the symptom, the hidden
message of the symptom and some traumatic facts in the history of the athlete. Also, we consider that
understanding the dynamics of the athlete, as well as the inner conflicts facilitate solving the cause of the
symptom, not only the symptom. In the other case, the main risks are to solve the symptom and later on,
to let it appear in another form.
In my work, during the psychological assistance I only search the insight, which is always
sense connection (Etchegoyen, 2011, p.578). Also, giving insights creates an emotional relationship
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between the psychologist and the athlete, which most of the times solves the abandonment issues or any
kind of emotional deprivation and inhibition.
When giving insights in cases of repeated sports psychological difficulties, I sometimes assume
that the relationship between remembering and repetition is so subtle and complex that whatever the
athlete isnt able to remember at a certain moment has been already put in act or it is to be put.
Therefore, another goal in my work is to evaluate and analyze the acting-out as a repetition which stands
for remembering what is painful and had been forgotten.
References
Andre, J. (2010). 100 de cuvinte ale psihanalizei [100 words of psychoanalysis]. Bucuresti: Editura
Fundatiei Generatia.
Anghel, A. (2011). Implicarea factorului psihologic in etiologie in etiologia traumatismelor sportive si

a afectiunii medicale in rugby [Involvement of psychological factors in the etiology etiology in
sports injuries and medical condition in rugby]. Pitesti: Doctoral Thesis.
Etchegoyen, H. R. (2011). Fundamentele tehnicii psihanalitice [Fundamentals of psychoanalytic

technique]. Bucuresti: Editura Fundatiei Generatia.
Grand , D., & Goldberg, A. (2011). This is Your Brain on Sports: Beating Blocks, Slumps and
Performance Anxiety for Good! USA: Dogear Publishing.
Klein, M. (2008). Invidie si recunostinta [Envy and gratitude]. Bucuresti: Editura TREI.
Roussillon, R., Chabert, C., Ciccone, A., Ferrant, A., Georieff, N., & Roman, P. (2010). Manual de
psihologie si psihopatologie clinica [Manual of clinical psychology and psychopathology].
Bucuresti: Editura Fundatiei Generatia.
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SHARED MENTAL MODELS:
INTERACTIVE BRAINS IN TEAM SPORTS
Edson Filho
Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center

Faculty of Human Movement Sciences
University of Chieti-Pescara
Society relies on teamwork and strategic decisions are usually made by a team rather
than an individual (Salas, Rosen, Burke, Goodwin, & Fiore, 2006). Accordingly, scholars from
various domains have emphasized the importance of studying shared mental models (SMM) to
promote effective coordination and decision-making in team sports (see Mohammed, Ferzandi,
& Hamilton, 2010). The importance of studying SMM has also been acknowledged in the sport
sciences literature (Eccles & Tenenbaum, 2007). In this paper, current evidence on the socio-
cognitive mechanisms underlying team-expertise in sports, as particularly related to the notion
of SMM, is briefly reviewed. Specifically, current understanding of the forms and contents of
SMM is presented. Furthermore, the nature of implicit and explicit coordination mechanism is
reviewed and future directions of research are outlined.
SMM: Purposes and Forms

Defined as the collective task and team relevant knowledge that team members bring
to a situation (Cooke et al., 2000, p .153), SMM are thought to provide a heuristic route (i.e.,
rule of thumb) to members of a given team, thus accelerating coordination and optimizing team
decision-making (Salas & Klein, 2001). Noteworthy, three forms of shared knowledge are
particularly common within working groups (see Mohammed et al., 2010). Declarative
knowledge refers to knowledge of what to do, and is usually expressed via spoken, written or
graphic language (e.g., clipboard for technical/tactical planning). Procedural knowledge
implies know how, and is expressed through task performance (e.g., set plays on corner
kicks). Procedural knowledge is associated with how teammates coordinate their actions in
order to improve team performance. Finally, strategic knowledge is a contextual and applied
knowledge. It represents a teams macro-level knowledge (i.e., general game plan), and refers
to elements discussed in advance in order to organize team actions. In addition to the forms
of shared information, the content of shared knowledge is also an important mechanism
underlying team expertise.
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The Content of SMM
SMM are a reflection of the quality and quantity of teammates (a) task-specific, and (b)
team-related knowledge (see Cooke et al., 2000). Task-related knowledge is task-specific and
idiosyncratically distributed among team members. Team-related knowledge refers to
knowledge held by teammates and their collective understanding of the current situation
(Cooke et al., 2000, p. 154), and involves communal understanding of team procedures,
strategies, and contingency plans. According to Mohammed et al. (2010), task-related
knowledge specifies what needs to be accomplished by each team member, whereas team-
related knowledge refers to between-member coordination (i.e., how work needs to be
accomplished). Noteworthy, the ability to coordinate both task- and team-related knowledge is
at the core of team expertise (Ward & Eccles, 2006).
Coordination Mechanisms
Team expertise has been linked to the optimization of coordination links and the
avoidance of socio-cognitive coordination breakdowns (e.g., Ringelmann effect) (see Eccles &
Tenenbaum, 2007). In fact, various scholars concur with the notion that coordination links are
the atoms of team expertise (Eccles, 2010; Salas et al., 2006). Notwithstanding, while
coordination refers to verbal communication used to facilitate division of labor among
teammates, implicit coordination pertains to the capability of team members to articulate team
level actions without the need for verbal communication (see Eccles & Tenenbaum, 2007;
Ward & Eccles, 2006). Of particular interest, expert teams are known for their ability to rely on
overt, implicit communication rather than covert, explicit communication. To this extent,
empirical evidence suggests that successful teams adapt to highly stressful situations by
favoring implicit rather than explicit models of coordination (Entin & Serfaty, 1999).
Noteworthy, neuroscience techniques (e.g., EEG, fMRI) aimed at spatially and temporally
mapping teammates brain functioning is a promising research avenue which may reveal neural
pathways underlying the abstract notion of SMM.
References
Cooke, N. J. N., Salas, E. E., Cannon-Bowers, J., & Stout, R. J. R. (2000). Measuring team
knowledge. Human Factors, 42, 151-173.
Entin, E. E., & Serfaty, D. (1999). Adaptive team coordination. Human Factors, 41(2), 312-
325. doi:10.1518/001872099779591196
Eccles, D. (2010). The coordination of labour in sports teams. International Review of Sport
and Exercise Psychology, 3(2), 154-170. doi:10.1080/1750984X.2010.519400
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Eccles, D. W., & Tenenbaum, G. (2007). A social-cognitive perspective on team functioning in
sport. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed., pp.
264-283). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Mohammed, S., Ferzandi, L., & Hamilton, K. (2010). Metaphor no more: A 15-year review of
the team mental model construct. Journal of Management, 36(4), 876-910.
doi:10.1177/0149206309356804
Salas, E., & Klein, G. (2001) Expertise and naturalistic decision making: An overview. In E.
Salas & G. Klein, (Eds.), Linking expertise and naturalistic decision making (pp. 3-8).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., Burke, C. S., Goodwin, G. F., & Fiore, S. (2006). The making of a
dream team: When expert teams do best. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich &
R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp.
439-453). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Ward, P., & Eccles, D. W. (2006). A commentary on "team cognition and expert teams:
Emerging insights into performance for exceptional teams." International Journal of Sport
and Exercise Psychology, 4(4), 463-483. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2006.9671808
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NAPREDAK U TEHNIKIM I TAKTIKIM ELEMENTIMA IGRE UZ
POMO PSIHOLOKE PRIPREME PRIKAZ SLUAJA
Ale Vii
Podpora vrhunskim dosekom, Ljubljana
Uobiajeni cilj psiholoke pripreme jest pripremiti sportaa da na natjecanjima pokae

to zna i moe, da uspije ponoviti ono to pokazuje i na treninzima. Drugim rijeima, cilj je da
sportaeva izvedba u stresnim situacijama bude na priblino jednakom nivou kao i u ne-
stresnim situacijama. Zato u radu sa sportskim psihologom sporta ui iroki arsenal razliitih
tehnika psiholoke pripreme.
Jedna od tih tehnika je nauiti sportaa postavljanju ciljeva te fokusiranju na one ciljeve, koji su
pod njegovom kontrolom. To najee podrazumijeva njegovu tehniko-taktiku izvedbu,
njegovu igru. Jednostavno reeno: Na utakmici igraj svoju igru, onako kako zna!.
Kao sportski psiholozi zadovoljni smo kada je na sporta dao svoj maksimum, sve to zna.
Meutim, esto se dogaa da unato tome sporta i njegov trener nisu zadovoljni. Zato je to
tako? Najee zato jer sporta nije uspio ostvariti neke rezultatske ciljeve, zadovoljiti vanjske
kriterije koje su on i trener prieljkivali, koje su morali postii ili koji su bili potrebni.
Unato dobroj, moda ak i najboljoj izvedbi u ivotu: skija nije doao meu prvih 30, pliva
nije uao u polufinale, atletiar se nije kvalificirao na veliko natjecanje, koarka nije izabran u
reprezentaciju Najee vjerojatno zato jer je konkurencija bila jo bolja ili je sporta
dosegao svoj tjelesni, tehniki ili taktiki plato, maksimum i (u tom trenutku) ne moe bolje.
to onda? Najee se od trenera i sportaa tada dobije odgovor: Mi emo zbog toga jo vie,
drugaije i bolje trenirati. Tako emo jo podii razinu tjelesne pripreme i bolje savladati jo
vie tehniko-taktikih elemenata. Na taj nain emo sljedee godine biti bolji i dosei ciljeve
koje sada nismo uspjeli ostvariti.
Sporta i trener u takvom jednostavnom i optimistinom razmiljanju zaboravljaju dvije vrlo
uobiajene sportske injenice:
1. to e konkurencija raditi u meuvremenu? Nee li i oni vie, drugaije i bolje trenirati?
Nee li i oni podizati tjelesnu i tehniko-taktiku pripremu na razliite naine?
2. Tehniko-taktiki elementi o kojima sporta i trener u tom trenutku govore i ele nauiti i
poboljati najee su ve na vrhunskom nivou. To znai: veoma su teki, komplicirani,
precizni, opasni, perfektni i vrlo snano automatizirani! Takoer i tjelesna priprema ve je
vrlo blizu (biolokih) limita.
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Upravo se zato esto puta u vrhunskom sportu kod odraslih sportaa (od 20 35 godina) vidi
da usprkos znaajnom trudu i ulaganju na kraju nema (rezultatskog) pomaka. Sporta (i trener)
na taj se nain polako suoavaju sa spoznajom: Pokazao sam to to znam, ali to nije
dovoljno!
Uz to, treneri i sportai uglavnom ne vide sportskog psihologa kao strunjaka koji bi mogao
pomoi u tom (dugoronom) procesu podizanja razine tehniko-taktike pripreme, a jo manje
u pomicanju granica tjelesne pripreme. Oni veinom misle da znanja psihologije sa ovim
podrujima nemaju nikakve veze niti bitne koristi.
U radu sa sportaima s kojima sam radio vie godina puno sam se puta puta uklopio u taj procs
i to prvenstveno zato jer je u suprotnom postojala realna opasnost da bi napredak mogao biti
prespor. U nastavku teksta saeto u prikazati jedan praktian sluaj u kojem je vidljivo kako
mogu intervencije sportske psihologije pripomoi brem napretku u tehniko-taktikim
elementima u sportu.
PRIKAZ SLUAJA:
Osnovni podatci: Koarka, od 19. do 23. godine, suraivao sa sportskim psihologom 4

natjecateljske sezone, pozicija: play-maker i bek-uter. Doao iz manjeg kluba u KK Union
Olimpiju, u 4 godine probijao se od igraa koji nije bio u prvom timu do nosioca igre u Euro-
ligi. U manjem klubu igrao je jednostavniju i manje kvalitetnu koarku, zbog ega je imao
dosta nedostataka i znaajan prostor za napredak u tehnikim i taktikim znanjima. Tjelesne
predispozicije bile su vrlo dobre, uz manje ogranienje moda malo nedostatne visine za beka-
utera.
Problematika:
a) nerazumijevanje i nesigurnost u napadakim taktikim akcijama posljedica: loa
dodavanja;
b) nesigurnost u driblingu i prijenosu lopte preko sredine terena posljedica: odstupanje
unazad i esto gubljenje lopti;
c) loe tehniko znanje lijevom rukom: ut, prodori, dribling, pasevi posljedica: neigranje na
lijevu stranu;
d) ukoen ut za 3 poena i sa pola-distance psljedica: lo postotak uta.
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Intervencije:
Uenje s razumijevanjem
Problem-solving
Predstavljanje, vizualizacija (i dodatni trening)
Kognitivno restrukturiranje
Bihevioralni eksperiment
Rezultati: Proces psiholoke pripreme pridonio je napretku u igri na prikazanoj problematici.

Meutim, na a) i b) problematici napredak nije bio dovoljno velik za savladavanje zahtjeva
Euro-lige, tako da je ostao igrati samo beka-utera, a ne vie play-makera.
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UIVAMO LI U NEIZVJESNOSTI?
Amir Zuli
Ponder d.o.o., Zagreb
Sporta eli biti bolji, od sebe ili drugog. On eli pozitivan ishod za svoja ulaganja u
aktivnost kojom se voli baviti. Ulae sve to moe, beskompromisno, eli biti fiziki,
psiholoki, tehniki i taktiki spreman na sve. Spreman na promjenu koja e proizii iz
njegovog nastupa, a koja moe biti pobjeda ili poraz. to e se tono dogoditi, bez obzira
koliko se sporta dobro pripremio, to se ipak ne moe unaprijed znati. Neizvjesnost ishoda prati
svaku natjecateljsku situaciju, a sportai pritom bolje ili manje dobro podnose neizbjenost
neizvjesnosti. Netko neizvjesnost vidi kao izazov, kao mogunost provjere vlastitih
sposobnosti, kao stepenicu za dalje. Drugi pak neizvjesnost doivljava kao opasnost za vlastite
elje, postaje anksiozan, manje uinkovit.
Radei sa sportaima skoro 20 godina primijetio sam da uspjenost sportaa ovisi i o njihovom
stavu prema neizvjesnosti. Stoga u svom radu nudim sportaima mogunost prihvaanja
neizvjesnosti kao neeg poeljnog, neeg to su ba htjeli.
Zahvaajui pojam neizvjesnosti, najire to moemo shvatiti, lako je zakljuiti da je ona
izvjesna. Teko je zamisliti nae ivote bez neizvjesnosti ma koliko se trudili, ma koliko nam
nekad izvjesnost bila draga i poeljna. Apsolutne sigurnosti nema. Mi ne znamo to e tono
biti i to daje dra naim ivotima, trai od nas stalnu pripremljenost na promjenu. A promjena
je dobra. Bilo da oznaava pobjedu ili poraz, oznaava toku od koje kreemo u nova ulaganja,
novi trud, kreemo u proces poveavanja vjerojatnosti pozitivnog ishoda ipak ga ne
predviajui s apsolutnom tonou.
Pretpostavka je da emo biti maksimalno uspjeni u aktivnosti koju smo sami izabrali ako se u
njoj dobro osjeamo. Ako elimo u bilo kojem poslu ili sportu biti maksimalno uspjeni bitno
je da volimo to to radimo. Bitno je da imamo osjeaj da smo to sami izabrali raditi, da imamo
svoje ciljeve, da uivamo u toj aktivnosti bez obzira na ishod, i tad je onaj eljeni ishod
najvjerojatniji. Ne i siguran. Dakle, ako je ve neizvjesnost izvjesna bilo bi dobro da je
prihvatimo, volimo, uivamo u njoj jer emo tako poveati anse za uspjehom, to god
uspjehom smatrali.
Sport je zanimljiv za gledatelje jer nudi neizvjesnost. Kad bi se ishod znao unaprijed, malo tko
bi elio svjedoiti tijeku natjecanja. To je kao kad gledate reprizu utakmice kojoj znate rezultat,
kao da ivite ve proivljeni ivot, bez mogunosti promjene. Neizvjesnost u sportu je
zanimljiva gledateljima, a takva je i sportaima. Oni ele ui u situaciju i vidjeti to e se
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dogoditi, oni ele biti aktivni u stvaranju promjene. No ima i sportaa koji bi htjeli biti sigurni
to e biti, koji se zamaraju moguim ishodom dok traje sportska aktivnost. Nastala
anksioznost oteava uspjeno bavljenje sportom. Kao sportskom psihologu ini mi se vanim
stvarati uvjete za doivljavanje neizvjesnosti kao neeg to je korisno, dobro, izazovno,
poeljno, u emu uivamo. To e pak omoguiti sportau da se bolje osjea i da bude
uspjeniji.
A kako sportski psiholog prihvaa neizvjesnost? Odnos sportaa i sportskog psihologa pun je
razliitih transfera. Teko je prenositi samo dobro naueno znanje i vjetinu. Prenose se nai
stavovi, uvjerenja, nae karakteristike... Tee je od sportaa traiti beskompromisnost,
odvanost, hrabrost, odricanje, apsolutnu posveenost, davanje svega za napredak ako to ne
ini i sportski psiholog. Bilo bi dobro da i sportski psiholog prihvaa neizvjesnost s uitkom,
neizvjesnost svog poziva, neizvjesnost ishoda svog rada, neizvjesnost uspjeha sportaa s kojim
surauje. I to je jedan mali zadatak, jedan izazov za nau struku. Moja je elja da se vie
psihologa beskompromisno ukljui u ovo podruje psihologije i da svojim primjerom utjee na
prihvaanje neizvjesnosti ishoda sportskog dogaaja. Vjerojatno ima onih koji pragmatinije od
do sada reenog gledaju na sportsku psihologiju, kojima je sportska psihologija dodatna
aktivnost, dodatna sigurnost. Koristan dodatan hobi kojim se utjee na maksimalno posveenog
sportaa koji nema odstupnicu i sve baca na istu kartu. Takvo razmiljanje ini njihov odnos
manje kvalitetnim. Mislim da je odnos sportaa i sportskog psihologa jedan partnerski,
ravnopravan odnos u kojem oni daju svoje maksimume i prihvaaju jednak rizik, uivajui u
neizvjesnosti i teei uspjehu.
30
CILJEVI I SPECIFINOSTI RADA SPORTSKOG PSIHOLOGA U
EKIPNIM SPORTOVIMA
Anelko Botica
Privatna psiholoka praksa KONTAKT, Rijeka
Uvod
Ovim izlaganjem eli se pribliiti teorijska osnova rada sportskog psihologa u ekipnim
sportovima, uzimajui u obzir iskustvo praktine primjene istih. Dinamika grupnih odnosa
oduvijek je privlaila istraivae u razliitim podrujima, a praktiare jo vie. Kada govorimo
o sportu, dodatni izazov predstavlja injenica da je vana i efikasnost grupe, odnosno rad na
razvoju iste. Zbog kompleksnosti funkcioniranja grupe, a samim time i rada s grupom, vano je
adekvatno postaviti ciljeve u radu, kao i voditi rauna o specifinostima rada.
Ciljevi rada sportskog psihologa u ekipnim sportovima

Svakako jedan od vanih ciljeva je definiranje uloge sportskog psihologa, bilo u klubu
bilo u radu s ekipom. Bitno je provjeriti oekivanja uprave kluba, trenera, te ostalih lanova
strunog stoera. Jasno rei vlastite kompetencije, mogunosti i oblike rada, te definirati nain
suradnje s trenerom i ostalim pomonicima, kao i nain komunikacije s upravom kluba.
Definirati korake za uspostavu suradnje, odrediti nain na koji e se napraviti procjena
trenutnog stanja, a koja e posluiti za definiranje ciljeva i oblika rada sportskog psihologa.
Ostvarivanje prvog kontakta s ekipom, objanjenje naina na koji ste angairani, pribliavanje
uloge i pozicije u strunom stoeru, prezentacija mogunosti rada sportskog psihologa s
ekipom, te dogovor oko oblika rada sljedei je korak. Tijekom ove poetne faze jako je vano
zadobiti povjerenje trenera i ekipe, jer e o tome ovisiti kvaliteta rada, ali i potencijalno
ostvarivanje zadanih ciljeva.
Nakon toga slijedi provjera (ne)formalnih grupnih normi, kao i donoenje novih grupnih
pravila s naglaskom na adekvatnu komunikaciju tijekom grupnih radionica i razvoj osjeaja
sigurnosti tijekom istih kako bi se poveala vjerojatnost iskrenog angamana tijekom radionica
svih lanova ekipe. Ovime ve poinje rad na grupnoj koheziji, koja moe ukljuivati sljedee
teme: procjena vlastite grupne efikasnosti te definiranje osobina grupe koje treba razvijati da bi
bili efikasniji, raspodjela odgovornosti unutar ekipe, podreivanje individualnih ciljeva
grupnim, adekvatnost dvosmjerne komunikacije trener sporta, kao i adekvatnost
komunikacije meu lanovima ekipe, raspodjela moi i definiranje osobnih uloga, te ostale
teme koje ekipa sama odabere, a misli da su vane za rast i razvoj.
31
Valja naglasiti da paralelno treba raditi i na grupnoj kohezivnosti strunog stoera, takoer
vodei rauna o adekvatnoj komunikaciji, definiranju podruja rada i osobnih uloga. Dobro je
da se svi lanovi strunog stoera upoznaju s ciljevima rada kolega, kako bi se provjerila
meusobna kompatibilnost ciljeva i na taj nain poveala vjerojatnost njihove realizacije. Za
sportskog psihologa moe biti vana informacija o nainu na koji je struni stoer formiran, jer
moe dati vane podatke o povijesti odnosa meu lanovima, ali i smjernice za eventualno
poboljanje istih. Ovo podruje rada je na neki nain delikatno za psihologa jer je u isto vrijeme
i lan stoera i netko tko radi na boljoj funkcionalnosti istog.
Sljedea skupina ciljeva odnosi se na poboljanje sportskog izvoenja, a ukljuuje rad na
educiranju o bitnim psiholokim imbenicima sportskog izvoenja, osvjetavanju individualnih
i grupnih obrazaca ponaanja, pripremi za promjenu neadekvatnih obrazaca, te korake za
implementaciju i usvajanje istih. Poseban naglasak stavlja se na kontrolu razine fizioloke
aktivacije, sposobnost odravanja panje, adekvatno objanjavanje ishoda i rezultata, te
kontrolu emocija.
Specifinosti rada sportskog psihologa u ekipnim sportovima

Ovaj dio izlaganja odnosi se na imbenike koji su prisutni u radu s grupom, koji esto
puta nisu manifestno vidljivi, a mogu utjecati na kvalitetu rada, kao i ostvarivanje ciljeva.
Mogu biti prisutni u radu trenera, ali i psihologa s ekipom. Sa terapijskog stanovita to su
razliiti grupni procesi, otpori na promjene, potreba da se rad uini zanimljivim, da se stalno
ima osjeaj napretka, noenje s dosadom tijekom rada, odnos spram autoriteta, itd. Ovdje je
poeljno vjeto odrediti granicu izmeu edukativno iskustvenog rada i terapijskog rada s
grupom, naglaavajui tenju ka prvom.
Literatura
Shane M. Murphy (1995). Sport Psychology Interventions, Human Kinetics.
Jean M. Williams (2001). Applied Sport Psychology Personal Growth To Peak Performance,
Mayfield Publishing Company.
Richard H. Cox (2002). Sport psychology Concepts and Applications, McGraw Hill.
32
EMOCIONALNI PROFIL SREBRNIH OLIMPIJSKH VESLAA
Renata Bari
Uvod
Emocije su prisutne u svim aspektima ljudskog ivota, ukljuujui i sport i tjelesno
vjebanje. Sportai doivljavaju razliit raspon emocija za vrijeme treninga i za vrijeme
natjecanja, a njihovo emocionalno stanje moe znaajno djelovati na kvalitetu njihove izvedbe.
Uz osnovnih est emocija (Ekman, 1999) ljudi doivljavaju brojne emocije razliitih kvaliteta i
razliitog stupnja sloenosti. Emocije je mogue objasniti na razliite naine, no u pozadini
veine emocija stoje dvije dimenzije: ugoda/neugoda i stupanj aktivacije, odnosno razina
pobuenosti. Sukladno kognitivno bihevioralnom modelu, postoji interaktivna povezanost
izmeu miljenja, ponaanja i emocija (Beck, 1999). Nain na koji sporta procjenjuje situaciju
u kojoj se nalazi utjee na vrstu i intenzitet emocije koja e se posljedino javiti, a sve se to
odraava na sportsku izvedbu. Drugim rijeima, emocije mogu pospjeiti izvedbu i potaknuti
sportaa da izvue iz sebe maksimum ili ga mogu limitirati, najee posredstvom
prekomjernog porasta pobuenosti, to moe uzrokovati podbacivanje na sportskom terenu.
Emocije, tonije emocionalna stabilnost, poeljan je aspekt mentalne vrstoe (Loehr, 1995).
Od sportaa se oekuje kapacitet emocionalne kontrole, tj. sposobnost regulacije vlastitih
emocija i posljedica njihove manifestacije na planu tijela, unutarnjeg kognitivnog doivljaja i
poruka koje si sporta alje u odreenoj situaciji, te na planu ponaanja. Budui da su emocije
povezane i s ostalim psihikim procesima poput kognitivnih i motivacije, znaajno mogu
utjecati na sportsku izvedbu osobito u stresnim natjecateljskim situacijama. Brojni vrhunski
sportai surauju sa sportskim psiholozima na planu psiholoke pripreme kako bi podigli razinu
mentalne vrstoe i usavrili vjetine kontrole emocija.
Sportska arena je mjesto puno strasti, neovisno o tipu sporta. Ne postoji niti jedan sportski
dogaaj u kojem nema emocija, bilo sudionika, bilo promatraa. Za uspjenu izvedbu, sportsku
ili bilo koju drugu, vano bi bilo da se pojedinac nalazi u optimalnom emocionalnom stanju
koje odgovara blagoj uzbuenosti (Cox, 2005 ; Horga, 2009). Svaka emocija djeluje na razinu
pobuenosti sportaa, a za sportsku izvedbu najkorisnije su one koje djeluju poticajno, u smjeru
postizanja optimalne (srednje) razine pobuenosti. Sukladno IZOF modelu (Hanin, 1997;
Hanin, 1999), sportai koriste brojne pridjeve ne bi li opisali svoja optimalna i disfunkcionalna
emocionalna stanja. U ponavljajuem sportskom okruenju treninga i natjecanja sportai esto
razvijaju stabilne obrasce emocionalnog reagiranja koji proizlaze iz poimanja uloge emocija na
meta-kognitivnoj razini. Ukoliko neki sporta smatra da mu poviena trema pomae da se
33
fokusira bolje, ona ne mora naruiti njegovu izvedbu. Neki drugi sporta moe na temelju
vlastitog iskustva vjerovati da mu trema odmae i smeta, te e ve s prvim znakovima treme u
sportskoj situaciji osjeati nesigurnost, neugodu i sl. to mu odmae na terenu. Emocionalni
sadraji se prema IZOF modelu (Hanin, 1992, 1997, Hagtvet i Hanin, 2007) mogu
konceptualizirati u 4 kategorije sukladno dvama dimenzijama: hedonistiki ton i
funkcionalnost. Tako postoje ugodne i neugodne pomaue i odmaue emocije, a emocija je
od koristi sportau u onoj mjeri koliko mu podie pobuenost do optimalne razine, tj. niti su
sve neugodne emocije ometajue niti sve ugodne korisne (Slika 1).
ugodne emocije
P+ ugodne
pomau ugodne P-
optimalne odmau
facilitirajue disfunkcionalne
(npr. energino, motivirano) remetee
(npr. udobno, zadovoljno)
uspjeh neuspjeh
N+ ugodne neugodne N-
pomau odmau
disfunkcionalne disfunkcionalne
remetee remetee
(npr. agresivno, napeto) (npr. obeshrabreno, anksiozno)
neugodne emocije
Slika 1. Kategorije emocionalnih sadraja (Hanin, 1992)
Vrhunac natjecateljskog iskustva veine vrhunskih sportaa jesu olimpijska natjecanja. Sportai
olimpijci vrhunski su sportai izuzetnih predispozicija, sportske forme i elitnih sportskih
postignua. Psiholoka priprema jedan je od kljunih segmenata sportske pripreme sportaa
olimpijaca, budui da su na razini najviih sportskih dostignua nijanse ono to donosi razliku,
a esto su to, u uvjetima razvijene tehnologije treninga, opreme i uvjeta, upravo psiholoke
vjetine. Brojni osvajai olimpijskih medalja prolaze psiholoku pripremu, a psiholozi su
sastavni lanovi strunih sportskih timova. Rad na podruju emocija i emocionalne kontrole
svakako je jedan od najvanijih segmenata u svakom sportu, a osobito u sportovima kod kojih
je komponenta psihofizike izdrljivosti i maksimalnog fizikog napora u kratkom vremenu
jedan od kljunih faktora uspjeha.
34
Cilj ovog rada je prikazati emocionalni profil veslaa olimpijaca hrvatske posade etverca na
parie neposredno prije odlaska i za vrijeme nastupa na OI u Londonu 2012.
Metode rada
Uzorak sudionika ini etverolana hrvatska posada etverca na parie, osvajaa srebrne
olimpijske medalje na OI u Londonu 2012.
Instrumenti i varijable. Emocionalni profil sportaa utvren je uz pomo hrvatske
verzije upitnika ESP-40, Emotional state profile (Hanin, 2000; adaptirale za upotrebu Bosnar i
Prot, S., 2010). Zadatak sportaa je da opie kako se osjea u odreenoj situaciji rangirajui
ocjenama 1-4 ponuenih 40 pridjeva koji opisuju najea emocionalna stanja sportaa, a
pripadaju etirima kategorijama emocija: ugodnim i neugodnim pomauim (P+ i N+) koje se
smatraju optimalnima te ugodnim i neugodnim odmauim (P- i N-) koje se smatraju
disfunkcionalnima. Upitnik omoguuje izradu emocionalnog profila te usporedbu intenziteta, a
ne samo vrste doivljenih emocija.
Upitnik je primijenjen u 7 vremenskih toaka, neposredno prije odlaska na Olimpijske igre, te
neposredno prije svake od tri utrke (kvalifikacijska, polufinalna i finalna). Izraunate su
prosjene vrijednosti P-, P+, N+ i N- emocija za ekipu, za svakog pojedinog sportaa
neposredno prije olimpijskih nastupa, te su oblikovani emocionalni profili u svakoj vremenskoj
toci.
Postupak. Dio podataka prikupljen je od strane autorice rada, za vrijeme redovnih
zavrnih zajednikih susreta psihologa i ekipe, a dio podataka prikupili su sami sportai uz
pomo fizioterapeuta koji je bio prisutan na natjecanju i uvao ispunjene upitnike.
Rezultati i rasprava
Na temelju izraunatih prosjenih vrijednosti i grafikih prikaza vidljiva je stabilnost
emocionalnog profila ekipe od 15 dana prije olimpijskih utrka, te neposredno prije svake od
utrka. U svakoj vremenskoj toci prevladavale su N+ (npr. gorljivo, napeto, agresivno) i P+
(npr. samopouzdano, sigurno, djelotvorno, entuzijastijastino) emocije, uz slabu izraenost
disfunkcionalnih N- (npr. zabrinuto, umorno, nesigurno) i P- (npr. zadovoljno, spokojno,
oputeno) emocija, to je emocionalni profil koji odgovara poeljnom, tipinom za dobru
natjecateljsku izvedbu (Hanin, 2003) (Slika 2).
35
Slika 2. Profil emocionalnog stanja-ekipa
40
intenzitet emocija
30 N-
N+
20
P+
10 P-
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vrijeme
Na razini individualnih emocionalnih profila vidljiva je vea sukladnost trojice veslaa kod
kojih prevladava spomenuti obrazac, te odreeno odstupanje jednog veslaa kod kojeg su u
vrijeme neposredno prije svake od utrka u veoj mjeri bile zastupljene P+ i P- emocije (Slika
3). Najvea sukladnost emocionalnih stanja opaa se u vrijeme neposredno prije olimpijskih
utrka, osobito finalne i to u zoni P+ emocija, a najvee razlike primjeuju se u zoni P- emocija,
to govori o individualnim razlikama veslaa u domeni linosti, ali i individualne optimalne
razine pobuenosti.
Profil ES - R1 Profil ES - R2
40 40
intenzitet emocija
intezitet emocija
30 N- 30 N-
N+ N+
20 20
P+ P+
10 P- 10 P-
0 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
trke trke
Profil ES - R3 Profil ES - R4
40 40
intenzitet emocija
intenzitet emocija
30 N- 30 N-
N+ N+
20 20
P+ P+
10 P- 10 P-
0 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
trke trke
Legenda: 1- kvalifikacije, 2-polufinale, 3-finale
Slika 3. Individualni emocionalni profili veslaa
Dobiveni rezultati posredno govore i o razini postignute emocionalne kontrole i emocionalne

stabilnosti, budui da nisu uoena kolebanja u trenucima neposredno prije utrka, to je i bio
jedan od ciljeva psiholoke pripreme. Takoer, kod svih je veslaa razina N- emocija prije
natjecanja bila najmanje izraena, to se poklapa i s njihovim iskustvom i izvjetajima nakon
36
utrka, gdje su isticali da su se osjeali spremno, sigurno i motivirano te da je razina treme bila
poticajna.
Zakljuak
Emocije su sastavni dio svake natjecateljske izvedbe i vrhunskog sportskog rezultata.
Rezultati analize emocionalnih profila hrvatske posade etverca na parie u periodu
neposrednih priprema za nastup na olimpijskim utrkama i neposredno prije svake utrke
pokazuju da su, sukladno Haninovoj klasifikaciji (Hanin, 2003), kod veslaa prevladavale za
dobru izvedbu optimalne emocije, to je, uz stabilnost emocionalnih profila, pridonijelo
osvajanju srebrne olimpijske medalje.
Literatura
Beck, J.S. (1999). Kognitivna terapija. Osnove, educiranje, uvjebavanje. Jastrebarsko:
Naklada Slap.
Cox, R. (2005). Psihologija sporta. Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap.
Ekman, P. (1999) Basic emotions. In T. Dalgleish and T. Power (Eds.) The handbook of
cognition and emotion. pp. 45-60. New York.: John Wiley & Sons.
Horga, S. (2009). Psihologija sporta. Zagreb: Kinezioloki fakultet.

Hagtvet K.A. & Hanin Y.L. (2007). Consistency of Performance-Related Emotions in Elite
Athletes: Generalizability Theory. Applied to the IZOF model. Psychology of Sport &
Exercise, (8)1, 47-72.
Hanin, Y.L. (1997). Emotions and athletic performance: Individual zones of optimal
functioning model. European Yearbook of Sport Psychology, 1, 29-72.
Hanin, Y.L. (1999). Sport specific emotion-motivational profiling: An individualized

assessment programme. U: V. Hoek, P. Tilinger i L. Bilek (Ur.) Proceedings of the 10th
European Congress of Sport Psychology-FEPSAC. Part 1, (pp. 238-240). Prag: Faculty of
Physical Education and Sport.
Hanin, Y.L. (2000). Emotions in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Hanin, Y.L. (2003). Performance related emotional states in sport: A qualitative analysis.
FQSR, 4(1):1-22.
Loehr, J. E. (1995). The new toughness training for sports. New York: Plume.
37
PERFEKCIONIZAM:
PREDUVJET ILI PREPREKA ZA OSTVARENJE SPORTSKOG USPJEHA?
Zrinka Greblo
Uvod
Perfekcionistike tenje smatraju se vanim obiljejem vrhunskih sportaa (Gould,

Dieffenbach i Moffett, 2002), a nerijetko se istiu i kao nuan preduvjet za ostvarenje znaajnih
sportskih rezultata (Koivula, Hassmn i Fallby, 2002). Meutim, odnos izmeu sportaevog
perfekcionizma i sportskog uspjeha nije jednostavan te autori sve ee upozoravaju na
postojanje tzv. perfekcionistikog paradoksa (Flett i Hewitt, 2005) prema kojem se s porastom
perfekcionistikih tenji poveava vjerojatnost sportskog neuspjeha. Dosadanja istraivanja
perfekcionizma obiljeili su kontradiktorni nalazi koji pokazuju da su perfekcionistike tenje u
pozitivnoj korelaciji s mjerama psihikog zdravlja (Stoeber i Otto, 2006), ali i s nizom
psihikih potekoa te s razliitim oblicima psihopatolokih poremeaja (Hewitt i Flett 1991).
Suprotstavljene empirijske nalaze o korelatima perfekcionizma pomiruje Hamachek (1978) koji
meu prvima upozorava na potrebu za razlikovanjem normalnog i neurotskog perfekcionizma.
U prilog Hamachekovoj hipotezi govore i rezultati novijih istraivanja koji upuuju na to da je
perfekcionizam viedimenzionalan konstrukt koji posjeduje i adaptivnu i neadaptivnu
komponentu (Stoeber i Otto, 2006). Prema dvoprocesnom modelu (Slade i Owens, 1998),
adaptivan i neadaptivan perfekcionizam na manifestnoj razini mogu biti vrlo slini. Meutim,
pratea emocionalna stanja i kognitivni procesi bitno se razlikuju ovisno o tome je li odreeno
perfekcionistiko ponaanje motivirano tenjom za osobnim rastom i razvojem (adaptivan
perfekcionizam) ili strahom od neuspjeha i mogueg razoarenja znaajnih drugih (neadaptivan
perfekcionizam).
Perfekcionizam u sportu
Perfekcionistike tenje mogu se javiti u razliitim ivotnim podrujima, no njihova
uloga najvie dolazi do izraaja u postignuu orijentiranim aktivnostima (Flett i Hewitt, 2002).
S obzirom na to da je imperativ pobjede jedno od osnovnih obiljeja natjecateljskog sporta,
Dunn i suradnici (2002) navode da je sportsko okruenje izrazito pogodno za razvoj
perfekcionistikih tenji te posljedino i za istraivanje porijekla i funkcije razliitih oblika
perfekcionizma. U vrhunskom sportu u kojem se savrenstvo esto istie kao norma sportske
izvedbe, utvrivanje uzroka i posljedica perfekcionizma od iznimne je vanosti. Promatrano s
38
aspekta sportskih rezultata, perfekcionizam moe unaprijediti ili naruiti kvalitetu sportske
izvedbe (Dunn i sur., 2006), stoga poznavanje specifinih obiljeja perfekcionistikih tenji
omoguuje identifikaciju initelja koji poveavaju vjerojatnost pozitivnih, odnosno smanjuju
vjerojatnost negativnih uinaka na sportski rezultat. Iz perspektive osobne dobrobiti sportaa,
empirijska provjera teorijskih pretpostavki o korelatima razliitih oblika perfekcionizma daleko
je vanija jer se na temelju rezultata spomenutih istraivanja mogu izvesti smjernice za
praktini rad sa sportaima kojima neadaptivne perfekcionistike tenje znatno naruavaju
psihiko zdravlje i kvalitetu ivota (Hall, 2006; Flett i Hewitt, 2005).
Sportae koji imaju visoku razinu adaptivnog, kao i one koji imaju visoku razinu
neadaptivnog perfekcionizma, karakterizira visok motiv postignua, ustrajnost u napornim
treninzima, predanost te sklonost disciplini i odricanjima s ciljem ostvarenja zacrtanih sportskih
ciljeva. Meutim, dok e adaptivni perfekcionisti teiti prema ostvarenju visokih, ali realnih i
dostinih ciljeva postignua, neadaptivni perfekcionisti bit e skloniji rigidnoj tenji prema
ostvarenju nerealno visokih ciljeva ija je izrazita zahtjevnost u funkciji opravdanja
potencijalnog neuspjeha (Enns i Cox, 2002). Sportae s visokom razinom neadaptivnog
perfekcionizma nerijetko obiljeava postignuem uvjetovani osjeaj osobne vrijednosti
(Koivula, Hassmn i Fallby, 2002), to ih ini sklonima tome da neuspjeh u nekom natjecanju
ne doivljavaju iskljuivo kao neuspjeh u sportskom izazovu, ve ga smatraju pokazateljem
svoje osobne neadekvatnosti. Zbog pretjerane samokritinosti i anksioznosti, sportai koji
posjeduju visoku razinu neadaptivnog perfekcionizma esto nisu zadovoljni ni nakon
ostvarenog uspjeha jer anticipiraju neuspjeh u sljedeem izazovu. Nasuprot tome, sportai s
visokom razinom adaptivnog perfekcionizma svoju osobnu vrijednost ne procjenjuju ovisno o
uspjehu u nekoj aktivnosti, a ostvarenje postavljenih ciljeva doivljavaju kao poticaj za
suoavanje s novim sportskim izazovima (Enns i Cox, 2002).
Etiologija adaptivnog i neadaptivnog perfekcionizma

Dosadanja istraivanja etiologije razliitih oblika perfekcionizma dominantno su bila
usmjerena na izuavanje specifinih obiljeja roditeljskih ponaanja za koja se pretpostavlja da
su diferencijalno povezana s razvojem adaptivnih i neadaptivnih perfekcionistikih tenji. U
skladu s osnovnim pretpostavkama Modela socijalnih oekivanja i Modela socijalne reakcije
(Flett i sur., 2002), McArdle i Duda (2004) su utvrdili da je via razina adaptivnog
perfekcionizma karakteristina za sportae iji su roditelji podravajui i usmjereni na razvoj
vjetina, dok je neadaptivan perfekcionizam ei kod sportaa iji roditelji naglaavaju vanost
pobjede te koji su skloni kritiziranju djeteta u sluaju sportskog neuspjeha. Pored navedenog,
39
rezultati novijih istraivanja upuuju na zakljuak prema kojem i specifina ponaanja trenera
mogu imati vanu ulogu u etiologiji adaptivnog i neadaptivnog perfekcionizma kod sportaa.
Sukladno rezultatima istraivanja McArdlea i Dude (2004), trenerova usmjerenost na razvoj
sportskih vjetina i percepcija socijalne podrke od strane trenera pozitivno su povezane s
adaptivnim perfekcionizmom darovitih sportaa (Greblo, 2011). Nasuprot tome, percepcija
trenerove usmjerenosti na pobjedu i iskazivanje superiornosti u odnosu na druge te trenerova
neosjetljivost za osobnu dobrobit sportaa u pozitivnoj su korelaciji s neadaptivnim aspektom
perfekcionizma (Greblo, 2011).
Korelati adaptivnog i neadaptivnog perfekcionizma u sportu

Na diferencijalne procese u osnovi adaptivnih i neadaptivnih perfekcionistikih tenji
upuuju i empirijski nalazi koju pokazuju da je neadaptivan perfekcionizam kod sportaa u
pozitivnoj korelaciji s prednatjecateljskom anksioznou (Stoeber i sur., 2007), nepoeljnim
obrascima ciljnih orijentacija (Stoeber, Stoll, Salmi i Tiikkaja, 2009), sagorijevanjem (Lung i
sur., 2008), s postignuem uvjetovanim samopotovanjem (Koivula, Hassmn i Fallby, 2002), s
doivljajem srama i negativnog afekta (Sagar i Stoeber, 2009) te sa strahom od neuspjeha
(Stoeber i Becker, 2008). Nasuprot tome, adaptivan perfekcionizam sportaa povezan je s
niom razinom anksioznosti i veom razinom samouvjerenosti za vrijeme natjecanja (Stoeber i
sur., 2007), s niom razinom sagorijevanja na sportskom terenu (Lung i sur., 2008), s viom
razinom samopotovanja koje ne ovisi o stupnju ostvarenja postavljenih ciljeva (Koivula,
Hassmn i Fallby, 2002), s jae izraenim povjerenjem u ostvarenje dobrih sportskih rezultata
te s internalnim atribucijama sportskih uspjeha (Stoeber i Becker, 2008). Pored navedenog,
adaptivan perfekcionizam je u negativnoj korelaciji sa strahom od neuspjeha i internalnim
atribucijama sportskog neuspjeha (Stoeber i Becker, 2008).
Zakljuak
Iako perfekcionistike tenje mogu motivirati sportae da ustraju u ostvarenju visokih
ciljeva postignua, rezultati istraivanja pokazuju da neadaptivan perfekcionizam moe imati
negativan utjecaj na sportsku izvedbu i psihiko zdravlje sportaa (Hall, 2006). Stoga se, s
ciljem zatite osobne dobrobiti sportaa, preporua oprez prilikom promicanja perfekcionizma
u vrhunskom sportu. U radu sa sportaima koji postiu visoke vrijednosti na mjerama
neadaptivnog perfekcionizma, posebnu panju potrebno je posvetiti latentnim motivacijskim
procesima, emocionalnim stanjima i iracionalnim vjerovanjima koja se nalaze u osnovi
neadaptivne tenje za savrenstvom. Nakon identifikacije rizinih faktora, potrebno je raditi na
promjeni osobinskih (npr. uvjetovani osjeaj osobne vrijednosti) i okolinskih (npr. percepcija
40
roditeljskog ponaanja i stila rukovoenja trenera, motivacijska klima i sl.) initelja koji mogu
biti povezani s razvojem neadaptivnog perfekcionizma. Paralelno s navedenim, preporua se
promicanje stavova i ponaanja (npr. usmjerenost na razvoj sportskih vjetina, trenerova
osjetljivost za osobnu dobrobit sportaa i sl.) koji mogu potaknuti razvoj zdrave tenje za
izvrsnou te posljedino dovesti do niza pozitivnih uinaka na planu sportskih rezultata, ali i u
domeni psihosocijalne dobrobiti sportaa.
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42
KRATKE BIOGRAFIJE POZVANIH PREDAVAA
Prof. dr. sc. Paul Wylleman predsjednik je Europskog udruenja sportske psihologije
FEPSAC, osniva Europskog foruma sportskih psihologa u vrhunskom sportu i profesor na
Vrije Sveuilitu u Bruxellesu, gdje predaje vei broj kolegija, meu kojima i Psihologiju
sporta, Mentalni trening te Upravljanje karijerom i ivotnim stilom sportaa. Niz godina bavi se
psiholokom pripremom, suraivao je s brojnim vrhunskim sportaima razliitih sportova te je
ukljuen u psiholoku pripremu Olimpijaca od 2006. godine do danas. Odrao je brojne
edukacije za sportske psihologe, trenere i sportae, a njegov istraivaki interes usmjeren je
prema razvoju sportske karijere i kompetencijama sportskih psihologa.
Prof. dr. sc. Maurizo Bertollo je potpredsjednik talijanskog udruenja sportskih psihologa
AIPS te predaje Motoriku kontrolu, Psihologiju sporta i Psihomotoriku na Sveuilitu u
Pescari. Nakon to je magistrirao psihologiju i doktorirao sportske znanosti, specijalizirao je
psihoterapiju, potekoe uenja i psihologiju sporta. Trenutno radi kao sportski psiholog i
psihoterapeut u brojnim sportskim savezima. Objavio je vei broj znanstvenih radova te je lan
urednitva u vie znanstvenih asopisa iz podruja psihologije sporta i sportskih znanosti.
Istrauje razvoj, biofeedback i neuro-feedback motorike izvedbe, zone optimalnog
funkcioniranja te stres i oporavak kod sportaa.
Dr. sc. Edson Medeiros Filho, licencirani je sportski psiholog i znanstvenik koji prouava
neuro-psihofizioloke procese u sportu. Dolazi s Florida State Sveuilita, a trenutno je kao
Fulbrightov stipendist na post-doktorskom usavravanju u Behavioral Imaging and Neural
Dynamics (BIND) Centru u Pescari. Dobitnik je brojnih stipendija i nagrada za svoj
istraivaki rad, od kojih je posljednja nagrada za doktorsku disertaciju amerikog psiholokog
drutva (APA). Njegov znanstveni interes usmjeren je na podruje timskih sportova,
rukovoenja, psiholoke pripreme i well-beinga.
Doc. dr. sc. Saa Ceci Erpi zaposlena je na Fakultetu za sport Sveuilita u Ljubljani gdje
predaje Razvojnu psihologiju i Psihologiju sporta. Posljednjih 10 godina radi kao sportski
psiholog s vrhunskim i perspektivnim sportaima. Autorica je veeg broja radova i znanstvene
monografije na temu razvoja sportske karijere te je koautorica monografije Athletes Careers
Across Cultures. Od 1999. lanica je strune grupe u okviru Europske federacije sportske
psihologije koja povezuje vodee europske strunjake u podruju sportske karijere. Svoja
istraivanja redovito predstavlja na meunarodnim kongresima sportske psihologije te gostuje
na brojnim europskim sveuilitima.
Doc. dr. sc. Tanja Kajtna zaposlena je na Fakultetu za sport Sveuilita u Ljubljani i na
Pedagokom fakultetu Sveuilita u Mariboru. Izvodi nastavu na veem broju kolegija iz
podruja psihologije sporta i razvojne psihologije. Niz godina provodi psiholoku pripremu
sportaa te surauje s brojnim trenerima i sportskim savezima. Slubeni je sportski psiholog
slovenskog plivakog i klizakog saveza. Bila je lanica strunog stoera i dio sportskog tima
sportaa koji su sudjelovali na Paraolimpijskim igrama 2008. i Olimpijskim igrama 2012.
Predsjednica je Sekcije sportskih psihologa Slovenije i edukator sportskih kadrova i sportskih
psihologa u Sloveniji, ali i ire u regiji. Objavila je niz znanstvenih i strunih publikacija te
sudjelovala na vie razliitih znanstvenih projekata na temu linosti, rukovoenja, stresa i
psiholoke pripreme sportaa.
43
Dr. sc. Alina Gherghisan doktorirala je u podruju sportskih znanosti i psihologije sporta na
temu psiholokih odrednica sportskih ozljeda. Trenutno radi kao vii znanstveni suradnik u
Nacionalnom institutu za istraivanje sporta u Bukuretu u okviru kojeg sudjeluje u izradi
Europskih projekata te prua strunu psiholoku podrku i savjetovanje sportaima koji
sudjeluju na Olimpijskim igrama i meunarodnim natjecanjima iz gimnastike, ragbija,
nogometa i boksa. Osnivaica je Rumunjskog saveza sportskih psihologa te je lan
Rumunjskog znanstvenog odbora. Aktivno se bavi znanstvenim radom i sudjeluje na vie
projekata iz podruja psihologije sporta.
Ale Vii, prof. magistar je psihologije koji se niz godina bavi psiholokom pripremom
sportaa, veinom ekipnih, ali i ostalih sportova. Do danas je suraivao sa vie od 150 sportaa
razliitih uzrasta i ranga kvalitete. Takoer se bavi i znanstvenim te publicistikim radom.
Posjeduje bogato sportsko i trenersko iskustvo u koarci, a znanja i vjetine steene u podruju
kognitivno-bihevioralne terapije pomau mu u svakodnevnom radu s ljudima.
Amir Zuli, prof. diplomirao je psihologiju na Odsjeku za psihologiju Filozofskog fakulteta u

Zagrebu. Jedan je od doajena psihologije sporta u Hrvatskoj. Od 1994. godine bavi se
psiholokom pripremom sportaa, suraivao je s vie od 400 sportaa i njihovih trenera iz vie
od 35 razliitih sportova. Sudjelovao je u pripremi veeg broja reprezentativaca, osvajaa
medalja na europskim, svjetskim i olimpijskim natjecanjima. Predava je na Nogometnoj
akademiji HNS-a. Predsjednik je Strunog razreda za psihologiju sporta Hrvatske psiholoke
komore. Bavi se i praktinom primjenom psihologije sporta u okviru psihoedukativnog rada te
objavljuje strune radove iz podruja.
Anelko Botica, prof. diplomirani je psiholog i Getalt terapeut. U okviru privatne prakse ve
deset godina aktivno radi u podruju psiholoke pripreme sportaa. Stalni je suradnik
Hrvatskog boarskog saveza u kojem radi s reprezentativcima svih kategorija. Pored
navedenog, sudjelovao je i u pripremi sportaa za nastup na Olimpijskim igrama 2012.
Redovito sudjeluje na znanstvenim i strunim skupovima te se bavi edukativnim radom u
podruju psihologije sporta.
Doc. dr. sc. Renata Bari diplomirala je i magistrirala kineziologiju te diplomirala i

doktorirala psihologiju. Radi na Kineziolokom fakultetu u Zagrebu gdje predaje Kinezioloku
psihologiju, Motoriko uenje i Psihologiju sporta. Osim nastavnim, znanstvenim i
psihoedukativnim radom, niz godina bavi se i psiholokom pripremom sportaa. Surauje s
brojnim vrhunskim i perspektivnim sportaima, reprezentativcima i trenerima te je vanjski
suradnik HNS-a u programu edukacije nogometnih sudaca. Od 2011. do danas lanica je
strunog stoera hrvatskog etverca na parie te je sudjelovala u njihovoj pripremi za
Olimpijske igre 2012. Predsjednica je Sekcije za psihologiju sporta Hrvatskog psiholokog
drutva. U okviru znanstvene djelatnosti voditelj je i suradnik na vie znanstvenih projekata.
Objavila je brojne znanstvene i strune radove, a njezin znanstveni interes usmjeren je prema
prouavanju motivacije i rukovoenja u sportu, motorikog uenja te psiholoke pripreme i
kvalitete ivota sportaa.
Dr. sc. Zrinka Greblo zaposlena je na Kineziolokom fakultetu u Zagrebu gdje predaje
Kinezioloku psihologiju i Psihologiju sporta. Bavi se istraivanjem perfekcionizma u sportu,
odrednicama optimalnog psihosocijalnog razvoja mladih sportaa te psiholokim aspektima
tjelesnog vjebanja. Aktivno je sudjelovala na brojnim meunarodnim znanstveno-strunim
skupovima te je objavila vie znanstvenih radova. Dobitnica je veeg broja nagrada za
istraivanja u podruju psihologije sporta i vjebanja, meu kojima i Godinje nagrade za
znanost Drutva sveuilinih nastavnika i drugih znanstvenika u Zagrebu.
44
Zagreb, 2013.
45

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Kinezioloki fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu

European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC)

1. meunarodni znanstveno-struni simpozij

Zagreb, 20. travnja 2013.

1. meunarodni znanstveno-struni simpozij psihologije sporta

Zagreb, 20. travnja 2013.

Kinezioloki fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu

Za izdavaa: prof.dr.sc. Igor Juki, dekan Kineziolokog fakulteta Sveuilita uZagrebu

Urednice: doc.dr.sc. Renata Bari, Sveuilite u Zagrebu, Kinezioloki fakultet

Tisak: W.S.P. d.o.o

Naklada: 140 primjeraka

CIP Katalogizacija u publikaciji

Nacionalna i sveuilina knjinica Zagreb

CIP zapis dostupan u raunalnom katalogu Nacionalne i sveuiline knjinice u Zagrebu

OCCURENCE AND PREVENTION OF TRANSITIONAL CRISIS IN THE 5

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL AND CORTICAL PATTERN OF ATHLETIC 6

NURTURING SPORT CAREER DEELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF SPORT 11

THE PRESENCE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST ON OLYMPIC COMPETITION, 16

REPEATED SPORT PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFICULTIES FROM A 18

SHARED MENTAL MODELS: INTERACTIVE BRAINS IN TEAM SPORT, 23

NAPREDAK U TE-TA ELEMENTIMA IGRE UZ POMO PSIHOLOKE 26

UIVAMO LI U NEIZVJESNOSTI?, Amir Zuli 29

CILJEVI I SPECIFINOSTI RADA SPORTSKOG PSIHOLOGA U EKIPNIM 31

EMOCIONALNI PROFIL SREBRNIH OLIMPIJSKIH VESLAA, Renata Bari 33

PERFEKCIONIZAM: PREDUVJET ILI PREPREKA ZA OSTVARENJE 38

KRATKE BIOGRAFIJE POZVANIH PREDAVAA 43

Research group Sport Psychology and Mental Support

BIND - Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics Center

Results and Discussion

Figure 3. Psychophysiological, and postural patterns associates to four type of performances

Figure 4. Topographical distribution of the high-frequency alpha ERD/ERS amplitude

Since ERS in centro-parieto-occipital areas is generally associated with resting state

Hanin, Y. L. (Ed.). (2000). Emotions in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Saa Ceci Erpi

Career assistance interventions

The role of sport psychologist in career transitions

Ceci Erpi, S., & Wylleman, P. (2005). Socio-psychological perspective on traumatic

Schlossberg, N. K. (1981). A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. The

Stambulova, N. (2003). Symptoms of a crisis-transition: A grounded theory study. In N.

Wylleman, P., & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by

Faculty of sport, University of Ljubljana

Ferjan, E. (2004). Usposabljanje za timsko delo - diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Univerza v

Martens, R. (1997). Successful coaching (3rd edition). Champaign: Human kinetics.

Alina Isabela Gherghisan

National Institute for Sports Research, Bucharest

Sports psychology or the interdependency psyche-soma

The psychic apparatus of top-athletes

Repeated sports performance psychological difficulties

Psychological intervention strategies

Anghel, A. (2011). Implicarea factorului psihologic in etiologie in etiologia traumatismelor sportive si

Etchegoyen, H. R. (2011). Fundamentele tehnicii psihanalitice [Fundamentals of psychoanalytic

Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center

SMM: Purposes and Forms

Podpora vrhunskim dosekom, Ljubljana

Uobiajeni cilj psiholoke pripreme jest pripremiti sportaa da na natjecanjima pokae

Osnovni podatci: Koarka, od 19. do 23. godine, suraivao sa sportskim psihologom 4

Rezultati: Proces psiholoke pripreme pridonio je napretku u igri na prikazanoj problematici.

Ponder d.o.o., Zagreb

Privatna psiholoka praksa KONTAKT, Rijeka

Ciljevi rada sportskog psihologa u ekipnim sportovima

Specifinosti rada sportskog psihologa u ekipnim sportovima

Shane M. Murphy (1995). Sport Psychology Interventions, Human Kinetics.

Slika 1. Kategorije emocionalnih sadraja (Hanin, 1992)

Legenda: 1- kvalifikacije, 2-polufinale, 3-finale