208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering

Lesson 15
The derivative of V is given by
1 Passivity-Based Control
Consider the m -input- m -output system V&- yT f ( y ) 0.

x&= f ( x, u ) , Hence, V& is negative semidefinite and V&= 0 if and only if y = 0. By

zero-state observability,
y = h( x) ,
y ( t ) = 0 u ( t ) = 0 x ( t ) = 0.
where f is locally Lipschitz in ( x, u ) and h is continuous in x, for all
Therefore, by the invariance principle, the origin is globally asymptotically
x R n and u R m . We assume that f ( 0, 0 ) = 0, so that the origin stable.
x = 0 is an open loop equilibrium point, and h ( 0 ) = 0.
Intuitively, the theorem above can be described as follows. A
The system - is passive if there exists a continuously differentiable passive system has a stable origin. All we need to asymptotically stabilize
positive semidefinite function V ( x ) (called storage function) such that the origin is to inject damping f into the system so that the energy will
dissipate whenever x ( t ) is not identically zero.
u T y V&
", ( x, u ) Rn Rm.
1.1 Transforming Nonpassive Systems into Passive
The system is zero-state observable if no solution of x&= f ( x, 0 ) can stay Ones
{ }
identically in the set h ( x ) = 0 other than the trivial solution x ( t ) = 0. If the origin is open-loop stable and if we are allowed to select the
The next theorem discusses the passivity-based control. output y freely, we can transform nonpassive systems into passive ones.
Consider a special case of the system -, where
Theorem 14.4: If the system - is
1) passive with a radially unbounded positive definite storage function and x&= f ( x ) + G ( x ) u.
2) zero-state observable,
then the origin x = 0 can be globally stabilized by u = -f ( y ) , where f Suppose a radially unbounded, positive definite, continuously differentiable
function V ( x ) exists such that
is any locally Lipschitz function such that f ( 0 ) = 0 and y T f ( y ) > 0 for all
y 0.
V
Proof: Use the storage function V ( x ) as a Lyapunov function candidate
f ( x ) 0, "x.
x
for the closed-loop system
Choose
x&= f ( x, - f ( y ) ) .

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15

V
T
1.2 Use Feedback to Achieve Passivity
y = h ( x ) = G ( x ) , Sometimes, we cannot freely choose the output y or the origin
x
may not be open-loop stable. We can cover a wider class of systems if we
then the system with input u and output y is passive. If it is also zero- use feedback to achieve passivity.
state observable, we can apply Theorem 14.4 to design a controller to Consider again the system with output y = h ( x ) ,
asymptotically stabilize the origin of the system.
x&= f ( x ) + G ( x ) u ,
Example 1 : Consider the system
y = h( x) .
x&1 = x2 ,
x&2 = - x13 + u. If we can find a control law u = a ( x ) + b ( x ) v, so that the closed loop
system
Design u , using the passivity-based method, to asymptotically stabilize the
origin of the system. x&= f ( x ) + G ( x ) a ( x ) + G ( x ) b ( x ) v,
y = h( x) ,

with input v and output y , satisfies the conditions of Theorem 14.4, we

can globally asymptotically stabilize the origin using v = -f ( y ) . The use
of feedback to convert a nonpassive system into a passive one is known as
feedback passivation.

Solution
Let V ( x ) = x1 / 4 + x2 / 2, we have
4 2

V&= x13 x2 - x2 x13 + x2u = x2u.

Choose y = x2 and note that u = 0, y ( t ) = 0 implies x ( t ) = 0. Thus, all

the conditions of Theorem 14.4 are satisfied and we can choose

u = -kx2 or u = - ( 2k / p ) tan -1 ( x2 ) with k > 0

to stabilize the origin.

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
Example 2 : Design a passivity-based control law to regulate an m-link The term g ( q ) in the control law is used to cancel that of so that the
robot whose dynamic equation is given by
point ( e = 0, e&= 0 ) be an equilibrium point. The term - K p e makes the
M ( q ) q&
&+ C ( q, q&) q&+ Dq&+ g ( q ) = u , system from input v to output y passive. The term v can be designed
from Theorem 14.4 if the system is zero-state observable.
where q is an m-dimensional vector of generalized coordinates Take
representing joint positions, u is an m-dimensional control input, and
M ( q ) is a symmetric inertia matrix that is positive definite for all q R m . 1 1
V = e&T M ( q ) e&+ eT K p e
2 2
The term C ( q, q&) q& accounts for centrifugal and Coriolis forces. The
matrix C has the property that M &- 2C is a skew-symmetric matrix for as a storage function candidate. The function V is positive definite and its
all q, q&R , where M
m
& is the total derivative of M ( q ) with respect to derivative is

t. The term Dq&, where D is a positive semidefinite symmetric matrix, 1 & T

V&= e&T Me&
&+ e&T Me
&+ e K p e&
accounts for viscous damping. The term g ( q ) , which accounts for gravity 2
forces, is given by g ( q ) = P ( q ) / q , where P ( q )
T
1
is the total = e&T ( M&- 2C ) e&- e&T De&- e&T K p e + e&T v + eT K p e&
potential energy forces of the links due to gravity. 2
e&T v.

We see that the system with input v and output y = e&is passive with V
as the storage function.
With v = 0 and y = e&= 0 , we have e ( t ) = 0, therefore the
Solution system is zero-state observable. Hence, we can apply Theorem 14.4 and
We want to design a state-feedback control law so that q choose v = -f ( e&) with any function f such that f ( 0 ) = 0 and
asymptotically tracks a constant reference qr . Let e = q - qr . We have y T f ( y ) > 0 for all y 0. The choice

M ( q ) e&
&+ C ( q, q&) e&+ De&+ g ( q ) = u. v = - K d e&

Our goal is then to stabilize the system at ( e = 0, e&= 0 ) . We let the with a positive definite symmetric matrix K d results in the control
control input be
u = g ( q ) - K p ( q - qr ) - K d q&.
u = g ( q ) - K p e + v.

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
1.2.1. Cascade System
W
W
V
V
U&= fa ( z ) + F ( z, y ) y + f ( x) + G ( x) u
Consider the system z z x x

W
z&= f a ( z ) + F ( z , y ) y, F ( z, y ) y + yT u
z
x&= f ( x ) + G ( x ) u ,
T
W
=y
T
u + F ( z , y ) .
z
y = h( x) ,
The feedback control
where f a ( 0 ) = 0, f ( 0 ) = 0, and h ( 0 ) = 0. The functions f a , F , f , and T

W
G are locally Lipschitz and h is continuous. The system can be viewed as u = - F ( z , y ) + v
a cascade connection of the driving system - and the driven system . z
A driven system of the form z&= f 0 ( z , y ) with sufficiently smooth
results in
f 0 can be represented in the form by taking
U&y T v.
f a ( z ) = f 0 ( z, 0 )
Hence, the system
and
z&= f a ( z ) + F ( z , y ) y ,

f0
F ( z, y ) = ( z, sy ) ds.
1

0
y T

W
x&= f ( x ) - G ( x ) F ( z , y ) + G ( x ) v,
We assume that the driving system is passive with a radially z
unbounded positive definite storage function V ( x ) , the origin of
y = h( x) ,
z&= f a ( z ) is stable, and we know a radially unbounded Lyapunov function
W ( z ) for z&= f a ( z ) , which satisfies with input v and output y is passive. If the whole system - is zero-state
observable, we can apply Theorem 14.4 to design v to globally stabilize

W the origin.
f a ( z ) 0, "z. Checking zero-state observability of the whole system can be
z reduced to checking zero-state observability of the driving system - if we
strengthen the assumption on W ( z ) so that becomes
Using U ( z , x ) = W ( z ) + V ( x ) as a storage function candidate for
the full system, we obtain

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15

W
W Example 3 : Design a passivity-based control to globally asymptotically
f a ( z ) < 0, "z 0, and ( 0 ) = 0, stabilize the origin of the rotational motion of a rigid body subject to three
z z
independent scalar control torques whose model is given by

which implies that the origin of z&= f a ( z ) is globally asymptotically stable. 1

Taking r&= I 3 + S ( r ) + rr T
w,

2
T M w&= - S ( w ) M w + u ,

W
u = - F ( z , y ) - f ( y ) ,
z where w R 3 is the velocity vector and r R is a particular choice of
3

the kinematic parameters, which leads to a three-dimensional

where f is any locally Lipschitz function such that f ( 0 ) = 0 and
representation of the rotation group. The matrix S ( x ) is a skew-
y T f ( y ) > 0 for all y 0, and using U as a Lyapunov function candidate symmetric matrix, defined by
for the closed-loop system, the derivative of U becomes
0 - x3 x2
W
U& f a ( z ) - yTf ( y ) S ( x) = - x1
x3 0 .
z

- x2 x1 0
0.

Moreover, U&= 0 implies that z = 0 and y = 0, which imply that u = 0. M is a positive definite symmetric inertia matrix, and I 3 is the 3 3
If the driving system - is zero-state observable, the conditions u ( t ) = 0
identity matrix.

and y ( t ) = 0 imply that x ( t ) = 0. Hence, by the invariance principle, the

origin ( z = 0, x = 0 ) is globally asymptotically stable. The following
theorem summarizes the results.

Theorem 14.5: Suppose the system - is zero-state observable and passive

with a radially unbounded, positive definite storage function. Suppose the
origin of z&= f a ( z ) is globally asymptotically stable and let W ( z ) be a
radially unbounded, positive definite Lyapunov function that satisfies .
Then, the control globally stabilizes the origin ( z = 0, x = 0 ) .

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
T
krT
u = - T I 3 + S ( r ) + rr T
+ v

1+ r r

= - k r + v,

where we used the property r T S ( r ) = 0.

We need to check zero-state observability of the passive system

1
r&= I3 + S ( r ) + r T r
w,

2
M w&= - S ( w ) M w - k r + v,
y = w.

With v = 0,
Solution
Choosing y = w , the system is in the form of the cascade y ( t ) = 0 w ( t ) = 0 w&( t ) = 0 r ( t ) = 0.
connection -. Taking V ( w ) = ( 1/ 2 ) w M w , we have
T

Hence, the system is zero-state observable and can be globally stabilized

by
V&= w T M w&= -w T S ( w ) M w + w T u = y T u ,
u = -k r - f ( w )
where we use the fact that w S ( w ) = 0. Hence, the driving system is
T

passive. The unforced driven system r&= 0 has a stable equilibrium point with any locally Lipschitz function f such that f ( 0 ) = 0 and y T f ( y ) > 0
at r = 0 and any radially unbounded, positive definite, continuously for all y 0.
differentiable function W ( r ) will qualify as a Lyapunov function. Thus, all
our assumptions are satisfied and the system can be made passive by the
control
Example 4 : Design a passivity-based control to globally asymptotically
T stabilize the origin of the system
W 1
u = - I 3 + S ( r ) + rr T

+ v.

r 2 h&= -h + h 2x ,
x&= u,
(
Taking W ( r ) = k ln 1 + r
T
r ) , with k > 0, yields
y = x.
6 Copyright 2007 by Withit Chatlatanagulchai
 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
2.1 Motivating Example
Consider the second-order nonlinear system

x&1 = x2 ,
x&2 = f ( x, u ) ,
y = x1 ,

[ ]
T
where x = x1 , x2 .
Suppose u = g ( x ) is a locally Lipschitz state feedback control law
that stabilizes the origin x = 0 of the closed-loop system

x&1 = x2 ,
x&2 = f ( x, g ( x ) ) .
Solution
The system takes the form -. The system x&= u , y = x is passive The high-gain observer is given by

with the storage function V ( x ) = x / 2. It is clearly zero-state observable,

2
x&
1 = x2 + h1 ( y - x1 ) ,
since y = x . The origin of h&= -h is globally exponentially stable with the
x&
2 = f0 ( x , u ) + h2 ( y - x1 ) ,
Lyapunov function W ( h ) = h / 2. Thus, all the conditions of Theorem
2

14.5 are satisfied and a globally stabilizing state feedback control can be
where f0 ( x, u ) is the nominal model of the nonlinear function f ( x, u ) .
taken as
Let
u = -h - kx , k > 0.
3

x% x - x
x%= 1 = 1 1
x%
2 x2 - x2

2 High-Gain Observers be the estimation error. We have

When the observer gain is sufficiently high, high-gain observers can
recover the performance of the state-feedback control. We can use them x&
1 = - h1 x1 + x2 ,
% % %
to extend many of the control design tools we have learned to output
feedback for a particular class of nonlinear systems.
2 = - h2 x1 + d ( x, x ) ,
x&
% % %

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
where d ( x, x%) = f ( x, g ( x ) ) - f0 ( x , g ( x ) ) . 2.1.2. Disturbance Rejection in Time Domain
The disturbance rejection property of the high-gain observer can
[ ]
T
We want to design the observer gain H = h1 , h2 so that also be seen in the time domain by representing the error equation - in the
limt x%( t ) = 0. Without the disturbance term d , asymptotic error singularly perturbed form. By defining the scaled estimation errors
convergence is achieved by designing H such that
x%
h1 = 1
, h 2 = x%
2,
-h
1 e
A0 = 1
- h2
0
we have the singularly perturbed equation

is Hurwitz, which is when h1 and h2 are any positive constants. eh&1 = -a1h1 + h 2 ,
With the disturbance term d , we need to design H with the eh&2 = -a 2h1 + ed ( x, x%
).
additional goal of rejecting the effect of d on x%
.
We can see that reducing e diminishes the effect of d .
2.1.1. Disturbance Rejection in Frequency Domain
In s-domain, the transfer function from d to x%is 2.1.3. Peaking Phenomenon
The solution of contains a term of the form ( 1/ e ) e
- at / e
for some
1 1
G0 ( s ) = 2 . a > 0. For e = 1, this term exhibits an impulsive-like behavior where the
s + h1s + h2 s + h1
transient reaches high peak before it decays rapidly toward zero. This
behavior is known as peaking phenomenon, which describes the transient,
We can make supwR G0 ( jw ) arbitrarily small by choosing h2 ? h1 ? 1. large estimation error when the observers gain H is very large.
We can also expect this phenomenon by calculating the transition
In particular, taking
matrix exp ( A0t ) .
a1 a Fortunately, we can overcome the peaking phenomenon by
h1 = , h2 = 22 saturating the control outside a compact region of interest in order to
e e
create a buffer that protects the plant from peaking.
for some positive constants a1 , a 2 , and e , with e = 1, it can be shown
Example 5 : Consider the system
that
x&1 = x2 ,
e e
G0 ( s ) = . x&2 = x23 + u ,
( e s ) + a1e s + a 2
2
e s + a1

y = x1.
Hence, lime 0 G0 ( s ) = 0.

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
Design an output feedback controller to stabilize the origin of the system.
Show the peaking phenomenon and how to improve using control input
saturation. solid=SFB, dot=OFB eps=0.1, dashdot=OFB eps=0.01, dash=OFB eps=0.005
2

x1
-2

-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5

x2
-5

-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
500

u
-500

-1000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Solution
The system can be globally stabilized by the state-feedback control Figure 1: Performance of state-feedback and
output-feedback controllers with various
u = - x23 - x1 - x2 . gains.

The output feedback controller is taken as

u = - x23 - x1 - x2 ,
x&
1 = x2 + ( 2 / e ) ( y - x1 ) ,
2 = x23 + ( - x23 - x1 - x2 ) + ( 1/ e 2 ) ( y - x1 ) .
x&

The results are given in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 1 shows that
with larger gain (smaller epsilon), larger peak can be seen. Figure 2 shows
that with saturation, the peaking is reduced.

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
solid=OFB eps=0.005 w/o sat, dot=OFB eps=0.005 w sat
for i=1:tend/ts
2
u(i) = -x2hat(i)^3-x1hat(i)-x2hat(i); %OFB
0 %u(i) = -x2(i)^3-x1(i)-x2(i); %SFB
x1

-2 sat = 1; %input saturation

if u(i)>sat, u(i)=sat; elseif u(i)<-sat, u(i)=-sat; end
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x1dot = x2(i);
5 x2dot = x2(i)^3+u(i);
0
x1hatdot = x2hat(i)+(2/eps)*(x1(i)-x1hat(i));
x2hatdot = x2hat(i)^3+u(i)+(1/eps^2)*(x1(i)-x1hat(i));
x2

-5
x1(i+1) = x1(i)+ts*x1dot;
-10 x2(i+1) = x2(i)+ts*x2dot;
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x1hat(i+1) = x1hat(i)+ts*x1hatdot;
0.5 x2hat(i+1) = x2hat(i)+ts*x2hatdot;
0
end
-0.5
u

-1
-1.5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 2.2 Stabilization
Consider the multi-input-multi-output nonlinear system
Figure 2: Improving the peaking
x&= Ax + Bf ( x, z , u ) ,
phenomenon by input saturation.

The following Matlab script applies the output feedback controller. z&= y ( x, z , u ) ,
clear y = Cx,
close all

%general z = q ( x, z ) ,
ts = 0.001; %sampling time in seconds
tend = 10; %end time in seconds
t = 0:ts:tend-ts; where u R p is the control input, y R z R s are measured
m
and

%observer parameters
outputs, and x R r and z R l are state vectors. The r r matrix A,
eps = 0.1; the r m matrix B, and the m r matrix C are given by

%closed-loop system
x1(1) = 0.1; x2(1) = 0; %initial conditions
x1hat(1) = 0; x2hat(1) = 0; %initial conditions of observer

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
0
1 L L 0 q&= G ( q , x, z ) ,
0
0
0 1 L u = g ( q , x, z ) ,
A = block diag [ A1 , K , Am ] , Ai =
M M ,

0 L L 0

1 where g and G are locally Lipschitz functions in their arguments over the
domain of interest and globally bounded functions of x. Moreover,

0
L L L 0
g ( 0, 0, 0 ) = 0 and G ( 0, 0, 0 ) = 0. The state-feedback control can also be
r r i i

a static one of the form

0


M u = g ( x, z ) .
B = block diag [ B1 , K , Bm ] , Bi = ,

0
For convenience, we write the closed-loop system under state
1 r 1
i
feedback as

C = block diag [ C1 , K , Cm ] , Ci = [ 1 0 L 0] 1r , X&= f ( X ) ,

i

where X = ( x, z , q ) . The output feedback controller is taken as

where 1 i m and r = r1 + K + r m represents m chains of
integrators. The functions f , y , and q are locally Lipschitz in their
q&= G ( q , x, z ) ,
arguments for ( x, z , u )
Dx Dz R p , where Dx R r and Dz R s
u = g ( q , x , z ) ,
are domains that contain their respective origins. Moreover,
f ( 0, 0, 0 ) = 0, y ( 0, 0, 0 ) = 0, and q ( 0, 0 ) = 0. Our goal is to design an
where x is generated by the high-gain observer
output feedback controller to stabilize the origin.
Three main sources for the model - are as follows. First is the
x&
= Ax + Bf0 ( x , z , u ) + H ( y - Cx ) .
normal form of input-output linearizable systems with x = x and z = h .
Second is model of mechanical and electromechanical system, where
displacement variables are measured while their derivatives (velocities, The observer gain H is chosen as
accelerations, etc.) are not measured. Third is system in which the
dynamics are extended by adding integrators. a1i / e
We use a two-step approach to design the output feedback i 2
controller. First, a partial state feedback controller that uses measurements a2 / e
of x and z is designed to asymptotically stabilize the origin. Second, a H = block diag [ H1 , K , H m ] , H i = M ,
i r -1
high-gain observer is used to estimate x from y. a
r -1 / e
i
i

The state-feedback controller can be a dynamical system of the a i / e r i

form r i
r1 i

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
where e is a positive constant to be specified and the positive constants X ( t ) - X r ( t ) m , "t 0
a are chosen such that the roots of
i
j

where X r is the solution of , starting at X ( 0 ) .

s r + a1i s r -1 + K + a ri -1s + a ri = 0
i i
i i
if the origin of is exponentially stable, then there exists e 4* > 0
such that, for every 0 < e e 4 , the origin of the closed-loop
*
are in the open left-half plane, for all i = 1, K , m. The function
f0 ( x, z , u ) is a nominal model of f ( x, z , u ) , which is required to be system is exponentially stable and S Q is a subset of its region of
attraction.
locally Lipschitz in its arguments over the domain of interest and globally
Proof See Appendix C.23 of
bounded in x. Moreover, f0 ( 0, 0, 0 ) = 0.
The next theorem shows that the output feedback controller Example 6 : We designed the continuous sliding mode state feedback
recovers the performance of the state feedback controller for sufficiently controller
small e . The first three bullets of the theorem show boundedness,
ultimate boundedness, and trajectory convergence. The last bullet shows a1 ( q - p ) + q&
exponential stability of the origin of the closed-loop system. u = - k sat
,


m
Theorem 14.6: Consider the closed-loop system of the plant - and the
output feedback controller -. Suppose the origin of is asymptotically stable with a1 = 1, k = 4, and m = 1, to stabilize the pendulum equation
and R is its region of attraction. Let S be any compact set in the interior
of R and Q be any compact subset of R r . Then, ml 2q&
&+ mg l sin q + k l 2q&= u
0 0
there exists e 1* > 0 such that, for every 0 < e e1* , the solutions
( X ( t ) , x ( t ) ) of the closed-loop system, starting in S Q, are at ( q = p , q&= 0 ) . Suppose now we only measure q , design the output
bounded for all t 0. feedback version of this control.
given any m > 0, there exist e 2 > 0 and T2 > 0, both dependent
*

on m , such that, for every 0 < e e 2 , the solutions of the closed-

*

loop system, starting in S Q, satisfy

X ( t ) m and x ( t ) m , "t T2

given any m > 0, there exists e 3* > 0, dependent on m , such that,

for every 0 < e e 3 , the solutions of the closed-loop system,
*

starting in S Q, satisfy

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 208581 Nonlinear Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Lesson 15
Homework problems are from the required textbook ( Nonlinear
Systems, by Hassan K. Khalil, Prentice Hall, 2002.)

References
Nonlinear Systems, by Hassan K. Khalil, Prentice Hall, 2002.

Solution
An output feedback controller can be taken as

u = - k sat
(
a1 q - p + w

,
)
m

where q and w are the estimates of q and w = q&provided by the high-

gain observer

&
(
q = w + ( 2 / e ) q - q ,)
( ) (
= f0 q, u + ( 1/ e 2 ) q - q ,
w& )
where f0 = - a sin q + cu
is a nominal model of

f = - ( g 0 / l ) sin q - ( k0 / m ) q&+ ( 1/ ml 2 ) u .

Lesson 15 Homework Problems

None

13 Copyright 2007 by Withit Chatlatanagulchai